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A critical appraisal of plate girder design

Batacharia, Oscar

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 UINIVERSITY OF DURHAM

A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF PLATE GIRDER DESIGN

BY

OSCAR BATACHARIA

A Thesis submitted f o r the Degree of

Master Of Science.

5KjS»» "'"•'••4.
ENGINEERING SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, I 4 JULl9?6

OCTOBER 1977.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.

No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged.
 LIST OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Acknowledgements

Synopsis i

Symbols i i

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Scope 1

1.2 Aesthetics 1

1.3 Historical Background 1

] .h Tender k

1.5 The New B r i d g e S t r u c t u r e k

1.6 The D e s i g n R e q u i r e m e n t s 5

1.7 O p e r a t i n g System 6

Chapter 2 Loading Conception

2.1 The R e p o r t o f t h e B r i d g e S t r e s s . C o m m i t t e e 1928 10

2.2 M.O.T. L o a d i n g C o n d i t i o n s 11

2.3 British S t a n d a r d 153 11

2.k Wind L o a d i n g ' 14

Chapter 3 A n a l y s i s o f Main Girders

Elastic Theory

3.1 Introduction 19

3.2 Scope 22

3.3 Working Stress i n Flanges 23

3.it Working Shear S t r e s s i n S o l i d Web P l a t e 26

3.5 Web B u c k l i n g a n d R e i n f o r c e m e n t 3^
3.6 R e s t r a i n t s on S t a b i l i t y o f t h e Compression Flange ^0

3.7 Welding

Chapter k Analysis o f Orthotropic Deck

4.1 introduction 50

k.2 Description 52

\ 4 JUL iWii
BtOTIO« ^ ^
 2.

PAGE

Chapter 5 A n a l y s i s o f Main Girders:

Limit State Theory

5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Main G i r d e r s - Design Considerations 58
5.3 Cross G i r d e r - L i m i t State Analysis 108

Chapter 6 O r t h o t r o p i c Deck System:

Limit State Analysis

6.1 Design Considerations no

6.2 U l t i m a t e Load T e s t on t h e Deck 116

Chapter 7 Discussions 119

Chapter 8 Apprehension o f t h e Appendices 122

I Bibliography
Append ix;.A Al

B Bl

C CI

" D Dl

" E El

F Fl

G . Gl

Drawings

0 -
 Acknowledgements
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr.G.M.Parton
for his supervision of the work described i n this thesis and
his suggestions which made t h i s project possible.

Nonetheless, most of a l l , I shall remain grateful to

Prof. G, R, Higginson throughout my l i f e , because without
his sympathy and support, this thesis could, not have reached
t h i s stage.

I am also very much obliged to Mr. J. Neary who took so much

trouble to type this thesis.
 SYNOPSIS

This t h e s i s descrihes the design o f the Alexandra-

Langton swing "bridge, a t L i v e r p o o l , and examines the
design i n the l i g h t o f the most r e c e n t l y published work
on t h i s f i e l d . The t e x t includes a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l
background o f the development o f p l a t e g i r d e r bridges. A
c r i t i c a l study has been made t o understand the e v o l u t i o n
of the p l a t e g i r d e r design formulas, recommended i n B.S. 153.
This t h e s i s also covers the most r e c e n t l y published
work on l i m i t s t a t e theory. Simple a n a l y t i c a l methods are
used t o p r e d i c t the p l a s t i c moments and the i n e l a s t i c
behaviour o f the p l a t e g i r d e r and the o r t h o t r o p i c s t e e l -
deck u n i t .

A comparison has been made t o examine the savings of

s t e e l i f l i m i t s t a t e method i s applied instead o f e l a s t i c
method.
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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Scope;
The aim of t h i s research p r o j e c t i s to analyse the
s t r u c t u r a l mechanism of a p l a t e g i r d e r swing bridge, which
has been b u i l t and a t present i s i n operation a t Alexandra-
Langton dock a t L i v e r p o o l . I t i s also the i n t e n t i o n to
analyse the super-structure of the bridge on the basis of
E l a s t i c ( i n accordance w i t h B.S.153) as w e l l as u l t i m a t e load
t h e o r y , and compare the r e s u l t s .
1.2. A e s t h e t i c s :

A e s t h e t i c s may i n f l u e n c e the design of a bridge and t h i s

i n c l u d e s character and scale of n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l
surroundings. A bridge should merge or be complementary to
i t s n a t u r a l surroundings as much as p o s s i b l e . These
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a f f e c t the l i n e , l e v e l , shape, size and colour
of the proposed b r i d g e . Dominance of a r t i f i c i a l surroundings
by s t r u c t u r e i s o f t e n d e s i r a b l e and may have the e f f e c t of
g i v i n g u n i t y t o an otherwise haphazard p a t t e r n .
1.3. H i s t o r i c a l Background;

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d the o r i g i n of the c o n s t r u c t i o n

of b r i d g e s . Probably, man invented the f i r s t bridge when he
s t a r t e d t o move from one place to another, and nature might
he the f i r s t one t o provide a bridge i n form of a t r e e _ f a l l e n
across a stream. Probably the Egyptians were the f i r s t bridge
engineers, d u r i n g the period of t h e i r r e i g n , and concurrently
Mesopatamians took over. During those days men learned how
to b u i l d bridges of stone, then wood, because bridges were
necessary t o conquer wars and grow vines etc. The a c t u a l
b i r t h of the science began d u r i n g the Greek supremacy. Although
the Egyptians had developed some mathematics, Greek scholars
such as Pythagoras, A r i s t o t l e and Archimedes gave impetus

-1-
 t o the knowledge of Sciencei Later, t h i s leadership i n
knowledge of Science was passed on to the Great Romans.
Romans were more n e a r l y the engineers, r a t h e r than S c i e n t i s t s .
Many of t h e i r superb ancient stone arches which were b u i l t
w i t h dressed stones w i t h o u t mortar, centuries ago are s t i l l
i n existance. The m i l i t a r y engineers accompanying the
conquering Roman armies were adept a t p i l e bent bridges and
timber arches. Caesar's bridge over the Rhine, which was
destroyed d u r i n g the world war TT, was the unique example
of t h a t p e r i o d .

During the "Medieval" p e r i o d , (approx. 600 AD){>*Arabic

System o f numbers was developed and d u r i n g t h a t time the
St. Benezet Bridge a t France,*the o l d London Bridge were
built.

