Formula PDF

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CHAPTER.1
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD
1. Quantisation of Electric Charge
1. Q =ne
2. Mass transferred during charging = 𝑚𝑒 × 𝑛
2. Coulomb’s Law
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
1. 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 = ∙
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
2. 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑= ∙
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘 𝑟2
Principle of Superposition of Electric Forces

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹13 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹14 + ⋯ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1𝑁
F= √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos 𝜃
3. Relation between Electric field Strength and force

⃗⃗⃗𝐹
𝐸⃗ = 𝑞 or 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗
0
4. Electric Fields of Point Charges

1 𝑞
1. E = 4𝜋𝑒 . 𝑟 2
0
2. By the principle of superposition, electric field due to a number of point charges,
𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸3 + ⋯
5. Continuous Charge Distributions

𝑑𝑞
1. Volume charge density,𝜌 = 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑞
2. Surface charge density ,𝜎 𝑑𝑆

3
𝑑𝑞
3. Linear charge density 𝜆, = 𝑑𝐿
4. Force exerted on a charge 𝑞0 due to a continuous charge distribution,

𝑞0 𝑑𝑞
𝐹= ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝑒0
5. Electric field due to a continuous charge distribution,

1 𝑑𝑞
𝐹= ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝑒0
6. Dipole Moment, Dipole Field and Torque on a Dipole
1 . Dipole moment , p=q × 2a , Where 2a is the distance between the two charges.
2. Dipole field at an axial point a distance r from the centre of the dipole is
1 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =4𝜋𝑒 . (𝑟 2 +𝑟 2 )2
0
1 2𝑝
When r >> a, 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 4𝜋 . 𝑟3
𝑒0
3. Dipole field at an equatorial point at distance r from the centre of the dipole is
1 𝑝
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 =4𝜋𝑒 . (𝑟 2 +𝑟 2 )3/2
0
1 𝑝
When r >> a, 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑒 . 𝑟 3
𝑜
4. Torque, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 , Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑃⃗ and 𝐸⃗ .
7. Electric Flux and Gauss’s Theorem

1. Electric flux through a plane surface area S held in a uniform electric field 𝐸⃗ is
∅𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ .𝑆 =ES cos 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the angle which the normal to the outward drawn normal to surface area 𝑆
makes with the field 𝐸⃗ .
2. According to Gauss’s theorem , the total electric flux through a closed surface S
enclosing charge q is
𝑞
∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀
0
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∅𝐸
3. Flux density = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆
8. Applications of Gauss’s Theorem

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1. Electric field of a long straight wire of uniform linear charge density 𝜆,

𝜆
E=2
𝜋 𝜀𝜊 𝑟
Where r is the perpendicular distance of the observation point from the wire.
2. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density 𝜎,
𝜎
E= 2𝐸
0
3. Electric field of two positively charged parallel plates with charge densities 𝜎1 and 𝜎2
such that
𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 0,
1
E =+ (𝜎1 + 𝜎2) (Outside the plates)
2𝜀0
1
E = 2𝜀 (𝜎1 _𝜎2 ) (Inside the plates)
0
4. Electric field of two equally and oppositely charged parallel plates,

E=0 (For outside points)
𝜎
E=𝜀 (For inside points)
0
5. Electric field of a thin spherical shell of charge density 𝜎 and radius R,

1 𝑞
E = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟2 (For r > R (Outside points)
0
E=0 (For r > R (Inside points)

1 𝑞
E = 4 𝜋 𝜀 . 𝑅2 (For r =R (At the surface)
0
Here q = 4 𝜋 𝑅 2 𝜎 .
6. Electric field of a solid sphere of uniform charge density 𝜌 and radius R :
1 𝑞
E = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 2 For r >R (Outside points)
0
1 𝑞𝑟
E = 4 𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅3 For r < R ( Inside points)
0
1 𝑞
E = 4 𝜋 𝜀 . 𝑅2 For r = R (At the surface)
0
4
Here q = 3 𝜋 𝑅 3 𝜌

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CHAPTER.2
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
1. Electric Potential
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
1. Potential difference = or V =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
2. Electric potential due to a point charge q at distance r from it,

1 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 .𝑟
𝑜
3. Electric potential at a point due to N point charges,

1 𝑞𝑖
V = 4 𝜋 𝜀 ∑𝑁
𝑖= 1 𝑟
0 𝑖
4. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole,
1 𝑃 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 .
V= = . 𝑃⃗ 𝑟
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟3
2. Relation between Electric Field and potential

1. Electric field in a region can be determined from the electric potential by using relation,
𝑑𝑉
E = - 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
Or 𝐸𝑥 = _ , 𝐸𝑦 = _ , 𝐸𝑧 = _
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2. Electric field between two parallel conductors,

𝑉
E=𝑑
3. Electric potential in a region can be determined from the electric field by using the
relation,
𝑟
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V = - ∫∞ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑟
3. Electric Potential Energy

1. Electric potential energy of a system of two point charges,
1 𝑞
U = 4 𝜋 𝜀 . 𝑟1
0 12
2. Electric Potential energy of a system of N point charges,

6
𝑞1 𝑞2
1 ∑
U =4𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑗𝑘
𝑜
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠
3. Potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field .
U = - pE ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 - 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 )
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field E, 𝜃1 = 90° and 𝜃2 =𝜃 (say), then
U = -pE Cos 𝜃 = - 𝑃⃗. 𝐸⃗

If initially the dipole is parallel to the field E,
𝜃1 = 0° and 𝜃2 = 𝜃 (say), then
U = - pE (Cos 𝜃 -1) = pE (1 – Cos 𝜃)
4. Capacitance of spherical conductors

1. Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius R,
C = 4𝜋 𝜀0 R
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
2. Capacitance = or C = .
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉
5. Capacitance of Air-Filled Capacitors

𝑞
1. Capacitance, C = 𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴
2. Capacitance of a parallel plate Capacitor, C= 𝑑
3. P.D. between the two plates of a Capacitor having charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 ,

𝑞1 _ 𝑞2
V= 2𝐶
𝑎𝑏
4. Capacitance of a spherical Capacitor, C = 4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑏_𝑎
Here a and b are the radii of inner and outer shells of the spherical capacitor.
5. Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor,
𝐿 𝐿
C = 2 𝜋𝜀0 𝑏 = 2 𝜋 𝑒0 𝑏
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 2303𝐿𝑜𝑔10 𝑎
Here a and b are the radii of inner and outer coaxial cylinders and L is the length of the
capacitor.
6. Grouping of Capacitors

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1 1 1 1
1. In series combination , 𝐶 = +𝑐 + +⋯
𝑠 𝐶1 2 𝐶3
2. In Parallel Combination 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯
3. In series combination , charge on each capacitor is same (equal to the charge supplied by
battery) but potential differences across the capacitors may be different.
4. In parallel combination , potential difference on each capacitor is same but the charges
on the capacitors may be different.
7. Energy stored in Capacitors

1. Energy stored in a Capacitor,
1 1 𝑞2 1
U=2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 . 𝐶 = 2 𝑞𝑉
2. Energy stored per unit volume or the energy density of the electric field of a capacitor,
1
U = 2 𝜀 0 𝐸2
𝜎
3. Electric field between capacitor plates, E = 𝜀
0
8. Capacitors Filled with Dielectrics and Conductors

1. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant K
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
C =𝑘 𝐶0 = 𝑑
2. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab of thickness t (<d) in

between its plates.
𝜀0 𝐴
C= 1
𝑑−𝑡 (1−𝑘)
3. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab of thickness t (< d) in

between its plates.
𝜀 𝐴
0
C = 𝑑−𝑡
4. Capacitance of spherical capacitor filled with a dielectric.

