Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.

3, Issue 1) April 2004

www.ommi.co.uk

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ISSUES IN GAS TURBINES AND THEIR

RELEVANCE TO PLANT LIFE EXTENSION - R&D INITIATIVES

J E Oakey & N J Simms, Cranfield University, UK, & D H Allen, ALSTOM Power
Technology Centre, UK

Abstract

The gas turbine is a key component in many advanced fossil and biomass-fired power
systems. As such, its durability under future plant operating conditions and the ability to
predict (and extend where necessary/appropriate) the life of major hot gas path components
are high priorities. This paper reviews current lifing methods, discusses the need for more
detailed evaluation of degradation modes and more accurate corrosion and lifetime prediction
models for hot gas path components (substrate and coatings). In addition, it illustrates how
this required research will link into strategic Plant Life Extension (PLE) R&D initiatives,
specifically the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Supergen 2
programme.

1. Introduction

Power plant components can be exposed to extremely aggressive environments which can be
life limiting [1]. These environments vary significantly between power plant components and
their effects are dependent on the materials of construction and the operating conditions for
each component (e.g. time, temperature, stress, environment). Component operating
conditions (e.g. the number plant shut-downs) and power plant fuels are changing as a result
of market forces, environmental pressures, and regulatory influences. Such changes are
causing components to be exposed to different environments (i.e. different gas and deposit
compositions) than originally intended, with different thermal requirements (i.e. the number
and rate of thermal cycles). For example, for ageing coal-fired plants, the introduction of low
NOx firing methods and the likelihood of co-firing with biomass and other fuels to reduce
CO2 emissions will provide challenges to plant life.

For gas-fired combined cycle plants, which are inherently more efficient (>50%), the price of
gas supplies and RAMO (reliability, availability, maintainability and operability) issues will
dominate their ability to supply electricity profitably at the market price; increased cyclic
operation leading to poor reliability and the option to use cheaper, less-sweet (higher S) gas
sources will be key issues. In current gas-fired CC plants, the lifetimes of protective coatings
(in particular TBCs), the ability to predict residual life and the adequacy of repair approaches
are major concerns. The limited lifetimes of coatings, especially if associated with increased
cyclic operation, would significantly affect the economic viability of these systems. In the
medium term, retrofitting these plants with more advanced technology, such as system reliant
TBCs, to improve efficiency, and the use of biomass-derived fuel gases to supplement natural
gas may also be an attractive way of further reducing CO2 emissions.
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 2

2. Prediction of Environmental Degradation of Materials Systems in Gas Turbine Plant

The gas turbine is a key component in many advanced fossil and biomass-fired power
systems. As such, its durability under future plant operating conditions and the ability to
predict (and extend where necessary/appropriate) the life of major hot gas path components
are high priorities. Protective coatings to resist oxidation/corrosion and/or to act as thermal
barriers to reduce blade/vane temperatures are routinely applied to the hotter blade/vane rows.
In this paper, the approach for the development of predictive methods for the substrate alloy
and coating systems in gas turbine plant using dirty fuel gases is presented as an illustration of
the role of environmental issues in the overall field of PLE.

Dirty fuel gases, either from the gasification of solid fuels, such as coal or biomass, or from
waste gas sources, present a range of additional factors [2,3] to consider when aiming to
predict the remaining life of the expensive components used in high efficiency gas turbines
designed for natural gas. The presence of particulates may cause erosion, abrasion or
deposition, and gaseous/vapour species (e.g., sulphur oxides (SOX), hydrogen chloride (HCl),
alkalis and other trace metal species) may cause deposition and/or enhanced corrosion.

Ideally, in order to develop predictive models, data would be acquired from materials systems
exposed as real components in operating plants and their performance monitored over realistic
timescales, i.e. periods of 1 - 3 years, depending on the component.

