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Some Sheet Metal Forming Processes
Examples of Some Sheet
• Figure 16.1 shows some examples of
Metal Parts sheet‐metal parts ((a) Courtesy of Aphase
II, Inc. (b) Courtesy of Hialeah Metal
Spinning, Inc.)
• Those examples in Fig. 16.1(a) are
generally die‐formed and cut stamped
(a) parts. Those parts in Fig. 16.1(b) are
usually produced by spinning.
• Die‐forming often involves with the use of
a pair of die and punch to apply force in
shearing of sheet metal beyond their yield
or fracturing point. Typical processes are:
punching, blanking, slitting, shaving, deep
drawing, perforating and bending, etc.
(b) • Spinning normally involves with the use of
mandrel and follower. Blank is pressed
against nose of mandrel and follower is
pressing the blank tightly against mandrel
so as to shear along its surface. It may also
involve the sleeve of prefabricated tube
Figure 16.1 onto cylindrical mandel and being shorn
Examples of either internally or externally for forming
sheet‐metal different profiles on either outside or
parts. inner suface or both surfaces.
Sheet Metal Fabrication in (a), it shows a piece of strip stock of sheet metal
Processes with some different features to be punched/pierced
out from the strip. Typically, two pairs of small
• As shown below, there are many sheet metal
fabrication processes available in industry, holes, one at either side of punched narrow slots,
they are: are firstly made, followed by blanking off the strip
progressively. As the punched out part is kept while
strip material peripherally surrounding the part is
scrap off, it is called blanking (see (a)‐2). Reversely,
the keeping of the peripheral strip material and
scraping off the punched part is termed punching
(see (a)‐1).
In (b), the slitting and/or punching some features or
materials off from strip edges is called NOTCHING
In (c), slitting or punching off a complete piece of
strip into several pieces of parts with some specific
features along the slit or punched edges, one after
another, without any scrap is called slitting or
parting without scrap
• (a)‐1 (a)‐2
• :
In (d), a piece of strip is separated into several parts
with those under the parting punch to be scraped is
termed as parting with scrap.
Sheet Metal Fabrication Processes
(Con’t)
• Following is parts fabricated from sheet/strip/blank of metal (illustration to • In (a) shows the process of lancing and forming. It involves firstly slitting a
be continued from the slide 3). feature detaching from two sides of a piece of strip while the third side is
still kept in attach with the strip. The detached edges are then shifted to
bend downward or upward along the attaching edge. The process in
making this feature is termed lance and form.
• In (b), a profiled blank with some formed features on could be bent or
stamped to U shape
• With available pair of die and punch readily made to shape, a circular blank
can be placed onto the top surface of die and properly shaped punch is
lowering down to press and deform the blank into the die hole, which is
termed deep drawing process (as seen in (c)).
• The deep drawing may results in flange which may not be specified in the
design of a part and needs to be removed/trimmed off. Trimming off by
conventional machining processes is normally time consuming and skill
depending. To release skill dependency some techniques are used to
quicken such trimming process and effectively reduce the required level of
skill. As shown in (d), a deep drawn part is mounted with its second
stepped annular tightly inserted with bottom die. A ring punch with sharp
inner edge is pushed to trim off the flange along the inner edge of the
flange.
• In (d), it shows how surface patterns on coin can be fabricated. Basically,
bottom surface of a punch is engraved with the reverse pattern as that on
top coin, similarly for the pattern on top die surface and that of bottom
surface of coin. When there is not any pattern around coin edge, it can be
performed as shown in LHS of (e). When the rim surface us patterned, it
requires retaining engraved with inverse pattern as that on rim surface to
set up as shown in RHS of (e) to be performed.
Shearing with a
Punch and Die
Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of
shearing with a punch and die, indicating
some of the process variables. Characteristic
features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the
Manufacturing, Engineering & slug. (Note: The scales of the two figures are
Technology, Fifth Edition, by different.)