𝑎𝑏
C = 4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑘.𝑏−𝑎
5. Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor filled with a dielectric.

2 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑘𝐼
C= 𝑏
2303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑎
6. Effect of dielectric with battery disconnected from the capacitor,

8
𝑉0 𝐸 𝑢0
Q =𝑄0 , V = , E = 𝑘0 ,C = 𝑘𝐶0 , u =
𝑘 𝑘
7. Effect of dielectric with battery connected across the capacitor,

Q = 𝑘𝑄0 , 𝑉 = 𝑉0 , E = 𝐸𝑜 , C = k 𝐶0 ,𝑢 = 𝑘𝑢0

9
CHAPTER.3
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Definitions Of Electric Current
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
1. Electric Current = or I = 𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑛𝑒
2. As q = ne, so I = 𝑡
3. In case of an electron revolving in a circle of radius r with speed v, period of revolution of

the electron is
2𝜋𝑟
T= 𝑣
𝐼 𝑣
Frequency of revolution , v = 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟
Current at any point of the Orbit is

I = Charge flowing in 1 revolution × No. of revolutions Per second
𝑒𝑣
Or I =ev = 2𝜋𝑟
2. Ohm’s law , Resistance, Resistivity, Conductance ,

Conductivity , Current Density and colour code of
carbon Resistors
𝑉
1. Ohm’s law , R = or V = IR
𝐼
𝐼
2. Resistance of a uniform Conductor, R = 𝜌 𝐴
𝑅𝐴
3. Resistivity or specific resistance, 𝜌 = 𝐼
1
4. Conductance = 𝑅
1 1 1
5. Conductivity = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 or 𝜎 = 𝜌 = 𝑅𝐴
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
6. Current density = or j = 𝐴
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
7. Colour Code of Carbon resistors . Refer to Table 3.2.
3. Drift Velocity
1. Current in terms of drift Velocity (𝑣𝑑 ) is I = en A𝑣𝑑

10
2. Current density , j = en𝑣𝑑

3. No. of atoms in one gram atomic mass of an element, n = Avogadro’s number = 6.023×
1023
4. In terms of relaxation time 𝜏,
𝑚𝑙 𝑚
R = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝐴 and 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
5. Relation between Current density and electric field

𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸 Or 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑗
4. Mobility of Charge Carriers

𝑣𝑑 𝑞𝜏
1. Mobility, 𝜇 = =𝑚
𝐸
2. Electric Current , I = 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 = en A𝜇𝐸

3. Conductivity of metallic Conductor, 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 .
4. Conductivity of a Semiconductor, 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ .
Temperature Variation of Resistance

Temperature Coefficient of resistance
𝑅2 −𝑅1
𝛼=𝑅
1 (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
If 𝑡1 = 0° C and 𝑡2 = 𝑡 ° C, then
𝑅𝑡 _𝑅0
𝛼= 𝑅0 ×𝑡
or 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + at)
5. Combination of Resistances in Series and Parallel

1. The equivalent resistance 𝑅3 of a number of resistances connected in series is given by
𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + …
2. The equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑃 of a number of resistances connected in parallel, is given by
1 1 1 1
=𝑅 + + + …
𝑅𝑃 1 𝑅2 𝑅3
3. For two resistances in parallel,

Current through the two resistors will be
𝑅2 𝐼 𝑅1 𝐼
𝐼1 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 𝑅
1 + 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅2

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6. EMF, Internal Resistance, Terminal potential

Difference and Grouping of Cells
𝑊
1. EMF of a cell, 𝜉 =
𝑞
2. For a cell of internal resistance r, the emf is
𝜉 =V + Ir = I (R + r)
𝜉𝑅
3. Terminal p.d. of a cell, V = IR = 𝑅+𝑟
4. Terminal p.d. when a current is being drawn from the cell,
V = 𝜉- Ir
5. Terminal p.d. when the cell is being charged,
V = 𝜉 + Ir
𝜉−𝑉
6. Internal resistance of a cell , r = R [ ]
𝑉
8. Grouping of cells
𝑛𝜉
1. For n cells in series, I =
𝑅+𝑛𝑟
𝑛𝜉
2. For n cells in parallel, I = 𝑛𝑅+𝑟
𝑚𝑛𝜉
3. For mixed grouping , I = 𝑚𝑅+𝑛𝑟
Where n= no. of cells in series in one row,

M = no. of rows of cells in parallel.
4. For maximum current, the external resistance must be equal to the total internal
resistance.
𝑛𝑟
i.e; =𝑅
𝑚
or nr = mR
9. Heating Effect of current, Electric power and electric Energy

1. Heat produced by electric current,
𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
H = 𝐼 2 Rt joule = 4.18 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑉𝐼𝑡
Or H = VIt joule = 4.18 𝑐𝑎𝑙
12
𝑤 𝑉2
2. Electric power, p = = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑡 𝑅
3. Electric energy, W = Pt =VIt = 𝐼 2 Rt
10. Kirchhoff’s Laws

1. ∑ 𝐼 =0 (junction rule)
Or Total incoming current = Total outgoing current
2. ∑ 𝜀 = ∑ 𝐼𝑅 (Loop rule)
11. Comparison of EMFs of two Cells

(ii) Measurement of internal Resistance of a cell by a
Potentiometer
𝜉 𝐼
1. For comparing emfs of two cells, 𝜉2 = 𝐼2
1 1
2. For measuring internal resistance of a cell,

𝐼1−𝐼2
r= ×𝑅
𝐼2
3. Potential gradient of the potentiometer wire,

𝑉
K= 𝐼
4.Unknown emf balanced against length I, 𝜉=KI
12. (i) Wheatstone Bridge

(ii) Slide wire Bridge
𝑃 𝑅
1. For a balanced wheatstone bridge, 𝑄 = 𝑆
If X is the unknown resistance

𝑃 𝑅 𝑅𝑄
= or X =
𝑄 𝑋 𝑃
2. In a slide wire bridge, if balance point is obtained at 1 cm from the zero end, then
𝑃 𝑅 𝐼 100−𝐼
= = or X= ( )R
𝑄 𝑋 100−𝐼 𝐼

13
CHAPTER. 4
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
1. Bio- Savart Law
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Bio – Savart law, dB = 4𝜋0 4𝜋 𝑟 2
2. Magnetic Field due to straight Current Carrying

Conductor
1. Magnetic field due to a straight conductor of finite length,
𝜇𝐼
B= 4𝜋𝑎0 (𝑆𝑖𝑛∅1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅2 )
2. Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor,

𝜇0 𝐼
B=
2𝜋𝑎
3. Magnetic field due to a circular Coil ,

1. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop,
𝜇 𝐼
B = 2𝑟0
2. Magnetic field at an axial point of a circular loop.

