Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
net
ww
used – Process parameters – MRR- Applications.
UNIT III ELECTRICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES 9
w.E
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)- working Principle-equipments-Process
Parameters-Surface Finish and MRR- electrode / Tool – Power and control Circuits-
asy
Tool Wear – Dielectric – Flushing – Wire cut EDM – Applications.
En
UNIT IV CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES
11
gin
Chemical machining and Electro-Chemical machining (CHM and ECM)-Etchants –
Maskant - techniques of applying maskants - Process Parameters – Surface finish and
eer
MRR-Applications. Principles of ECM- equipments-Surface Roughness and MRR
Electrical circuit-Process Parameters- ECG and ECH - Applications.
UNIT V THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES
ing 10
Laser Beam machining and drilling (LBM), plasma Arc machining (PAM) and
Electron Beam Machining (EBM). Principles – Equipment –Types - Beam control .ne
techniques – Applications.
OUTCOMES:
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
Upon completion of this course, the students can able to demonstrate different
t
unconventional machining processes and know the influence of difference process
parameters on the performance and their applications.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Vijay.K. Jain “Advanced Machining Processes” Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
2007
2. Pandey P.C. and Shan H.S. “Modern Machining Processes” Tata McGraw-Hill, New
Delhi, 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. Benedict. G.F. “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes”, Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York, 1987.
2. Mc Geough, “Advanced Methods of Machining”, Chapman and Hall, London, 1998.
3. Paul De Garmo, J.T.Black, and Ronald.A.Kohser, “Material and Processes in
Manufacturing” Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 8thEdition, New Delhi , 2001.
3. TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
S.NO TABLE OF CONTENTS
NO
a. Aim and Objective of the subject 4
b. Detailed Lesson Plan 5
c. Unit I-Introduction-Part A 8
d. Unit I- Introduction -Part B 10
Unit II- Mechanical energy based processes -Part
e. 18
A
Unit II- Mechanical energy based processes -Part
f. 20
B
g. Unit III- Electrical Energy Based Processes -Part A 31
w.E
i.
j.
Based -Part A
Unit IV- Chemical And Electro-Chemical Energy
43
45
k. asy
Based -Part B
Unit V- Thermal Energy Based Processes - Part A 60
l.
m. Question Bank En
Unit V- Thermal Energy Based Processes - Part B 62
76
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
w.E It will be very much helpful if they are interested in doing research in non
traditional machining Techniques.
asy
3. Industrial Connectivity and latest developments:
En
It gives the knowledge about the product machining to the Industrial
standards.
gin
Recent techniques have been used for machining new innovative
materials.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Text Books:
T1- Vijay.K. Jain “Advanced Machining Processes” Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2007
Reference Books:
R1- Pandey P.C. and Shan H.S. “Modern Machining Processes” Tata McGraw-Hill,
New
ww Delhi (2007).
w.E
R2-Vijaya Ramnath ,M.Vijayan , “ Unconventional Machining Processes”
R3- R.K.Rajput, A textbook of Manufacturing Processes Edition 2010
asy
T – Text book, R – Reference book
En Hours Cumulativ
Sl.No Unit Topic gin Required e Books
Referred
eer
/Planned
Hrs
Unit-I Introduction
ing
1 1
Introduction to unconventional
machining processes
1 1
.ne T1
3
1
1
The need of the process
Classification
1
1
2
3
t
T1, R2
T1, R3,
R2
Energies employed in the processes-
4 1 EDM,ECM,USM,LBM,PAM,AJM,WJM 1 4 T1
etc.
Features , principle of unconventional
5 1 1 5 T1, R2
machining processes
Advantages , disadvantages
6 1 1 6 R2
,Applications of UCM
Brief overview of all techniques-
7 1 1 7 R1, R2
overview of Unit-I
13
ww
2
Process parameters Applications,
Advantages, Disadvantages-WJM
1 14 T1, R1
w.E
AWJM Process- Operating Principle
14 2 1 15 T1, R1
,Equipment of AWJM
Metal removal rate-Mechanism of
15 2
asy
material Removal process parameters -
Applications, advantages,
1 16 T1, R1
disadvantages-AWJM
En
16 2 USM-Process- working Principles
gin
Types of Transducers Concentrators,
1 17 T1, R2
17 2
Tool, nodal point clamping
Abrasive feed mechanism, abrasive eer 1 18 T1, R2
18 2
slurry
Tool feed mechanism, metal removal
ing
1 19 R1, R2
19 2
rate ,work material
1 20
.ne R1, R2
20 2
Process parameters of USM
Applications, advantages,
Disadvantages. Overall review of Unit II
Unit – III Electrical Energy Based
2 22
t
R1, R2
Processes
T1, R1,
21 3 EDM-Process, operating principles 1 23
R2
Break down mechanism-Dielectric, fluid T1, R1,
22 3 1 24
Electrode material, Tool wear R2
Power generator circuits, Process T1, R1,
23 3 2 26
parameters, Metal removal rate R2
Flushing techniques, Wire Cut EDM- T1, R1,
24 3 2 28
operating principles R2
Applications, advantages, T1, R1,
25 3 1 29
disadvantages and Recent R2
6
ww
30 4
ECH working principle, process
parameters ECG- advantages, 2 36 T1, R2
En
Unit-V Thermal Energy Based
Processes
32 5
principles- pumping processes gin
LBM process, principle LBM process,
2 40
T1, R1,
R2
Process characteristics & m/c rate,
Laser drilling, cutting, marking, welding, eer
33 5
Applications, advantages,
disadvantages ing
1 41 T1, R2
34 5
EBM Processes, working principle,
1 42 .ne T1, R1
35 5
process parameters
Gun construction- types of gun -vacuum
and non-vacuum technique Beam
1 43
t
T1, R2
control techniques Applications,
advantages, disadvantages
PAM-Introduction, construction,
36 5 1 44 T1, R2
Parameters affecting cutting
Plasma arc system ,types of torch
37 5 Advantages, disadvantages, 1 45 R1 ,R2
applications
38 All Over view of all 5 units 2 47 T1,R1R2
UNIT-I- INTRODUCTION
Unconventional machining Process – Need – classification – Brief overview.
PART-A
1. What is the need for unconventional machining processes? (AP/MAY 2015,
NOV/DEC 2014, MAY/JUNE 2014, NOV/DEC 2012, DEC-2005, AP/MAY2010,
MAY/JUNE 2009)
High production rate, Low cost of production, Better surface integrity, High
surface finish.
ww
Performance is independent of strength barrier
Use different kinds of energy in direct form
w.E
In general, low MRR but better quality products
Comparatively high initial investment cost
asy
3. Differentiate the conventional and unconventional machining processes in
terms of principles. (AP/MAY 2015, MAY-2007)
En
In conventional processes, the material is removed in the form of chips by
gin
the advancing cutting tool that plastically deforms (shearing) the material
ahead. In the case of the UCM processes, energy (Electrical, Chemical,
eer
Thermo-Electric, and Mechanical) in its direct form is utilized for the
material removal and so there is no physical contact between the work
piece and tool.
ing
4. What are the various types of energy sources used in non-traditional
machining techniques? Give examples for each. (DEC-2007, MAY-2011)
.ne
Pneumatic pressure- AJM
Hydraulic pressure- WJM, USM, AWJM
Corrosion- CHM, CHB, PCM
t
High current density in electrolytes- ECM (creating avalanche in lazing medium)
High voltage- EDM (for sparking); IBM, EBM (ionizing); LBM
PAM (for ionizing the plasma gases)
Physical parameters
Shapes to be machined
Process capability
Economic consideration
ww
MAY-2011)
More expensive
asy
9. Write advantages of unconventional machining process. (MAY/JUNE 2013,
NOV/DEC 2012)
It increase productivity En
gin
It reduces number of rejected components
Close tolerance is possible
eer
The tool material need not be harder than work piece material as in
conventional machining
ing
Harder and difficult to machine materials can be machined by this process.
The machined surfaces do not have any residual stresses.
PART-B
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
The non-conventional manufacturing processes are not affected by hardness,
toughness or brittleness of material and can produce any intricate shape on
any work piece material by suitable control over the various physical
parameters of the processes.
The non-conventional manufacturing processes may be classified on the basis
t
of type of energy namely, mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal or
magnetic, apply to the work piece directly and have the desired shape
transformation or material removal from the work surface by using different
scientific mechanism.
Thus, these non-conventional processes can be classified into various groups
according to the basic requirements which are as follows:
(i) Type of energy required, namely, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc.
(ii) Basic mechanism involved in the processes, like erosion, ionic
dissolution, Vaporization etc.
(iii) Source of immediate energy required for material removal, namely,
Hydrostatic pressure, high current density, high voltage, ionized
material, etc. (iv) Medium for transfer of those energies, like high
velocity particles, electrolyte, electron, hot gases, etc.