However, because of the risks involved, this approach is only viable for the evaluation of the
best performing coating/substrate systems identified through laboratory and pilot scale studies.
Thus, from the modelling perspective, service data offers a route to validate models rather than
to develop them. With only limited plant data available, the prediction and assessment of
materials performance has to use laboratory data obtained under realistic conditions to produce
models of materials performance that show the sensitivity of the degradation rates to realistic
changes in the exposure conditions. The plant data available will be used to check that the same
forms of degradation are observed in the plant as under laboratory exposure conditions. The use
of plant data for the validation of environmental degradation models is also more complex than
it may appear, due to uncertainties over plant operating conditions and fuel properties, leading
to increased scatter in correlations between plant data and model predictions. As a result,
intermediate scale testing in a burner rig is used to limit the uncertainties and validate model
sensitivities to plant parameters. Even though burner rig testing is limited in exposure time
(typically 1000h), much useful information on materials performance can be obtained from
such periods, if suitable metrology of material damage is carried out [4].

In modelling the behaviour of gas turbine coatings/materials and producing component

lifetime predictions, several distinct aspects of materials behaviour and component
requirements have to be taken into account for each different operating environment:

• Environmental degradation (e.g., high temperature oxidation, hot corrosion, erosion);

• Mechanical factors (e.g., creep and high/low cycle fatigue behaviour)
• Synergistic effects (e.g., effect of fatigue behaviour on allowable corrosion damage,
erosion/corrosion)
• Component end-of-life criteria

As components tend to fail from the regions of worst corrosion damage, corrosion modelling
work has been particularly targeted at the development of ‘maximum’ corrosion damage
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 3

models based on large numbers of metal loss measurements [5,6]. Thus, statistically based
models have been developed for the various different types of high temperature corrosion
damage that can arise in coal-fired combined cycle systems. These statistical models of
corrosion damage need to be combined with appropriate information on exposure conditions
(e.g., gas chemistry, gas pressure, metal temperatures, deposition flux, deposit compositions)
materials mechanical properties, synergistic effects and component life criteria to give
realistic estimates of component lives.

This paper describes an approach to integrating these different factors that has been developed
during the course of work on hot gas path components for coal-fired combined cycle power
plants. This approach, shown as a flow diagram in Figure 1, is illustrated for the blades/vanes
within a gas turbine burning coal-derived fuel gases.

Component Operating Fuel

Specification Conditions Specifications

Component Inlet & outlet

Geometry
gas P & T

Thermal Model Aerodynamic

Model

Gas flow rate Thermochemical

Metal surface P & T distributions Model
temperature

Alloy Deposition flux & Transport & Deposition Contaminant

specification composition Models levels & species

Corrosion & Particle Mechanical

Erosion/Corrosion deposition Property Data
flux
Models

Damage
rates
Life Predictions
• Contaminant effects
Component design &
• Operating condition effects
life criteria

Figure 1 Flow diagram for component life modelling

Materials degradation modes

The requirements for materials in the hot gas paths of gas turbines are very demanding. The
materials need to be capable of operating at bulk temperatures up to ~950°C under both high
and fluctuating stresses (i.e. having creep and both high and low cycle fatigue resistance), while
also withstanding the surrounding environments [7]. The environments produced can be both
physically and chemically aggressive, with particulates producing erosion or deposition and
gaseous species producing different forms of deposition, oxidation and hot corrosion [8,9].
During the last 40 years, these topics have been the subject of many investigations and the
potential problems which may be encountered in gas and oil fired gas turbines have been well
characterised [8,9]. Many similar types of materials degradation can be expected in gas turbines
using coal-derived fuels, as some of the contaminant species are the same as for oil and/or gas
fired systems, but the levels of contamination are different and there are additional species
which can be expected to modify the materials behaviour.
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 4

