Redefining Filipino Nationalism

Loreto G. Camiloza

Abstract
Filipino nationalism confuses Filipinos. It either leads the Filipino into a
deeper reflection on his/her human identity or leads him/her into an empty silence. It
seems it is no longer relevant to talk about nationalism as the spirit and the power of
globalization thrives and affects the whole life of the Filipino including his/her
consciousness. Nationalism is not clearly defined in the consciousness of the
common people. Even some people in the academe consider it as a shadow of the
past. Thus, it is no longer the main concern of Filipinos today.

The vagueness of Filipino nationalism from the consciousness of the Filipinos

is rooted on his/her experience of decades of colonization. This experience has
distorted the consciousness of Filipinos. His/her consciousness is directed and
delighted to what is foreign, particularly western. Western perspective becomes the
basis of Filipino principles, ideas, and even Filipino lifestyle.

Benedict Anderson claims that nationhood, nationality and nationalism are

artifacts; when they are communicated and transported they become ―modular‖
and they take their existence in concrete contexts. Filipino nationalism is a living
artifact; an inner reality that needs to be unveiled and redefined for it exists in every
Filipino who lives in concrete context in space and time. It is hidden in the minds of
the intellectuals; it is hidden in the printed materials (e.g. books, articles, researches
etc); and it is hidden in the confused consciousness of the people living in a
―damaged culture.‖ Nonetheless, concealment does not mean that an inner reality
does not exist. Filipino nationalism is an inner reality that exists in every Filipino‘s
inner self; thus, it has to be revealed, redefined and communicated to the Filipino
people.

Introduction: The Genesis of Filipino Nationalism

The emergence of nationalism is inherent in a concrete context, nation.

Nationalism, however, seems contradictory. From a simple linguistic analysis,
Filipino comes from the word Filipinas, a name after a Spanish king and it was given
by Spanish explorer Roy de Villalobos. It was not a certain Indio or a native who
broadened the meaning of Filipinas. Indio or native had no power to establish a
meaning of Filipinas that would apply to the whole of the archipelago. It was a
foreigner who gave meaning and relevance to it, who could not even speak of one
local language of the natives.

The giving of names to the islands Filipinas, it became a colony of Spain. In

this context of colonization, the natives became second-class people who could not
even found a nation of its own; people who could not find their identity. Thus, the
 2
source and the root of Filipino and Filipinas are colonial names. They are
contradictory in nature to the term nationalism. From such contention, can we say
that Filipino nationalism exist at all?

Once I was confronted by this idea of having no nationalism when a professor

of history claimed that there is no such thing as Filipino nationalism. I insisted that
there is and it is even unique nationalism; Filipinos are unique people with unique
―historicity‖[1]. Filipino nationalism has already become (http://philippinestoday.net)
―intrinsically second nature to all Filipinos.‖ Looking at the historicity of Filipinos,
they have their phase of evolution and development. Through this process, Filipino
nationalism also came into existence. Though Filipino and Filipinas are foreign
terms, the people who were involved in the development of a nation have a common
experience of historicity, colonization and ―damaged culture‖[2]. Such common
historicity led to the rise of national consciousness; then the Filipino nation was born,
so thus with Filipino nationalism.

The Filipino nation before was archipelagic. It was not a nation at all. Each
island or community had its government and leader (chieftain, sultan) independent
from other communities. Moreover, island had its language/s (dialects). However,
people in these different communities shared a common if not the same culture,
traditions, and beliefs. They engaged in various forms of commerce and trade,
native agriculture, fishing, or handicraft, etc. Nonetheless, the colonizers with
Christian teachings transformed the hundreds of islands into one nation; a nation
subjected to the foreign decrees and caprices. Sovereignty was not a tenet that
questioned manipulation and injustices to the natives by the colonizers.

In such a context, Filipinos realized that they are Filipinos. ―We became
Filipinos only through colonial exploitation – we became Filipinos because we learn
to protest, to resist, and to fight, to hand together in fear and in hate of the brutal
conqueror‖ (http://www.manilatimes.net). This was a seed to nationalism, to national
Filipino identity.