10
ww
w.E
Detailed Classification of Non conventional manufacturing Processes:
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
11
ww
3. Compare the mechanical and electrical energy processes in terms of physical
w.E
parameters. Shape capabilities, Process capability, and Process economy.
(same ANS)
4. Explain the reasons for the development of Unconventional Machining
Process.
asy
Discuss about the criteria recommended in selection of these processes.
En
(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2013, MAY/JUNE 2013,APR/MAY2009, NOV/DEC
gin
2012,MAY/JUNE 2009)
A comparative analysis of the various unconventional manufacturing
processes should be made so that a guide-line may be drawn to find the
eer
suitability of application of different processes.
A particular manufacturing process found suitable under the given
ing
conditions may not be equally efficient under other conditions. Therefore,
a careful selection of the process for a given manufacturing problem is
essential.
The analysis has been made from the point of view of: (criteria)
.ne
(i) Physical parameters involved in the processes;
(ii) Capability of machining different shapes of work material;
(iii) Applicability of different processes to various types of material, e.g.
metals, alloys and non-metals;
t
(iv) Operational characteristics of manufacturing and
(v) Economics involved in the various processes.
Physical parameters
The physical parameters of non-conventional machining processes
have a direct impact on the metal removal as well as on the energy
consumed in different processes.
From a comparative study of the effect of metal removal rate on the power
consumed by various non-conventional machining processes shown
12
ww
w.E
asy
It is found that some of the processes (e.g. EBM, ECM) above the mean
power
En
gin
Consumption line consumes a greater amount of power than the
processes (e.g. EDM, PAM, and ECG) below the mean power
eer
consumption line. Thus, the capital cost involved in the processes (EBM,
ECM etc.) lying above the mean line is high whereas for the processes
ing
below that line (e.g., EDM, PAM, MCG) is comparatively low.
.ne
t
CAPABILITY TO SHAPE:
only process which has good capability to micro drill is laser beam
machining while for drilling shapes having slenderness ratio, l
D< 20, the process USM, ECM and EDM will be most suitable. EDM
and ECM processes have good capability to make pocketing operation
(shallow or deep).For surface contouring operation, ECM process is most
suitable but other processes except EDM have no application for
contouring operation.
ww
w.E
asy
APPLICABILITY TO MATERIALS: En
gin
Materials applications of the various machining methods are summarized in the
table
eer
For the machining of electrically non-conducting materials, both ECM and EDM
ing
are unsuitable, whereas the mechanical methods can achieve the desired results.
.ne
t
14
MACHINING CHARACTERISTICS:
The machining characteristics of different non-conventional processes
can be analyzed with respect to: (i) Metal removal rate (ii) Tolerance
maintained (iii) Surface finish obtained (iv) Depth of surface damage (v)
Power required for machining.
The process capabilities of non-conventional manufacturing processes
have been Compared in table, the metal removal rates by ECM and PAM
are respectively one- fourth and 1.25times that of conventional whereas
others are only a small fractions of it.
Power requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high when compared
with other Non-conventional machining processes. This involves higher
capital cost for those processes.
ECM has very low tool wear rate but it has certain fairly serious problems
regarding the contamination of the electrolyte used and the corrosion of
machine parts. The surface finish and tolerance obtained by various
w.E
asy
En
gin
ECONOMICS OF THE PROCESSES:
eer
ing
The economics of the various processes are analyzed on the basis of following
factors are given in Table (i) Capital cost (ii) Tooling cost (iii) Consumed power
cost (iv) Metal removal rate efficiency (v) Tool wear.
.ne
t
15
EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes. Power
consumption is very low for PAM and LBM processes whereas it is
greater in case of ECM.
The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other
processes. In conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the
processes is dependent upon various factors and must be considered all
or some of them before applying nonconventional processes.
w.E by a tool, which is in physical contact with the work piece) is applied to
remove the excess material from the work surface, or to separate the
asy
work piece into smaller parts.
The principal characteristics of traditional machining processes, and non-
traditional processes is presented to compare their advantages and
En
limitations: The cutting tool and work piece are always in physical contact,
gin
with a relative motion against each other, which results in friction and a
significant tool wear.
eer
In non-traditional processes, there is no physical contact between the tool
and work piece. Although in some non-traditional processes tool wear
exists, it rarely is a significant problem;
ing
Material removal rate of the traditional processes is limited by the
.ne
mechanical properties of the work material. Non-traditional processes
easily deal with such difficult-to-cut materials like ceramics and ceramic
based tool materials, fiber reinforced materials, carbides, titanium-based
alloys;
In traditional processes, the relative motion between the tool and work
t
piece is typically rotary or reciprocating.
Thus, the shape of the work surfaces is limited to circular or flat shapes.
In spite of widely used CNC systems, machining of three- dimensional
surfaces is still a difficult task. Most non-traditional processes were
developing just to solve this problem.
Machining of small cavities, slits, blind or through holes is difficult with
traditional processes, whereas it is a simple work for some non-traditional
processes; Traditional processes are well established; use relatively
simple and inexpensive machinery and readily available cutting tools.
Non-traditional processes require expensive equipment and tooling as
well as skilled labor, which increases significantly the production cost;
16
w.E
Examples include electric discharge processes, electron beam
machining, laser beam machining, and plasma arc cutting; Chemical
machining: chemicals selectively remove material from portions of the
asy
Work piece, while other portions of the surface are mask protected.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
17
PART-A
1. What is the principle behind abrasive jet machining? (NOV-2010, DEC-2006)
A jet of inert gas consisting of very fine abrasive particles strikes the work
piece at high velocity (usually between 200-400 m/sec) resulting in
material removal through chipping / erosive action.
2. Name the abrasive materials that are used for the AJM. (AP/MAY 2010)
ww
Dolomite
w.E
Sodium Bicarbonate
Glass beads
Silicon carbide
asy
Silicon Nitride
Alumina
En
3. What are the process parameters affecting the material removal rate in AJM
process? (NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2012)
gin
The following factors will affect the material removal rate in AJM process.
a. Mass flow rate
b. Abrasive grain size eer
c. Gas pressure
d. Velocity of abrasive particles ing
e. Mixing ratio
f. Nozzle tip clearance. .ne
4. What are the desirable properties of carrier gas in AJM? (MAY- 2009, 2012)
It should be cheap
It should be non-toxic
t
It should be easily available.
It should dry quickly
N2, CO2, He, etc are normally used as carrier gas.
18
ww Fluid additives
8. List the applications of WJM process. (AP/MAY 2015, AP/MAY 2008, DEC-
w.E
2005)
This process is very convenient for cutting relatively softer and non-metallic
asy
materials like paper boards, plastics, wood, rubber, leather, fiber glass etc.
En
9. What is ultrasonic machining? (AP/MAY 2015, MAY-2007)
USM is a mechanical material removal process in which the material is
gin
removed by repetitive impact of abrasive particles carried in liquid medium on
to the
eer
Work surface, by a shaped tool, vibrating at ultrasonic frequency.
19
PART-B
1. (i) Explain the principle of AJM. Mention some of the specific applications. (6)
(NOV/DEC 2013, APR/MAY 2005)
PRINCIPLE OF AJM
w.E carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream of abrasive is
generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its
asy
kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet.
The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work
material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece and
En
the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive
particles remove the material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle
fracture of the work material.
gin
APPLICATIONS:
eer
Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring,
polishing,
and radiusing.
ing
Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts
.ne
that require a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel
systems, and medical appliances.
Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, thin, or
difficult-to-machine materials. t
(ii) Discuss in detail about the AJM process variables that influence the rate of
material removal and accuracy in the machining. (10)
PROCESS VARIABLES:
(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2014, MAY/JUNE 2014, MAY/JUNE 2013, NOV/DEC
2012,NOV/DEC 2009, NOV/DEC 2008)
Abrasive
Material – Al2O3 / Sic / glass beads
Shape – irregular / spherical Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
20
Carrier gas
Composition – Air, CO2, N2
Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3 Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
Abrasive Jet
Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm
Impingement Angle – 600 ~ 900
Nozzle
Material – WC / sapphire
Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
Life – 10 ~ 300 hours
Effect of process parameters MRR
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
MRR, machining accuracy, surface roughness and nozzle wear are influenced
by
Size and distance of the nozzle. .ne
Composition, strength, size, and shape of abrasives
Flow rate
Composition, pressure, and velocity of the carrier gas.
t
ABRASIVE:
Mainly two types of abrasives are used (1) Aluminum oxide and (2) Silicon
carbide. (Grains with a diameter 10-50 microns are readily available)
For good wear action on the surfaces the abrasive grains should have
sharp edges.