𝜇 1 𝐼𝑎2
B = 2(𝑟 20+𝑎2 )3/2
4. Ampere’s circuital Law and Magnetic Field due to (i) Straight

Solenoid (ii)Toroidal Solenoid
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
1. Ampere’s circuital law, ∮ 𝐵
When B is directed along tangent to every point on closed curve L, BL= 𝜇0 𝐼
2. Magnetic field due to straight solenoid,
(i) At a point well inside the solenoid, B = 𝜇0 nl
1
(ii) At either end of the solenoid, 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 2 𝜇0 nl
Here n is the number of turns per unit length.

3. Magnetic field inside a toroidal solenoid, B= 𝜇0 nl
Magnetic field is zero outside the toroid.
14
5. Force on Moving charges in a magnetic Field

Force on a charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field at an angle 𝜃 with it is
F = 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
6. Motion of charges in Electric and Magnetic Fields

1. Electric force on a charge, 𝐹𝑒= qE
2. Magnetic force on a charge, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3. In a perpendicular magnetic field, the charge follows a circular path.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
qv B = or r =
𝑟 𝑞𝐵
2𝜋 𝑚 𝑞𝐵
T= and f = 2𝜋 𝑚
𝑞𝐵
⃗ , the charge follows helical path.

4. When 𝑣 makes angle 𝜃 with 𝐵
𝑚𝑣⊥ 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃 2𝜋 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑚
r= = ;T= =
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵 𝑣⊥ 𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Pitch of helix, h =𝑣∥ T = v Cos 𝜃.T = 𝑞𝐵
5. K.E. gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference V.
1 2𝑒𝑣
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 ; 𝑣 = √ 𝑚
2
7. Cyclotron
For the accelerated charged particle,
𝑞𝐵𝑟
1. Velocity ,𝑣 = 𝑚
2𝜋 𝑚
2. Period of revolution, T = 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝐵
3. Cyclotron frequency, 𝑓𝑒 = 2𝜋 𝑚
𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑅 2
4. Maximum kinetic energy , 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑚
Where R is the radius of the dees.
8. Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field
1. . 𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐼 × 𝐵⃗)
2. 𝐹 = 𝐼 𝐼𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3. 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼 𝐼 𝐵
15
9. Forces between Parallel current- carrying wires

𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝐼2
1. Force per unit length, f= 2𝜋𝑟
2. Force on length l of one of the wires,
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑙
F= 2𝜋𝑟
10. Torques on Current Loops

Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field,
𝜏 =NIBA sin 𝜃 = mB sin 𝜃
Where m = NIA = magnetic dipole moment of the current loop.
⃗ .
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
In vector form, 𝜏 = 𝑚
11. Moving Coil Galvanometer and its Sensitivity

1. In a moving coil galvanometer,
𝐾
Current, I = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 . 𝛼
𝑁𝐵𝐴
Deflection produced, 𝛼 = .𝐼
𝐾
𝐼 𝐾
2. Figure of merit, G = 𝛼 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑎 𝑁𝐵𝐴
3. Current sensitivity , 𝐼𝑠 = =
𝐼 𝐾
𝑎 𝑎 𝑁𝐵𝐴
4. Voltage sensitivity, 𝑉𝑠 = = 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑉 𝐾𝑅
12. Conversion of Galvanometer into (i)Ammeter and
(ii)Voltmeter, and Measurement of Current and Voltage
1. For conversion of a galvanometer into ammeter, the shunt resistance,
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑠
𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼−𝐼 × 𝑅𝑔 ; 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑅 ×𝐼
𝑔 𝑔 +𝑅𝑠
𝑅𝑔 𝑅𝑠
2. Resistance of an ammeter, 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅
𝑔 +𝑅𝑠
3. For conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter, the value of high series

𝑉 𝑉
resistance, 𝑅 = ; 𝑅𝑔 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑅
𝐼𝑔 𝑔 +𝑅
4. Resistance of a voltmeter, 𝑅𝑉 = 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅
5. For a galvanometer, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑛𝑘
Where n=no. of divisions on the galvanometer scale k= current required to produce
deflection of one scale division or figure of merit of the galvanometer.

16
CHAPTER.5
MAGNETISM
1. Coulomb’s Law and Dipole Moment of a Magnet

1. Magnetic dipole moment, m= 𝑞𝑚 × 2𝐼
𝜇 𝑞𝑚1 𝑞𝑚2
2. Coulomb’s law , F= 4𝜋0 ∙ 𝑟2
2. Magnetic field of a Bar Magnet

Magnetic field of a bar magnet of length 2l and dipole moment m at a distance r from
its centre,
𝜇0 2𝑚𝑟
1. 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = . 2 (on the axial line)
0 (𝑟 2− 𝑙 2)
𝜇 𝑚
2. 𝐵 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 4𝜋0 . (𝑟 2 +𝑙 2 )3/2 (on the equatorial line)
For a short magnet, I <<r, so

𝜇 2𝑚
3. 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 4𝜋0 . 𝑟 3 (on the axial line)
𝜇 𝑚
4. 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 4𝜋0 . 𝑟 3 (on the equatorial line)
3. Torque and Potential Energy of a Dipole, and Magnetic

Moment of a Current Loop
⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
1. Torque, 𝜏= mB Sin𝜃 or 𝜏= 𝑚
2. Work done in turning the dipole or P.E. of a dipole,
W=U =-mB(Cos𝜃2 -Cos𝜃1 )
3. If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field,
U= -mBcos𝜃
⃗ , 𝜃=0° , u= - mB
⃗⃗ is parallel to 𝐵
(i) When 𝑚
Potential energy of the dipole is minimum. It is in a state of stable equilibrium.
⃗ , 𝜃 = 90° , 𝑢 = 0.
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐵
(ii) When 𝑚
17
⃗ , 𝜃 = 180° , u=+mB.
⃗⃗ is antiparallel to 𝐵
(iii) When 𝑚
Potential energy of the dipole is maximum . It is in a state of unstable equilibrium .
4. Magnetic moment of a current loop, m =NIA
5. Orbital magnetic moment of an electron in nth orbit,
𝑒𝑣𝑟 𝑒 𝑒ℎ
𝜇1 = = 𝐼 = 𝑛( )
2 2𝑚𝑒 4𝜋𝑚𝑒
6. Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment of an electron in first (n=1) orbit.

𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝐵 =(𝜇𝐼 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4𝜋 .
𝑚𝑒
4. Earth’s Magnetism and Neutral points

1. Declination (a) = Angle between geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.
2. Relations between elements of earth’s magnetic field are
𝐵𝐻 = B Cos 𝛿 and 𝐵𝑉 = B Sin 𝛿
𝐵𝑉
= tan 𝛿 and B = √𝐵𝐻 2 + 𝐵𝑣 2
𝐵𝐻
3. For a magnet placed with its N- Pole pointing north, neutral points lie at its equatorial
line.
𝜇 𝑚
𝐵𝐻 = 4𝜋0 . 3/2
(𝑟 2 +𝑙 2)
𝜇 𝑚
= 4𝜋0 . 𝑟 3 [for a short magnet]
4. For a magnet placed with its N-pole pointing south, neutral points lie on its axial line.
𝜇 2𝑚𝑟
𝐵𝐻 = 4𝜋0 . 2
(𝑟 2 +𝑙 2)
𝜇0 2𝑚
= . [for a short magnet]
4𝜋 𝑟 3
5. Magnetic Properties of Materials