History tells us that colonization (―was tragic experience to prove, to be one

of the strongest unifying factors‖ http://www.philippinestoday.net). ―We became
Filipinos because we fashioned our own flag splattered it with Indio blood … we
showed everybody what patriotism was. What courage was‖
(http://www.manilatimes.net). This is how Filipino is born; and that Filipino
nationalism is born. Filipinos do not wish to entrust their land of the pearl of the
orient to the hand and minds of the foreigners. Filipinos have now the chance to
make decisions for themselves, whether good or bad. In this nation, Filipinos can
now express existential freedom though shadowed by their own colonial
consciousness. Filipino nationalism, therefore, urges Filipinos to actualize and
incarnate their freedom in concrete choices for the ―motherland.‖ If Filipinos commit
mistakes, it is their choice and responsibility. It is better to have freedom than to
none at all. It is better to make one‘s own mistake, so collectively endure of one‘s
choosing, rather than undertake the same risks at the direction of colonial power
(http://www.quezon.ph).
 3
This paper attempts to redefine the meaning of Filipino nationalism by
considering some aspects that are significant to its realization in the consciousness
of the Filipinos such as Filipino nationalism in the context of imagined community,
Filipino nationalism in relation to the development of print-language, Filipino
nationalism in the context of blood relation, and Filipino nationalism in the context of
virtue. Wider understanding of these aspects in relation to Filipino nationalism may
also unveil its deeper meaning for the Filipinos. Also, this paper tries to see the
significance of existential communication redefining Filipino nationalism.
Nonetheless, its relation to Filipino nationalism is an attempt to harmonize several
aspects of Filipino nationalism mentioned in this paper. Existential communication is
one aspect of Filipino nationalism that needs further research and elucidation. In this
paper the discussion on their relation is limited.

Filipino Nationalism and Imagined Community

In the course of Philippine history, the evolution of the Filipino nation is the
foundation of the rise of Filipino nationalism. Nonetheless, we cannot conceive
nationalism as neither construction of certain groups, nor certain persons,
particularly that of the elite groups. Otherwise, we can never call it Filipino
nationalism. To elucidate further Filipino nationalism, Benedict Anderson provides
key concepts for analysis, which we can find in his, book Imagined Communities.

Anderson (1983) claims that nation-ness is the most universally legitimate

value in the political life of our time. Nationalism is inherent in the growth and
development of a nation. The change, transformation, and development of social,
religion, political, moral, economic, cultural, educational aspects of the people‘s
existence is not in the realm of ideology, though ideology has the power to influence
all these. It focuses on the subjective and cultural dimensions common among
people, ―common heritage . . . of a rich memories and the desire to live, struggle
together in continuing this heritage they have received‖ (http://manilatimes.net).

Moreover, Anderson (1983) asserts that nations and nationalism are modern
artifacts. We need to discover and elucidate them in a concrete context, e.g. of the
Filipino people. Nation, as the locus of nationalism, is difficult to deal with if we
conceive it as pathology of modern developmental history. Anderson suggests that, it
would make things easier if one treated it as if it belonged with ‗kingship‘ and
religion, rather than with ‗liberalism‘ or ‗fascism‘. Filipino nation as the contextual
matrix of Filipino nationalism ―is an imagined political community—and imagined as
both inherently limited and sovereign‖ (Anderson, 1983, pp. 5-6).

Filipino nation is an imagined community, because Filipinos do not know,

meet, or even hear of the most of their fellow Filipinos. For instance, not all Ilocanos
meet Cebuanos. Not all Bicolanos hear about Caviteños. Filipinos only hear, meet,
and watch other Filipinos on radio, on TV, in newspapers or in books. It is even in a
very limited scheme. In the mind of each Filipino, however, (Anderson: 1983, 6) lives
the image of their life of communion. In such, we can talk of one goal, one path to
progress, and one nation. Living in different islands with different languages
(dialects), and psychological background, Filipino people long to live in a nation,
which is free. Ninoy Aquino (Manifesto of a Free Society) describes this society as
 4

A community of liberalized citizens enjoying the full benefits of a free

society: free to choose, criticize, and free from ignorance and poverty,
from tangling web of super power hegemony, imperialism, and neo-
colonialism.

Filipino nation is imagined as limited. It exists within the boundary situation. It

has its own limited territory in relation to other imagined communities outside of
itself. It can only encompass a limited number of human beings. It cannot imagine
itself as coterminous with the humankind (Anderson, 1983). Filipinos cannot force
other people of ASIA to become Filipinos. It is impossible for the Filipinos to demand
Koreans, Indonesians, Chinese, Thais think like Filipinos or act like Filipinos, or
speak like Filipinos.