A reuse of the abrasive powder is normally not recommended because of
a decrease of cutting capacity and clogging of the nozzle orifices due to
contamination.
The mass flow rate of the abrasive particles depends on the pressure and
the flow rate of the gas.
There is an optimum mixing ratio (mass fraction of the abrasive) for which
the metal removal rate is the highest.
When the mass flow rate of the abrasive increases the material removal
rate also increases.
21
GAS:
NOZZLE:
The nozzle is one of the most vital elements controlling the process
characteristics.
The nozzle material should be hard to avoid any significant wear due to
the flowing abrasive. [Normally WC (avg. life: 12-30 hrs.) or Sapphire
(Appr. = 300 hrs.) are used]
For a normal operation the cross-sectional area of the orifice can be either
circular or rectangular and between 0.05- 0.2mm2 .
The nozzle tip distance (NTD) or the stand off distance is a critical
asy
shape and size of the cavity produced.
As shown in the figure below, the velocity of the abrasive particles
impinging on the work surface increases due to their acceleration after
En
they leave the nozzle. This increases the MRR.
With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity reduces due to the drag of
gin
the atmosphere which initially checks the increase in MRR and then
decreases it.
eer
2. (i) Explain the method of AJM with help of schematic diagram.
(10)
ing
(MAY/JUNE 2013, APR/MAY 2012, APR/MAY 2010, APR/MAY 2008, NOV/DEC
2008)
.ne
A stream of abrasive grains (Al2O3 or SiC) is carried by high pressure gas
or air (compressed).Impinges on the work surface at very high velocity
through a nozzle of 0.3 to 0.5 mm diameter. Material removal – by
mechanical abrasion action of the high velocity abrasive particles.
t
Best suited for hole drilling in super hard materials. Typically used to cut,
clean, peen, deburr, deflash and etch glass, ceramics and other hard
materials.
22
w.E relative motion between the work piece and the nozzle is manually or
automatically controlled using cam drives, pantographs, tracer
required.
asy
mechanisms, or using computer control according to the cut geometry
En
stream of abrasive particles to a confined location on the work piece.
Intricate and precise shapes can be produced by using masks with
gin
corresponding contours. Dust removal equipment is incorporated to
protect the environment.
Jet nozzle:
asy
The standoff distance, shown in Fig. 2.20, is the gap between the jet
nozzle (0.1–0.3 mm diameter) and the work piece (2.5–6
En
mm).However for materials used in printed circuit boards, it may be
increased to 13 to 19 mm.
gin
For a nozzle of 0.12-mm diameter and cutting rate of 1.1 millimeters
per second (mm/s), McGeough (1988) reported the decrease of the
eer
depth of cut at a larger standoff distance. When cutting fiber-reinforced
plastics, reports showed that the increase in machining rate and use of
ing
the small nozzle diameter increased the width of the damaged layer.
Jet fluid:
Typical pressures used are 1500 to 4000 MPa to provide 8 to 80 kW of
power. .ne
For a given nozzle diameter, increase in pressure allows more power to be
used in the machining process, which in turn increases the depth of the
cut.
t
Jet velocities range between 540 to 1400 m/s.
24
Brittle materials will fracture, while ductile one will cut well.
Material thicknesses range from 0.8 to 25 mm or more.
Table below shows the cutting rates for different material thicknesses
ww
w.E
asy
En
APPLICATIONS:
gin
Water jet cutting is mostly used to cut lower strength materials such as
wood, plastics and aluminium.
eer
When abrasives are added, (abrasive water jet cutting) stronger materials
such as steel and tool steel can be cut.
ing
ADVANTAGES OF WATER JET CUTTING:
.ne
There is no heat generated in water jet cutting; which is especially useful
for cutting tool steel and other metals where excessive heat may change
the properties of the material.
Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust
or particles that are harmful if inhaled.
t
DISADVANTAGES OF WATER JET CUTTING:
One of the main disadvantages of water jet cutting is that a limited number
of materials can be cut economically.
Thick parts cannot be cut by this process economically and accurately
Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials. Taper
is when the jet exits the part at different angle than it enters the part, and
cause dimensional inaccuracy.
25
ww for machining brittle materials {which are poor conductors of electricity and
thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge
machining (ECM and ED)}.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Ultrasonic machining (USM), sometimes called ultrasonic impact grinding,
employs ultrasonically vibrating tool to impel the abrasives in slurry at high
.ne
velocity against work piece. The tool is fed into the part as it vibrates along an
axis parallel to the tool feed at amplitude on the order of several thousandths
of an inch and a frequency of 20 kHz.
As the tool is fed into the work piece, a negative of the tool is machined into
the work piece. The cutting action is performed by the abrasives in the slurry
t
which is continuously flooded under the tool.
The slurry is loaded up to 60% by weight with abrasive particles. Lighter
abrasive loadings are used to facilitate the flow of the slurry for deep drilling
(to 5mm deep). Boron carbide, aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide are the
most common used abrasives in grit sizes ranging from 400 to 2000.
The amplitude of the vibration should be set approximately to the size of the
grit. The process can use shaped tools cut virtually any material but is most
effective on materials with hardness greater than Rc 40 including brittle and
non-conductive materials such as glass.
26
ww
Ultrasonic Machining is a non-traditional process, in which abrasives
contained in a slurry are driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low
amplitude (25-100 μm) and high frequency (15-30 KHz):brittle fracture
w.E
caused by impact of abrasive grains due to the tool vibration; cavitation
induced erosion; chemical erosion caused by slurry.
asy
The ultrasonic machining process can be used to cut through and blind holes
of round or irregular cross-sections. The process is best suited to poorly
conducting, hard and brittle materials like glass, ceramics, carbides, and
semiconductors.
En
There is a little production of heat and stress in the process, but work may
gin
chip at exit side of the hole. Sometimes glass is used on the backside for
brittle materials. The critical parameters to control the process are the tool
eer
frequency, amplitude and material, abrasive grit size and material, feed force,
slurry concentration and viscosity. Limitations of the ultrasonic machining
ing
include very low material removal rate, extensive tool wear, small depth of
holes and cavities.
The acoustic head is the most complicated part of the machine. It must
.ne
provide a static constant force, as well as the high frequency vibration. Tools
are produced of tough but ductile metals such as soft steel of stainless steel.
Aluminum and brass tools wear near 5 to 10 times faster. Abrasive slurry
consists of a mixture of liquid (water is the most common but oils or glycerol
are also used) and 20% to 60% of abrasives with typical grit sizes of 100 to
t
800. The common types of abrasive materials are boron carbide, silicon
carbide, diamond, and corundum (Al2O3).
27
ADVANTAGE OF USM:
USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the
microstructures, chemical or physical properties of the work piece and offers
virtually stress free machined surfaces.
Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity
Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials
Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural
integrity.
USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface
DISADVANTAGES OF USM:
USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than
traditional fabrication processes.
Tool wears fast in USM.
Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.
ww
5. Discuss the influence process parameters and applications of USM
PROCESS PARAMETERS:
(16)
w.E
1. Tool Oscillation or Vibration – Amplitude & Frequency
variables.
asy
Amplitude of the tool oscillation has the greatest effect of all the process
En
Vibration amplitude determines the velocity of the abrasive particles at the
interface between the tool and workpiece.
gin
Under such circumstances the kinetic energy rises, at larger amplitudes,
which enhances the mechanical chipping action and consequently increases
the MRR.
eer
A greater vibration amplitude may lead to the occurrence of splashing, which
ing
causes a reduction of the number of active abrasive grains and results in a
decrease in the MRR.
2. Abrasive Grains
.ne
Both the grain size and the vibration amplitude have a similar effect on the
removal rate.
According to McGeough (1988), MRR rises at greater grain sizes until the
size reaches the vibration amplitude, at which stage, the MRR decreases.
t
When the grain size is large compared to the vibration amplitude, there is a
difficulty of abrasive renewal.
Because of its higher hardness, B4C achieves higher removal rates than
silicon carbide (SiC) when machining glass.
The MRR obtained with silicon carbide is about 15 % lower when machining
glass, 33 % lower for tool steel, and about 35 % lower for sintered carbide.
3. Work piece Impact Hardness
MRR is affected by the ratio of tool hardness to work piece hardness.
In this regard, the higher the ratio, the lower will be MRR.
For this reason soft and tough materials are recommended for USM tools.
4. Tool Shape
Increase in tool area - decreases the machining rate; due to inadequate
distribution of abrasive slurry over the entire area.
28
McGeough (1988) reported that, for the same machining area, a narrow
rectangular shape yields a higher machining rate than a square shape.
Rise in static pressure - enhances MRR up to a limiting condition, beyond
which no further increase occurs.
Reason - disturbance in the tool oscillation at higher forces where lateral
vibrations are expected.