𝑚
1. Intensity of magnetisation, M= 𝑉
𝐵
2. 𝜇= 𝐻
𝜇
3. 𝜇𝑟= 𝜇0

18
𝑀
4. 𝑥𝑚 = 𝐻
𝐶
5. 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑇 [Curie’s law]
6. B= 𝜇0 (H+M)
7. 𝜇𝑟 =1+𝑥𝑚 .
CHAPTER.6
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. Magnetic flux (ii) Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
⃗ ∙𝐴
1. Magnetic flux, 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝐵
𝑑𝜙
2. Induced emf, 𝜉 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝜙2 −𝜙1
3. Average induced emf, 𝜉 = −𝑁 𝑡
|𝜉|
4. Induced current, 𝐼 = .
𝑅
2. Motional EMF
1. The emf induced in a conductor of length l moving with velocity V perpendicular
to field B, 𝜉 = Blv.
2. Induced emf developed between the two ends of rod rotating at its one end in
1
perpendicular magnetic field, 𝜉= 2 𝐵𝑙2 𝜔
3. Induced Emf in a Rotating Coil

1. 𝜉= 𝜉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2.𝜉0 NBA𝜔, Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜉
3. Maximum induced current, 𝐼0= 𝑅0 .
4. Self-Induction and Mutual Induction

1. For self- induction, ∅ = LI
𝑑𝐼
2. Self induced emf, 𝜉 = -L𝑑𝑡
3. For Mutual induction, ∅ = MI

19
𝑑𝐼
4. Mutual induction emf, 𝜉 = -M 𝑑𝑡
5. Self- inductance of long solenoid,

𝜇0 𝑁2 𝐴 𝑁
L= = 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼 Where n =
𝐼 𝐼
6. Mutual inductance of two closely wound solenoids,

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
M= = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2, 𝐴𝐼
𝐼
𝑁1 𝑁
Where 𝑛1 = , 𝑛2 = 𝐼2
𝐼

20
CHAPTER. 7
ALTERNATING CURRENT AND ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1. Mean (ii) Effective (iii) Instantaneous values Of Alerting
currents and Voltages.
1. Instantaneous value of a.c. I = 𝐼0 Sin 𝜔t,
Where 𝐼0 is the peak or maximum value of a.c.
2. Average or mean value of a.c. over half cycle,
2
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝜋 𝐼0 = 0.6370𝐼
3. Effective or rms or virtual value of a.c.,

1
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 or 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 or 𝐼𝑣 = 𝐼 = 0.707 𝐼0
√2 0
4. For alternating voltages, we have

1
𝜀 = 𝜀0 Sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝜀𝑎𝑣 =0.637 𝜀0, 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜀0
√2
Units Used
Currents I, 𝐼0 and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 are in ampere, voltages 𝜀, 𝜀0 and 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 are in volt. [pg7.4
2. (i) inductive reactance

(ii) Capacitive reactance
1. For an a.c. Circuit Containing inductor only,
(i) Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔L= 2𝜋 f L
𝜀0 𝜀0
(ii) Current amplitude , 𝐼0 = =
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜀 𝜀0
(iii) Effective Current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝜔𝐿0 =
𝑋𝐿 √2.𝜔𝐿
2. For an a.c. Circuit Containing Capacitor only,

1 1
(i) Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝑐 = 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝐶
𝜀 𝜀
(ii) Current amplitude, 𝐼0 = 𝑋0 = 1/𝜔𝐶
0
𝑐
(iii) Effective Current,

21
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜀0
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = =
𝑋𝐶 1/𝜔𝐶 √2.1/𝜔𝐶
Units Used
Induced L is in henry, Capacitance C in farad, reactances 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 in ohm, Currents 𝐼0 and
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 in ampere and voltages 𝜀0 and 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 in volt. [pg7.10]
3. Series LR-Circuit
𝜀
1. Impedance, Z = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
2. Current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍
3. Phase angle ∅ is given by

𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝑅
Tan ∅ = = or Cos 𝜙 = 𝑍.
𝑅 𝑅
4. Instantaneous Current, I= 𝐼0 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)

Units Used
R, 𝑋𝐿 and Z are all in ohm, inductance L in henry and angular frequency 𝜔 in rad
−1
𝑠 . [pg7.13]
4. Series CR-Circuit
𝜀 1
1. Impedance, Z = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜔2 𝑐 2
𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠
2. Current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = .
𝑍
3. Phase angle 𝜙 is given by
𝑋𝑐 1/𝜔𝐶 𝑅
Tan 𝜙 = = or Cos 𝜙 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑍
4. Instantaneous Current, I = 𝐼0 Sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙).

Units Used
R, 𝑋 𝑐 and Z are all in ohm, Capacitance C in farad and angular frequency 𝜔 in
rad 𝑠 −1 . [pg7.18]
5. Series LCR-Circuit, its Resonance and Q-Factor

1. Impedance of a series LCR-Circuit,
𝜉𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 2
Z== = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

22
2. Phase angle 𝜙 between current and voltage is given by

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 𝑅
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑅
𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑍
3. Resonant frequency of LCR- series circuit(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ),

1
𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋
√𝐿𝐶
𝜔𝑟 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 1 𝐿
4. Q-Factor =𝜔 = = 𝑅 √𝐶
2 −𝜔1 𝑅
Where 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are the frequencies at which current falls to 1/√2 time its resonant
value.
6. Energy and Power associated with A.C. Circuits

1. Average power consumed per cycle in any a.c. circuit, 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙,
𝜉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∙ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the apparent powerType equation here.
𝑅 𝑅
2. Power factor, cos 𝜙 = 𝑍 =
√𝑅 2 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )2
3. Average power consumed per cycle in a pure resistive circuit,

𝜉2 2
𝜉𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 2𝑅0 = 𝜉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∙ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅
1
4. Energy stored in an inductor, 𝑈 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2
5. Average power consumed per cycle in pure inductive circuit=0.

1 1 𝑄2
6. Energy stored in a capacitor, 𝑈 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 𝐶
7. Average power consumed per cycle in a pure capacitive circuit =0.

1
8. For an LCR-circuit in resonance, 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝑟 .
√𝐿𝐶
7. LC-Oscillations
1
1.Angular frequency of free oscillations of an LC-circuit, 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
2. Frequency of free oscillations of an LC-circuit, 𝑓 = 2𝑟 .
√𝐿𝐶
3. Instantaneous charge on the capacitor,𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos 𝜔𝑡.