Furthermore, Filipino nation is imagined as sovereign because it involved in

an aged of enlightenment and revolution (Anderson, 1983). It is a context, where in
the consciousness of the legitimacy of the sacred, and the authority of the dynastic
realm, had been broken down. The emphasis was no longer on one authoritarian
religion but on the diversity of religions, and the freedom of nations. In addition, as
Anderson asserts ―the gage and emblem of this freedom is the sovereign state‖
(1983, p. 7). Freedom had become the foundation of human existence in the
community. Without it, nation cannot be called nation.

Lastly, Filipino nation is imagined as a community because it is conceived as

a deep, horizontal relation. It is in this relation that gave courage many Filipinos the
willingness to die for the Filipino nation. Their deaths (heroes or heroines, named or
unnamed) are to bring the continuity of Filipino nation. This imagining of one nation
―generates such colossal sacrifices? The beginnings of an answer lie in the cultural
root of nationalism‖ (Anderson, 1983, p. 7).

Death, therefore does not lead the Filipino nation into the threshold of
oblivion. The collective memories and solidarity that are inherent in the collective
unconscious of Filipinos, urge the Filipinos to confront and overcome the threat of
national emptiness. Nationalism considers suffering and death necessary aspects
for the Filipino nation to undergo the process of transformation of fatality into
continuity, contingency into meaning (Anderson, 1983, pp. 11-12). This unfolds
because Filipino nation looms out of an immemorial past and leads into a limitless
future. It is the power of nationalism to turn chance into destiny, national identity and
progress.

Moreover, we can understand Filipino nationalism within the context of

diversity of languages (dialects). It seems impossible for Filipino nationalism to thrive
because of the foundation of a national language. Even young students question the
validity of Filipino (Tagalog) as the national language. Ilocanos as well as Cebuanos,
Bicolanos, Tagalogs claim that their language is more nationally used. Because of
this diversity of languages reveals the diverse goals among Filipinos. Particular
language can disappear. There is no unification of languages. However, only in this)
context that Filipino nation is conceived as imagined political community (Anderson,
1983, p. 12. The existence of plurality of languages does not hinder
 5
Filipinos to think and work for common goal, a humane and free society—a Filipino
society, a Filipino identity. This dominates the consciousness, thought and social
relations of Filipino people. This realization has to be communicated and actualized
in the consciousness of every Filipino.

Filipino Nationalism and Print-Language

Language is a powerful instrument in the foundation of imagined community.

It is the expression of human‘s mind that affects not only the external relation of
people. More importantly, it creates a structure in the consciousness of people as
nation.

The coming of printed-language (books, newspapers, pamphlets, or novels,

and the like) from the west with an element of enlightenment and spirit liberty, Rizal,
Bonifacio, Mabini, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Jacinto, and et al., led to the
establishment of dialogue and life of communion between Philippines as imagined
community with other imagined communities. Rizal dreamt of a society, a new
community for the Filipinos, other than the society that the colonizers had
established (Gripaldo, 2004). Bonifacio, on the other hand, wanted to regain the
glory of the natives that they enjoyed before the coming of the colonizers by
founding a community that would over throw an abusive foreign government. His
political framework was ―The Lost Paradise‖ that enabled him to recruit more
natives to join the revolution (Gripaldo, 2004). The integration of the idea of paradise
has its root in the Christian Bible. Printed-language, then, has influenced the mind,
the world-view, and even the formulation values of Filipinos, particularly the value of
nationalism.

These printed materials link together unrelated events worldwide, and when
locally transported connect diverse events in the Filipino nation. This was unfolded in
two ways: first, by substituting them under a calendar date; and second, by ensuring
that they are simultaneously read at specific time by Filipino people. Specifically, the
publication of newspapers and disseminations pressured the Filipino nation as
imagine community. And in the course of time these printed materials aids to create
the remarkable confidence of the nation in anonymity, which is the hallmark of the
Filipino nation (Anderson, 1983).

The dissemination of printed materials was influenced by commodity

capitalism which influenced the Filipino nation, its political, social and economic
systems, including the Filipino consciousness. There was a need therefore to
expand markets in the mass commodity of the printed books after the sacred
language, Latin, had lost its magic and power over other languages. This gave
capitalism revolutionary localizing thrust (Anderson,1983).