Serope Kalpakjian and Steven
R. Schmid.
ISBN 0‐13‐148965‐8. © 2006
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
the reduction of attaching surface area in the
Shearing with Punch and Die periphery of the punched hole diminishes the
allowable shearing stress. It thus initiates the
commencement of fracture pushing down the
Fig. 16.2(a) illustrates some process variables of punch with its side peripheral surface rubbing the
shearing. The basic variables include the diameter sectional surface while penetrating into the sheet
of solid punch A, the thickness of sheet T, clearance until reaching the regional bottom surface and
between die and punch c, the penetration depth of thus resulting in the burning region. Due to
punch into sheet C, die corner B, and contact point gradual reducing peripheral cross‐sectional area
of sheet with die D and punch C. All these variables along the shearing plane CD between the punch
affect the magnitude of shearing force and quality corner C and the die corner D (Fig. 16.2(a)), its
of the shear. Typically, the large clearance between fracturing tear gives rough opening inclined edge
die and punch results in stretching effect and the as shown. Final tearing of punched slug off the
fracture surface of slug and sheet, as seen in the bottom edge of sheet thus gives burr as shown,
inset in Fig. 16.2(a). Furthermore, the penetration with breakout dimension larger than and tapping
depth of punch into sheet changes the attaching upward to the burnished region.
sectional surface between slug and sheet, which is
surely influenced the shearing force required to
fracture their attaching surface. Fig. 16.2(c) characterizes the features of slug to
be shorn off. Due to tearing off from the bottom
hole, the top has burr around its peripheral rim,
Fig. 16.2(b) demonstrates the characteristic which is followed with rough fractured edge
features of a punched hole in the sheet. It inclining downwardly with almost the same as
illustrates that the penetration depth consisting of that along the rough fracture angle as the hole in
a region of rollover depth, and a region of burnish Fig. 16.2(b). The bottom of slug has a region of
depth. The rollover depth has downward bell smoothly burnished surface which is generated
shape, which is formed due to initially elastic during the burnishing duration at the top
deformation and stretching plastic deformation. counterpart region of the hole. It is also noted
The depth reduces the peripherally shearing area that the slug is having a curving shape along BD,
to resist shearing. At the magnitude of applying and dishing profile (with flat middle section and
shearing force at the instant when the bottom tilting upward at the rim connecting the burred
surface of punch is at the interfacial boundary of rim, The bottom curved shape is due to
rollover region and burnish region, the reduction of stretching, and the flat middle at the top is
mainly compressed by the punch during shearing.
Shearing with Punch and Shear Angles
Die
When punch bottom is flat and is
having perimeter of L, it is used to
shear a sheet metal with thickness T
and having ultimate tensile stress at
UTS. The shearing/punching force F
required to shear off the component
is thus expressed as
Figure 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
Punch force, F 0.7TLUTS
(Eq. 1) Fig. 16.10(a) illustrates a flat die with shear angles at either
side from a protruding mid‐central line – the shear angle has
depth equal to blank thickness. Hence, the initial punch will
From Eq. (1), it is possible to reduce have L = the width of mid protruding zone and it reduces
the punch force if the perimeter L when penetrating though. Unfortunately, it leads to stretch‐
during shear is possibly to decrease bending and is thus affecting the quality of shearing.
at the instance of shearing. This can
be achievable by implementing some Fig. 16.10(b) is with bevel shear on the punch so that it shears
shear angles on the bottom surface off blank at right and gradually propagating to left hand side.
of punch (Fig. 16.10(a)‐(c)) or on the Fig. 16.10(c) with double bevel shear on either side leads to
top surface of die (Fig. 16.10(d)), initial shear taking place at the tip of bevel and propagating to
correspondingly. both sides of bevel. Stretching occurs in the cases of (a) to (c).
Fig. 16.10(d) shows the achievement of shear angles on die
surface instead of punch. The die is made with convex shear
and this allows the lowering of punch progressively pressing
down of sheet blank down without creating stretching.
Quality of shearing operations with shear angles
Below shows the shear operations with shear Following shows the quality of blanked pieces with
angle added onto punch shear angle added onto die surface.
The LHS shows concave shear is applied on the long
The top LHS shows the setup of shear angle and
side of the rectangular die, and flat bottom punch.
its RHS counterpart illustrates the orientation of
The blanked pieces from such setup seem to be flat
shear force components and resultant, and the
and straight. The middle one shows the setup of
cross‐sectional shape of punched slug which
convex shear on the top surface of die and flat
seems to be tilted with the inclination of shear
bottom surface of punch. It also provides with flat
angle.
blanked pieces.
