CC3 – Introduction to Hormones
Endocrinology – study of hormones, the endocrine system and
their physiology in the body.
Major Endocrine Glands:
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Gland
- Pancreas (Islet of Langerhans)
- Adrenal Glands
- Testes
- Ovaries
Most Important Function of Hormones = Maintain optimum
biochemical homeostasis (balance) of substances in the body.
Other Functions = Growth, Development, Sexual Reproduction,
Energy Production, Stress or Emergency Situations, Promote or
Inhibit.
Exocrine Glands vs. Endocrine Glands:
Exocrine = Glands with ducts and passes secretions to a luminal
area (oral cavity or intestines or skin).
Endocrine = Ductless glands that pass their secretions directly
to the bloodstream or interstitial fluid.
Nervous System vs. Endocrine System:
Hormone – chemical messenger that travels through the
bloodstream to target cells.
- Secreted in very small amounts.
- Target cells have specific receptors for specific
hormones.
- Regulates response by affecting gene expression
(gene transcription factors).
Target cells – cells with specific receptors to specific hormones
and reacts to them.
Effector cells – cells that exert the final intended effect of a
particular process.
Hormone receptors – located on cell membrane or within
cytoplasm.
- Binding of hormone and receptor initiates a signal
which ultimately results to a biologic response.
Manners of Secretion:
1. Autocrine – cell released hormone and hormone reacts
to the cell itself.
2. Paracrine – cell released hormone and hormone
diffuses to nearby neighboring cells.
3. Endocrine – cell released hormone and hormone
travels to the bloodstream and acts on distant target
cells.
4. Juxtacrine – direct cell-cell contact.
5. Intracrine – cell released hormone intracellularly within
itself and binds to a receptor located intracellularly.
6. Ectocrine (Pheromones) – organism releases a
substance that causes an effect in another organism.
(Dog releases something that cause effect on cats)
Types of Hormones:
- Peptide Hormones
- Steroid Hormones
- Amine Hormones
Peptide Hormones
- Consists of at least 3 amino acids.
- Water-soluble and is capable of freely circulating in
the blood.
- Most abundant and is stored in vesicles.
- Only acts on receptors found on the cell surface.
 - Requires the help of messenger enzymes inside the
cell.
*Why can peptide hormones only act on the cell surface?
Ans: This is because the cell membrane is composed of a
bilipid layer making it strongly hydrophobic.
Peptide Hormone Synthesis: (Only for peptide hormones and
very important)
Since peptide hormones are proteins, it will always start off
with…
DNA (nucleus) – transcription process will take place to produce
messenger RNA (mRNA).
mRNA (ribosomes) – translation process takes place to produce
a PREPROHORMONE.
***Preprohormone consists of a signal peptide (pre) and a pro
sequence (pro) which must be cleaved off to produce the fully
active hormone.
Preprohormone (endoplasmic reticulum) – enzymes in the ER
cleave off the signal peptide to produce the inactive
prohormone.
Prohormone (Golgi apparatus) – enzymes in the Golgi
apparatus cleave off the pro sequence to produce the fully
active hormone and is packaged to a secretory vesicle for
release.
Peptide Hormone Effect Mechanism: (very impt)
Peptide hormones travel to the bloodstream and binds with
the cell surface receptor in its target cell.
Since a peptide hormone CANNOT go inside the cell, it can only
bind to the cell surface receptor. Once bound, it changes the
shape of the receptor and binds with a nearby inactive G
Protein.
*G Protein – an integral protein (meaning it spans the whole
cell membrane) which is always found paired to a peptide
hormone receptor.
G Protein is normally bound by Guanosine Diphosphate
(GDP) which acts like an “off signal” to the G Protein. Once
the peptide hormone receptor binds to the G Protein, this GDP
is converted to GTP (Guanosine Triphosphate) which acts
like an “on signal” to the G Protein and activates it.
The activated G Protein, in turn, activates the enzyme
Adenylate Cyclase. By activating adenylate cyclase, the GTP
bound to G Protein is hydrolysed back to GDP and G Protein
become inactive again.
Adenylate Cyclase acts to produce Cyclic Adenosine
Monophosphate (cAMP) from ATP.
cAMP is free to diffuse throughout the inside of the cell and
triggers the activation of Protein Kinases which performs the
intended cellular response of the original peptide hormone.
*Protein Kinases – enzymes that either phosphorylate or
dephosphorylate various proteins leading to the enhancing or
inhibiting effect of the peptide hormone.
1st Messenger = Original Peptide Hormone.
2nd Messenger = Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate.
Steroid Hormones
- Precursor substance of all steroid hormones is
CHOLESTEROL.
- Has a complex ring structure due to cholesterol.
- Precursor Hormone of All Steroid Hormones =
Pregnenolone.
- Lipophilic and Hydrophobic.
- Not stored within secretory vesicles.
- Requires protein carrier molecules to be transported in
the blood.
- Slower acting compared to Peptide Hormones (since it
still requires protein carriers).
- Has longer half-life.
Types of Steroid Hormones: (Adrenal Cortex
Hormones, Testes and Ovaries)
- Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
- Androgens
- Estrogen
- Testosterone
- Progestogens (progesterone)
Steroid Hormone Synthesis: - Catecholamines (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine)

- Occurs in the MITOCHONDRIA and ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM of steroidogenic tissues.
- Examples of Steroidogenic Tissues = Luteal Cells of
Ovaries, Leydig Cells of Testis and Cells of Adrenal
Cortex.
Thyroid Hormones – behave like steroid hormones.
Catecholamines – behave like peptide hormones.
- Produced by the adrenal medulla and may act as
both neurohormones and neurotransmitters.

Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein (StAR) –

transports cholesterol from the cytoplasm to the Other Amino Acids used to Synthesize Amine Hormones:
mitochondria and is the rate-limiting step in the production of
- Tryptophan = Melatonin and Serotonin.
steroid hormones.
- Glutamic Acid = Histamine.
StAR picks up cholesterol from cytoplasm and then transports it
to the mitochondria where enzymatic steps are carried out
converting cholesterol to steroid hormones. Factors for Control of Endocrine Activity

Where does cholesterol used for steroid hormone synthesis
come from?
- Acetate
- Cholesteryl Ester
- Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
Steroid Hormone Effect Mechanism:
A steroid hormone is carried through the blood by a protein
carrier. Once it reaches its target cell, it is released from its
protein carrier.
Since a steroid hormone is capable of directly entering the
cell (bilipid layer is hydrophobic and steroids are hydrophobic),
it attaches to its receptor within the cytoplasm.
The complex then directly enters the nucleus where it binds
and activates a specific gene on the DNA of the cell. This
activated gene causes the production of an mRNA that codes
for protein production causing the desired effect of the
steroid hormone.
Amine Hormones
- Derivative of the amino acid TYROSINE.
- Capable of behaving as Peptide or Steroid Hormones.
Types of Amine Hormones:
- Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)
- Rate of Production
- Rate of Delivery
- Rate of Degradation and Elimination
Control of Hormone Release:
1. Substrate Control (Humoral)
- Glucose concentration regulating insulin release.
- Calcium concentration regulating parathyroid hormone
release.
- Sodium concentration regulation aldosterone release.
2. Nervous Control (Neural)
- Posterior pituitary hormones and adrenal medulla are
both directly controlled by the nervous system.
3. Trophic Hormones (Hormonal)
- TSH regulating T3 and T4 release.
- Corticotropin Releasing Hormone regulating ACTH
release.
- Usually produced by hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary gland.
Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion:
Negative Feedback – prevents excessive stimulus of a
substance, hormone or activity by releasing a hormone which
acts to decrease the stimuli.
Example 1:
Stimulus = Hyperglycemia in DM patient.
Body Response = Secrete Insulin which acts to lower the
increased blood glucose in order to maintain homeostasis.
Example 2: - Example = Hypothalamus (TRH) and Pituitary Gland

Stimulus = Excessive Intake of Calcium Supplements (TSH).

Body Response = Secrete Calcitonin which acts to lower the Disorders of the Endocrine System:

increased blood calcium.

Primary – problem is within the gland itself.

***Conclusion: Negative Feedback = Lower something that has Example: Primary Hypothyroidism would be caused by damage
been increased. or removal of the thyroid gland itself.

Positive Feedback – involves a lot of variables wherein 1
variable acts to increase the other variables.
Example 1:
Stimulus = Uterus Contraction during Pregnancy
Secondary – problem is with the pituitary gland.
Example: Secondary Hypothyroidism occurs as a result of a
pituitary adenoma (tumor that is exerting pressure on the
pituitary gland) causing a decreased release of TSH resulting to
lesser stimulation of thyroid gland.

Body Response = Secrete Oxytocin which acts to increase the ***Almost all Secondary Disorders are due to Pituitary Adenoma
widening and contraction of the uterus to facilitate childbirth. or Accidents involving Pituitary Gland damage.

Example 2: Tertiary – problem is with the hypothalamus.

Stimulus = Excessive Intake of Calcium Supplements Example: Hypothalamic damage = Lack of Thyrotropin
Releasing Hormone = Lack of TSH = Lack of Thyroid
Body Response = Secrete Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Stimulation = TERTIARY HYPOTHYROIDISM
which increases the activity of the Thyroid Gland to secrete
more Calcitonin.

***Conclusion: Positive Feedback = Hormone increases the

effect of another hormone.

Feedback Loops – a regulating system that is composed of

both positive and negative feedbacks.

***Both positive and negative feedback may occur in one whole

feedback loop.

Open-Loop Negative Feedback – refers to phenomenon of a

negative feedback with a modifiable set point.

- Most endocrine feedback loops are of this type.

Short Feedback Loop – feedback between effector cell and

pituitary gland.

- Example = Thyroid Gland (T3 and T4) and Pituitary

Gland (TSH)

Long Feedback Loop – feedback at the level of the

hypothalamus.

- Example = Thyroid Gland (T3 and T4), Pituitary Gland

(TSH) and Hypothalamus (TRH)

Ultrashort Feedback Loop – feedback between pituitary gland

and hypothalamus.