The period of 1450 t o 1850 can be thought of as the

beginning of the S c i e n t i f i c focus upon the unanswered
questions of nature. During t h i s time the great men such
as Da V i n c i , P a l l a d i o , G a l i l e o , Hooke, Newton, B e r n o u l l i ,
Euler, Coulomb and many more, c o n t r i b u t e d p l e n t y towards
the S c i e n t i f i c developments of todays world.

I n 1776 Coulomb published the f i r s t c o r r e c t analysis

f o r the f i b r e stresses i n a beam of a rectangular cross
s e c t i o n subjected t o a bending moment. Coulomb was soon
f o l l o w e d by others, such as Navier, Claperyron, Saint
Venant e t c .

Maxwell developed h i s method f o r S t a t i c a l l y i n d e t e r -

minate s t r u c t u r e s i n the mid-nineteenlH century. During the
same p e r i o d Mohr and C a s t i g l i a n o , developed a new approach
t o the s t a t i c a l l y indeterminate s t r u c t u r e s . This i s
important t o note t h a t , u n t i l the analysis of s t a t i c a l l y
indeterminate s t r u c t u r e s was known, i t was not a t a l l possible
to analyse the behaviour of a continuous beam system. The
famous German engineer Muller-Breslan has f u r t h e r developed
the previous work of Maxwell and C a s t i g l i a n o .

- 2 -
 I n 1840, the f i r s t a l l - i r o n bridge was b u i l t . The
m a t e r i a l used f o r t h i s bridge was Cast I r o n and Wrought
I r o n and was b u i l t across the E r i e Canal a t F r a n k f / r t , X
New York. I t was a highway g i r d e r bridge w i t h a span of
77 f e e t . Up t o the l a t e 1850's, metal bridges were b u i l t
w i t h cast i r o n compression members and wrought i r o n tension
members. The manufacturing o f s t e e l was invented i n 1856,
but i t was not u n t i l 1869, the f i r s t a l l s t e e l bridge was
erected across t h e M i s s i s s i p p i River a t St. Louis. By t h i s
time, heams and g i r d e r s as bridge members came i n t o wide
use. During the e a r l y p a r t o f the 20th Century, r o l l e d
beams were standardized, which gave some i n d i c a t i o n s of the
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s t e e l s e c t i o n s . I n the l a t e 30's, wide
f l a n g e shapes became e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e , so, the highway
s t r i n g e r bridges were erected w i t h simply supported, wide
f l a n g e beams on spans up t o about 110 f t . Riveted p l a t e
g i r d e r s were also used d u r i n g t h i s period f o r the through-
b r i d g e s , span up t o about 150 f t .

During 1950s engineers were more equipped t o b u i l d

bridges up t o 300 f t span, by t a k i n g advantage of welding
techniques and composite construction.Intiie 1960's spans up
t o t h r e e times as l o n g , became economically f e a s i b l e w i t h
the use o f High-Strength Steel and box g i r d e r s or O r t h o t r o p i c -
p l a t e Construction o r Stayed g i r d e r s .
The ever i n c r e a s i n g cost of m a t e r i a l and labour since
World War TT, made the welded p l a t e g i r d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n
more c o m p e t i t i v e . The added advantages of t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n
are clean appearance, easy t o erect and easier maintenance
A simple I - Section i s the i d e a l f o r welded c o n s t r u c t i o n s .
The m a t e r i a l can be disposed more e f f e c t i v e l y than r i v e t e d
c o n s t r u c t i o n , as flange angles are n o t r e q u i r e d , tension
flanges need n o t be increased i n area t o compensate f o r r i v e t
holes and more r i g i d s t i f f e n i n g of the web can be provided
w i t h h i g h e r sections o f the s t i f f e n e r s . Plate g i r d e r s w i t h
p a r a l l e l , flanges o f constant size and u n s t i f f e n e d web of
uniform t h i c k n e s s , are the cheapest i n cost per t o n . But as

- 3 -
 the span increases, the depth o f the p l a t e g i r d e r increases,
t h e r e f o r e the web has t o be s t i f f e n e d by v e r t i c a l and / or
h o r i z o n t a l r i b s t o prevent b u c k l i n g .
1.4. Tender;

Tenders were i n v i t e d a t the^end o f 1972 by Mersey Docks

and Harbour Board, L i v e r p o o l f o r the replacement of an old
P r a t t - T r u s s type b r i d g e , which was constructed sometime during
the year 1903-04, across a canal stemming from the r i v e r
Mersey. The purpose o f t h i s bridge was t o provide access
f o r the t r a n s p o r t e r t o c a r r y goods from the cargo brought by
the container ships. Although the bridge was i n working
c o n d i t i o n , some r e s t r i c t i o n s were made f o r the modem heavy
v e h i c l e s , as i n those days bridges were not q u i t e so scien-
t i f i c a l l y designed t o bear heavy loads.
The Cleveland Bridge Engineering Co. L t d . , of D a r l i n g t o n ,
was one o f the tenderers t o submit a Plate Girder bridge t o
the board and i t was accepted. During the tender p e r i o d ,
due t o l a c k o f time, and j u s t t o give an i n d i c a t i o n t o the
estimators how the bridge would look, and what might be the
t o t a l tonnages o f steelwork r e q u i r e d , no d e t a i l calcuations
were prepared. Then a f t e r o b t a i n i n g the c o n t r a c t , the w r i t e r
went through every d e t a i l o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the super-
s t r u c t u r e s and submitted h i s r e s u l t s t o the Board f o r t h e i r
comments.

1.5. The New Bridge S t r u c t u r e ;

The basic s t r u c t u r e o f the new bridge i s q u i t e s t r a i g h t -

f o r w a r d . The two main p l a t e g i r d e r s run East-West across
the Canal and these g i r d e r s are connected by cross g i r d e r s
(@ 11'-6" c e n t r e s ) . The deck p l a t e i s s t i f f e n e d w i t h s t e e l
troughs. Walkways are provided a t e i t h e r side o f the bridge,
which are c a n t i l e v e r e d out from the main g i r d e r s .
When the bridge i s open t o t r a f f i c i t i s supported by
two nose bearings, two intermediate bearings and two s l i p

- 4-
 blocks a t the t a i l . One o f the nose bearings i s designed
i n such a way, so t h a t i t prevents the bridge from t u r n i n g .
Both o f the s l i p blocks can be h y d r a u l i c a l l y r e t r a c t e d .
I n t h i s p o s i t i o n the s t r u c t u r e i s l i f t e d c l e a r o f the centre
p i v o t . When i t i s desired t o open the lane t o shipping, a
p a i r o f h y d r a u l i c t a i l jacks l i f t s u f f i c i e n t l y so t h a t the
s l i p blocks can be withdrawn. The jacks are then lowered
to a l l o w the bridge t o r e s t on the centre p i v o t . The t a i l
end i s weighted so t h a t t h e nose o f t h e s t r u c t u r e l i f t s c l e a r
of the nose bearings w h i l e the t a i l end drops u n t i l i t i s
r e s t i n g upon the two t r a i l r o l l e r s . The bridge i s then ready
to be swung c l e a r by means o f two wire ropes, one end o f
each being anchored a t the slewing drum. The ropes are led
around guide sheaves and anchored t o adjustable l i n k s which
are attached t o the slewing c y l i n d e r bedplate.

