WRITING THE THESIS

Dr. Danilo C. Terante

Civil Engineering Department
De La Salle University-Manila

Abstract

An abstract is a brief digest that summarizes the essential information of a thesis,

usually about 250 words in length. An abstract serves an important function in a research
report; it communicates the scope of your paper and the topics discussed to your panel
and other readers, and, in doing so, it facilitates research. It can be informational
(declarative) or descriptive. Both types emphasize results rather than process.
Informational/declarative abstract includes information about conclusions and results, as
well as purpose, methods, and scope. Descriptive abstract typically excludes concrete
information about conclusions and results. As practiced in the department, declarative
type is being followed. This summarizes the key information from every major section in
the body of the report, and provides the key facts and conclusions from the body of the
report. A good way to develop an informative abstract is to devote a sentence or two to
each of the major parts of the report. If space permits, you can provide contextual
information such as background of the problem and the significance of the research, but
you can also omit contextual information because the abstract is not supposed to serve as
an introduction to the subject matter of the report—your introduction will serve that role.
In writing the abstract be direct, concise, and specific and make every word counts.
Eliminate nonessential information. Be sure to summarize rather than describe your
report in an informative abstract. Phrases such as “This report discusses” or “Several
solutions are considered” describe what the content of the report will be rather than
actually summarize the report’s main points or solutions. Someone reading your
informative abstract should have a clear, albeit limited, understanding of the scope and
nature of your research, as well as the conclusions you reach. Notice how the abstract
clearly summarizes information from each of the report’s major sections:

Despite the efforts of LGUs to address solid waste problem,

garbage still looms in many urban areas and municipalities in
the Philippines. Solid waste policies, like Clean Air Act and
Ecological Solid Waste Management Law, have been issued by
Background
National Government to serve as benchmarks in addressing the
recurrent problem on solid waste. However, these waste
policies lack the technical assessment of system since solid
waste problem should be analyzed as a system.
Interacting factors of solid waste management are needed to
Research
increase the efficiency of solid waste management as a system
Problem
to significantly reduce, if not, eliminate solid waste problems.
This study tests the interaction of influential factors of all
Body components of solid waste management of a municipality.
System dynamic analysis is used to simulate the existing
 situation and the proposed system. Considering solid waste
management as a system may significantly resolve the issue.
A validated SDA model shows that problems on waste
generation, collection and disposal are addressed with an
increasing practice of recycling and heightened awareness
Results
composting by the community. Some waste policies have been
conceptualized to assure of the integration of significant
findings in the simulation to the system.
With the devised system, and LGU can now significantly
decrease the expenses incurred in solid waste collection and
Conclusion
disposal. Revenue is obviously earned because of recycling and
composting.

Chapter I – Problem Setting

This chapter introduces your panel and other readers to the area being investigated
in your research. This tells the reader how the problem is delineated. As standard practice
in the department, this chapter is composed of the following sections:

1. Background of the Study

You have to come up with a document that has an impact upon the reader:
write clearly and well structured so that your message gets across easily. In order
to draw the researcher's attention upon your paper, write this section with impact,
and that leads to the formulation of your hypothesis.

The first paragraph accounts a brief historical background how your study
was developed and tells the reader why your research was conducted. Start by
describing only past researches and theoretical issues that are related to your
study. Exhaustive review is not necessary but rather state explicitly how the
previous work is logically connected to your problem.

The second paragraph tells the reader what to expect in your study. This
will supply sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand
and evaluate the results of the present study without needing to refer to the
previous publications on the topic. Start by capturing the essence of the problem
and end by highlighting the finding how the problem was addressed in the study.
Recommendations need not be highlighted.

2. Statement of the Problem

The problem is the axial center around which the whole research effort
turns. This section presents how serious is the problem that it needs to be
addressed. To demonstrate the problem with unwavering clarity, it must be
supported with quantification of carefully identified parameter using actual data
gathered. In doing so, the section offers an evidence of a researchable problem
 and gives an explicit indication of interpretation of data, which is a primary
requirement of research.

Notice the formulation of a problem statement that is carefully phrased

and represents the single goal of the total research effort:

“Recently, the rate of waste generation per person in kg/day in the National
Capital Region is 0.60. With about 15M total population of NCR, the waste
generated per day is about 3,000 tons (MMDA, 2007). Material recovery is about
10% of the waste generated and collection rate is only 70%. Therefore, the
uncollected waste per day accounts to 810 tons.”