The occurrence of such situation was aided by three factors. First, the sacred
tongue, Latin, became remote from everyday life and the masses. Second,
Protestantism influenced and exploited the vernacular market in order to reach the
ordinary people in its war against the authority of the Pope and monarch. It means
that the print-capitalism aided the spread of Protestantism. Moreover, Protestantism
brought familiarity with the Bible to Filipino people, particularly the masses. This
 6
atmosphere generated the wider understanding and literacy of local vernacular.
Even the interpretation of the Bible was locally contextualized. Third, in a localized
context there was an urge to make one of the local languages as an official channel
of administration and political centralization. And this vernacular language circulated
by means of mass print-circulation (Anderson, 1983). It challenged the dominant
language (e.g., Latin), its sacred script community and its relevance to the ordinary
lives of the people. Consequently, Filipino people became aware of the meaning of
freedom. They began to be responsive of the coming of liberal ideas. In addition,

Political changes in Spain sometimes brought to the Philippines liberal

refugees fleeing from persecution following the ascendancy of
absolutism in the home country. Sometimes, the liberals came in an
official capacity or gained some official position in the Philippines. From
these liberal-minded Spaniards or from English, American, French, or
other liberals of other nationalities, the Filipino middle class obtained
liberal ideas and learned what was going on in Europe or America
(Albuena, 1967, p. 16).

The evolution of Filipino nation and the rise of Filipino nationalism are
unfolded not only through one and single factor alone. Their genesis lies also on the
interaction of these three factors. One comes to play with the other. What, in a
positive sense, made the new communities imaginable was a half fortuitous, but
explosive, interaction (Anderson,1983) between a system of production and
productive relations (capitalism, a technology of communications (print) and the
totality of human linguistic diversity.

This means that the element of fatality of both death and diversity of
languages, capitalism and technology of communication set a condition for the
emergence of Filipino nation and Filipino nationalism. Capitalism played an
important and determining role in the foundation of print-language, e.g. Filipino
language.

Printed language encourages the growth of national awareness and

consciousness about the national colonial condition, which is the main concern of
the Filipinos to overcome. The unfolding of this growth is through the creation of
fields of communication, and by fixing the Filipino language in a standard form. In
this social matrix there has been an incorporation and integration of sense of
nationalism. There has been an establishment of Filipino language with cultural
hierarchy. Filipino language has gained its individuality and authority.

Communicative language, e.g. Filipino language, therefore, is a necessary

and crucial factor in the history of the evolution of Filipino nationalism. Its
mobilization with the intent of providing it with national historicity and structure, this
communicative language stimulates and ignites the fire of Filipino consciousness
and furnishes new nation, the Filipino nation. Thus, Filipino nationalism thrives in the
condition that favors the rise of mass reading-publics by printing and commodity
capitalism.
 7
Filipino Nationalism and Blood Relation

Filipino nationalism is not only a situation in the context of imagined

community. So much so that it is not just a matter of the interaction between
historical fatality, diversity of languages, and capitalism. Nation, which is the social
matrix of nationalism, is not conceived only in the realm of linguistics. More
importantly, Filipinos establish and found community with blood as the basis or
foundation. Filipino nationalism is not only known; it is also deeply felt and acted out
in the spirit of blood relation.

The communion of Filipinos in the spirit of brotherhood or sisterhood

eliminates the exclusivist and voluntaristic tendencies. Ethnicity, religion, and even
color are part of the evolution of Filipino nationalism. Because of the spirit of blood
relation, Filipinos designate Filipino nation as imagined community, which is political
and sovereign.

The emphasis in dealing with Filipino nationalism is not so much on the

Filipino nation a narrative of imaginations, a mere text to be read and grasped, and
deconstructed through linguistic and literary devices, categories and principles.
Symbols, myths, values, memories, attachments, customs, religion, laws,
institutions, routines, and habits are intrinsic aspects that make up our blood relation
and the complexity of the Filipino nation. These are several factors that are vital for
the survival of the Filipino nation.