Gas turbine blade/vane coatings and substrates will oxidise in the combustion gases produced in
all gas turbine systems, but the rate of oxidation below ~900-1000°C metal temperature is
sufficiently slow to not be life limiting. However, hot corrosion of turbine materials can occur
much more rapidly and is potentially life limiting. For hot corrosion to occur, a liquid (usually
sulphate) deposit is required on the surface of components. The formation of this deposit
depends on trace metal species (e.g., sodium, potassium, lead, zinc compounds) in the gas
streams and other reactive gas species (e.g., sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur trioxide (SO3),
HCl). The rates of corrosion will depend (among other factors) on the rate of deposit formation,
temperature and the surrounding environment. Two general types of hot corrosion in gas
turbine environments have been identified to date: Type I hot corrosion at ~750-900°C; Type
II hot corrosion at ~600-800°C. Reviews of these forms of damage are available in the
literature, for example reference [8].

Corrosion models

Studies have been carried out on the corrosive effects of contaminants expected in gas
turbines using coal-derived gases, but few systematic studies have been carried out to
generate suitable dimensional data for modelling these forms of corrosion. However, limited
corrosion models have been developed in UK and European research activities, carried out in
support of coal-fired pressurised fluidised bed combustion and solid fuel fired gasification
systems [4, 10-14]. These activities are on-going and the latest forms of these developing
corrosion models are reported elsewhere in these conference proceedings. Figure 2 illustrates
the general features of these corrosion models for the conventionally cast blading alloy
IN738LC. Deposition fluxes, deposit compositions and SOx partial pressures dominate the
corrosion behaviour of the materials, with less effect from HCl partial pressures.

Figure 3 shows some of the validation data generated from materials exposures in plant and
burner rig environments. The largest source of errors in this validation is the uncertainty in
exposure conditions in the plant environments.

Component end-of-life criteria

There are no set life criteria for blades and vanes in industrial gas turbines. Different life
criteria are used by different gas turbine manufacturers and turbine users, depending on how
conservative their view of component life is and how/whether components will be
refurbished. For example, four alternative life criteria for gas turbine blades and vanes are:

1. Penetration of 2/3 of the thickness of a corrosion resistant coating (applicable to blades

and vanes);
2. Total penetration through a corrosion resistant coating (applicable to blades and vanes);
3. For a blade, the minimum defect size to trigger high cycle fatigue cracking in the base
alloy
4. For an air cooled vane, total penetration of the corrosion resistant coating and 2/3
penetration of the minimum wall thickness over the cooling channels;
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 5

Life criteria 1 and 2 represent different degrees of conservatism on the component

refurbishment route, but give lower predicted lives than criteria 3 and 4. However, there
would be doubt about the viability of component refurbishment using life criteria 3 or 4.
These criteria vary with gas turbine blade and vane designs and coating specifications and
thus are gas turbine specific.
600

100 vppm SOx, 100 vppm HCl

500
3000 vppm SOx, 300 vppm HCl
'Maximum' corrosion damage (µm)

400

300

200

100

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Alkali sulphate deposition flux (µg/cm2/hour)

Figure 2 Illustration of the use of a ‘maximum’ hot corrosion damage model for
IN738LC at 700°C (time = 500 hours) [17]

10
Laboratory Tests
Predicted 'maximum' corrosion rate (µm/h)

4000 h Burner Rig Test

Plant data
Ideal

0.1

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10
Measured 'maximum' corrosion rate (µm/h)

Figure 3 Comparison of model predictions with burner rig and plant results for
IN738LC metal temperatures of ~700°C [17]

Component Life Predictions

The lives of components in gas turbines operating on gasifier-derived fuel gases will depend
on many factors. From the point of view of corrosion damage to the components, important
factors include the type of gasification system, fuel composition and gas cleaning process
(especially the operating temperature of hot gas cleaning systems), as well as gas turbine
blade/vane designs and operating conditions. Differences in such factors can have a
significant effect on the corrosion damage to the gas turbine.
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 6