3. Main Objective of the Study and Specific Objectives of the Study

This section should follow right after the problem statement. In fact, this is
a subsection of the problem statement. The main objective is the goal or aim of
your research which you want to achieve. It gives a target to aim to, therefore all
actions and efforts will be focused on attaining the objective instead of being
inefficiently used. It gives the researcher a sense of direction, a glimpse of where
he is going to. It offers the support in evaluating the success of an action or
project.

It is in this part that you are going to articulate the problem and the
researchable problem must indicate that, for resolution of that problem, critical
thinking on the part of the researcher will be required. Your main problem should
be so clearly stated that anyone anywhere in the world (who reads English) could
read it, understand it, and react to it without the benefit of your presence. The
statement of your objective should follow the SMART rule (Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Relevant or Result-oriented and Time-bounded).

Be specific: “Specific” illustrates a situation that is easily identified and

understood. It is usually linked to some mathematical determinant that imprints a
specific character to a given action: most common determinants are numbers,
ratios and fractions, percentages, frequencies. In this case, being "specific" means
being "precise".

Be measurable: “Measurable” means there is a stringent need to have the

possibility to measure, to track the action(s) associated with the given objective.
You must set up a distinct system or establish clear procedures of how these
actions will be monitored, measured and recorded. If an objective and the actions
pertaining to it cannot be quantified, it is most likely that the objective is wrongly
formulated and you should reconsider it.

Be attainable: Some use the term "achievable" instead of "attainable",

which you will see it is merely a synonym and we should not get stuck in
analyzing which one is correct. Both are. When setting objectives, you should
deeply analyze first the factors determining the success or failure of these
objectives. Think of your group mates, of your capacities, of motivation: are they
sufficient in order for the objectives to be met? Do you have the means and
capabilities to achieve them? Think it through and be honest and realistic to
yourself: are you really capable of attaining the goals you've set or are you most
likely headed to disappointment? Always set objectives that have a fair chance to
be met: of course, they don't need to be "easily" attained, you're entitled to set
difficult ones as long as they're realistic and not futile.

Be relevant: This notion is a little more difficult to be perceived in its full

meaning; therefore we will start explaining it by using an example in the first
place. Imagine yourself going to the IT department and telling them they need to
increase the profit to revenue ratio by 5%. They will probably look at you in
astonishment and mumble something undistinguished about managers and the
way they mess up with people’s minds. Can you tell what is wrong with the
objective above? Of course! The IT department has no idea what you were talking
about and there's nothing they can do about it - their job is to develop and
maintain your computerized infrastructure, not to understand your economic
speech. What you can do it setting an objective that the IT department can have an
impact upon, and which will eventually lead to the increase you wanted in the
first place. What about asking them to reduce expenditures for hardware and
software by 10% monthly and be more cautious with the consumables within their
department by not exceeding the allocated budget? They will surely understand
what they need to do because the objective is relevant for their group. Therefore,
the quality of an objective to be "relevant" refers to setting appropriate objectives
for a given individual or team: you need to think if they can truly do something
about it or is it irrelevant for the job they perform.

Be timely: No much to discuss about this aspect, since it is probably the

easiest to be understood and applied. Any usable and performable objective must
have a clear timeframe of when it should start and/or when it should end. Without
having a timeframe specified, it is practically impossible to say if the objective is
met or not. Remember you only have three trimesters to finish your thesis and that
includes proposal defense, final defense and integration of revisions as
recommended by your panel, regardless of whether revisions are minor or major.

Specific objectives are breakup of your main objective to make the

problem more manageable. Each breakup must be a researchable unit and
interpretation of data must be apparent. Always check that specific objectives
must add up to the totality of the main objective.

Try to phrase each objective in the form of: to investigate…, to analyze…,

to assess…, to examine…, to compare…, to test…, to critically appraise…, to
find out…, to evaluate, etc., etc.
 Here is an example of the main objective and its corresponding specific
objectives:

“The study endeavors to present solid waste management in Study Area as a

system and recommend solutions using a System Dynamic Approach (SDA). The
main objective of this proposal is to develop a system focused approach and
methodology using System Dynamics Analysis in setting up alternatives for
managing municipal solid wastes in Local Government Units (LGUs) that will
address the 20% uncollected waste and 40% undisposed waste.”