𝑑𝑞
4. Instantaneous charge in the LC-circuit,𝐼 = − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝐼0 = 𝜔 𝑞0
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞2
5. electrical energy stored in the capacitor at any instant, 𝑈𝐸 = 2 ∙ , 𝑈𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 ∙
𝐶 𝐶
23
1 1
6. Magnetic energy stored in the inductor at any instant, , 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 , 𝑈𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝐿𝐼02
1 𝑞2 1
7. Total energy stored in the LC-circuit,𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = 2 ∙ = 2 𝐿𝐼02.
𝐶
8. Transformers and Long Distance Power Transmission

𝜉 𝐼 𝑁2
1. The voltages and currents in a transformer are related as 𝜉2 = 𝐼1 = = 𝑘.
1 2 1𝑁
Where suffix 1 refers to primary coil, 2 to secondary coil and k is the transformation or
turns ratio.
2. 𝜉1 𝐼1(Power in primary coil) = 𝜉2 𝐼2(Power in secondary coil)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
3. Efficiency of a transformer, 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
4. Power is transmitted from power stations to sub-stations at very high voltages to resuce
cost and reduce losses.
9. Generators
For an a.c. generator,
1. Flux linked, 𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
2. Instantaneous induced emf, 𝜉 = 𝜉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
3. Maximum induced emf, 𝜉0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
4. Instantaneous current, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜉0 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
5. Maximum current, 𝐼0 = = .
𝑅 𝑅

24
CHAPTER. 8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1)Displacement Current and Modified Ampere’s Circuital
Law
𝑑∅𝐸
1. Displacement current, 𝐼𝐷=𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝐸
Also , 𝐼𝐷 =𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 (𝐸𝐴)=𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑉 𝜀0𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
=𝜀0 𝐴 ( )= =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2. Modified Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐷 )
⃗⃗⃗ .𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
2) Equation, Speed, Amplitude and Average Density of an

Electromagnetic Wave
1. Wave velocity, 𝑐 = 𝑣𝜆
ℎ𝑐
2. Energy of photon, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = 𝜆
1
3.Speed of e.m. wave in vacuum, 𝑐 =
√𝜇0 𝜀0
1
4. Speed of e.m. wave in a material medium, 𝑐 =
√𝜇𝜀
5. For a wave of frequency v, wavelength 𝜆, propagating along 𝑥 −direction, the equations

for electric and magnetic fields are
𝑥 𝑡
𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) = 𝐸0 sin [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝜆 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡
𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) = 𝐵0 sin [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝜆 𝑇
6. Amplitude ratio of electric and magnetic fields,
𝐸0 1
=𝑐=
𝐸0 √𝜇𝜊 𝜀0
2𝜋 𝜔
7. Propagation constant, 𝑘 = =
𝜆 𝑐
8. Average energy density of R-field,

25
1 1
𝑢𝐸 = 4 𝜀0 𝐸02 = 2 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
9. Average energy density of R-field,

1 1
𝑢𝐵 = 𝐵02 = 2
𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠
4𝜇0 2𝜇0
10. Average energy density of e.m. wave,
2
1 2
1 2 2
𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑢𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐵 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2𝜇0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜇0
Or
1 1 2 1 1 2
𝑢𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀0 𝐸02 + 𝐵0 = 𝜀0 𝐸02 = 𝐵
4 4𝜇0 2 2𝜇0 0
𝑈
11. Momentum delivered by an e.m. wave. 𝑝 = 𝑐
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
12. Intensity of a wave = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
2
Or 𝐼 = 𝑢𝑎𝑣 𝑐 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐.

26
CHAPTER. 9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
1) Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors

1. For any spherical mirror, 𝑓 = 𝑅/2
1 1 1 2
2.Mirror formula, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = − 𝑓 = 𝑅
ℎ2 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
3. Magnification, 𝑚 = =− = =
ℎ1 𝑢 𝑓−𝑢 𝑓
4. Magnification 𝑚 is –ve for real images and +ve for virtual images.
5. 𝑓 and Rare –ve for a concave mirror and +ve for a convex mirror.
6. For a real object 𝑢 od-ve, 𝑣 is-ve for real image and +ve for virtual image.
7. Do not give any sign to unknown quantity. The sign will automatically appear in the final
result.
2)
(i) Refraction of Light , (ii)Lateral shift and,(iii)Real and
Apparent Depths
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑚 𝑐
1. Refractive index=𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚or 𝜇 = 𝑣
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝜆
2. 𝜇 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 𝜆′
sin 𝑖 𝑣 𝜇
3. Snell’s law, 1𝜇2 = sin 𝑟 = 𝑣1 = 𝜇2 or 𝜇1 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟
2 1
1
4. 1𝜇2 = 2𝜇
1
1𝜇
5. 1𝜇2 × 1𝜇3 × 1𝜇1 = 1 𝑜𝑟1𝜇3 = 1𝜇3
2
𝑡
6.Lateral shift of a ray through a rectangular slab, 𝑥 = cos 𝑟 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)
cos 𝑖
= 𝑡 sin 𝑖 [1 − ]
(𝜇2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖)1/2

27
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑡
7. 𝜇 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑡
Apparent depth = 𝜇
1
8. Apparent shift = 𝑡 (1 − 𝜇)
1 1
9. Total apparent shift for compound media = 𝑡1 (1 − ) + 𝑡2 (1 − )+⋯
𝜇1 𝜇2
3) Total internal Reflection

1. Critical angle, 𝑖𝑐 =Angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction is
900 in rarer medium.
1
2. Refractive index of denser medium, 𝜇 = sin 𝑖
𝑐
3. Total internal reflection occurs when 𝑖 > 𝑖𝑐
4) Refraction through Spherical Surfaces

𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇2 −𝜇1
1.For refraction from rarer to denser medium, − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝜇 𝜇2 𝜇1 −𝜇2
2.For refraction from denser to rarer medium, 𝑣1 − =
𝑢 𝑅
𝜇2− 𝜇1 𝜇−1
3. Power of a surface, 𝑃 = = (For air)
𝑅 𝑅
𝜇1 𝑅
4. First principal focal length, 𝑓1 = − 𝜇
2 −𝜇1
𝜇2 𝑅
5. Second principal focal length, , 𝑓2 = − 𝜇
2 −𝜇1
𝑓2 𝜇2
∴ =−
𝑓1 𝜇1
5) Lens Maker’s Formula

1. For the lens of material of refractive index 𝜇2 placed in a medium of refractive index 𝜇1 .
1 𝜇2− 𝜇1 1 1
=( ) [ − ].
𝑓 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
2. When the lens is placed in air,
𝜇1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇2=𝜇 .
1 1 1
∴ = (𝜇 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ].
𝑓 1 2

28
3. 𝑓 and R are positive for convex surfaces and negative for concave surfaces.
6) Thin Lens Formula and Linear Magnification

1 1 1
1. Focal length of any lens is given by the thin lens formula, = − .
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
ℎ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
2. Magnification, 𝑚 = ℎ2 = 𝑢 = 𝑓+𝑢 =
1 𝑓
3. In Cartesian sign convention, 𝑢 is taken negative

4. In case of convex lens, 𝑣 is positive for real image and negative for virtual image and 𝑓 is
positive.
5. In case of concave lens, 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑓 are all negative.
6. Magnification 𝑚 is positive for virtual image and negative for real image .
7)
(i) Power of Lenses (ii) Combination of Lenses
1 100
1. Power of a lens, 𝑃 = = 𝑓(𝑐𝑚)
𝑓 (𝑚 )
1 1 1
2. P=𝑓 = (𝜇 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ]
1 2
3. For a combination of lenses, 𝑚 = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 × 𝑚3 × …

4. For two lenses in contact, equivalent focal length 𝐹 is given by
1 1 1
= + or Power, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 1
For 𝑛 lenses in contact, 𝑓 = 𝑓 + 𝑓 + ⋯ + 𝑓
1 2 𝑛
Power 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛 .
5. The equivalent focal length 𝐹 of two lenses separated by distance 𝑑 is given by distance
1 1 1 1
𝑑 is give by 𝑓 = 𝑓 + 𝑓 − 𝑓 𝑓
1 2 1 2
Or Power, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 − 𝑑 . 𝑃1 . 𝑃2
8) Image formation by a combination of a lens and a mirror