According to Kaczmarek (1976), at pressures lower than the optimum, the
force pressing the grains into the material is too small and the volume
removed by a particular grain diminishes.
Measurements also showed a decrease in MRR with an increase in the hole
depth.
Reason - deeper the tool reaches, the more difficult and slower is the
exchange of abrasives from underneath the tool.
5. Accuracy (oversize, conicity, out of roundness) - affected by
Side wear of the tool
Abrasive wear
w.E
Other parameters:
Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm
asy
Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions
Feed pressure (p)
En
Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
Abrasive material – Al2O3 – Sic- B4C – Boron silicarbide – Diamond
Flow strength of work material
Flow strength of the tool material gin
Contact area of the tool – A
eer
Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
ing
.ne
t
29
ww
w.E
asy
APPLICATIONS: MAY/JUNE 2013
En
Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass,
ceramics, carbides etc.
gin
Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface
impressions.
eer
Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies. Machining of
shallow slots and holes in brittle materials, e.g. ceramics, glass, diamond,
tool steel.
ing
.ne
t
30
ww
3. What the dielectric fluids commonly used in EDM? (MAY-2010)
Petroleum based hydrocarbon fluids.
Paraffin, white sprite, transformer oil.
asy
4. Name some of the tool material used in EDM? (MAY-2009)
Copper, brass, alloys of Zinc &tin.
Hardened plain carbon steel
En
copper tungsten, silver tungsten, tungsten
Copper graphite and graphite.
gin
5. What is the process parameter efficiency the MRR? (MAY-2011)
Energy discharge
Capacitance.
Size of work piece. eer
M/c tool design
ing
6. Write the formula for finding the energy discharge in EDM? (MAY-2009)
W = (1/2) X EIT, W-discharge energy
I-Current
T-time .ne
E-voltage
7. Define W/T (Tool wear) ratio?
It is the ratio of volume of work removed to the volume of tool removed.
t
8. Define over cut? (NOV-2010)
It is the discharge by which the machined hole in the work piece exceeds the
electrode size and is determined by both the initiating voltage and the discharge
energy.
9. Why the servo controlled system is needed in EDM? (NOV/DEC 2014, MAY-
2011)
EDM requires that a constant arc gap be maintained between the electrode and
the work piece to obtain maximum machining efficiency. Therefore EDM tool in
corporate some form of servo control.
10. List the applications of wire-cut EDM. (MAY-2013)
Production of gears, tools, dies, rotors, turbine blades and cams for small to
medium size production.
31
PART-B
1. Explain the construction and principle of electrical discharge machining
with neat sketch. (16)
(MAY/JUNE 2014, NOV/DEC 2009, MAY/JUNE 2009, APR/MAY 2008,
NOV/DEC 2008, APR/MAY 2005)
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Introduction:
ing
It is also referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or
wire erosion
.ne
Its a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained using electrical
discharges (sparks).
Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current
discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject
to an electric voltage.
t
One of the electrodes – „tool-electrode‟ or „tool‟ or „electrode‟.
Other electrode - workpiece-electrode or „workpiece‟.
As distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the current intensity
becomes greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least in some points)
causing it to break.
EDM components:
The main components in EDM:
Electric power supply
Dielectric medium
Work piece & tool
Servo control unit.
32
The work piece and tool are electrically connected to a DC power supply. The
current density in the discharge of the channel is of the order of 10000 A/cm 2
and power density is nearly 500 MW/cm2.
ww
w.E
asy
En
A gap, known as SPARK GAP in the range, from 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm is
gin
maintained between the work piece and the tool. Dielectric slurry is forced
through this gap at a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2 or lesser.
Working Principle:
eer
ing
It is a process of metal removal based on the principle of material removal by an
interrupted electric spark discharge between the electrode tool and the work
.ne
piece. In EDM, a potential difference is applied between the tool and workpiece.
Essential - Both tool and work material are to be conductors. The tool and work
material are immersed in a dielectric medium. Generally kerosene or deionised
water is used as the dielectric medium.
t
A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece. Depending upon the
applied potential difference (50 to 450 V) and the gap between the tool and
workpiece, an electric field would be established.
If the bonding energy of the electrons is less, electrons would be emitted from
the tool. Such emission of electrons are called or termed as „cold emission‟. The
“cold emitted” electrons are then accelerated towards the job through the
dielectric medium. As they gain velocity and energy, and start moving towards
33
the job, there would be collisions between the electrons and dielectric molecules.
Such collision may result in ionization of the dielectric molecule.
Ionization depends on the ionization energy of the dielectric molecule and the
energy of the electron. As the electrons get accelerated, more positive ions and
electrons would get generated due to collisions. This cyclic process would
increase the concentration of electrons and ions in the dielectric medium
between the tool and the job at the spark gap.
The concentration would be so high that the matter existing in that channel could
be characterised as “plasma”. The electrical resistance of such plasma channel
would be very less. Thus all of a sudden, a large number of electrons will flow
from tool to job and ions from job to tool. This is called avalanche motion of
electrons. Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually seen as a spark.
Thus the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the spark
ww
The high speed electrons then impinge on the job and ions on the tool. The
kinetic energy of the electrons and ions on impact with the surface of the job and
tool respectively would be converted into thermal energy or heat flux. Such
w.E
intense localized heat flux leads to extreme instantaneous confined rise in
temperature which would be in excess of 10,000 oC.Such localized extreme rise
asy
in temperature leads to material removal.
Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of the material as well as due
En
to melting. The molten metal is not removed completely but only partially.
Additional Diagram:
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
34
ww discharge.
w.E
capacitors at a certain moment. Little control is expected over the time of
discharge, which is likely to depend on the actual spark-gap conditions.
asy
Advantage: RC circuit generator can allow the use of short discharge time more
easily than the pulse-controlled generator.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Also, the open circuit voltage (i.e. voltage between electrodes when dielectric is
not broken) can be identified as steady state voltage of the RC circuit.In
generators based on transistor control, the user is usually able to deliver a train
t
of voltage pulses to the electrodes. Each pulse can be controlled in shape, for
instance, quasi-rectangular.
In particular, the time between two consecutive pulses and the duration of each
pulse can be set.The amplitude of each pulse constitutes the open circuit
voltage. Thus, maximum duration of discharge is equal to duration of a voltage
pulse.
Maximum current during a discharge that the generator delivers can also be
controlled. Details of generators and control systems on EDMs are not always
easily available to their user. This is a barrier to describing the technological
parameters of EDM process. Moreover, the parameters affecting the phenomena
occurring between tool and electrode are also related to the motion controller of
the electrodes.
35
When machining different materials in the same setup conditions, the actual
electrical parameters are significantly different.When using RC generators, the
voltage pulses, shown in Fig. are responsible for material removal.A series of
voltage pulses (Fig.) of magnitude about 20 to 120 V and frequency on the order
of 5 kHz is applied between the two electrodes.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
36
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
37
w.E
The working voltage - Vw
The maximum current – Io
The pulse on time – the duration for which the voltage pulse is applied – ton
asy
The pulse off time – toff
The gap between the work piece and the tool – spark gap – δ
En
The polarity – straight polarity – tool (-ve)
The dielectric medium
gin
External flushing through the spark gap.
eer
ing
.ne
t
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDM :
The process can be used to machine any work material if it is electrically
conductive
Material removal depends on mainly thermal properties of the work
material rather than its strength, hardness etc
In EDM there is a physical tool and geometry of the tool is the positive
impression of the hole or geometric feature machined
The tool has to be electrically conductive as well. The tool wear once
again depends on the thermal properties of the tool material
38
Though the local temperature rise is rather high, still due to very small
pulse on time, there is not enough time for the heat to diffuse and thus
almost no increase in bulk temperature takes place. Thus the heat
affected zone is limited to 2 – 4 μm of the spark crater
However rapid heating and cooling and local high temperature leads to
surface hardening which may be desirable in some applications
Though there is a possibility of taper cut and overcut in EDM, they can be
controlled and compensated.
Advantages of EDM:
1. The process can be applied to all conducting metals and alloys irrespective of
their melting points, hardness,
toughness or brittleness.
2. Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on the
work piece.
ww
3. Machining time is less compared to conventional machining.
4. No mechanical stress is present in the process. Physical contact between the tool
and work piece is eliminated.
w.E
Fragile and slender work pieces can be machined without distortion.
5. Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces essentially needed for die making can be
developed.
asy
6. Cratering type of surface finish automatically creates accommodation for
lubricants causing the die life to improve.
Disadvantages: En
gin
1. Profile machining of complicated contours is not possible at required tolerances.
2. Machining time is slow
eer
3. Machining heats the work piece and hence causes changes in surface and
metallurgical properties.