When the bridge approaches the f u l l y open or f u l l y closed

p o s i t i o n , Cam operated h y d r a u l i c valves, which are f i t t e d t o
the slewing mechanism, ensure t h a t the bridge decelerates t o
a creep speed. When i t i s swimg back t o i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n ,
the bridge i s again l i f t e d by the h y d r a u l i c t a i l jacks, so
t h a t the t a i l s l i p blocks can be returned. The jacks are then
lowered t o a l l o w the bridge t o r e s t upon the nose bearings,
the i n t e r m e d i a t e bearings and the s l i p blocks, so t h a t i t i s
again held c l e a r o f the c e n t r a l p i v o t . A l l the operating
equipment used was designed, supplied and f i t t e d by
Mactaggart Scott Co. L t d . , o f M i d l o t h i a n , Scotland.
1.6. The Design Requirements;

The Mersey Docks & Harbour Board required the bridge t o

"be designed as per B.S.153, i n i m p e r i a l u n i t s , and t h e
requirement included the f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s ; -
1. A l l s t e e l t o be B.S.4360 grade 43A ( i . e . m i l d s t e e l ) .
2. O v e r a l l l e n g t h 158' - 9", width 25' - 0" w i t h 20' - 0"
Carriageway and 2' - 6" Kerb a t each side o f Carriageway.

- 5-
 3. 3' - 6" wide walkway a t e a c h s i d e r u n n i n g throughout
the l e n g t h o f the bridge.

Thus t h e t o t a l w e i g h t c a l c u l a t e d a f t e r t h e f i n a l d e s i g n was
193*38 t o n s . The s i t e c o n n e c t i o n s were made o f h i g h s t r e n g t h
f r i c t i o n g r i p b o l t s a s p e r B.S.3139 and a l l w e l d i n g t o
B.S.1719 c l a s s 2 L i n c o l n m u l t i w e l d . E l e c t r o d e s f o r manual
metal a r c b u t t w e l d s were t o B.S.1719 c l a s s 6 ESAB/OK u n i t r o d e .
E l e c t r o d e s and f l u x f o r submerged a r c b u t t w e l d i n g were t o
3*25 mm. d i a m e t e r L i n c o l n L 6 0 w i r e armco P80 f l u x .

According t o Mersey Docks Harbour B o a r d ' s requirements,

b e f o r e f a b r i c a t i o n a l l s t e e l had been a u t o m a t i c a l l y g r i t
blasted with c h i l l e d i r o n t o 2nd, q u a l i t y B.S.4232, maximum
p r o f i l e 100 m i c r o n s . A l l laminations or surface defects
e x p o s e d by b l a s t i n g had been c h i p p e d o f f and ground level
b e f o r e primimg. A l l l o o s e shop r u s t and d u s t had been removed
by w i r e b r u s h i n g and vacuum c l e a n i n g t h e s u r f a c e . Within
4 hours o f b l a s t i n g , one c o a t p r o t e c t i o n "EPILUX 66P" b l a s t
primer first c o a t p i n k 4E650 had been a p p l i e d by a i r l e s s
s p r a y t o 25 m i c r o n s equal to a spreading rate of 6 sq m / l i t r e
and a l l o w e d t o hiarden o v e r n i g h t . A f t e r priming, one c o a t
protection high b u i l t "EPOXY MICACEOUS" dark g r e y HB58 had
b e e n a p p l i e d t o 75 m i c r o n s equal to a spreading r a t e of
6 s q m / l i t r e and a l l o w e d t o h a r d e n o v e r n i g h t . A l l areas
local t o H.S.P.G. b u t t c o n n e c t i o n s had been l e f t f r e e from
paint, o i l ,drift, grease, rust e t c .

1.7. Operating System:

The road b a r r i e r s and t r a f f i c signal installation comprises

f o u r ( i n number) r o a d t r a f f i c b a r r i e r s , e a c h w i t h f o l d i n g
skirt and f o u r s e t s o f p o l e mounted v i s u a l and a u d i b l e
warnings. The l a t t e r c o n s i s t s o f t w i n r e d f l a s h i n g lamps,
an amber lamp and gong. C o n t r o l o f a l l b a r r i e r s and warning
systems i s a v a i l a b l e a t t h e d e s k i n t h e c o n t r o l h o u s e , and
i n d i v i d u a l s i d e s o p e r a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e from a c o n s o l e forming

- 6 -
 an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the South East and South West b a r r i e r ' s
pedestals. A l l t h i s equipment was supplied by Messrs. Godwin
Warren Engineering L t d .
Navigation s i g n a l s are two sets of pole mounted n a v i g a t i o n
l i g h t s provided on the r o o f of the c o n t r o l house. Each set
c o n s i s t s of a red and a green lamp, one set f a c i n g North and
the other f a c i n g Southwards. Control of the lamps i s from
the c o n t r o l desk, i n t e r l o c k s ensuring t h a t the bridge must
be f u l l y open, t o allow e i t h e r the North or the South bound
passage open green lamps t o be operated. Switching arrange-
ments prevent both North and Southbound passage open lamps
from o p e r a t i n g simultaneously.
The c o n t r o l desk i s s i t u a t e d on the upper f l o o r of the
c o n t r o l house and includes a l l c o n t r o l s and i n d i c a t i n g lamps
associated w i t h road b a r r i e r s , bridge and n a v i g a t i o n l i g h t s
o p e r a t i o n . Road b a r r i e r ' s c o n t r o l s are supplied by a 240 volts^Tjo
H Z l i n e / n e u t r a l supply from the b a r r i e r s r e l a y panel and
comprises;-
1 No. Red c o n t r o l a v a i l a b l e lamp.
1 No. Green East B a r r i e r ' s down lamp.
1 No. Green West B a r r i e r ' s down lamp.
1 No. Stop push b u t t o n .
1 No. East B a r r i e r ' s "UP" push b u t t o n .
1 No. East B a r r i e r ' s "DOWN" push b u t t o n .
1 No. West B a r r i e r ' s "UP" push b u t t o n .
1 No. West B a r r i e r ' s "DOWN" push b u t t o n .
2 No. ^ocal/Remote key operated s e l e c t o r switches.
Normal operation from the desk i s achieved w i t h »*Local"
s e l e c t e d . I f "Remote" operation from the b a r r i e r s i s r e q u i r e d ,
both the key switches should be turned t o the "Remote" p o s i t i o n ,
the keys removed and these then used t o operate the b a r r i e r s
c o n t r o l u n i t s On/Off switches, and both switches must be e i t h e r
"Local" or "Remote" f o r c o n t r o l purposes. With "Local" selected,
the key cannot be removed.