We first find the position of the image formed by the lens by using thin formula. Taking this image as real
(or virtual) object for the mirror, we use mirror formula to locate the position of the final image formed by
the combination.
9) Refraction and Dispersion of Light through a Prism

29
1. For refraction through a prism, 𝐴 + 𝛿 = 𝑖 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ = 𝐴

2. In the condition of minimum deviation,
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
𝑖 = 𝑖 ′ , 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚 ; 𝜇 = 2
𝐴
sin
2
3. Deviation produced by a prism of small angle, 𝛿 = (𝜇 − 1)𝐴
4. Angular dispersion = 𝛿𝑣 − 𝛿𝑅=(𝜇𝑣−𝜇 )𝐴
𝑅
𝛿𝑣 −𝛿𝑅 𝜇𝑣 −𝜇𝑅
5. Dispersive power, 𝜔 = =
𝛿 𝜇−1
𝛿𝑣 −𝛿𝑅
6. Mean deviation,𝛿= 2
𝜇𝑣 −𝜇𝑅
7. Mean refractive index, 𝜇 = .
2
10) Defects of Vision

1. Correction of myopia or short sightedness. A concave lens of focal length𝑓 equal to the
1
distance 𝑥 of the far point from the defective eye is used. 𝑓 = −𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = −
𝑥
2. Correction of hypermetropia or long sightedness. A convex lens of focal length 𝑓 is used,

𝑦−𝐷
where𝑓 = 𝑦−𝐷
Here
𝑦 =distance of the near point from the defective eye and
𝐷 =the least distance of distinct vision.
11) Simple Microscope

1. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, the magnifying
𝐷
power is 𝑚 = 1 + 𝑓
𝐹
2. When the final image is formed at infinity, the magnifying power is 𝑚 = 𝑓
12) Compound Microscope

1.Magnigying power, 𝑚 = 𝑚0 × 𝑚𝑒
𝑣 𝐷
2. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, 𝑚 = 𝑢0 (1 + 𝑓 ) =
0 𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
− 𝑓 (1 + 𝑓 )
0 𝑒

30
𝑣 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
3. When the final image is formed at infinity,𝑚 = 𝑢0 . 𝑓 = − 𝑓 . 𝑓
𝑜 𝑒 0 𝑒
13) Telescopes
𝑓
1. Astronomical telescope. (i) In normal adjustment, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒
Distance between objective and eyepiece=𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒

𝑓 𝑓
(ii) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, 𝑚 = 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 )
𝑒
𝑓𝐷
Distance between objective and eyepiece= 𝑓0 +𝑢𝑒=𝑓0 + 𝑓 𝑒+𝐷
𝑒
𝑓
2. Terrestrial telescope. (i) In normal adjustment, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒
Distance between objective and eyepiece =𝑓0 + 4𝑓+𝑓𝑒,

Where 𝑓 =focal length of the erecting lens.
𝑓
3. Galileo’s telescope. In normal adjustment, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒
Distance between objective and eyepiece= 𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑒

𝑓 𝑅/2
4. Reflecting telescope. 𝑚 = 𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑒
𝑒
Where 𝑓0= focal length of concave mirror,

𝑓𝑒 =focal length of eyepiece.

31
CHAPTER.10
WAVE OPTICS
1) Reflection and Refraction of Light Waves
sin 𝑖
1. Snell’s law, 1𝜇2 =
sin 𝑟
𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑚
2. 𝜇 = 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
3. Speed of light in vacuum, 𝑐 = 𝑣𝜆

𝜆 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
4. 𝜇 = 𝜆′ = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝜆
5. Wavelength in medium, 𝜆′ = 𝜇
6. Optical path (𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚) = 𝜇 × Path in medium

7. Frequency of light remains unchanged during its reflection or refraction.
2) Amplitude and Intensity at any point in an Interference

Pattern
1. Resultant amplitude, 𝑎 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2. Resultant intensity, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝜙
3. When 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0, 𝐼 = 210 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ) = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
3) Young’s Double Slit Experiment

1. For a bright fringe, path difference, 𝑝 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
2. For a dark fringe, 𝑝 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯

32
3. Distance of 𝑛th bright fringe rom the center of the screen,

𝐷𝜆
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
𝑑
4.Distance of 𝑛th dark fringe from the centre of the screen,

𝐷𝜆
𝑥𝑛, = (2𝑛 − 1)
2𝑑
𝐷𝜆
5. Fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑑
𝛽𝑑
6. Wavelength of light used, 𝜆 = 𝐷
𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝜆
7. Angular position of 𝑛th bright fringe, 𝜃𝑛 = = .
𝐷 𝑑
8. Angular position of 𝑛th dark fringe,

𝑥𝑛′ 𝜆
𝜃𝑛′ = = (2𝑛 − 1) .
𝐷 2𝑑
4) Intensity Ratio at Maxima and Minima of an Interference

Pattern
1. Intensity of light ∝ Width of slit
𝑤 𝐼 𝑎2
2. Ratio of slit widths, 𝑤1 = 𝐼1 = 𝑎12
2 2 2
3. Intensity at maxima, ∝ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2

4. Intensity at minima, ∝ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
5.Intensity ratio at maxima and minima,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 𝑟+1 2
= =( )
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑎1 _𝑎2 )2 𝑟−1
𝑎 𝐼
Where 𝑟 = 𝑎1 = √𝑎1 =amplitude ratio of two waves.
2 2
5) Interference in Thin Film

1. For reflected system of light,

33
𝜆
(𝑖)𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 ∶ 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
(𝑖𝑖)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎: 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
2. For transmitted system of light,
(𝑖)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎: 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
(𝑖𝑖)𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 ∶ 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
Where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, ⋯
6) Displacement of Interference Fringes

1. When a thin transparent sheet of thickness t and refractive index 𝜇 is inserted in one of
the interfering beams, path difference introduced, 𝑝 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝛽 𝐷
2. Displacement of the central bright fringe, Δ𝑥 = 𝜆 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑑 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡.
7) Diffraction of Light and Fresnel’s distance

1. For diffraction at a single slit of width 𝑎,
(𝑖) Condition for nth secondary minimum is 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
𝜆
(𝑖𝑖) Condition of uth secondary maximum is 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
2
𝑛𝜆
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Angular position or direction of 𝑛th minimum, 𝜃𝑛 =
𝑎
𝑛𝐷𝜆
(𝑖𝑣) Distance of 𝑛th minimum from the center of the screen, 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑎
𝜆
(𝑣) Angular position of 𝑛th secondary maximum,𝜃𝑛′ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝑎
𝐷𝜆
(𝑣𝑖) Distance of 𝑛th secondary maximum from the centre of the screen, 𝑥𝑛′ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝑎
2𝐷𝜆
(𝑣𝑖𝑖) Width of central maximum, 𝛽0 = 2𝛽 =
𝑎
𝜆
(𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) Angular spread of central maximum on either side,𝜃 = ±
𝑎
2𝜆
(𝑖𝑥) Total angular spread of central maximum,2𝜃 =
𝑎

34
2.For diffraction at a circular aperture of diameter 𝑑,

1.22𝜆
(𝑖)Angular spread of central maximum, 𝜃 =
𝑎
(𝑖𝑖) Linear spread, 𝑥 = 𝐷𝜃

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Areal spread, 𝑥 2 = (𝐷𝜃)2
Where D is the distance at which the effect is considered.
𝑎2
3. Fresnel distance, 𝐷𝐹 = 𝜆
4. Size of Fresnel zone, 𝑎𝑓 = √𝜆𝐷.
8) Resolving Power of (i) Telescope (ii) Microscope

1.22𝜆
1. Limit of resolution of a telescope, 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐷
1 𝐷
2. Resolving power of a telescope = 𝑑𝜃 = 1.22𝜆
Where D= diameter of the objective lens.