4. Excessive tool wear.
ing
5. High specific power consumption.
39
EDMs have a built-in power adaptive control system that increases the
pulse spacing as soon as this happens and reduces or shuts off the
power supply.
Flushing – process of introducing clean filtered dielectric fluid into spark
gap.
If flushing is applied incorrectly, it can result in erratic cutting and poor
machining conditions.
Flushing of dielectric plays a major role in the maintenance of stable
machining and the achievement of close tolerance and high surface
quality.
Inadequate flushing can result in arcing, decreased electrode life, and
increased production time.
Four methods:
1. Normal flow 2. Reverse flow
3. Jet flushing 4. Immersion flushing
ww
w.E
asy
En
Normal flow (Majority) gin
eer
Dielectric is introduced, under pressure, through one or more passages in
ing
the tool and is forced to flow through the gap between tool and work.
Flushing holes are generally placed in areas where the cuts are deepest.
Normal flow is sometimes undesirable because it produces a tapered
opening in the workpiece.
.ne
Reverse flow
Jet flushing
40
Immersion flushing
ww
For proper flushing conditions, Metals Handbook (1989) recommends:
w.E
Many small flushing holes are better than a few large ones.
Steady dielectric flow on the entire workpiece-electrode interface is
desirable.
asy
Dead spots created by pressure flushing, from opposite sides of the
workpiece, should be avoided.
En
A vent hole should be provided for any upwardly concave part of the tool-
electrode to prevent accumulation of explosive gases.
gin
A flush box is useful if there is a hole in the cavity.
eer
5. Describe the wire cut EDM equipment, its working and applications.
(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2012, APR/MAY
2010, NOV/DEC 2009, MAY/JUNE 2009, NOV/DEC 2008)
ing
The Wire Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM) is a variation of
EDM and is commonly known as wire-cut EDM or wire cutting. In
.ne
this process, a thin metallic wireisfed on-to the work piece, which is
submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid such as deionized water.
This process can also cut plates as thick as 300mm and is used for
making punches, tools and dies from hard metals that are difficult
t
to machine with other methods.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
This process is widely used for the manufacture of punches, dies, and
ing
stripper plates, with modern machines capable of routinely cutting die
relief, intricate openings, tight radius contours, and corners.
Applications of Wire-Cut EDM
Wire EDM is used for cutting aluminium, brass, copper, carbides, .ne
graphite, steels and titanium.
The wire material varies with the application requirements. Example: for
quicker cutting action, zinc-coated brass wires are used while for more
accurate applications, molybdenum wires are used.
t
The process is used in the following areas:
Aerospace, Medical, Electronics and Semiconductor applications
Tool & Die making industries.
For cutting the hard Extrusion Dies
In making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams
Cutting of Gears, Strippers, Punches and Dies
Manufacturing hard Electrodes.
Manufacturing micro-tooling for Micro-EDM, Micro-USM and such other
micromachining.
42
PART-A
1. What is the principle of Chemical Machining (CHM)?
2. What is the purpose of etchant used in CHM? Give some examples. (MAY-
2011)
ww Purpose: to dissolve a metal by turning it into a metallic salt, this then goes
into solution. Many chemical are available as etchants: FeCl3, Chromic acid,
asy
3. What is the purpose of Maskant and how is it classified? (APR/MAY 2015,
MAY/JUNE 2013)
En
Maskants (chemically resistant coatings) are used to cover the surfaces
which are not to be machined – does not allow the etchant to react reach and
react with work piece to dissolve it.
Butyl rubber gin
Neoprene rubber
Polymers eer
Polyethylene
ing
3. Please identify the principle of ECM. How does it differ from electroplating?
(APR/MAY 2010, MAY/JUNE 2009, NOV/DEC 2008)
.ne
Principle of ECM - electrolysis. When a D.C potential is applied across two
electrodes separated by a small gap and an electrolyte is pumped through
the small gap, the constituents of the anode work piece material goes into the
solution and not plate on the cathode tool.
t
Electroplating is the reverse of ECM where the cathode is plated by the
depleted metal from the anode.
Material Removal Rate – the MRRs with ECM are sufficiently large and
comparable with that of the conventional methods. MRR of 16m 3/min for
10,000 A is generally obtained in ECM
Surface finish – under certain conditions, ECM can produce surface finishes
of the order of 0.4μm
Accuracy – under ideal conditions and with properly designed tooling, ECM is
capable of holding tolerance of the order of 0.02mm and less.
43
5. What are the various tool materials that can be used effectively with ECM?
(MAY-2011, 2005)
ww
Electro Chemical Honing (ECH)
Electro Chemical Deburing (ECD)
Electro chemical turning (ECT)
w.E
8. What is ECG? Identify its applications. (NOV/DEC 2014, MAY-2011, NOV-/DEC
2010, NOV/DEC 2009)
asy
ECG is a process that combines the ECM with the mechanical grinding
operation to remove material. It uses a grinding wheel with an electrically
En
conductive abrasive bonding agent.
Applications:
gin
Single largest use for ECG is in the manufacturing and remanufacturing of
turbine blades and vanes for aircraft turbine engines
Grinding of tungsten carbide tool inserts
Re-profiling worn locomotive traction motor gears eer
Burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles
ing
Machining of fragile or very hard and tough material – honey comb, thin
walled tubes and skins High MRR‟s when grinding hard, tough, stringy, and
work-hardenable or heat sensitive materials.
.ne
9. What is ECH? Identify its applications. (APR/MAY 2015, APR/MAY 2010, MAY
2010) t
ECH is a process in which the metal removal capabilities of ECM are
combined with the accuracy capabilities of honing. The process consists of a
rotating and reciprocating tool inside a cylindrical component.
Applications: the process is easily adaptable to cylindrical parts for truing
the inside surfaces.
10. What are the functions served by the electrolyte in the ECM process?
(NOV/DEC 2014, MAY/JUNE 2014, NOV/DEC 2013, DEC-2005)
44
PART-B
asy
the machined work
eer
and to remove materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.
CHM consists of the following steps:
ing
1. Preparing and pre-cleaning the work piece surface. This provides good adhesion
of the masking material and assures the absence of contaminants that might
interfere with the machining process.
.ne
2. Masking using readily strippable mask, which is chemically impregnable and
adherent enough to stand chemical abrasion during etching.
3. Scribing of the mask, which is guided by templates to expose the areas that
receive CHM. The type of mask selected depends on the size of the work piece, the
t
number of parts to be made, and the desired resolution of details. Silk-screen masks
are preferred for shallow cuts requiring close dimensional tolerances.
4. The work piece is then etched and rinsed, and the mask is removed before the
part is finished.
During CHM (Fig.), the depth of the etch is controlled by the time of
immersion. In order to avoid uneven machining, the chemicals that
impinge on the surface being machined should be fresh. The chemicals
used are very corrosive and, therefore, must be handled with adequate
safety precautions. Both the vapors and the effluents must be suitably
controlled for environmental protection.
Agitation of the work piece and fluid is usual; however, excessive solution
flow may result in channeling, grooves, or ridges. Inclination of the
workpiece may prevent channeling from gas bubbles.
45
Bellows (1977) and the Metals Handbook (1989) reported that dishing of
the machined surface occurs due to the uneven heat distribution resulting
from the chemical action. Typical reagent temperatures range from 37 to
85°C. Faster etching rates occur at higher temperatures, but must be
controlled within ±5°C of the desired temperature in order to attain uniform
machining.
ww
When the mask is used, the machining action proceeds both inwardly
w.E
from the mask opening and laterally beneath the mask thus creating the
etch factor shown in Fig. The etch factor is the ratio of the undercut d to
the depth of etch T. This ratio must be considered when scribing the mask
asy
using templates.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
Etch factor after CHM. t
A typical etch factor of 1:1 occurs at a cut depth of 1.27 mm. Deeper cuts can
reduce this ratio to 1:3. The radii of the fillet produced will be approximately
equal to the depth of etch. For simultaneous machining of multiple parts,
racks or handling fixtures are frequently used to facilitate the submersion of
the work in the chemical reagent and for subsequent rinsing.
After rinsing the chemicals from the workpiece, the demasking is
accomplished by hand stripping, mechanical brushing, or chemical stripping.
Some chemicals leave a film of smut on the machined surface, which can be
removed by other chemicals or frequently by brushing.
CHM will not eliminate surface irregularities, dents, scratches, or waviness.
Successive steps of mask removal and immersion as shown in Fig. can
achieve stepped cuts. Tapered cuts (Fig.), can also be produced without
masking the work piece by controlling the depth and rate of immersion or
withdrawal and the number of immersions. Continuous tapers, as great as
0.060 mm/mm for aluminum and 0.010 mm/mm for steel alloys, have been
machined on a production basis.
ww
ADVANTAGES: (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Weight reduction is possible on complex contours that are difficult to
w.E
machine using conventional methods.