- 7 -
 A 240/24 V, 150 VA s u p p l y w i t h p r i m a r y and secondary
f u s e s i s provided f o r n a v i g a t i o n l i g h t s operation. Relays
and i n d i c a t i n g lamps a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n a v i g a t i o n l i g h t s a r e
o p e r a t e d from t h e p r i m a r y supply v o l t a g e . Bridge control
r e l a y s e t c . a r e o p e r a t e d a t 240 v o l t s 50 HE, power "being
d e r i v e d from t h e h y d r a u l i c power pack motor starter.

An On/Off s w i t c h i s a l s o f i t t e d t o t h e desk w h i c h when

o f f , i s o l a t e s a l l c o n t r o l s w i t h power on and a l l r o a d harriers
down, o p e r a t i o n o f t h e "Open" push b u t t o n . i n d i c a t e s t h e pump
m o t o r s t a r t e r o f t h e h y d r a u l i c power pack, p r o v i d e d t h e
s t a r t e r i s s e t f o r "Remote" C o n t r o l . When t h e pump i s r u n n i n g ,
a s i g n a l i s p r o v i d e d a t t h e desk to e n e r g i s e a r e l a y , which
in t u r n causes s o l e n o i d v a l v e s to i n i t i a t e t h e b r i d g e open
sequence. B r i d g e movements and b l o c k s and rams i n t e r l o c k ^ i n g
is purely hydraulic with pressure switches introduced a t
v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s , t o p r o v i d e i n d i c a t i o n and a measure of
e l e c t r i c a l i n t e r l o c k i n g . The rams a t t h e t a i l of t h e b r i d g e
extended t o t h e f u l l y r a i s e d p o s i t i o n and when both r e a c h this
position,l|,«pres8ure s w i t c h o p e r a t e s t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e "Rams Up"
lamp. H y d r a u l i c i n t e r l o c k i n g then causes the blocks to r e -
t r a c t and when b o t h withdraw,f|»pressure switch c l o s e s to
indicate " B l o c k Out". The rams t h e n l o w e r t o o p e r a t e and
slewing commences.

A t t h i s time t h e " B r i d g e moving" lamp i l l u m i n a t e s v i a

c o n t a c t s on t h e b r i d g e open and b r i d g e c l o s e d r e l a y s , both
of which a r e d e - e n e r g i s e d s i n c e t h e b r i d g e i s n e i t h e r open or
closed i

As t h e b r i d g e a p p r o a c h e s t h e open p o s i t i o n , a l i m i t
s w i t c h o p e r a t e s and a t t h e f u l l y open p o s i t i o n a n o t h e r swirtch
o p e r a t e s , t o e n e r g i s e t h e b r i d g e open r e l a y t o s t o p t h e pumps,
d e - e n e r g i s e t h e s o l e n o i d v a l v e s and t h u s s t o p b r i d g e move-
ments. S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e ' B r i d g e open" lamp i l l u m i n a t e s ,
and t h e "Moving" lamp i s e x t i n q u i s h e d .

- 8 -
 The b r i d g e " C l o s e " sequence i s i n i t i a t e d by depressing
t h e " C l o s e " push b u t t o n to s t a r t the power pack which when
running e n e r g i s e s two s o l e n i q d v a l v e s , s l e w i n g commences
and " B r i d g e moving" lamp o p e r a t e s . At the " C l o s e d p o s i t i o n " ,
one p r e s s u r e s w i t c h o p e r a t e s and t h e " B r i d g e . c l o s e d " lamp
i l l u m i n a t e s , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the "Moving" lamp i s e x t i n g u i s h e d .
A u t o m a t i c Rams and B l o c k s o p e r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e and with
"Rams Down" and B l o c k s I n " , t h e power pack i s s t o p p e d . In
the s i t u a t i o n with "Bridge C l o s e d " , B l o c k s I n " and "Rams Down",
all t h r e e r e l a y s e n e r g i s e and a l l o w road b a r r i e r s to be
raised. Operation of t h e b r i d g e s t o p push b u t t o n causes
i m m e d i a t e d e - e n e r g i s i n g of s o l e n o i d v a l v e s , dependant on
w h e t h e r "Open" o r " C l o s e d " h a s been s e l e c t e d . However, should
t h e emergency s t o p be d e p r e s s e d , the s o l e n o i d s and pumps a r e
stopped immediately. T h i s push b u t t o n has a l a t c h f e a t u r e
and r e m a i n s l o c k e d i n the d e p r e s s e d condition u n t i l reset.

All t h e f o r e g o i n g p r e s s u r e s w i t c h e s a r e s i t e d on the
hydraulic control unit. A l s o mounted on the c o n t r o l u n i t are
i n t e r l o c k s w i t c h e s which ensure t h a t when a l e v e r i s i n s e r t e d
to p r o v i d e manual o p e r a t i o n of any c o n t r o l v a l v e , the s o l e n o i d
QperStted v a l v e s which provide the a u t o m a t i c sequence a r e to
be d e - e n e r g i s e d . The pump, however, c o n t i n u e s t o run.

Maintenance i s r e q u i r e d to a l l mechanical i t e m s of the

o p e r a t i o n a l mechanism, v i z : - - •

1. A p p l y g r e a s e t o b a l a n c e r o l l e r , t a i l r o l l e r , top guide
sheave a s s e m b l y and s l e w i n g g e a r c r o s s head a s s e m b l y .
2. Keep t h e w i r e r o p e s covered with grease.
3. Examine a l l moving p a r t s r e g u l a r l y f o r f o r m a t i o n of
c o r r o s i o n and rust.
4. Keep t h e rope a d j u s t i n g s c r e w w e l l c o v e r e d with grease.
5. Keep t h e r o l l e r s o f the r o l l e r a c t u a t e d sequence v a l v e s
w e l l covered w i t h grease.
6. Ensure t h a t no w a t e r h a s been c o l l e c t e d on the p a r t of
the c e n t r e p i v o t .