In order to make corrosion life predictions for gas turbines operating on a gasification system,
detailed information is required about the exposure conditions within the gas turbine hot gas
path, in terms of the entry gas composition, gas partial pressures, deposition fluxes, metal
temperatures, etc (i.e. the outputs of the other models in Figure 1). Such detailed information
about gas turbine and system performance is commercially sensitive. However, to illustrate
the use of such modelling a set of generic conditions have been used together with gas
contaminant levels of 80 vppm SOX and 140 vppm HCl. These data have been used in a
vapour deposition model [15] to predict the variation of deposition flux with gas pressure. It
is also necessary to assume that creep is not life limiting but that high cycle fatigue could be
and a critical defect damage size can be defined (for criterion 3). Estimated dimensional
details needed to use the models are: a corrosion resistant coating of 120 µm (for use in life
criterion 1 and 2), a minimum wall thickness over the vanes’ cooling passages of 6 mm (for
use in life criterion 4), and a minimum defect size to trigger HCF of 1.3 mm (for use in life
criterion 4).

These various assumptions and estimates have been combined to show the variation in
predicted component lives with reducing gas pressure (and gas temperature) but constant
metal temperature. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the results obtained when these assumptions are
combined with the four life criteria outlined above to give predictions of component lives for
metal temperatures of 700 and 650°C respectively. These figures show that the predicted
lives increase (as expected) going from criteria 1 to 4 (the ‘step’ in the predicted lives in these
figures is related to crossing a deposition dewpoint). Care is needed in relating such
predictions to gas turbine vanes and blades, as not all conditions for which predictions can be
made occur in actual gas turbines, and criteria 3 and 4 are component specific.

Thermal Barrier Coatings

Many hot gas path turbine components are reliant on thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) for life
and it is therefore necessary to extend the above modelling approach to include TBCs, which
are increasingly being used to reduce the metal temperatures and, hence, increase creep and
thermo-mechanical fatigue lives. Coating life is one of the main factors governing the repair
and refurbishment intervals of the hot gas path parts. Hence, it is important to be able to
understand the mechanisms of TBC spallation, and to develop models to predict the event
(and validate these models).

In order to attach the TBCs to the metal substrate, bond (and key) coats are used, giving a
complex multi-layered coating structure. A range of different coating compositions and
application technologies can be used for each of these coating layers. For example:

• Bond coats:
o Overlay MCrAlY (where M = Ni and/or Co) coatings; applied by low pressure
plasma spraying (LPPS), high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) or electroplating
o Pt – Al; Pt electroplate followed by aluminising
• Key coats:
o Overlay MCrAlY (where M = Ni and/or Co) coatings; applied by LPPS or
HVOF electroplating
o Pt electroplate
This layer is processed differently to the bond coat to give different coating layer
properties, e.g. surface roughness, thinner coating
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 7

• TBCs:
o Coating compositions are generally based on yttria partially stabilised zirconia
o Air plasma spraying (APS); usual application route for industrial gas turbines
o Electron beam – physical vapour deposition (EB-PVD); more advanced
application route developed for aero-engine components
100000
Predicted life (hours)

10000

1000

Life criterion 1
Life criterion 2
Life criterion 3
Life criterion 4

100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Gas Pressure (bar g)

Figure 4 Illustration of the variation of life predictions with different life criteria at 700°C
(assumptions for use of the model given in text) [17]

100000
Life criterion 1
Life criterion 2
Life criterion 3
Life criterion 4
Predicted life (hours)

10000

1000

100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Gas pressure (barg)

Figure 5 Illustration of the variation of life predictions with different life criteria at 650°C
(assumptions for use of the model given in text) [17]

The lives of these coatings are determined by a host of parameters ranging from the chemistry
of the material, method and quality of coating deposition, gas turbine duty cycle etc. The
formation of an α-alumina oxide between the bond/key coats and TBCs is believed be critical
to the attachment of TBC. However, growth of this oxide layer (known as the thermally
grown oxide (TGO)) has frequently been identified as having a major influence on spallation
of the TBC layer [e.g. 16]. Many other possible factors have also been identified [e.g. 17-19],
but the magnitudes of the effects (if any) of these individual factors are, as yet, unknown (as
are any interactions between them), though these are under active investigation [e.g. 19].
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 8