𝜆
3. Limit of resolution of a microscope, 𝑑 =
2𝜇 sin 𝜃
1 2𝜇 sin 𝜃
4. Resolving power of a microscope = 𝑑 = 𝜆
Where 𝜃 =half angle of come of light from the point object. The factor 𝜇 sin 𝜃 is called
numerical aperture (𝑁. 𝐴. ).
9) The Law of Malus

Law of Malus, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃.
10) Brewster Law

1. Brewster law, 𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝑝
2. 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟𝑝 = 900
1𝜇
3. 2𝜇3 = 1𝜇2 .
3

35
11) Doppler Effect of Light

Δ𝑉 𝑉 ′ −𝑉 𝑣
1. 𝑉 = = ±𝑐
𝑉
Δ𝜆 𝜆′ −𝜆 𝑣
2. = = ∓𝑐
𝜆 𝜆
CHAPTER. 11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
1) Photons and Photoelectric Effect
ℎ𝑐
1. Energy of a photons emitted per 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = .
𝜆
𝑃
2. Number of photons emitted per second, 𝑁 = 𝐸.
ℎ𝑣 ℎ
3. Momentum of photon, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 = = 𝜆.
𝑐
ℎ𝑣
4. Equivalent mass of a photon, 𝑚 = .
𝑐2
ℎ𝑐
5. Work function, 𝑊0 = ℎ𝑣0 = 𝜆
0
6. Kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by Einstein’s photoelectric equation, 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =

1 2 𝑐 𝑐
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝑊0 = ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) = ℎ [𝜆 − 𝜆 ]
𝜊
7. If 𝑉0 is the stopping potential, the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photo
2 1
electrons, 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑒𝑉0
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
8. Intensity of radiation = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Incident power = Incident intensity × area
2) De- Broglie Waves

1 𝑝2
1. Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑚
36
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑘
ℎ ℎ ℎ
2. de-Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 =
√2𝑚𝑘.
3. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of

ℎ 1.23
V volts is 𝜆 = = 𝑛𝑚
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √𝑉
4. Bragg’s equation for crystal diffraction is 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 is order of the spectrum.
CHAPTER . 12
ATOMS
1) Distance of Closest Approach and Impact Parameter
1 1 2𝑍𝑒 2
1. K.E. of a-particle, 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 4𝜋𝜀 .
0 𝑟0
𝜃
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 1 4𝑍𝑒 2
2. Distance of closest approach, 𝑟0 = 4𝜋𝜀 . = 4𝜇𝜀 . 𝑚𝑣2
0 𝐾 0
𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2
3. Impact parameter, 𝑏 = 4𝜋𝜀 . = 4𝜋𝜀 . 1
0 𝐾 0 𝑚𝑣 2
2
2) Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom

𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑛ℎ
1. 𝑟2
= 𝑟
2. 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋
𝑛2 ℎ 2
3. ℎ𝑣 = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 4.𝑟𝑛 = 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2 𝑐 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2
5. 𝑣𝑛 − = 𝑎. 𝑛 where 𝑎 = , 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑛ℎ 𝑐ℎ
𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 −𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
6. K.E.= 7. P.E. =
2𝑟 𝑟
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 𝑅ℎ𝑐
8. Total energy, 𝐸𝑛 = − =− 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛2
9. 𝐸𝑛 = −𝐾. 𝐸. = −𝐸𝑛 ; 𝑃. 𝐸. = −2𝐾. 𝐸. = 2𝐸𝑛

2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑒 4 1 1
10. Frequency, 𝑣 = [ − 𝑛2 ]
ℎ3 𝑛12 2

37
1 1 1
11.Wave number𝑉̅ = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
1 2
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑒 4
Where 𝑅 = ,is Rydberg’s constant
𝑐ℎ3
13.6𝑍 2
12. Ionisation potential = − volt
𝑛2
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 𝑛3 ℎ 3
13. 𝑇𝑛 = = = 𝑇1 𝑛3
𝑣𝑛 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍𝑒 4
CHAPTER. 13
NUCLEI
1) Equivalent Energy, Atomic Mass, Nuclear Size and Nuclear Density
1. Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
1
2. 1 amu=12 × Mass of C-12 atom
3. Nuclear radius, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3

Where 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑛𝑢
4. 𝜌𝑛𝑢 = 𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 4
𝜋𝑅 3
3
5. Average atomic mass of an element = Weighted average of the masses of all isotopes.
2) Binding Energy of a Nucleus

1. Mass defect, ∆𝑚 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑛 ]
2. B.E.= (∆𝑚)𝑐 2
𝐵.𝐸.
3. B.E./nucleon= 𝐴
∆𝑚
4. Packing fraction= .
𝐴
3) Radioactivity
38
1. Displacement laws for radioactive transformations are as follows :

𝐴 𝐴−4 4
(i) 𝑎 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 ∶ 𝑋→ 𝑌 + 2 𝐻𝑒
𝑍 𝑍−2
𝐴 𝑎 0 −
(ii) 𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑍 + 1 𝑦 + 1 𝑒 + 𝑣
𝑍
(iii)𝑦 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 ∶ 𝐴𝑋 → 𝐴𝑋 + 𝑦
𝑍 𝑍
(Excited state) (Ground state)
𝑑𝑁
2. Radioactive decay law: (𝑖) − = 𝜆𝑁 (𝑖𝑖)𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝜆 =decay constant or disintegration constant

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 0.693
3. Half life ; 𝑇1/2 = 𝜆
= 𝜆
1 𝑛 𝑡
4. 𝑁 = 𝑁0 (2) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑇
1/2
1 𝑇1/2
5. Mean life : 𝜏 = 𝜆 = 0.693 = 1.44𝑇1/2 or 𝑇1/2 = 0.693𝜏
𝑑𝑛
6. Decay rate or activity of a substance : 𝑅 = | | = 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
2.303 𝑁𝑜
7. Time required to reduce the radioactive substance, 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝜆 𝑁
2.303 𝑁𝑜
8. Decay constant :𝜆 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 .
𝜆 𝑁
4)
(i) Q-value (ii) Nuclear Fission (iii) Nuclear Fusion
1. Mass defect,Δ 𝑚 =Nass of reactant particles- Mass of product particles
2.𝑄 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = (Δ𝑚)𝑒 2
3. Energy released/absorbed=B.E. of products –B.E. of reactants
4. Q-value is megative for endothermic reaction and positive for exothermic reactions.
CHAPTER. 14
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS

39
1) Intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors

1. In an intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛1 .
2. At equilibrium in any semiconductor, , 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛12 .
3. In an n-type semiconductor, 𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛𝑒 >> 𝑛ℎ .
4. In a p-type semiconductor, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛ℎ >> 𝑛𝑒 .
ℎ𝑐
5. Minimum energy required to create a hole electron pair, 𝐸𝑔 = ℎ𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜆
𝑚𝑎𝑥
2) Conductivity of Semiconductors
𝑣
1. Mobility of a charge carrier, 𝜇 = 𝐸.
2. Electric current, 𝐼 = 𝑒𝐴(𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ ).