The bottom LHS shows the double bevel with a
The RHS demonstrates setup of flat top surface of
flat width on the tip bevel and its RHS
die with concave bottom surface on punch. Such
counterpart illustrates the slug piece also with
setup tends to give bent blank in shape of concave
tilting along the inclination walls.
form as shown.
Effect of clearance on Fig. 16.3(a) illustrates the effect of clearance
between die and punch on the edge quality during
shearing shearing. As shown, the punch is in blue and die in
green while the gridded meshes on the yellow
workpiece have been pre‐scribed. Consequently,
the pressing down of punch results in the
deformation of gridded traverse section of blank
along the fractured line. The observation and
analysis of the distortion of those grids facilitate the
understanding of how the clearance affecting the
shear quality. Typically, in (a)‐1 the fractured line
seems to be still straight and the top surface of
blank on die is with smaller curving, indicating the
pulling into die to be much smaller. In (a)‐2 the
fractured line is almost within a grid column only,
and distortion of the grid mesh is even lesser than
that in (a)‐1 although level of pulling into die is
Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between
punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. higher. In (a)‐3 more severe distortion of grid
As the clearance increases, the material tends to be meshes is observe along the fractured line with
pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In serious pulled into die is identified.
practice, clearances usually range between 2 and Fig. 16.3(b) shows the hardness distribution along
10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b)
the fractured zone in slug (LHS) and blank (RHS).
Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4‐mm (0.25‐in.)
thick AISI 1020 hot‐rolled steel in the sheared region. The distribution indicates sheet is hardening along
Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann. and at the vicinity of the fractured line. Such
hardening strengthens the shorn edge of the hole
and slug.
Conventional Versus Fine‐ Components in Fig. 16.5(a) compare the quality of
shorn edge of conventional blanking (left) with
Blanking that of fine blanking (right(. It can be seen that the
left one is with relatively larger regions of rough at
the top and bottom sandwiching a narrow region
of smooth surface in the middle. The right one
with fine blanking has large region of smooth
surface at the bottom, which is just below a
narrow band of rough surface region on the top.
This implies the achievement of good quality blank
with fine blanking technique.
Fig. 15.5(b) illustrate the setup features of fine
blanking technique. Comparing with conventional
blanking (Fig. 16.2(a), Slide 5), it has additional
upper pressure pad pressing down onto blank so
as to prevent any possible slipping. It has also an
extra lower pressure cushion moving in
synchronizing with the down penetration of the
Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges blanking punch (left of Fig. 16.5(a)). Such
produced by conventional (left) and by fine‐ configuration and operation constrain relative
blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic slipping between die and blank, and stretching to
illustration of one setup for fine blanking. fracture of the blank so as to limit the fracture
Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations. surface between sheet and slug (Right Fig. 16.5(b))
Some design considerations from the studies of
shearing/blanking
Optimize the utilization of materials by getting
For shearing/blanking greatest number of blanks from a given sheet
area
Shear/blank force on punching a sheet of
thickness T and ultimate tensile stress UTS Die should be made to size and clearance taken
varies with its perimeters. Reduction of punch off from counterpart punch
force is possible by suitably reducing the
instantaneously shearing surface by
implementing shear angle on either punch or Blanking force or pressure generally varies with
die. the strength of stock and the penetration depth
of shearing, and also with the peripheral length of
a blank at the instance of shearing – suitable
For blanking design of shear angle allows reducing its
As die cost varies with the contour and intricacy magnitude
of blank, hence: (i) designed contour should be
as simple as possible; (ii) building up complex If punch face contour is convex in shape, metal is
part by several parts may be cheaper; and (iii) often stretched before shearing takes place. Such
designing blank with corner radii prolonging stretch distorts the flatness and straightness of
tool life and reducing tool cost in comparing the blank. However, convex on die can effectively
with designing blank with straight‐side and reduce blank force and still retain straight and flat
square corners. blank.
Always select materials with commercially Deep drawing can be effectively optimized with
available shapes and sizes blanking to give fine dimensions of blank.