- 9 -
 LOADING CONCEPTIONS

2.1. The R e p o r t o f t h e B r i d g e S t r e s s Committee 1928;

The r e p o r t o f t h e b r i d g e s t r e s s committee 1928 was

based on s t r a i n measurements on members o f 52 r a i l r o a d
b r i d g e s o f v a r i o u s s p a n s , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f moving
l o a d s , s u c h a s t r a i n s and l o c o m o t i v e s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s ,
and due t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n of a b r i d g e o s c i l l a t o r t o g i v e
p u l s a t i o n s f o r purposes of comparison. During t h i s period
P r o f . C . E . I n g l i s a l s o c a r r i e d out t h e theoretical
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on b r i d g e o s c i l l a t i o n s and e s t a b l i s h e d a
V e c t o r method f o r computing d e f l e c t i o n s and s t r e s s e s i n a
bridge s u b j e c t e d to v e r t i c a l a l t e r n a t i n g forces.

T h i s theory a l l o w s a r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e f o r the g r e a t e s t
impact on b r i d g e s , due t o l o c o m o t i v e s . This report states
t h a t t h e main r e a s o n f o r t h e dynamic e f f e c t o f a moving l o a d
on a r a i l w a y b r i d g e b e i n g g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t a t i c e f f e c t of
t h e same l o a d , i s t h e hammer blow. The e f f e c t o f t h e hammer
blow i s i n t e n s i f i e d i n a l l b r i d g e s e x c e p t t h e s h o r t span
b r i d g e s by r e s o n a n c e a r i s i n g from s y n c h r o n i s m between t h e
n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y o f v i b r a t i o n o f t h e l o a d e d b r i d g e and t h e
f r e q u e n c y o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e blow.

I n a l o n g b r i d g e , t h e r e c u r r i n g i m p u l s e s due t o hammer
blow may c a u s e a l a r g e r c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y when
t h e r e i s c l o s e p r o x i m i t y between t h e i r p e r i o d and f r e e p e r i o d
of v i b r a t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e . The s u c c e s s i v e p e r i o d o f
i m p u l s e s a r e l i m i t e d by t h e l e n g t h o f span. The damping
o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e s e t up by t h e i m p e r f e c t e l a s t i c i t y
o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , i . e . b a l l a s t o f t h e permanent way e t c . ,
f r i c t i o n i n the support a t the p i e r s , d i s s i p a t i o n of the
energy by i t s t r a n s m i s s i o n t h r o u g h the p i e r s to the neigh-
b o u r i n g ground and t h e f r i c t i o n i n t h e s p r i n g s u s p e n s i o n of
the locomotive. F o r p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n purposes t h e whole

- 10 -
 allowances f o r impact i s s e t i n t h e form o f an e q u i v a l e n t
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d , w h i c h s h o u l d be added t o t h e
weight a r i s i n g from t h e l i v e l o a d t o be c a r r i e d .

The e q u i v a l e n t l o a d i s based on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s i m p l e
h a r m o n i c m o t i o n i n t h e p e r i o d i c o s c i l l a t i o n s and s u c h an
imaginary s t a t i c l o a d o f s i n u s i o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s imposed
t h a t w i l l h o l d t h e b r i d g e i n i t s maximum o s c i l l a t o r y form
of c u r v a t u r e . Then a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d i s c o n s i d e r e d
w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s i n u s o i d a l l o a d t o g i v e t h e same
maximum b e n d i n g moment a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e span. This
b e n d i n g moment i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a t - i - p o i n t s o f t h e span b u t
with approximately equal shear f o r c e . From t h e recommendation
o f t h i s r e p o r t , r e s e a r c h work was c a r r i e d o u t and f i n a l l y
B.S.153 was r e v i s e d .

2.2. M.O.T. LOADING CONDITIONS;

The s t a n d a r d l o a d i n g i s s u e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t
i n 1922 s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e b r i d g e s h o u l d be l o a d e d w i t h such
s t a n d a r d t r a i n s o r p a r t o f s t a n d a r d t r a i n s so t h a t i t would
p r o d u c e t h e maximum s t r e s s i n any b r i d g e member, p r o v i d e d
t h a t i n any l i n e o f t r a i n s , t h e r e s h o u l d n o t be more t h a n one
engine p e r 7 5 f t . o f t h e span o f t h e b r i d g e and each standard
t r a i n s h a l l occupy a w i d t h of 10ft. Where t h e w i d t h o f t h e
carriageway exceeds a m u l t i p l e o f 10ft., such e x c e s s should
be l o a d e d w i t h a f r a c t i o n o f t h e a x l e l o a d s o f a s t a n d a r d
train.

2.3. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d 1 5 3 :

B.S.153 i s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r s t e e l g i r d e r b r i d g e s
and i s a v a i l a b l e i n the f o l l o w i n g p a r t s : -

Part 1 deals with material.

Part 2 d e a l s w i t h workmanship.
P a r t 3A d e a l s w i t h l o a d i n g .

11 -
 Part 3b & 4 d e a l s w i t h s t r e s s e s and d e t a i l s of C o n s t r u c t i o n ,
Part 5 deals with E r e c t i o n .

All t h e s e p a r t s were f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1922 and 1923.

Part 3a shows t h e d e t a i l o f 15 u n i t s of s t a n d a r d loading
w h i c h was recommended f o r highway b r i d g e s i n t h i s country.
T h i s was agreed i n p r i n c i p l e with the standard l o a d i n g train
i s s u e d by t h e M i n i s t r y of T r a n s p o r t i n 1922 and was supp-
limented by t h e M.O.T. s t a n d a r d l o a d i n g c u r v e s i n 1932.

P a r t 3b was r e v i s e d i n 1933 where a s p a r t 4 and 5 were

ammended i n 1937. For v a r i o u s reasons these r u l e s remained
unchanged u n t i l 1958, although i n 1948, a code o f practice
for simply supported s t e e l b r i d g e s was j o i n t l y i s s u e d by
I . C . E . and I struct.E.