Spallation mechanisms for TBCs will be related to a complex combination of many factors:
• TGO growth, chemistry and microstructure
• Bond coat and key coat chemistry (aluminium depletion, chromium and nickel inter-
diffusion, etc)
• Bond / key coat surface roughness
• Tensile and compressive stresses in bond coat, TGO and TBC arising from creep and
TGO growth
• TBC microstructure
• Crack growth paths within the TGO and/or the TBC (both close to the TGO/TBC
interface and through the thickness of the TBC)

The balance between these factors will be different for TBCs, bond coats and key coats of
different compositions and application routes, making the modelling process highly complex
and material system-specific.

A widely accepted failure mechanism for TBCs assumes dependence on the growth of the
TGO to a critical thickness before spallation can occur. Compressive stresses around the
TGO/TBC interface, which develop during cooling (and increase with growth of the TGO),
would reach a critical value, above which spallation would occur during a thermal cycle. The
depletion of aluminium in the near surface region of the bond/key coat will eventually lead to
the formation of non α-aluminium oxides (e.g. other less stable forms of alumina and/or
chromium/nickel spinels), which grow at a faster rate than α-alumina, leading to the faster
development of stresses in the TGO/TBC interface region.

On this basis, the critical parameters in such an empirical TBC life prediction model would
be:
• Key / bond coat oxidation rates; characterised by development of TGO thicknesses
and beta depletion zone thicknesses (when present); in turn dependent on key/bond
coat compositions, roughness and thickness, oxygen transport though the TBC.
• Temperature change in a thermal cycle; causing the generation of stresses around the
TBC/TGO/bond coat interface; with the magnitude and direction of the stresses also
dependent on factors such as sample geometry and interface roughness. The
propagation of cracks along the interfaces or through the TGO or TBC would be
driven by these stresses.
• Rate of temperature change.
• Defect density, size and orientation in the TBC, especially close to the TGO/TBC
interface.

Such a model would allow the onset of failure to be predicted by basic laboratory or NDT
measurements and would, hence, be extremely valuable from an engineering perspective.

3. Relevance to Strategic R&D for Conventional Plant Life Extension

As world economies move towards more sustainable ways of providing their energy
requirements, flexibility of existing power plants is becoming increasingly important. The
contributions to electricity supply from wind, solar and other renewable sources are variable,
often unpredictable and will lead to increased cycling of existing conventional plant types to
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 9

meet demand [20]. To ensure system RAMO it is necessary to be able to predict the impact of
this increased variability in plant operation on materials performance and component life.

In response to the strategic need to extend the life of existing power plant, the Engineering
and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) is supporting a consortium of four UK
Universities and eleven industrial companies in a programme addressing Plant Life Extension,
as part of the second round of the EPSRC Supergen programme. The Universities are Bristol,
Cranfield, Loughborough and Nottingham, with industrial support from ALSTOM Power
Technology Centre, Rolls Royce, Mitsui Babcock Energy Ltd., Demag Delaval Industrial
Turbomachinery Ltd., ALSTOM Power Steam Turbines, Innogy, Powergen, Howmet,
Chromalloy UK, Qinetiq and NPL. The key plant components of interest to the PLE
Consortium are boilers, gas/steam turbines and heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs).

As part of an overall plant life management strategy practised by utilities to maintain and/or
improve the economic performance of fossil power plants, PLE is a key element. PLE aims to
assess the actual condition of the materials used for critical components allowing an informed
judgement to be made of its remaining life at the conditions expected during future operation,
without leading to expensive and unpredictable failure in service. As such, PLE is viewed as
an on-going strategic tool required to maintain the competitive position of a power plant.
Component lives almost always exceed the designers’ cautious expectations, but the
techniques used to assess their condition and predict remaining life are often empirical and
subjective.