Stock layout techniques and Example of Stock layout and material
material utilization utilization, i.e. Nesting
Material utilization m can be defined as:
m = Wc/Wm
in which:
Wc is the weight of the component
Wm is the weight of material used to
make the component
For sheet metal with uniform thickness, m can
be defined as:
m = Ac/Am
The arrangement as in left wastes large amount
In which:
of materials while as in right reducing wastes.
Ac is the area of the component
Am is the area of material used to
make the component
Sheet Metals Forming : Stressing a sheet metal beyond its yield
point so as to change its dimensions or shape permanently
Formability of sheet metals – It is the ability of a
sheet metal which is capable to be deformed
without appearance of sight of fracturing
Cupping test is a technique widely used for
experimental valuation of the formability of a
sheet. It can perform as described below and
illustrated in Fig. (a) on the right hand side.
The setup of the cupping test is shown in Fig.
(a). It consists of a die, a top sheet clamping
block, a punch and a ball. A sheet metal is
clamped between the die and the top sheet
clamping block. The punch is then pressing the
sheet specimen down to form cup by an
applied force until fracture initiates on the
sheet surface at a punch penetration d. Larger
the d value is, higher the formability. As the
test has firstly been proposed by Erichsen and
bulge is the deformation shape, it is thus
called Erichen and Bulge‐tests
Sheet Metals Forming (Formability of sheet metals –
Cont’d)
Bulge‐tests results on sheets of various The width of sheet specimen influences
widths. The specimen farthest left is the size of bulge in Erichsen and Bulge‐
subjected to, basically, simple tension. tests (see the figure at RHS). Generally,
The specimen farthest right is subjected the stretching in the narrower sheet
to equal biaxial stretching tends to approach closer to simple
tension. The wider specimen tends to be
strained closer to biaxial stretching
condition.
• Note: The depth of bulge for the
narrower specimen is deeper and
that for the wider specimen is
shallower
Sheet Metals Forming (Formability of sheet metals –
major and minor strain)
Strains in deformed circular grid patterns It can also be observed that the minor
diameter of the ellipse is smaller than its
original circle, which may lead to certain
level of thickening to compensate the
thinning strain in the major direction.
In the far right illustration, the blue colored
ellipse represents the circular one stretched
under the biaxial directions with the force
in the major one larger than its minor
counterpart. As the stretched grid surface
area is larger than the “before stretching”
circular grid, it generally becomes much
Let’s take a circular grid (see the circle thinner thorough. Subsequently, it is more
“Before stretching” in the LHS illustration susceptible to fracture than the one in the
above) on a meshed sheet which is far left illustration.
stretched in an uniaxial direction, the
circular grid will be elongated to form an Generally, both major strain and minor
ellipse. The strain in the major diameter of strain are the principal strains.
the ellipse is Major Strain while that in the
minor diameter is termed Minor Strain.
Sheet Metals Forming (Formability of sheet metals –
major and minor strain)
In determining the ability of a sheet
metal to be deformed so as to
facilitate the forming design of a
sheet metal, the combined use of
cupping test and grid meshes on
sheet specimen is the popular
experimental technique. Generally,
grid patterns are etched onto the
surface of a sheet before being
placed onto the cupping equipment
to be stretched. After the stretching,
Example: The deformation of the grid
the level of distortion of the pattern and the tearing of sheet metal
individual grids are measured and during forming. The major and minor
axes of the circles are used to determine
the corresponding strains are the coordinates on the forming‐limit
estimated by the existing formula for diagram.
plotting forming‐limit diagram.
Formability of sheet metals ‐ Forming‐limit diagrams
Diagram below illustrates the forming‐ Construction of FLD allows idea of under
limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet what straining conditions a sheet fails.
metals Although the major strain is always
positive (stretching), the minor strain
may be either positive or negative. In the
lower left of the diagram, R is the normal
anisotropy of the sheet.
Generally, straining on the FLD lines
represents at the verge of fracture,
below the lines represents successful
forming (safe zone) while above means
the occurrence of fracture (failure zone).
In LHS, the dashed line in the minor
strain region represents under pure
shearing conditions. The purple chain
line means under simple tension with
anisotropy R=1. In RHS, the brown chain
line means under equal (balanced)
biaxial straining conditions.