The 1972 v e r s i o n of B.S.153 i s o n l y the m e t r i c a t e d

r e v i s i o n i n c l u d i n g some amendments, but a g a i n , i t c o v e r s
s i m p l y supported s t e e l g i r d e r b r i d g e s , of up to 100m span.
To d e s i g n o v e r 100m span or continous b r i d g e s , e x t r a p o l a t i o n
from B.S.153 i s u s e d . I n the 1960's b e f o r e the M i l f o r d
Haven b r i d g e f a i l u r e , a new a l l - e m b r a c i n g b r i d g e code was
conceived. L a t e r the Merrison design r u l e s acted as an
interim code.

A new code w i l l be w r i t t e n s h o r t l y , w i t h m a j o r changes

in design p r a c t i c e . I t w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n 10 p a r t s t o
make f u t u r e r e v i s i o n s e a s i e r f o r d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s u s e d .
An u l t i m a t e l o a d a p p r o a c h r a t h e r t h a n p r e s e n t e l a s t i c method
will be used i n t h i s new code. The v i e w i s w i d e l y expressed
that Merrison r u l e s a r e too complex to f o l l o w . I t i s felt
that Merrison's change t o u l t i m a t e l o a d . j J e s i g n i s . a c a d e m i c
and e n g i n e e r s may l o o s e t r a c k of t h e i r t e r m i n o l o g y during
application. Particularly, the M e r r i s o n r u l e s do n o t mention
whether the l o a d s are working l o a d s or u l t i m a t e l o a d s . The
d e s i g n methods i n t h e new code a r e e x p e c t e d t o be simple.
The welding s t r e s s e s i n t h e new code a r e a l s o e x p e c t e d to be
b e t t e r understood.

- 12 -
 However, i n t h i s p r o j e c t , t h e p r e s e n t v e r s i o n o f
B.S.153 h a s been u t i l i z e d . B.S.153 p a r t 3A h a s been
d i v i d e d i n t o two t y p e s of loading systems:-

a) H.A. type l o a d i n g , covers m a j o r i t y of the requirements

and consistsof:-
i) An e q u i v a l e n t n n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d known a s EUDL,
b a s e d on a p a r t i c u l a r t r a i n o f road v e h i c l e s . The
d i s t r i b u t i v e e f f e c t v a r i e s according to the span. Short
spans have t o support heavy a x l e l o a d s w i t h o u t any
s i z e a b l e d i s t r i b u t i v e e f f e c t which occurs i n longer spans,
and t h e EUDL f o r s h o r t e r spans i s h i g h e r t h a n f o r l o n g e r
spans.
ii) A k n i f e edge l o a d , w h i c h i s known a s KEL i n s h o r t , i s
a l s o a p p l i e d and r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x c e s s l o a d o f a heavy
a x l e i n a v e h i c l e which i s not capable of being evenly
d i s t r i b u t e d a s an EUDL.
EUDL and K E L a r e u s e d t o g e t h e r , to give the adverse
l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n i n t h e member, which i s t o be d e s i g n e d .
I n the case of a simply s u p p o r t e d member t h e K E L s h o u l d
be p l a c e d a t mid-point, to g i v e the r e q u i r e d condition
f o r b e n d i n g moment, b u t must be p u t a t t h e s u p p o r t f o r
t h e maximum s h e a r c o n d i t i o n . I f t h e b e n d i n g moment i s
r e q u i r e d a t t h e q u a r t e r p o i n t o f a span, t h e n KEL s h o u l d
be p l a c e d a t t h a t p o i n t . The c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n f o r
p l a c i n g t h e K E L i s e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d from t h e i n f l u e n c e
l i n e diagrams a s being t h e p o i n t o f maximtun o r d i n a t e .
B.S.153 p a r t 3A, T a b l e 1 gives the r e l e v a n t values f o r
EUDL and K E L . ( R e f e r a p p e n d i x A, l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n C)
b) H B type l o a d i n g - T h i s l o a d i n g r e p r e s e n t s the xmit
l o a d i n g from a n abnormal v e h i c l e . I ti s usual practice
to s p e c i f y t h a t the bridge must be checked a f t e r a
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n t o HA l o a d i n g , t o e n s u r e that the
bridge i s capable of supporting t h e s p e c i f i e d number

- 13 -
 o f u n i t s of abnormal l o a d i n g . M.O.T. memorandum No.771
s p e c i f i e s t h e number o f u n i t s of HB loading applicable
to v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of roads, eg. c l a s s I and I I roads should
be c h e c k e d f o r 3 7 i u n i t s o f HB loading, ( r e f e r to Appendix A,
loading condition E)

2.4. Wind L o a d i n g :

N a t u r a l wind i s n e v e r even, s t e a d y or u n i f o r m . The

v a r i a t i o n s a r e due to the presence of e d d i e s and velocity
gradients. The e f f e c t -of wind p r e s s u r e on a s t r u c t u r e
depends on t h e shape and s i z e of the s t r u c t u r e . The amount
o f wind p r e s s u r e depends on the s i t e , where the s t r u c t u r e
(3")
is t o be p l a c e d . Home^^' s t a t e d t h a t due to t h e v a r i n g
nature o f t h e e d d i e s i n n a t u r a l wind, i t i s v e r y difficult
t o a s s e s s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e wind. So, i t i s n o t v e r y safe
t o t a k e a v e l o c i t y f o r t h e whole s t r u c t u r e w h i c h may be
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n t h e maximum v e l o c i t y . The n a t u r e of
a wind v a r i e s g r e a t l y w i t h the h e i g h t , i . e . the mean v e l o c i t y
o f wind i n c r e a s e s w i t h h e i g h t (see f i g . 2.3.1).
The v e r t i c a l g r a d i e n t of wind speed depends on the mean
wind speed and on t h e v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t . The
wind speed a l s o depends on the n a t u r a l o b s t a c l e s , s u c h as,
mountains e t c . The d u r a t i o n of t h e h i g h e s t wind g u s t s i s
of the order o f 1-10 s e c o n d s and Horne^'^suggests t h a t i t
i s very important t o a s s e s s the b e h a v i o u r of s t r u c t u r e s
under loads a c t i n g f o r such periods.
The p r e s s u r e and v e l o c i t y o f wind a r e c o n n e c t e d by the
2
formula p = kv , where k i s a c o n s t a n t ; f o r the p r e s s u r e on
a flat p l a t e p l a c e d n o r m a l to the wind k i s 0«0031. For a
wide a r e a o f wind f l o w , a f l a t plate 1ft.square i s r e l a t i v e l y
small plate. When t h e f r e e wind s t r e a m i s h o r i z o n t a l , then
t h e o n l y e n e r g y i t " p o s s e s s e s i s K i n e t i c energy e q u a l to
i WY /g. I n s e r t i o n o f t h e p l a t e i n t o the wind b r i n g s one
p a r t i c u l a r stream line t o r e s t and according to B e r n o u l l i ' s

- 14 -
 theorem ( i n a f l u i d w i t h s t e a d y s t r e a m l i n e f l o w , the sum
o f t h e K i n e t i c energy, t h e p r e s s u r e and the p o t e n t i a l energy,
is a constant); t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e p l a t e must e q u a l the
K i n e t i c energy i n t h e unimpeded s t r e a m b e f o r e i t was brought
to rest.