“Specifically, the study aims to

i. present the existing state of the SWM of NCR and the challenges it faces
and actors involved;
ii. analyze the relationships between significant elements in the SWM system
using causal loop diagram analysis;
iii. develop the model using these relationships and simulate the possible
alternatives;
iv. recommend and discuss applicable solutions to the SWM system;
v. setup the program based on the best alternative that results from the
simulation;
vi. recommend further studies corollary to this study.”

4. Hypothesis of the Study

This section is a very important part of your research and is most often
neglected by student researchers. Hypotheses ate tentative, intellectual guesses
posited for the purpose of directing one’s thinking toward the solution of the
problem. These are necessary because you need to have some point around which
your research may be oriented in searching for relevant data and in establishing a
tentative goal against which to project the facts. In other words, they are tentative
propositions set forth as a possible explanation for an occurrence or a provisional
conjecture to assist in guiding the investigation of a problem.

A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete

(rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all
studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory (as in
the case of inductive research). There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the
purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop
some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A
single study may have one or many hypotheses.

The research hypothesis has to be specific, concise (one phrase) and to

lead to the advancement of the knowledge in the field in some way. Writing the
hypothesis in a concise manner and, first, coming up with a good hypothesis is a
difficult mission. Take your time to think of it. When you have an idea, be careful
at the formulation. A well-written hypothesis is something of an essay's thesis: it
provides a statement that can be tested (argues ahead one of the possible answers
to a problem), it is an idea, a concept, and not a mere fact, and is summed up in
one phrase. In some cases, you will have no idea what the possible answer to a
problem worth being researched is, but you will be able to think of a way to solve
that problem, and find out the answer in the meantime.

An example of hypotheses of the study:

“The first hypothesis to be tested in this study is that there exists a relationship
between exogenous factors such as economic development and population, and
endogenous factors such as solid waste generation, recycling, composting, open
dumping, controlled dumping, environment education, waste collection, solid
wastes, own-backyard handling, NIMBY, street wastes recovered, SWM budget,
SWM costs and total personnel services in the study area. The hypothesis of the
study is that the components of solid waste management including waste
generation, waste segregation, waste collection, waste disposal and SWM budget
and cost behave as system to ascertain the use of System Dynamic Analysis.”

The use of statistical hypothesis testing is appropriate to descriptive and

analytical studies. Let's say that you predict that there will be a relationship
between two variables in your study. The way we would formally set up the
hypothesis test is to formulate two hypothesis statements, one that describes your
prediction and one that describes all the other possible outcomes with respect to
the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that variable A and variable B
will be related (you don't care whether it's a positive or negative relationship).
Then the only other possible outcome would be that variable A and variable B are
not related. Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the
alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining
possible outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or
H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to
represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In some studies, your
prediction might very well be that there will be no difference or change. In this
case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are
opposed to the alternative.

If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no

difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a
one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the
effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the
outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two
hypotheses might be stated something like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either
be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant
increase.

which is tested against the alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a
significant decrease in employee absenteeism.

In the figure on the left, we see this

situation illustrated graphically. The
alternative hypothesis -- your
prediction that the program will
decrease absenteeism -- is shown
there. The null must account for the
other two possible conditions: no
difference, or an increase in
absenteeism. The figure shows a
hypothetical distribution of
absenteeism differences. We can see
that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome
variable.”

When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-
tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug
treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but
has not yet been tested on humans. You believe (based on theory and the previous
research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to
hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression (after all, you've
seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually
were shown to have severe side effects that actually worsened symptoms). In this
case, you might state the two hypotheses like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant

difference in depression.

which is tested against the

alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of 300mg./day

of the ABC drug, there will be
a significant difference in
depression.
 The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed prediction for this case. Again,
notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your
outcome variable.

The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you

formulate your prediction (directional or not), and then you formulate a second
hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first and incorporates all possible
alternative outcomes for that case. When your study analysis is completed, the
idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your
prediction was correct, then you would (usually) reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative. If your original prediction was not supported in the data,
then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. The logic of
hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles:

• the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together,

exhaust all possible outcomes
• the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected

OK, I know it's a convoluted, awkward and formalistic way to ask

research questions. But it encompasses a long tradition in statistics called the
hypothetical-deductive model, and sometimes we just have to do things because
they're traditions. And anyway, if all of this hypothesis testing was easy enough
so anybody could understand it, how do you think statisticians would stay
employed?