Simultaneous material removal, from all surfaces, improves productivity
asy
and reduces wrapping.
No burrs are formed.
No stress is introduced to the workpiece, which minimizes the part distortion
En
and makes machining of delicate parts possible.
A continuous taper on contoured sections is achievable.
gin
The capital cost of equipment, used for machining large components,
is relatively low.
Design changes can be implemented quickly.
A less skilled operator is needed. eer
Tooling costs are minor.
ing
The good surface quality in addition to the absence of burrs eliminates
the need for finishing operations.
Multiple parts having fine details can be machined by the gang method.
Decorative finishes and extensive thin-web areas are possible. .ne
There are low scrap rates (3 percent).
LIMITATIONS:
t
CHM does have limitations and areas of disadvantage:
Only shallow cuts are practical: up to 12.27 mm for sheets and plates,3.83 mm
on extrusions, and 6.39 mm on forgings.
Handling and disposal of chemicals can be troublesome.
Hand masking, scribing, and stripping can be time-consuming, repetitive,
and tedious.
Surface imperfections are reproduced in the machined parts.
Metallurgical homogeneous surfaces are required for best results.
Deep narrow cuts are difficult to produce.
Fillet radii are fixed by the depth of cut.
Porous castings yield uneven etched surfaces.
Welded areas frequently etch at rates that differ from the base metal.
Material removal from one side of residually stressed material can
47
CHM applications range from large aluminum airplane wing parts to minute
ww integrated circuit chips. The practical depth of cut ranges between 2.54 to
12.27 mm. Shallow cuts in large thin sheets are of the most popular application
especially for weight reduction of aerospace components.
w.E Multiple designs can be machined from the same sheet at the same time.
asy
CHM is used to thin out walls, webs, and ribs of parts that have been produced
by forging, casting, or sheet metal forming.
2.
En
Explain in detail the ECM process with neat sketch and also mention the
advantages, limitations and applications.
gin
(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2013, MAY/JUNE 2013,APR/MAY 2008,NOV/DEC
2008, NOV/DEC 2005)
eer
Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is a non-traditional machining (NTM)
ing
process belonging to Electro chemical category. ECM is opposite of
electrochemical or galvanic coating or deposition process. Thus ECM can
.ne
be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level of the work
piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high
current at relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is
quite often water based neutral salt solution.
t
Principles of electrolysis:
ww
w.E
asy
ECM equipment
En
gin
Figure shows the main components of the ECM machine: the feed control
system, electrolyte supply system, power supply unit, and work piece
eer
holding device. As shown in Fig. the feed control system is responsible for
feeding the tool at a constant rate during equilibrium machining.
ing
The power supply drives the machining current at a constant dc
.ne
(continuous or pulsed) voltage. The electrolyte-feeding unit supplies the
electrolyte solution at a given rate, pressure, and temperature.
49
wwPower supply:
w.E
The dc power supply for ECM has the following features:
1. Voltage of 2 to 30 volts (V) (pulsed or continuous)
2. Current ranges from 50 to 10,000 amperes (A), which allow current densities of 5
to 500 A/cm2
asy
3. Continuous adjustment of the gap voltage
En
4. Control of the machining current in case of emergency
5. Short circuit protection in a matter of 0.001 s
gin
6. High power factor, high efficiency, small size and weight, and low cost
Electrolytes.
50
ww
the extremely narrow inter electrode gap
5. Be safe, nontoxic, and less erosive to the machine body
6. Maintain its stable ingredients and pH value, during the machining period
w.E
7. Have small variation in its conductivity and viscosity due to temperature rise
8. Be inexpensive and easily available
ADVANTAGES OF ECM:
asy
En
The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.
No tool wear during ECM process.
gin
Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.
ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
eer
High surface finish (up to 25 μm in) can be achieved by ECM process.
ing
Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in the
aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts
and nozzles can be machined repeatedly and accurately.
Deep holes can be made by this process.
.ne
LIMITATIONS OF ECM:
ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms because
t
of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.
ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment costs, is
usually used primarily for highly specialised applications.
APPLICATIONS:
Dies and glass-making molds, turbine and compressor blades for gas-turbine
engines, round or non-round holes, passages, cavities and slots in parts.
ECM is also used for deburring of gears, hydraulic and fuel-system parts.
Die sinking • Profiling and contouring • Trepanning • Grinding • Drilling
51
3. Describe the chemistry involved in ECM process and explain the process
parameters. (16)
(NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2005)
Theory of ECM- chemistry involved
ECM uses a direct current at a high density of 0.5 to 5 A/mm2 and a low
voltage of 10 to 30 V. The machining current passes through the
electrolytic solution that fills the gap between an anodic workpiece and a
preshaped cathodic tool.
The electrolyte is forced to flow through the interelectrode gap at high
velocity, usually more than 5 m/s, to intensify the mass and charge
transfer through the sublayer near the anode.
The electrolyte removes the dissolution products, such as metal
hydroxides, heat, and gas bubbles, generated in the interelectrode gap.
McGeough (1988) claimed that when a potential difference is applied
across the electrodes, several possible reactions occur at the anode and
the cathode.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
The negatively charged anions OH− and Cl− move toward the anode, and the
positively charged cations of H+ and Na+ are directed to the cathode.
t
At the anode, Fe changes to Fe++ by losing two electrons.
At the cathode, the reaction involves the generation of hydrogen gas and the
hydroxyl ions.
The outcome of these electrochemical reactions is that iron ions combine with other
ones to precipitate out as iron hydroxide, Fe(OH)2.
The ferrous hydroxide may react further with water and oxygen to form ferric
hydroxide, Fe(OH)3.
52
4. (i) Explain the principle of ECG with sketch. list out the advantage of ECG.
w.E
Also mention the product application of ECG.
(16)
asy
(APR/MAY 2015, APR/MAY 2010, MAY/JUNE 2009, NOV/DEC 2008, APR/MAY
2004, 2012)
En
Electrochemical grinding is a process that removes electrically conductive
material by grinding with a negatively charged abrasive grinding wheel, an
gin
electrolyte fluid, and a positively charged workpiece.
Materials removed from the workpiece stay in the electrolyte fluid.
eer
Electrochemical grinding is similar to electrochemical machining but uses
a wheel instead of a tool shaped like the contour of the workpiece.
ing
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) utilizes a negatively charged abrasive
grinding wheel, electrolyte solution, and a positively charged workpiece,
.ne
as shown in Fig.The process is, therefore, similar to ECM except that the
cathode is a specially constructed grinding wheel instead of a cathodic
shaped tool like the contour to be machined by ECM.
The insulating abrasive material (diamond or aluminum oxide) of the
grinding wheel is set in a conductive bonding material. In ECG, the
nonconducting abrasive particles act as a spacer between the wheel
t
conductive bond and the anodic workpiece.
Depending on the grain size of these particles, a constant inter electrode
gap (0.025 mm or less) through which the electrolyte is flushed can be
maintained.
53
ECG SYSTEM:
ww
w.E
Material removal rate:
asy
When a gap voltage of 4 to 40 V is applied between the cathodic grinding
En
wheel and the anodic workpiece, a current density of about 120 to 240
A/cm2 is created. The current density depends on the material being, the
gap width, and the applied voltage.
gin
Material is mainly removed by ECD, while the MA of the abrasive grits
eer
accounts for an additional 5 to 10 percent of the total material removal.
ing
.ne
t
54
Process characteristics
ww
smooth edges without the burrs caused by mechanical grinding.
Does not produce appreciable heat that would distort work piece.
Decomposes the work
w.E
piece and deposits them into the electrolyte solution. The most common
electrolytes are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate at concentrations of 2 lbs per
gallon.
asy
It uses a rotating cathode embedded with abrasive particles for applications
comparable to milling, grinding and sawing.
En
Most of the metal removal is done by the electrolyte, resulting in very low tool
wear.
55
While Faraday‟s laws govern the ECD phase, the action of the abrasive
grains depends on conditions existing in the gap, such as the electric field,
transport of electrolyte, and hydrodynamic effects on layers near the anode.
The contribution of either of these two machining phases in the material
removal process and in surface layer formation depends on the process
parameters. Figure shows the basic components of the ECG process.
The contribution of each machining phase to the material removal from the
workpiece has resulted in a considerable increase in the total removal rate
QECG, in relation to the sum of the removal rate of the electrochemical
process and the grinding processes QECD and QMA, when keeping the
same values of respective parameters as during the ECG process.
APPLICATIONS:
ww
1. Machining parts made from difficult-to-cut materials, such as sintered carbides,
creep-resisting (Inconel, Nimonic) alloys, titanium alloys, and metallic composites.