Since Filipinos live in blood relation, the Filipino nation is conceived as

―Motherland.‖ This talks about the real communion of life of people. It is a relation
between the nation as a mother and Filipinos as sons and daughters. Their
relationship is not only rooted on language, on capitalism, or on technology. It is
based on blood. It is in this context, love of one‘s motherland, or nationalism
becomes more meaningful and visions become more relational. As Rizal puts it,

All had and have an idol (idolo)—beautiful, brilliant, sublime, but

implacable, fierce and demanding—whom they have called Motherland
(Patria)… she is in the thoughts of everyone, and like the light
enclosed in clear crystal, she goes forth in the most vivid splendor
(Prosa, 1961, p. 12).

Filipino nationalism is a force that leads to the continuity of communion of life

between ―Motherland‖ and the Filipinos. It is about the Filipino identity and survival
bound up with the motherland. Because of this, Filipinos feel the devotion to the
motherland and are prepared to make sacrifices in times of prosperity, specially, in
times of scarcity, violence and chaos. This peculiar passion generates the feeling
that nationalism insures to unite all sectors, the dead, the living and the unborn in a
single community (Albuena, 1967). Through its vision of prosperity, nationalism
provides immortality for the Filipinos through absorption into the ―Motherland.‖
Thus, the non-communion with the ―Motherland‖ brings death and non-identity of
her son or daughter.
 8
Filipino Nationalism as Virtue

The interiority of Filipino nationalism is a necessary element toward the

actualization of national identity and national self-determination and possession.
Without this internal aspect, the external expression of nationalism is empty. Since it
is a virtue, nationalism has become first a habit of the will and intellect (Constantino,
1989). It is exercised and thought of everyday. Moreover, it is a choice to make that
is constant for the rest of one‘s existence.

Filipino nationalism is a commitment and willingness to live, to think, to judge,

and to sacrifice one‘s self for the common good of the ―Motherland.‖ As a virtue, it
is perfected through constant commitment of the will not for one‘s own sake but for
the good all Filipinos. It is a virtue for it directs every Filipino to act towards the good,
the common good.

Moreover, Filipino nationalism as virtue is the habit of the intellect. It,

therefore, unfolds and expresses itself through the faculty of the intellect. Members
of the imagined community know the meaning, the risk and the pride of living out
nationalism. It is their mental attitude of looking and judging at things using the lens
of love for his/her country. In other words, a Filipino is not only ready to die for
his/her country but also to think for her own country. As Tañada asserts,

We are not called upon at this moment to die for our country. We may
soon be but our immediate need is not to die but to think calmly,
clearly, patiently, to understand, in order that we may shape a foreign
and domestic policy that shall be to the public interest. This is what
nationalism must mean to us, as it meant fighting and dying to our
forefathers. (Constantino, 1989, pp. 85-86)

In other words, nationalism is the mother virtue of every Filipino. It is a virtue

that prompts his/her to place the common good higher and greater over his/her own
private and personal interest. It is the virtue that makes her/him sacrifice
herself/himself that the ―Motherland‖ might live. A nationalist, therefore, is a person
who is committed and ready not only to die for his country, but also ready to think
critically and reasonably for his/her Filipino nation.

Furthermore, Filipino nationalism as a virtue cannot be divorced from the

Motherland‘s goal, which is the source of her survival as a nation. Filipinos are now
living in a ―damaged culture,‖ they are living in colonized matrix, which has shaped
their mentality and consciousness. And this consciousness including its political,
economic and cultural aspects are being influenced by the power of globalization.
Filipino nationalism aims for the national survival in moving forward as a nation
progressing and developing (Constantino, 1989, pp. 88-89). It, therefore, unites
Filipinos into one endeavor; it unleashes the energy, courage and enthusiasm of the
Filipino into work for political, social, cultural and economic transformation.

Filipino nationalism, therefore, is ―directly and indirectly entails the pursuit of

national self-determination‖ (Hechter, 2000, p.7), national self-possession and
national self-actualization. In this pursuit, the giving of attention of the religious
 9
myths, symbols, habits, values, traditions, ethnicity, and tradition must be
incorporated and integrated. These factors affect and influence the Filipinos‘
everyday life. This is the reason why the nation becomes the norm of social,
economic and political organization and transformation.

Conclusion

Filipino nationalism is not only a mere concept, but a reality that unites, and
directs the Filipino people towards self-determination, self-possession, and toward
the realization of national and self identity. Nonetheless, this endeavor is not limited
to a certain sector only or to a certain group only. Otherwise, it can never be called
Filipino nationalism. It means that its realization is always in the context of existential
communication, which leads to communion of meaning, values, dreams, and life
among Filipinos. This communion reaches its meaning when it becomes a
foundation of the Filipino nation.