5. Assumptions in the Study

An assumption is a condition that is taken for granted, without which the

research situation would be impossible. What is assumed is basic to an
understanding of the research results. The stating of assumptions may be identical
to stating the obvious, but because in research we try to leave nothing to chance in
the hope of preventing any misunderstanding, all assumptions that have a material
bearing upon the problem should be openly and unreservedly set forth. To
discover assumptions, ask yourself, “What am I taking for granted with to the
problem?” The answer to that question will bring assumptions into clear view.

As a guide, consider some important aspects that you might have

neglected in doing your research but definitely these aspects have imperative
suggestions in your analysis and findings, such as:

i. Survey and data gathering techniques: Is the approach of data collection

appropriate to the nature of investigation and the type of data and information?
Is the instrument’s reliability and validity carefully tested? Are questionnaires
carefully prepared?
ii. Data gathered: Are data randomly selected? Is the data size representative of the
study area?
iii. Concepts: Are principles and concepts carefully used and adapted? For
example: In analyzing properties of a fluid, is the fluid Newtonian? In using
empirical formulas like Manning’s and Chezy’s, are coefficients used properly
translated or quantitatively supported with experiments? If scale models are
used, are dimensional analysis and similitude carefully considered?
iv. Tools: Are the tools of analysis applied appropriate, e.g., statistical tools and
optimization techniques?
v. Analysis: Are methods of analysis relevant to the concepts and data gathered?

6. Scope, Limitation and Delimitation of the Study

The scope defines the full disclosure which your research effort has been
done: range or extent, data, methods and analysis, period or time which data were
collected, etc. For example, “the study considers mass transport system only or it
considers both private cars and buses …; it considers the secondary data from
1995 to present …; it considers the main river and its tributaries …; it considers
residential areas only …, it considers four-storey buildings only …, it considers
triple A construction only …, etc. The square in the following figure represents
the boundaries of your problem area.

The limitation of the study defines the limiting factors that need to be
taken into account in your study and its contribution. This further trims down the
scope to farther focus your study. The circle in the following figure (inside the
box) represents the set of limitations within the scope. For example: “The
limitation of this study is the perspective adopted. Instead of trying to understand
the process of executing the contract in construction industry, this study has been
first and foremost limited to the contractor organization’s perspective. Although
the study has also taken into account other views along the theoretical analysis,
the main perspective from which conclusions are drawn is that of the contractor’s
side..”

The scope sets the boundaries of the problem area,

variables and sample; and coverage included.

The limitation sets the constraints in resources,

sources of data and administrative permission.

Delimitation sets the scope, boundaries, variables

and samples not included in the study.

If in the scope and limitation of the study you accounted what you done in
your research, in the delimitation you have to account what you did not cover in
the study. State your reasons of excluding the aspects because these might have
implications to your analysis and conclusions, although the effects have little
significance. In the figure, delimitation is the area within the square but outside
the circle.
 7. Significance of the Study

In writing this section, set forth the reasons for undertaking your study.
Remember to consider the relevance and contribution of your study in line with
the social dimension of what can it do along the countryside issues and concerns.
The ultimate guide question in this section is, “Who will benefit your study?”
Answer this question to manifest the practical value of your study.

8. Operational Definition of Terms

Define operatively only those terms which you use in the study and which
you slightly deviate from its meaning. Operational definition must interpret the
term as it is employed in relation to your study and in the context of the problem
in your study. In defining the term, do not use cyclical definition or the definition
offered by Webster. Follow the following format: term + genera + differentia. The
genera is the general class to which the term being defined belongs. The
differentia is the specific characteristics or traits that distinguish the term being
defined from all other members of the general classification.

For example: Car Volume (the term) as used in this study refers to the
number of vehicles (genera) which resulted by adding the number of private cars
and public utility vehicles including the jeeps and buses that traveled along Taft
Avenue, from Quirino Avenue to Vito Cruz Extension, during peak hours, 7AM
to 8AM.

Chapter II – Review of Literature

Introduce the chapter what the reader can expect. Literature review is spread over
two sections: Review of Local Scientific Papers and Review of International Scientific
Papers. A critical review should show that the researchers have studied the existing works
in the field with insight. The primary sources of your review consists are the refereed
academic research journals, refereed conferences, dissertations and theses, reports and
occasional papers and government publications. Secondary sources such textbooks,
trade journals, newspapers, magazines including dictionaries, encyclopedias and
handbooks are not usually included in the write up. Important concepts and theories
related to the study are discussed in the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework (Chapter
III).