Because of the importance of plant life management to the economic performance of power
plant, considerable effort has been devoted in the past, in particular by EPRI [e.g. 21] and the
CEGB [e.g. 22], to establishing methodologies and techniques using available plant data,
simple measurements and existing knowledge to provide the risk-averse power utilities with a
robust decision making capability. This approach is practised to different extents and with
local variations by all the world’s power utilities. However, many still adopt expensive
component sampling for destructive examination to determine material condition/properties.
This approach, in conjunction with techniques such as oxide thickness or hardness
measurements to determine operating temperature and the use of replicas to assess the extent
of microstructural degradation are used with calibration plots, reference micrographs, go/no-
go diagrams, etc., to provide a guide to remaining life. Such approaches are widely practised
but are not always reliable and depend on skilled interpretation and reliable operating data.
Since the creation of these methodologies there have been considerable developments in
microstructural analysis, new finite element modelling methods, improved
oxidation/corrosion models, etc. Moreover, there have been significant changes in the plant
types, components and the materials for which plant life extension strategies are required to
maintain their competitive position in the electricity marketplace. In addition, advances in
computing and the miniaturisation of electrical/mechanical instrumentation mean that there is
now a real opportunity to extend laboratory-based methods into the plant environment, in the
form of miniaturised in-situ measurement tools. Exploiting the potential of these advances for
PLE is central to the success of the Supergen project.

The ambitious aim of the Supergen project is to develop an innovative ‘integrated toolbox’ of
predictive methods/models (based on improved scientific understanding) and targeted
invasive and non-invasive measurement techniques. This will provide UK industries with
improved means of reliably quantifying the condition and remaining life of plant components
in all types of conventional, fossil-fired power plant.
Environmental Degradation in Gas Turbines OMMI (Vol.3, Issue 1) April 2004 10

The aims of this project are summarised as follows:

• To develop an integrated toolbox which can be implemented by industry to enhance
the performance/or extend the life of conventional power generation plant
• To build close and effective bridges between the power sector industries and the
wide-ranging academic research in this project so that rapid implementation and
commercial exploitation can take place
• To provide a high quality pool of well qualified expertise to service the conventional
power sector
• To establish a forum & sustainable network to provide industry and academia with
an opportunity to learn about new developments both nationally and internationally

To achieve the Consortium’s aims, an integrated work programme comprising 5 technical

work packages (WPs) has been developed, with a further WP focused on networking to
ensure that the Consortium takes full advantage of past and on-going research in this area and
develops its industrial links throughout the programme. The main WPs will involve; condition
monitoring, environmental degradation and protection, microstructural degradation,
modelling of mechanical/component behaviour and component life prediction.

4. Summary

It has been illustrated that modelling the environmental degradation behaviour and potential
lives of materials systems in gas turbines requires the consideration of a wide range of factors,
including the detailed exposure environment, mechanical requirements and life criteria. As
components tend to fail from the regions of worst corrosion damage, statistically based
corrosion models, derived from metal loss data that show the sensitivity of corrosion damage
to exposure parameters, are needed. Some corrosion models have been developed to meet
these objectives for specific components within the hot gas paths of these power systems.
Further studies are planned to extend these models to include thermal barrier coatings and a
wider range of fuels.

Over the next four years, the Supergen PLE project will develop an integrated approach to
plant life extension from activities carried out within the consortium, by developing
collaborations with other research groups with complementary skills, and by developing
additional projects to extend the scope of the original programme.

5. Acknowledgements

The support of the EPSRC Supergen Programme and the industrial participants in the
forthcoming Plant Life Extension Project described in this paper are gratefully acknowledged.

6. References

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2. N J Simms, A Encinas-Oropesa, P Kilgallon and J E Oakey, 'Performance of Gas Turbine

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