2. Applications similar to milling, grinding, cutting off, sawing, and tool and cutter
w.E
sharpening.
3. Production of tungsten carbide cutting tools, fragile parts, and thin walled tubes.
asy
4. Removal of fatigue cracks from steel structures under seawater. In such an
application holes about 25 mm in diameter, in steel 12 to 25 mm thick, have been
produced by ECG at the ends of fatigue cracks to stop further development of the
cracks and to enable the
En
removal of specimens for metallurgical inspection.
gin
5. Producing specimens for metal fatigue and tensile tests.
6. Machining of carbides and a variety of high-strength alloys.
ADVANTAGES eer
Absence of work hardening
ing
Elimination of grinding burrs
Absence of distortion of thin fragile or thermo sensitive parts
Good surface quality .ne
Production of narrow tolerances
Longer grinding wheel life t
DISADVANTAGES
56
ww fresh surface for further electrolytic dissolution. Sodium nitrate solution (240
g/L) is used instead of the more corrosive sodium chloride (120g/L) or acid
electrolytes.
w.E An electrolyte temperature of 38°C, pressure of 1000 kPa, and flow rate of 95
L/min can be used. ECH employs dc current at a gap voltage of 6 to 30 V,
asy
which ensures a current density of 465 A/cm2. Improper electrolyte
distribution in the machining gap may lead to geometrical errors in the
produced bore.
Process characteristics En
gin
The machining system shown in Fig. employs a reciprocating abrasive stone
eer
(with metallic bond) carried on a spindle, which is made cathodic and
separated from the work piece by a rapidly flowing electrolyte.
ing
In such an arrangement, the abrasive stones are used to maintain the gap
.ne
size of 0.076 to 0.250 mm and, moreover, depassivate the machining surface
due to the ECD phase occurring through the bond. A different tooling system
(Fig.) can be used where the cathodic tool carries nonconductive honing
sticks that are responsible for the MA.
The machine spindle that rotates and reciprocates is responsible for the ECD
t
process. The material removal rate for ECH is 3 to 5 times faster than that of
conventional honing and 4 times faster than that of internal cylindrical
grinding. Tolerances in the range of ±0.003 mm are achievable, while surface
roughnesses in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 μm Ra are possible.
The surface finish generated by the ECH process is the conventional cross-
hatched cut surface that is accepted and used for sealing and load-bearing
surfaces. However, for stress-free surfaces and geometrically accurate
bores, the last few seconds of MA action should be allowed for the pure ECD
process.
57
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
APPLICATIONS:
Because of the light stone pressure used, heat distortion is avoided. The
presence of the ECD phase introduces no stresses and automatically
deburrs the part.
ECH can be used for hard and conductive materials that are susceptible
to heat and distortion. The process can tackle pinion gears of high-alloy
steel as well as holes in cast tool steel components.
58
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Hone forming (HF) is an application that combines the honing and electro
deposition processes. It is used to simultaneously abrade the work
surface and deposit metal.
eer
In some of its basic principles the method is the reversal of ECH. This
method is used in case of salvaging parts that became out-of-tolerance
ing
and reconditioning worn surfaces by metal deposition and abrasion of the
new deposited layers.
.ne
t
59
2. What are the characteristics of Laser beam? (MAY/JUNE 2013, NOV/DEC 2013,
NOV-2010)
Material removal
Material shaping
ww Welding
Thermo kinetic change.
w.E
3. What is the Maser principle?
The energy density of laser with 100,000Kw/cm 2. The atoms at this state
asy
will impinge with electrons waves having resonate frequency. This is
known as maser.
En
4. What are the gases used in PAM? (MAY-2009, MAY-2005)
gin
The commonly used gases are nitrogen, hydrogen, air, mixture of
Nitrogen – hydrogen and argon- hydrogen etc.
.ne
positive terminal of a D.C power supply. So, more electrical energy is
transferred to the work, thus giving more heat to the work.
6. State the working principle of PAM? What are the types of plasma arc torches?
(MAY/JUNE 2013, MAY/JUNE 2009, NOV/DEC 2008)
In plasma are machining process, material is removed by directing a high
t
velocity jet of high temperature (11,000˚C to 28,000˚C ) ionized gas on the work piece.
The high temperature plasma jet melts the material of the work piece.
There are two types of plasma are torches. They are :
a. Direct arc plasma torches (or) Transferred are type.
b. Indirect arc plasma torches (or) Non- transferred are type.
60
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
61
PART-B
1. Explain with neat sketch construction, working principle of the Laser Beam
Machining Process.(APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2014, MAY/JUNE
2014,NOV/DEC 2013, MAY/JUNE 2013, NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2009,
APR/MAY 2008, APR/MAY 2004)
w.E lasers are available in the market including solid-state, ion, and molecular
types in either continuous wave (CW) or pulsed mode (PM) of operation.
Laser beam machining (LBM) uses an intensely focused, coherent stream of
asy
light (a laser) to vaporize or chemically ablate materials. Lasers are also used
for joining (welding, brazing, soldering), heat treating materials.
En
Power density and interaction time are the basic parameters in laser
processing as shown in Figure. Drilling requires higher power densities and
gin
shorter interaction times compared to most other applications.
Laser beam machining (LBM) uses the light energy from a laser to remove
eer
material by vaporization and ablation. The word laser is an acronym for Light
Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Below is a simple
representation of how a CO2 laser beam is generated.
ing
The types of lasers used in LBM are basically the carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
lasers. Lasers produce Collimated monochromatic light with constant
.ne
wavelength. In the laser beam, all of the light rays are parallel, which allows
the light not to diffuse quickly like normal light.
The light produced by the laser has significantly less power than a normal
white light, but it can be highly focused, thus delivering a significantly higher
light intensity and respectively temperature in a very localized area.
t
Lasers are being used for a variety of industrial applications, including heat
treatment, welding, and measurement, as well as a number of cutting
operations such as drilling, slitting, slotting, and marking operations. Drilling
small-diameter holes is possible, down to 0.025 mm.
For larger holes, the laser beam is controlled to cut the outline of the hole.
The range of work materials that can be machined by LBM is virtually
unlimited including metals with high hardness and strength, soft metals,
ceramics, glass, plastics, rubber, cloth, and wood. LBM can be used for 2D or
3D workspace.
62
ww The LBM machines typically have a laser mounted, and the beam is directed
w.Eto the end of the arm using mirrors. Mirrors are often cooled (water is
common) because of high laser powers.
LASER CONSTRUCTION:
asy
Diagram shows a typical Nd-YAG laser. Nd-YAG laser is pumped using flash
En
tube. Flash tubes can be helical, as shown in diagram, or they can be flat.
Typically the lasing material is at the focal plane of the flash tube. Though
gin
helical flash tubes provide better pumping, they are difficult to maintain.
eer
ing
.ne
t
Diagram shows the electrical circuit for operation of a solid-state laser. The
flash tube is operated in pulsed mode by charging and discharging of the
capacitor. Thus the pulse on time is decided by the resistance on the flash
tube side and pulse off time is decided by the charging resistance.
There is also a high voltage switching supply for initiation of pulses. Diagram
shows a CO2 laser. Gas lasers can be axial flow, as shown, transverse flow
and folded axial flow as shown in diagram.
63
ww
w.E
The power of a CO2 laser is typically around 100 Watt per metre of tube
asy
length. Thus to make a high power laser, a rather long tube is required which
is quite inconvenient. For optimal use of floor space, high-powered CO2
En
lasers are made of folded design. In a CO2 laser, a mixture of CO2, N2 and
He continuously circulate through the gas tube. Such continuous recirculation
of gas is done to minimize.
gin
Material Removal Mechanism:
eer
ing
.ne
t
64
Additionally, heat diffusion into the bulk material causes phase change,
melting, and/or vaporization. Depending on the power density and time of
beam interaction, the mechanism progresses from one of heat absorption
and conduction to one of melting and then vaporization.
High- intensity laser beams are not recommended since they form a plasma
plume at or near the surface of the material with a consequent reduction in
the process efficiency due to absorption and scattering losses.
In LBM the work piece material is removed through several effects including
reflection, absorption, and conduction of light that is followed by melting and
evaporation. The behavior of the work material with respect to these effects
determines the material removal rate. Reflectivity depends on the
wavelength, the properties of material, the surface finish, its level of oxidation
and temperature.
ww No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut
without any support.
w.E
Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
It is a cost effective and flexible process.
asy
High accuracy parts can be machined.
No cutting lubricants required &No tool wear
Narrow heat effected zone
En
LIMITATIONS OF LASER CUTTING
gin
Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping
Limitations on thickness due to taper eer
High capital cost
High maintenance cost
ing
Assist or cover gas required
65
2. Explain with neat sketch construction, working principle of the Electron Beam
Machining Process.( APR/MAY 2015, NOV/DEC 2014, MAY/JUNE 2013,
NOV/DEC 2012, APR/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2009, APR/MAY 2004)
Two categories:
Thermal type
Non-Thermal type
Thermal type - The surface of thermo electronic cathode is heated to such a high
temperature that the electrons acquire sufficient speed to escape out to the space
around the cathode.