Drawing Drawing
It is a process of cold forming a flat pre‐cut metal
blank into a hollow vessel without excessive
wrinkling, thinning or fracturing. Fundamentally, it
consists of a die with circular hole of diameter Dd
in the middle and solid circular punch of diameter
d, in which Dd > d. A flat circular blank of outer
rim diameter D is place on top of the die. Punch is
subsequently moved down through the die hole
(see (a)), which subsequently draws the blank
down through the die hole (see (b)). The drawing
down of blank accompanies with blank edge to be
pulled towards the punch, which drags annular of
large area to smaller area and thus results in
wrinkling as shown in (c). The further drawing by
punch penetrating into the die hollow hole thus
leads to elongate the drawn body and thus forms
long cylinder. Generally, such wrinkling may be
minimized by the use of pressure plate slightly
pressing on the top of circular blank, so as to
increase interfacial friction and reduce the
shrinkage rate of outer annular to the inner.
The Figure in left hand side shows the progressive
stages of drawing a cup. (a) The metal
deformation is mainly that of bending. (b) The
This Figure illustrates the progressive operations deformation is bending, straightening and radial
of deep drawing of an initially flat blank to a long compression. (c) a continuation of all the steps of
body cylindrical cup, which can be soft drink part (b)
cans, etc.
Deep Drawing Fig.(b) below shows the features and
operational principles of the process in
In deep drawing, a flat sheet metal blank deep drawing a cylindrical cup.
is formed into a cylindrical or box‐shaped
part by means of a punch that presses Operations: A circular sheet blank with a
the blank into the cavity (see Figure (a) diameter Do and thickness to is placed
below) over a die opening with a corner radius
Rd. The blank is held in place with a
blankholder, or hold‐down ring, with a
certain force. A punch with a diameter
Dp and a corner radius Rp movers
downwards and pushes the blank into
the die cavity, thus forming a cup.
(b)
Deep Drawing in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup. (a)
Die corner radius too small; typically, it
Maximum punch force
should be 5 to 10 times the sheet
One simple and approximate formula for thickness. (b) Punch corner radius too
calculating the punch force is: small. Because friction between the cup
(Eq. (2)) and the punch aids in the drawing
operation, excessive lubrication of the
Eqn. (5) does not include friction, the punch is detrimental to drawability
corner radii of the punch and die, or the
blank holder force.
Calculation Example:
Effect of die and punch corner radii on
fracture in deep drawing
Deep Drawing (Con’t
from Calculation
Example)
Bending
Bending operations The level of bend varies with the penetration of the punch
V‐die bending: ‐ downwardly.
As shown in (a), it consists of a v‐die with opening W and
a v‐punch with the v of die minus the sheet thickness. Roll bending: ‐
After placing blank on the top surface of v‐die, the The setup in (d) is a three roll bending system for bending
pressing down of v‐punch bends the blank to v shape. sheet metals into different diameter tubular sections. It
involves with two side rolls: one is driven and another is
Wiping die bending: ‐ free to rotate. A top roll can be moving up and down along
the vertical plane in the middle of blank span. The down‐
The setup in (b) shows the configuration features of
pressing of top roll thus forms curvature section between
wiping die bending process. It consists of a bottom die
the two bottom rolls, hence activating the driven roll
block (grey color) and a top pressure block (in red color),
facilitates the bending of cylindrical hoop with a smaller
and a wiping die in blue color. A blank (green color) is
straight of the bridging length between middle to the free
firstly clamped between the bottom and top die blocks
driven roll. Welding of tubular edges to form a single tube,
with the edge of top block protruding a W (die opening
which can be rolled again in the system to rectify its
dimension, which is measured from the fillet edge of top
circularity.
surface of bottom block) out from the bottom die block.