1
3. Electrical conductivity,𝜎 = 𝜌 = 𝑒(𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ ).
𝐸𝑔
4. Variation of conductivity with temperature, 𝜎 = 𝜎0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ).
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
3) p-n Junction
𝑉
1. The d.c. resistance of a junction diode, 𝑟𝑑𝑐 = 1
Δ𝑉
2. The dynamic or a.c. resistance of a junction diode, 𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑐 =
Δ1
3. Voltage equation for a diode circuit,

Applied voltage, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑑 + 𝐼𝑅
4. For a Zener diode, 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉1 − 𝑅𝐼
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑍
Series resistor, 𝑅 = 𝑅
5. Average value of d.c. obtained from a half – wave rectifier,

𝐼
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝜋0.
6. Average value of d.c. obtained from a full – wave rectifier,

2𝐼0
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = .
𝜋

40
4) Transistor (i)Characteristics (ii) As an Amplifier

1. 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵
2. For a common base transistor amplifier,
𝐼𝐶 Δ𝐼𝐶
(𝑖 ) 𝑎𝑑𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸 Δ𝐼𝐸
𝑅
(𝑖𝑖 )𝐴𝑣 = 𝑎𝑎𝑐 ∙ 0 = 𝐴𝑖 ∙ 𝐴𝑟
𝑅 𝑖
2 = 𝑅0
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 ∙ 𝑎𝑎𝑐
𝑅𝑖
3. For a common emitter transistor amplifier,

𝐼 Δ𝐼
(𝑖 ) 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛽𝑎𝑐 = 𝐶
𝐼 𝐸 Δ𝐼 𝐸
𝑅
(𝑖𝑖 )𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑖 ∙ 𝐴𝑟 = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 ∙ 0
𝑅 𝑖
2 = 𝑅0
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 ∙ 𝐴𝑖 = 𝛽𝑎𝑐
𝑅𝑖
∆𝐼
(𝑖𝑣 )𝑔𝑚 = 𝑐
∆𝑉 𝐵𝐸
𝛽 𝑎
4. Relations between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1+𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 1−𝑎
Logic Gates
1. OR gate. It gives high output when either of the inputs is high, otherwise it
gives low output. Y=A+B
2. AND gate. It gives high output when both he inputs are high, otherwise the
input is low. Y=A.B
3. NOT gate. It gives high output when the input is low, and vice versa. 𝑌 = 𝐴̅.
4. NAND gate. It gives low output when both the inputs are high, otherwise the
̅̅̅̅̅
output is high. 𝑦 = 𝐴. 𝐵
5. NOR gate. It gives high output when both the inputs are low, otherwise the
output is low.𝐴 = 𝑦̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= 𝐴 + 𝐵.

41
CHAPTER. 15
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Amplitude Modulation
𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
1. Modulation factor, 𝜇 = 𝑜𝑟𝜇 = × 100%
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
2. If 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the carrier
𝐴 𝐴
wave, then , 𝜇 = 𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥−+𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3. Modulating voltage,𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

4. Carrier voltage, 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
5. Instantaneous voltage of A.M. wave is
𝑐(𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑐 (1 + 𝜇 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 ) sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
= 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 )𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 )𝑡
2 2
6. Component frequencies of A.M. wave are :

(𝑎 ) 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓𝑐
(𝑏)𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
(𝑐 )𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
7. Bandwidth = (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 ) − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 ) = 2𝑓𝑚
Length of Antenna and Demodulation Process

𝜆 𝑐
1. Length of a dipole antenna, 𝐼 = 2 = 2𝑓
1 1
2. Condition for satisfactory detection by a diode, 𝑓 < 𝑅𝐶 < 𝑓 .
𝑐 𝑚
Bandwidths of Communication Channels

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
Number of channels= 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙.
42
Propagation of Radiowaves and Range of TV

Transmission
1. Critical frequency for sky wave propagation, 𝑓𝑐 = 9(𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 )1/2
Where 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum electron density in the ionosphere. Frequencies
below , 𝑓𝑐 are reflected back to earth.
2. Ground wave propagation is limited to 1500 kHz.
3. frequencies above 20 kHz are carried through satellite communication.
4. Waves of UHF/VHF regions can propagate through space wave or
tropospheric wave.
5. The range of TV transmission, 𝑑 = √2ℎ𝑅,
Where ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ.
6. Population covered = Population density ×area.
7. Maximum distance covered in LOS communication,
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝑅 = √2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 + √2𝑅ℎ𝑅


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1

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

Principle of Superposition of Electric Forces

F= √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos 𝜃

3. Relation between Electric field Strength and force

4. Electric Fields of Point Charges

2. By the principle of superposition, electric field due to a number of point charges,

5. Continuous Charge Distributions

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

4. Force exerted on a charge 𝑞0 due to a continuous charge distribution,

5. Electric field due to a continuous charge distribution,

6. Dipole Moment, Dipole Field and Torque on a Dipole

4. Torque, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 , Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑃⃗ and 𝐸⃗ .

7. Electric Flux and Gauss’s Theorem

8. Applications of Gauss’s Theorem

1. Electric field of a long straight wire of uniform linear charge density 𝜆,

4. Electric field of two equally and oppositely charged parallel plates,

5. Electric field of a thin spherical shell of charge density 𝜎 and radius R,

E=0 (For r > R (Inside points)

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

2. Electric potential due to a point charge q at distance r from it,

3. Electric potential at a point due to N point charges,

4. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole,

2. Relation between Electric Field and potential

2. Electric field between two parallel conductors,

3. Electric Potential Energy

2. Electric Potential energy of a system of N point charges,

U = -pE Cos 𝜃 = - 𝑃⃗. 𝐸⃗

4. Capacitance of spherical conductors

5. Capacitance of Air-Filled Capacitors

3. P.D. between the two plates of a Capacitor having charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 ,

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

7. Energy stored in Capacitors

8. Capacitors Filled with Dielectrics and Conductors

2. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab of thickness t (<d) in

3. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab of thickness t (< d) in

4. Capacitance of spherical capacitor filled with a dielectric.

5. Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor filled with a dielectric.

6. Effect of dielectric with battery disconnected from the capacitor,

7. Effect of dielectric with battery connected across the capacitor,

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

3. In case of an electron revolving in a circle of radius r with speed v, period of revolution of

Current at any point of the Orbit is

2. Ohm’s law , Resistance, Resistivity, Conductance ,

7. Colour Code of Carbon resistors . Refer to Table 3.2.

Arvind Academy Youtube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC34qgLijjhpbpFiorTopc-A

2. Current density , j = en𝑣𝑑

5. Relation between Current density and electric field

4. Mobility of Charge Carriers

2. Electric Current , I = 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 = en A𝜇𝐸

Temperature Variation of Resistance

5. Combination of Resistances in Series and Parallel

3. For two resistances in parallel,

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6. EMF, Internal Resistance, Terminal potential

Where n= no. of cells in series in one row,

9. Heating Effect of current, Electric power and electric Energy

3. Electric energy, W = Pt =VIt = 𝐼 2 Rt

10. Kirchhoff’s Laws

11. Comparison of EMFs of two Cells

2. For measuring internal resistance of a cell,

3. Potential gradient of the potentiometer wire,