Consider a few simple guidelines that may help you in writing the section on the
related literature:

1. Avoid making the title of the study as a heading. The review of literature does not
require a heading or sub-heading.
2. Sift the studies being reviewed. This means that you should only include materials
which are directly related to your study. Too many discussions manifests that you
are into unplanned and disorganized rumblings.
 3. Get the proper psychological orientation. You need to be clear in your own
thinking and knowing precise what is it that you are attempting to do. Your
discussion should focus on the broad spectrum of the study reviewed (emphasize
the essential nature) that bears directly upon your own effort.
4. Review the literature; don’t reproduce it. Review of literature requires that you
keep a clear focus on just what this section is intended to do. What is important is
what you say about the study than what the author of the study says in the study.
a. Present your own discussion..
b. Paraphrase.
c. Use short, direct quotations, if necessary only.
d. Long quotations are a last resort. Use them only for a very good reason.
5. Observe coherence and clarity in writing. Your discussion should be presented in
an orderly, logical progression, clear and precise manner to facilitate
understanding.
6. Ensure correct grammar, punctuation and length.
7. Acknowledge the work of the author. It is extremely important that you should
separate your own words and ideas from those of the author. Almost, every
statement must be references or documented.
8. Emphasize relatedness. This is very important and crucial. Remember that you are
writing a review of the related literature. Therefore, you are to point out precisely
what that relationship is. Moreover, discuss the implication of the information on
your investigation. Unless you can establish such accountability, you would do
well to consider whether you should include the study at all. Use a simple
skeleton outline to assist you in establishing the relationship of the literature to
your problem.

An example:

“Terante (2006) took a system dynamic analysis on the building industry and
studied the interfaces between the design and production. He used the Travistock report
and the work of Miller and Rice on organizational boundary definition (1967) and
Lawrence and Lorsch’s studies of differentiation and integration (1967) as a mainspring
of his research model. Terante broke down the building process into three main sub-
processes which may occur sequentially or concurrently, i.e. outline design, detailed
design and construction. The concurrence of the building process is an indicator of the
degree of integration of the building process. The present study looks into modifying the
degree on integration by the managerial actions which determine the make up of the
building team and the parameters by which they are guided. Furthermore, the present
study attempts to show that managerial action can be modified by the environment, which
constitutes all the factors which influence the client, the building team and the building
process. The system is modeled using STELLA software. This provides one of the pieces
of work which approach the problem in terms of the process (system dynamics analysis)
as a whole and attempts to provide a rationale for actions.”

The italicized statements clearly point out the relationship of the present study
with the literature being reviewed.
Another Example:

“In the master’s thesis of David A. Jokinen of the Air Force Institute of
Technology Wright-Pattersonafbm, Ohio, entitled, “A System Dynamics Approach to
Modeling Temperature Effects in Solid Waste Landfills”, system dynamics analysis was
utilized…This research was focused on increasing the understanding of landfill behavior
by examining the effects of temperature in a landfill system. A system dynamics
approach was used in this research to develop and build structure to produce landfill
behavior... Results showed that an equation responsive to temperature effects on
microbial growth and death, more accurately depicts landfill behavior…This study is
related to the present study in the sense that it applied System Dynamics Approach which
is the main essence of the present study. The present study will also be tackling the
disposal method used in the Study Area as an integral part of the system for analysis.”

Chapter III – Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks

The first paragraph should tell the reader what to expect in this chapter. In writing
this chapter, you should understand some terminologies that involved in Theoretical or
Conceptual Framework.

A concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea. Chinn and

Kramer (1999) define a concept as a “complex mental formulation of experience”.
Concepts are the major components of theory and convey the abstract ideas within a
theory”. A theory is a set of concepts, which structure a systematic view of phenomena
for the purpose of explaining or predicting. A theory is like a blueprint, a guide for
modeling a structure. A blueprint depicts the elements of a structure and the relation of
each element to the other, just as a theory depicts the concepts, which compose it and the
relation of concepts with each other. Chinn and Kramer (1999) define a theory as an
“expression of knowledge….a creative and rigorous structuring of ideas that project a
tentative, purposeful, and systematic view of phenomena.”

A framework is simply the structure of the idea or concept and how it is put
together. Theoretical framework refers to the process of designing intervention by
using principles that are grounded in theory. It is a collection of interrelated concepts, like
a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. It is needed in practically all kinds of
study to combine individual indicators into a meaningful composite and to provide a
basis for the selection of components. It guides your research, determining what things
you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for. Since it refers to a
process, it is best to present it in a diagram.