Filipino nationalism is a ―collective action designed to render the boundaries

of the nation congruent with those of its governance unit‖ (Hechter, 2000, p. 7). It is
a state of the collective mind of the people and act of the collective consciousness of
the same people, the Filipinos. Consequently, it must not remain hidden. It has to be
communicable. Nationalism consists ―in the ability to communicate more effectively,
and over and wider range of subjects, people are held together from within by this
communicative efficiency, the complementarily of the communicative faculties
acquired by‖ (Hechter, 2000, p. 12) Filipinos.

Communication affects Filipino nationalism. It urges nationalism to be

communicative and not to be bounded within one family, clan, political party or
sector of the society. Filipino nationalism, therefore, is not only for the rich, or
educated, or intellectual Filipinos. The interaction between communication and
Filipino nationalism yields communicative Filipino nationalism (Karl Jaspers, 1967).
This interaction directs the Filipinos towards the manifestation of Filipino identity,
which is the soul of every Filipino.

Filipino nationalism as an inherent virtue leads Filipino to dynamism and

concrete action. Its expressions are always in and through communication in
concrete context – social, political, moral, and economic. Filipino realizes that s/he is
bound and exists-with-other Filipinos whether here and abroad. His/her being as a
Filipino is not simply contained and imprisoned with a world of private code. Filipino
nationalism urges every Filipino to transcend this private code and enter into loving
communion with others. This communicative context provides an opportunity for the
unfolding of collective effort of the Filipinos towards national self-actualization and
self-determination.

Furthermore, the communicative Filipino nationalism takes the form of loving

struggle. This struggle is creative and not to be destructive. It must be loving and not
a source of hegemony. Filipino nationalism constructs, builds and not to destroy
(Wild, 1966). It builds and not to demolish the Filipino Nation, our Motherland.
 10
Filipino nationalism must not be hidden and concealed in private homes,
schools, in the academe, in the structure of Philosophy, or even in certain and
particular individuals. Filipino nationalism has to be unveiled and communicated.
The breaking of concealment of Filipino nationalism in the collective colonial
consciousness of the people occurs in the process of existential communication. It is
through this breaking that awareness of the meaning and the power of nationalism
bring enlightenment to the people.

Entering into the process of existential communication is a risk. It creates

divisions in the inner-self of the human person, and even in the society. Thus, when
Filipino nationalism is put in the threshold of communicative manifestation in the
family, in the school, in the community, in the society, in the senate or in the
congress, it disturbs the comfort zone of colonial and neo-colonial consciousness
that are embedded in the inner self of the person. Every Filipino has to struggle to
exercise the will to communicative manifestation and not to hid himself/herself from
the rest of his/her fellow Filipinos using his/her western education, his/her position,
power, wealth or fame. It is through communicative manifestation Filipino
nationalism is shared as a print language and as virtue that strengthen blood relation
among Filipinos though they do not see and hear one another. In such matrix of
Filipino nationalism, Filipino discovers and defines his/her selfhood and self-identity
as Filipino.

Notes

1. Historicity is an inherent structure and characteristic of being human. Since

human person is a historical being, a being who is a bearer and main agent of
history, he/she is a history making-existence. From this point of view, Filipinos
establish their own unique history. And their historical evolution is an
integration of economic, social, religious, political, intellectual, and
psychological aspects of human existence. This historical evolution unfolds in
the Philippine context.
2. Damaged-culture is a description of a fragmented society, primarily because
of lack of sense of nationalism. It shows the dichotomy between the individual
Filipino and his/her Philippine society. The individual Filipino gives more
importance to his/her family, compares, members of his/her clan or region
rather than to the Filipino people as a whole. Consequently, in this kind of
culture, there is a tradition of political corruption and cronyism; there is the
existence of the extremes of wealth and poverty, and even tribal
fragmentation. And the worst expression of a damaged-culture is when the
national aspiration is to change Filipino nationality for something foreign
identity for personal interest to thrive.
 11
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_____________. (1974). Filipino nationalism. Quezon City

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Commission. (1961). Prosa por Jose Rizal. Manila: National Centennial

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http://www.manilatimes.net

http://www.quezon.ph