The wipe die is subsequently moved down against tightly
the vertical surface of the top block to bend the blank Bending with a 4‐roll machine:‐
down against the vertical wall of the bottom die block, as The machine consists of a solid cylindrical rod (in blue
illustrated in rhs illustration in (b). color), a half cylindrical cavity bottom die, two side die
blocks (in brown color) and a top die block (in red color) – of
Air bending: ‐ the three die blocks formed another half cylindrical shape
as shown in (e). During operations, a sheet blank is properly
The setup in (c) shows the air bending of a blank, which is
placed to align on the top surface of bottom die, and the
supported by two bottom die blocks (or by the
solid rod is pressed down to bend the blank filling up the
edges of a die hole). A top punch is then moving down to clearance between them. The two side die blocks are then
press down the blank in its middle span as illustration. moving inwardly to against the solid rod, which is followed
by pressing down the top die block to complete the bend.
Ref to the figure in Slide 33,
Springback the bend allowance before and after bending is the
same. Its relationship for pure bending is thus
expressed as:
The elastic recovery of a bend Bend _ allowance [ Ri (t / 2)]i Rf (t/ 2 )f
after unloading is termed Springback. It
makes bend radius larger than its (SB1)
anticipated one (see Fig below) From this relationship, k is defined as
s
(SB2)
It shows ks dependent on R/t ratio. Ks=1 indicates no
springback while ks =0 indicates complete elastic
recovery (see Fig in Slide 40).
As amount of springback varies with stress
level and modulus of elasticity E of the material, the
approximate formula to estimate springback is thus:
Fig. S
(SB3)
Note: The material tends to recover toward
its originally flat shape. However, there are In which Y is the unaxial yield stress of the material at
situations where the materials bends 0.2% off set
further upon loading (negative springback)
Analysis:
A quantity characterizing springback is the
springback factor, ks, which is determined
as follows.
29
Shear spinning process
Spinning (Also known as power spinning, flow turning,
hydrospinning, and spin forging)
Conventional spinning process An axisymmeric conical or
A circular blank of flat or curvilinear shape is generated in a
preformed sheet metal is held against a manner whereby the diameter of the
rotating mandrel while a rigid tool part remains constant (see Fig.(b) below)
deforms and shapes the material over
the mandrel by actuating the tool either
manually or with a hydraulic system (see
Fig.(a) below)
Note: In shear spinning, the diameter of
the spun part is the same as that of the
blank whilst, in conventional spinning, it
is not so.
30
Spinning Parts by shear spinning
Parts typically made by this
process include rocket‐motor casings and
Parts by conventional spinning
missile nose cones.
Typical shapes produced by the
The process generates little
conventional spinning process. Circular
material waste and the operation is
marks on the external surfaces of
completed in a relatively short time.
components usually indicate that the
parts have been made by spinning, such
as aluminum kitchen utensils and light As seen by the complex profile
reflectors. of the products, intricate shapes of sheet
metal products are possible to produced
by the spinning operations as long as
mandrels are possibly fabricated.
31
The part may be spun forward
Tube spinning or backward, similar to a drawing or
backward extrusion process.
In tube spinning process, tubes are
Various internal or external
reduced in thickness by spinning them profiles can be produced by controlling
on a mandrel, using rollers. The the path of the roller during its travel
operation may be carried out internally along the mandrel.
or externally.
32
Calculation examples
Question 1:
A straight bead is being formed on a 1‐mm thick Note that
aluminum sheet, having E=70 GPa, in a 20 mm
diameter die cavity, as shown in the accomplanying
figure. Let Y = 150 MPa. Considering springback,
calculate the outside diameter of the bead after it is Therefore, Eq.(SB3) on Slide 41 yields
formed and unleaded from the die.
and
Solution: Hence, the final outside diameter will be
For the aluminum sheet, we have Y=150 MPa and E =
70 GPa. Using Eq. (SB3) on Slide 41 for springback,
and noting that the die has a dieameter of 20 mm
and the sheet thickness is T = 1 mm, the initial bend
radius is:
33
Calculation examples
Question 2: Substituting the value from Question 1 in the
Inspect Eq.(SB3) on Slide 41 and substituting previous Slide,
in some numerical values, show whether the
first term in the equation can be neglected
without significant error in calculating
springback. which is
Solution:
As an example, consider the situation in
Question 1 on Slide 43 where it was shown Clearly, the first term is small enough to
that ignore, which is the typical case.
Consider now the right side of Eq. (SB3) on
Slide 41.
34
The End
35