Use conceptual framework if it is a structure of concepts and/or theories which

are pulled together as a map for the study and use theoretical framework if it is structure
of concepts which exists in the literature, a ready-made map for the study.

Cases are objects whose behavior or characteristics you study. Variables are
characteristics of cases. They are attributes that you measure or record. In any particular
study, variables can play different roles. Two key roles are independent variables and
dependent variables. Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome
variable, the one you are trying to predict. Variation in the dependent variable is what
you are trying to explain. The independent variables, also known as the predictor or
explanatory variables, are the factors that you think explain variation in the dependent
variable. In other words, these are the causes. For example, you may think that traffic
congestion is caused by the number of vehicles and transport infrastructure. So, 'number
of vehicles' and 'transport infrastructure' are the independent variables, and 'traffic
congestion' is the dependent variable. This is diagrammed as follows:

Number of Vehicles

Traffic Congestion

Transport
Infrastructure

There are actually two other kinds of variables, which are basically independent
variables, but work a little differently. These are moderator and intervening variables. A
moderator variable is one that modifies the relationship between two other variables.

For example, suppose that the cases are whole organizations, and you believe that
diversity in the organization can help make them more profitable (because diversity leads
to fresh outlooks on old problems), but only if managers are specially trained in diversity
management (otherwise all that diversity causes conflicts and miscommunication). Here,
diversity is clearly an independent variable, and profitability is clearly a dependent
variable. But what is diversity training? Its main function seems to be adjust the strength
of relation between diversity and profitability

An intervening or intermediary variable is one that is affected by the independent

variable and in turn affects the dependent variable. For example, we said that diversity is
good for profitability because diversity leads to innovation (fresh looks) which in turn
leads to profitability. Here, innovation is an intervening variable. We diagram it this way:

Note that in the diagram, there is no arrow from diversity directly to profitability. This
means that if we control for innovativeness, diversity is unrelated to profitability. To
control for a variable means to hold its values constant. For example, suppose we
measure the diversity, innovativeness and profitability of a several thousand companies.
If we look at the relationship between diversity and profitability, we might find that the
more diverse companies have, on average, higher profitability than the less diverse
companies. But suppose we divide the sample into two groups: innovative companies and
non-innovative. Now, within just the innovative group, we again look at the relationship
between diversity and profitability. We might find that there is no relationship. Similarly,
if we just look at the non-innovative group, we might find no relationship between
diversity and profitability there either. That's because the only reason diversity affects
profitability is because diversity tends to affect a company's innovativeness, and that in
turn affects profitability.

The next figure shows a carefully thought theoretical framework When you
develop your theoretical framework, be sure that you are consistent with your problem,
and use this as an opportunity to cross-check all the parts of the problem for consistency.
Remember, at this point you are the expert on your research. Now all you have to do is
prove your expertise in an essay.

Here are some helpful tips that may guide you in writing this chapter:

1. Present your whole idea in a diagram just like the figure above.
2. Discuss each part in relation to the concept utilized in the study.
3. If equations are involved in the theory, discuss what variable represents the
dependent and independent variables.
4. For empirical equations discuss how coefficients are adapted to the study.
5. For studies involving experiments, discuss the experimental setup, i.e. the scale
model, the instrument to be fabricated, design mix for materials testing, etc.
 6. Show the derivation of a model equation.
7. In modeling, discuss the theory behind the model and how it is adopted in the
study; e.g., the system diagram, causal-loop diagram and the stock flow diagram.

Here are more examples of diagrams showing how theoretical or conceptual frameworks
are developed.

Data from SWM Review of SWM

Conditions of Policies Policy Setting WASTE
Study Area
GENERATION

SYSTEM Simulated WASTE WASTE

INPUT DYNAMICS OUTPUT Alternatives MINIMIZATION SEGREGATION
ANALYSIS
RA 9003 Conclusions
Requirement
MODELING
Recommendation WASTE
PROCESS COLLECTION

SWM BUDGET
Problem Feedback Analysis AND COST
Identification WASTE
DISPOSAL
Reference Data Simulation
Mood

The SWM System and Its Sub-systems

Overall Model Causal Loop Programming
Structure Diagramming Rate of
Generation Solid Waste
Generation
SWM Budget SWM Costs
Exogenous Endogenous Equations
Factors Factors Solid Waste
Ownbckyrd
Handling

The SFT Paradigm

Controlled Open
Recycling Composting Dumping Dumping

Problem Definition
Collection

Street Waste Littering NIMBY

Conceptual System Conceptualization Recovered

Environmental
Personnel
Nat’l Policies Education
Model Representation Refinement Services

Overall Structure of the SWM Model

Model Behavior

Technical Model Evaluation

Policy Analysis and

Model Use

Phases in the Model-Building Process

 Chapter IV – Research Methodology and Research Design

Again, tell the reader what to expect in this chapter. This chapter is about research
planning which consists of the research methods used in the study, the corresponding
research design and the summary of the procedure.