If w = weight o f a i r i n l b . p e r e f t . = 0*0765
V = V e l o c i t y of wind i n m i l e s p e r hour
V = V e l o c i t y o f wind i n f t . p e r s e c . = vx5280 (60x60)^^^/15)v.
g = 32•2ft per see?

then p.^ Ji/r/4'^%cf.p' = / if'V/y'-

I n t h i s f o r m u l a no a l l o w a n c e was made f o r v i s c o s i t y and

if i t was assumed t h a t a l l t h e a i r i n the s t r e a m l i n e impinged
upon t h e p l a t e and was d u l y brought t o r e s t and a l s o a l l t h i s
occured without i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the surrounding a i r stream
lines. O b v i o u s l y , l a t e r , by e x p e r i m e n t s ^ , i t was found
t h a t the t h e o r e t i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t (i)* i n the above e q u a t i o n ,
s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d by t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o e f f i c i e n t 0*6 which
is a more c o r r e c t v a l u e of t h e p r e s s u r e .

Hence ^ - c> <z,(^\/^~ ^ = c?-oc?3/i/^.

According to 3.S. 44^ (c/ge c>f s/rc/c/cyra/s/et^/A>ey//c///z^)

r~ ~
Where p = u n i f o r m wind p r e s s u r e i n l b . p e r sq.ft.
V = v e l o c i t y of wind,
h = h e i g h t i n f t . above ground level.
s = h e i g h t i n f t . above ground l e v e l of t h e a r e a assumed,
t o be s h e l t e r e d by some o b s t a c l e and s shall never
exceed 4h i n the formula, while ( h - s ) s h a l l not
be l e s s t h a n 10 f t .

P r e v i o u s l y , i t was t h e custom to c o n s i d e r t h e wind a s

e x e r t i n g p r e s s u r e o n l y on s u r f a c e s d i r e c t l y f r o n t i n g t h e wind.

- 15 -
 If a s u r f a c e was i n c l i n e d t o t h e p a t h o f t h e wind, then
the normal p r e s s u r e on t h e i n c l i n e d s u r f a c e (p,,) was
assumed t o be yp where y was l e s s t h a n u n i t y and t h i s was
given by Duchemin & B u t t o n f o r m u l a s . No a l l o w a n c e was
made f o r s u c t i o n o r n e g a t i v e pressure on t h e l e e w a r d side
of a s t r u c t u r e .

B.S.153 c l a u s e 12 i n p a r t 3A d e a l s w i t h wind pressure

effects. I t s t a t e s t h a t , wind l o a d s h o u l d be t r e a t e d a s
a moving l o a d , a c t i n g a t t h e c e n t r o i d s o f t h e exposed area.
F o r maximum l a t e r a l e f f e c t on u n l o a d e d s t r u c t u r e s , t h e wind
p r e s s u r e w i l l be t a k e n a s 30 I b f / f t ^ which corresponds to
a w i n d speed o f 90 m i l e s p e r h o u r , and i t s h o u l d be considered,
a s though, a c t i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y and normal t o t h e s i d e s o f
the bridge on a t o t a l exposed a r e a (windward g i r d e r ) . A t ^he
leeward g i r d e r , when i t i s a p l a t e g i r d e r , n / l 6 fraction
( s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d u n i t y ) o f t h e n e t exposed a r e a i n normal
p r o j e c t e d e l e v a t i o n , should be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , where n
is t h e r a t i o o f t h e d i s t a n c e , c e n t r e t o c e n t r e between t h e
windward and o u t e r m o s t l e e w a r d g i r d e r , t o t h e depth o f t h e
windward g i r d e r . On l o a d e d s t r u c t u r e s , allowance s h a l l be
made f o r s c r e e n i n g e f f e c t , based on t h e p r o j e c t e d a r e a s o f
the s t r u c t u r e on t h e l i v e l o a d o r o f t h e l i v e l o a d on t h e
structure, o r t h e l i v e l o a d s on e a c h o t h e r . On highway
b r i d g e s , a wind p r e s s u r e o f 15 Ibf/f-f. corresponding t o 63
m i l e s p e r h o u r s h a l l be t a k e n a s a c t i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y and
normal to the s i d e s of the bridge on t h e exposed a r e a o f t h e
super-structure.

The i n t e n s i t y o f t h e wind p r e s s u r e i s n o t a l w a y s constant

o v e r a l a r g e a r e a , f o r somewhere i n t h e p a t h o f t h e wind,
"Pockets" o f wind w i l l be found, w h i c h t r a v e l a t a h i g h e r
v e l o c i t y than the surrounding wind and t h e r e f o r e , e x e r t a
higher pressure. On an a v e r a g e i t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e mean
v e l o c i t y i s about 7 5 % o f t h e maximum g u s t v e l o c i t y . The
duration o f t h i s g u s t v e l o c i t y i s q u i t e s m a l l , somewhere
a b o u t one o r two s e c o n d s . I t h a s become a custom t h e s e days

- 16 -
t o make u s e o f models o f b r i d g e s and make wind - t u n n e l
experiments. These e x p e r i m e n t s d e f i n i t e l y g i v e more
a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s f o r t h e wind p r e s s u r e . Mersey Docks &
H a r b o u r Board a d v i s e d t h a t a 20 I b f / f t o f wind pressure
t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when d e s i g n i n g the bridge,
( s e e appendix A P a r t 1 para.A4'2). N o r m a l l y , wind pressure
v a l u e s a r e taken from B.S.153 and/or CP3» u n l e s s a s p e c i f i c
v a l u e h a s been g i v e n by t h e c l i e n t s .

I n the f o l l o w i n g chapters, i t i s intended to apply

the v a r i o u s l o a d i n g systems, a t worst p o s s i b l e combinations,
as described i n B.S.153 p a r t 3A and c a l c u l a t e t h e c r i t i c a l
stresses. An a t t e m p t h a s a l s o been made t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o r m u l a s s u g g e s t e d i n B.S.153 t o c a l c u l a t e
the s t r e s s e s and t h e i r b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s .