Non-Thermal type – Electron beam is used to cause a chemical reaction.
Principle of EBM:
asy
of electrons towards the anode. As a result, work piece is heated by the
bombardment of these electrons in a localized area, to such a high
temperature that is melted and vaporized at the point of bombardment.
Operating Principle: En
gin
Process can produce any shape of hole.
Vacuum should be created before machining.
eer
It can machine electrically conducting and non conducting material.
On the exit side of the hole the synthetic or organic backing material is
used.
.ne
The electron beam after complete penetration into the work, also partly
penetrates in the auxiliary backing material.
The backing material vaporizes along with the molten material and comes
out of hole at high pressure.
t
Drilling non circular hole:
Electron beam is deflected with the help of computer control along the
perimeter of the hole to be produced.
Beam can be kept stationary but the work table can be moved in the
desired path with the help of CNC.
66
EBM System:
1. Electron Beam Gun
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Cathode may be used as a solid block indirectly heated by radiation emitted
from a filament.
Due to force of repulsion from the cathode electrons move at high
acceleration. .ne
The velocity of electron beam pass through the anode is approximately
66% of velocity of light.
Magnetic lens is used to shape the electron beam into a converging beam.
t
2. Power supply
Vacuum does not allow rapid oxidation of incandescent filament and there
is no loss of energy of electrons as a result of collision with air molecules.
10 -4 – 10 -5 torr (1 torr = 0.0013 bar)
67
Process Parameters:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
68
ww
w.E
Advantages:
asy
En
Drilling is possible at high rates (up to 4000 holes per second).
No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
gin
Drilling parameters can easily be changed during machining.
No limitation is imposed by work piece hardness, ductility, and surface
reflectivity.
eer
No mechanical distortion occurs to the work piece since there is no con-
tact.
ing
The process is capable of achieving high accuracy and repeatability of 0.1
mm for position of holes and 5 percent for the hole diameter.
.ne
The process produces the best surface finish compared to other processes.
The cost is relatively small compared to other processes used to pro- duce
very small holes.
Disadvantages:
Drilling.
Perforation of thin sheets.
Slotting.
Integrated circuit fabrication.
69
4. Explain with neat sketch construction, working principle of the Plasma Arc
Machining Process.( APR/MAY 2015,NOV/DEC 2013, MAY/JUNE 2013,
NOV/DEC 2012 , APR/MAY 2010,MAY/JUNE 2009, NOV/DEC 2008,APR/MAY
2004)
ww more attractive.
An important feature of plasma beam machining (PBM), is that it is the only
fabricating method that works faster in stainless steel than it does in mild
w.E steel.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
Machining systems .ne
In plasma machining a continuous arc is generated between a hot tungsten
cathode and the water-cooled copper anode. A gas is introduced around
the cathode and flows through the anode.
t
The temperature, in the narrow orifice around the cathode, reaches 28,000°
C, which is enough to produce a high-temperature plasma arc. Under these
condi- tions, the metal being machined is very rapidly melted and
vaporized.
The stream of ionized gases flushes away the machining debris as a fine
spray creating flow lines on the machined surface. The removal rates by
this method are substantially higher than those of conventional single-point
turning operation. Plasma machining systems are divided into plasma arc,
plasma jet, shielded plasma, and air plasma.
Plasma arc
As shown in Fig., the arc is struck from the rear electrode of the plasma
torch to the conductive work piece causing temperatures as high as
70
33,300°C. The double arcing effect between the nozzle and the work piece
damages the electrode and the work piece.
High heat transfer rates are found to occur during plasma arc due to the
transfer of all the anode heat to the work piece. Owing to the greater
efficiency of plasma arc systems, they are often used for machining metals.
Plasma arc does not depend on a chemical reaction between the gas and
the work metal. Because the temperature is high, the process is suitable for
any electrically conductive material including those that are resistant to oxy-
fuel gas cutting.
Plasma jet
In this system, shown in Fig., the non transferred arc is operated within the
torch itself. Only ionized gas (plasma) is emitted as a jet causing
temperature as high as 16,600°C.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Since the torch itself is the anode, a large part of the anode heat is
ing
extracted by the cooling water and is not effectively used in the
material removal process. Nonconductive materials that are difficult
.ne
to machine, by conventional methods, are often successfully tackled
by the plasma jet system.
Shielded plasma
Gas-shielded plasma:
When machining different materials such as aluminum, stainless
t
steel, and mild steel, assisting gases may have to be used in order
to produce cuts of acceptable quality.
In such a case an outer shield of gas, is added, around the nozzle,
to reduce the effect of the atmosphere on the machining gas
(nitrogen or argon). The shielding gas depends on the metal being
machined. For stainless steel, aluminum and other nonferrous
metals, hydrogen is often used as a shielding gas.
Carbon dioxide is popular for ferrous and nonferrous metals. For
mild steels, air or oxygen may be also used.
Water-shielded plasma.
As shown in Fig., nitrogen is used for machining while the shield gas
is replaced by water. Water forms a radial jacket around the plasma
torch.
71
ww
Air plasma
asy
oxygen, in the resulting plasma, is very reactive especially with
ferrous metals, machining rates are raised by 25 percent.
En
The main drawback of this method is the heavily oxidized surface,
which is frequently obtained in case of stainless steel and aluminum.
gin
Because tungsten is reactive with oxygen, hafnium copper (Hf–Cu)
or hafnium- zirconium (Hf–Zr) alloys also replace tungsten
electrodes.
eer
ing
.ne
t
ww rough turning of some alloys. A low factor indicates either low energy
required or high removal rates. The machining speed is found to
decrease with increasing the thickness of the metal or the cut width in
asy
found to need a corresponding rise in the gas flow rate. During plasma
machining of 12-mm-thick steel plate using 220 kW the machining
speed is 2500 mm/min, which is 5 times greater than that for oxy-gas
cutting.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
73
The edges of the work pieces cut by PBM are often beveled. McGeough
(1988) reported that the right side of the plasma arc relative to the cutting
direction produces a square edge to within ±3°.
The left-hand edge is beveled to about 15° due to the clockwise swirling
of the machining gas. Owing to the high rate of heat transfer the depth of
fused metal extends to about 0.18 mm below the cut surface.
The high machining speed does not allow the heat to penetrate more than
a few microns from the edges of the cut which produces little or no
distortion in the cut work- piece.
The cut edge of the material tends to be harder than the base material. A
further heat-affected zone (HAZ) of thickness 0.25 to 1.12 mm has been
reported. Additionally due to the rapid cooling, cracks may arise beyond
the heat-affected zone to 1.6 mm.
A clean, smooth surface is produced by PBM. Large tolerances of ±1.6
w.E
Applications
1. PAM is an attractive turning method for difficult-to-machine mate-
asy
rials by conventional methods. In this regard, cutting speeds of 2
m/min and a feed rate of 5 mm per revolution produced a surface
finish of 0.5 mm Rt.
En
The depth of cut can be controlled through the machining power or
surface speed (Fig.).
gin
2. Computer numerical controlled PBM is used for profile cutting of
metals that are difficult to tackle by oxyacetylene gas technique such
eer
as stainless steel and aluminum. A large number of parts can also
be produced from one large sheet thus eliminating shearing
operations.
ing
3. PBM can cut 1.5-mm-deep, 12.5-mm-wide grooves in stainless
steel at 80 mm3/min, using 50 kW as the cutting power. Such a high
machining rate is 10 times the rate of grinding and chipping
.ne
methods. Lower machining rates are obtainable when these grooves
are cut in nonconductive materials. The groove dimension however
depends on the traverse speed, arc power, and the angle and height
of the plasma arc.
t
4. The process is recommended for parts that have subsequent
welding operations.
74
Advantages
Requires no complicated chemical analysis or maintenance
Uses no harmful chlorinated fluorocarbons, solvents, or acid
cleaning chemicals
Operates cleanly, often eliminating the need for vapor degreasing,
solvent wiping, ultrasonic cleaning, and grit blasting
Requires no worker exposure to harmful chemicals
Needs less energy to operate
Disadvantages
ww The large power supplies needed (220 kW) are required to cut
through 12-mm-thick mild steel plate at 2.5 m/min.
The process also produces heat that could spoil the work piece and
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
75
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
76
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
77
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
78
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
79
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
80
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
81
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
82
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
83
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
84
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
85
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
86
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
87
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
88
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
89
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
90
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
91
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
92
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
93
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
94