1. Research Method

Engineering research commonly makes use of any of the following

methodologies:

(a) Historical Method: A transcript of the relentless surge of events, the sequential
and meaningful record of human activity. The object of this method is to
provide a means through which a researcher may deal with problems that arise
from events that happened in times past and to interpret what might otherwise
be considered merely as the happenstance of blind fortune. In order to
appraise accurately the meaning and relationship of event, however,
researchers should always seek to get as close to the original events as
possible in the hope of thus better reconstructing them. To do this, researchers
generally rely on documentary sources. In the search for historical truth,
therefore, the researcher relies, if at all possible, upon only primary data. This
method is appropriate for those data that are primarily documentary in
nature or literary in form.
(b) Descriptive Survey Method: This is also called the normative survey method.
This is employed to process the data that come to the researcher through
observation. Survey means to look or to see over or beyond the casual glance
or the superficial observation. The word descriptive gives insight into the
nature of the method. It describes the character of the method. In employing
this method, the researchers do two things: first, they observe with close
scrutiny the population bounded by the research parameters; second, they
make a careful record of what they observe so that when the aggregate record
is made, the researchers can then return to the record to study the observation
that have been described there. Descriptive statistics is employed. This
method is appropriate for data derived from simple observational situations,
whether these are actually physically observed or observed through benefit
of questionnaire or poll techniques.
(c) Analytical Survey Method: Different from historical method and descriptive
survey method where both involved qualitative data, analytical survey method
employs quantitative data. Statistical data are analyzed that are essentially
quantitative so that the researcher can infer meanings that lie hidden within
the data or can discern certain potentials and dynamic forces that may be clues
to areas that warrant further investigation. In the analytical survey, the
researcher is concerned primarily with problems of estimation and with testing
statistically based hypotheses. Inferential statistics is employed. This method
is appropriate for data that are quantitative in nature and that need
statistical assistance to extract their meaning.
 (d) Experimental Method: The basic idea behind the experimental method is to
attempt to account for the influence of a factor or factors conditioning a given
situation. This attempts to control the entire research situation, except for
certain input variables that then become suspect as the cause of whatever
change has taken place within the investigative design. The method deals with
the phenomenon of cause and effect. The researcher assesses the cause and
effect dynamics within a closed system of controlled conditions. The planning
of the experimental research means designing the experiment. Design for this
purpose refers to the property of the statistical analysis necessary to prepare
the data for interpretation. Experimental design, therefore, means the
statistical techniques for analyzing the quantitative data must be properly
selected and utilized in accordance with their nature. This method is
appropriate for data derived from an experimental control situation or a
pretest-posttest design in which two separate groups, or one group from
which data are derived at two separate intervals, is involved.

Commonly, engineering research is a creative research. That is, it can be a

combination of any method above. In documenting your research methodology,
give the category of the method that you used in your study and explain the
nature.

2. Research Design

Research design is the visualization of data and the problems associated with the
employment of those data in the entire research project; the complete strategy of
attack upon the central research problem. Here are four fundamental questions
that must be resolved in writing the research design:

(a) What are the data that you used in the study? Identify the data and describe
their characteristics: mandatory data (either aggregated or disaggregated,
category (like group data, daily, weekly, monthly and annually) and nature
like documentary data, statistical data, mode of collection like interview data,
questionnaire replies, observations, experimental data recorded before and
after certain processes.
(b) Where are the data located? Identify the type of data like primary or
secondary data. If the data you use are secondary, give the sources of your
data like the library, collection, society, organization and their geographic
locations.
(c) How are data secured? In the event where data are inadequate, you need to
know how they may be obtained. But if hindrances like invasion-of-privacy
laws, protection of individual integrity and confidentiality agreements
prevented you to access personal, confidential and secured data, viability of
your study is at stake and rendered moot and academic by a pipe dream. This
case should not be ignored and should have been resolved at the early part
of your research.
 (d) How are data interpreted? This is the most important and an integral part of
data processing. This should not be taken for granted or skipped. Remember
that the basic requirement of a researchable problem is higher level of
interpretation. In this section, describe the statistical process you went through
in terms of data measurement (like nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio),
statistical technique (like parametric and nonparametric), suitability of
technique to the type of data (like curve fitting, hypothesis testing using
student t-test, p-value test, ANOVA, optimization technique and modeling).
Describe the criteria you have established to control the quality and limit the
admissibility of the data.

For studies that consist of experimental testing, add a section for experimental
setup. Discuss the experimental design as to the variables tested (control and
variations) like design matrix or design mix for structural testing and materials
testing. If possible, describe the how the apparatus or device was used. In scale
modeling, account the dimensional analysis and similitude used.

3. Summary of Procedure

It is advisable to present the different steps of activity you have taken by means of
a flow chart. Describe each step briefly and concisely. Here is an illustration of a
flow activity.

Evaluation of Existing
MSW Management of Parameter
Requirements
the Study Area
Dynamic Hypothesis

Problem Programming
Identification Phase/
Tool

System Dynamics Simulation

Analysis Building
Process

Selection of Simulation
Alternative of
Alternatives

Selection
Setting Up of Program
of
for Alternative

Feedback
 Chapter V – Presentation of the Results of the Study

Again, tell the reader what to expect in this chapter. This chapter is about the
presentation of data, interpretation and analysis of the study and the findings of the study.

1. The Presentation of Data

(b) Present the collated data (aggregate or disaggregate data) in tabular form.

The data must be presented in terms of the problem. Codify, arrange, and
separate into segments, each of which corresponds to a particular section of
the problem being studied including statistical summaries, lists of responses to
questionnaire inquiries, and so on. Discuss each column briefly.

(e) The data should be presented completely.

Organize your data into charts (pie or bar charts), graphs, figures, statistical
runs and model runs. In case where the data are subjected statistical analysis,
present the rationale for employing the particular statistical approach.

2. The Interpretation of Data

This is the sine qua non of your study since this will lead you to your findings and
eventually find the solution to the problem. Again, remember that a higher level
of interpretation is expected from you. Here are some guides that will you in
writing data interpretation:.

(a) Get facts and information from data. Exploit the data fully. This means that
you look at the data from too many angles and you can keep on arranging the
data in too many ways until the facts speak for themselves. You may not like
what the facts say or the facts may not confirm your fondest beliefs and hopes
or refute your preconceived opinions. Remember that you as a researcher are
just the servant of the scientific method.

(b) Pick up ideas from the charts, graphs and figures. Interpret the increasing and
decreasing trends, the peak, the linear or nonlinear relation, the plateau, the
dip and plummet.

(c) Analyze the results using statistics with level of significance of 5% or a

confidence level of 95%. For the descriptive statistics, state the important
questions that were asked in the questionnaire and proceed with the analysis.
For inferential statistical tests, document here the hypotheses testing, tables of
correlation or association. Analysis follows using the statistical technique
used.
 3. Findings of the Study

Lay your findings based on the analysis. Support your findings with observations.
Justify findings with solid facts that have been presented in the analysis. Strengthen
further your findings by the findings of the previous studies being reviewed in
Chapter 2. Lastly, express your findings by quantified parameters. For example, “It is
found out in this study that a 20% increase of admixture A by volume decreases the
compressive the compressive strength of concrete by 5%. This finding supports the
results of previous study conducted by Terante (2006).”

Chapter VI – Conclusions and Recommendations

Tell the reader what to expect in this chapter. The chapter consists of the
following subsections:

1. Present the Problem

Present the problem in condensed form and summarize the objective. Do not
restate the objective.

2. Present the Findings

Summarize the findings.

3. Conclusions

The conclusions should be entirely supported by the facts previously presented.

Lay out your practical judgments. This should include comments on the
hypothesis whether your investigation proves or disproves your hypothesis.
Perhaps a development of a conceptual model of a framework can be inserted in
this part. Limitations of your study can be stated like difficulties that you have
faced throughout the research process which hindered you from achieving part of
your objectives. Avoid mentioning quantifications this time. Just give a general
statement. For example, “It is concluded, therefore, that an increase of admixture
A by volume decreases the compressive the compressive strength of concrete.”
Do not issue a sweeping statement that has no concrete evidence (based on
perception only) and entails legal implications, like corruption, etc.

4. Recommendations

Personal recommendations can be included as to what and what should be done.

Always recommend further study to areas in your study that has purposely been
left out.