- 17 -
1.8
 3. ANALYSIS OF MAIN GIRDERS: E L A S T I C THEORY:

3.1. Introduction

S t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s i s concerned with the f o r c e s acting

on t h e s t r u c t u r e and d e f o r m a t i o n due t o t h e s e forces.-The
main p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s i s t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e
, p r i n c i p l e o f V i r t u a l work and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . D e f o r m a t i o n s
may a r i s e f o r v a r i o u s reasons. Applied loads will cause
i n t e r n a l f o r c e s i n a s t r u c t u r s and t h e s e forces w i l l deform
the structure. Whatever, t h e c a u s e may be, t h r e e basic
conditions s h o u l d a l w a y s be c o n s i d e r e d , when f u l l analysis
is c a r r i e d out:-

a. Statical equilibrium; the e x t e r n a l loads and i n t e r n a l

f o r c e s must s a t i s f y a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s of e q u i l i b r i u m
b. Geometrical compatibility o f d e f o r m a t i o n : t h e deformed
members o f a s t r u c t u r e must c o n t i n u e t o f i t t o g e t h e r ,
so t h a t t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s s h o u l d be geometrically
compatible.
c. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e members: w i t h i n t h e e l a s t i c
r a n g e o f t h e member, t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e relationships
between s t r e s s and s t r a i n must be u t i l i z e d and t h e s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e member c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

In short, the deformations a r e required t o be c o m p a t i b l e

and t h e i n t e r n a l f o r c e s must s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
equilibrium with the loads, and t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f e a c h
member must be a c c u r a t e l y r e l a t e d to the i n t e r n a l f o r c e s
and other s t r a i n producing f a c t o r s i n accordance with the
member c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The following assumptions a r e the b a s i c requirements

to d e r i v e t h e f o r m u l a f o r t h e moment o f r e s i s t a n c e , w h i c h
is indeed, the f i r s t s t e p towards t h e d e s i g n o f a s t r u c t u r a l

- 19 -
 member and t h e t h e o r y i s c a l l e d Beam T h e o r y : -

1. The beam l e c t i o n s h o u l d have one a x i s s y m m e t r i c a l , i n

t h e p l a n e o f w h i c h b e n d i n g moment i s a p p l i e d .
2. The b e n d i n g i s assumed t o be s i m p l e o r c i r c u l a r , which
p r o d u c e s an e q u a l and o p p o s i t e c o u p l e s and s h e a r i s
absent.
3. S e c t i o n o f beam w h i c h i s p l a n e b e f o r e bending remains
pla.ne a f t e r b e n d i n g .
4. The s t r e s s i n any f i b r e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o s t r a i n .
5. Young's modulus ( E ) i s c o n s t a n t . .
Therefore, the b a s i c theory i s

^j- 5 = w h i c h i s i m i v e r s a l l y known t o
all engineers.
Prom t h e above e x p r e s s i o n i t may be w r i t t e n a s /y •

B u t by d e f i n i t i o n y = modulus o f a s e c t i o n which i s Z
Therefore,/* s w h i c h means t h a t t o f i n d t h e maximum
stress, f t o a member, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o know t h e
b e n d i n g moment M , t h e n t h e 2^^ moment o f a r e a I and
t h e d i s t a n c e ( v e r t i c a l ) from t h e n e u t r a l a x i s t o t h e
p o i n t under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , y .

I n t h i s chapter only the e l a s t i c t h e o r y w i l l be con-

sidered. So, i n k e e p i n g w i t h Hooke's l a w , t h e e l o n g a t i o n
w i l l be d o u b l e d , i f t h e f o r c e i s doubled and t h e s t e e l will
r e t u r n t o i t s o r i g i n a l u n s t r a i n e d form on t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f
the f o r c e . I f t h e f o r c e be i n c r e a s e d t o s u c h an e x t e n t that
the r e s u l t i n g s t r e s s exceeds the y i e l d stress, then t h e
member w i l l pass the e l a s t i c limit. B u t , t h i s does n o t e v e r
happen, i f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s d e s i g n e d c o r r e c t l y , because, a
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y i s i n t r o d u c e d , which i s t h e u l t i m a t e o r
b r e a k i n g s t r e s s d i v i d e d by t h e w o r k i n g s t r e s s . Although the
w o r k i n g l o a d on a t e n s i o n member might be i n c r e a s e d from
three t o f o u r times before i t c o l l a p s e d , the a c t u a l safety

- 20 -
 f a c t o r i s much l e s s than t h i s ; b e c a u s e when t h e l o a d i s
i n c r e a s e d t o about 1*7 t i m e s i t s o r i g i n a l v a l u e , permanent
d i s t o r t i o n t a k e s p l a c e and t h e member c e a s e s t o have any
further useful l i f e . I n average the f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s
about 2. Two i m p o r t a n t l o a d v a l u e s o c c u r when a s t r u c t u r e
is gradually over-loaded to d e s t r u c t i o n : -

i. The l o a d w h i c h c a u s e s t h e s t r u c t u r e t o have no f u r t h e r
useful life.
ii. The l o a d w h i c h c a u s e s complete c o l l a p s e .

The load which causes t h e s t r u c t u r e t o have no f u r t h e r

•useful l i f e , i s d i v i d e d by t h e l o a d the s t r u c t u r e normally

should c a r r y , g i v e s a number w h i c h i s c a l l e d t h e l o a d f a c t o r .
The ultimate l o a d d i v i d e d by t h e w o r k i n g l o a d i s sometimes
termed f a c t o r o f s a f e t y . But i t i s not c o r r e c t , because
this term i s d e f i n i t e l y r e s e r v e d f o r s t r e s s r a t i o and n o t
load ratio. So t h e c o r r e c t p h r a s e i s l o a d f a c t o r . Load
f a c t o r s and f a c t o r s o f s a f e t y haveacommon aim, a s both express
t h e m a r g i n s o f s a f e t y i n t h e s t r u c t u r e s and both terms depend
upon t h e economy, s i n c e a l a r g e l o a d f a c t o r and f a c t o r o f
s a f e t y means m i s u s e o f m a t e r i a l .

The ultimate aim o f d e s i g n i s to obtain the working

s t r e s s e s i n a s t r u c t u r a l member, due t o a p p l i e d loads.
Basically, the working s t r e s s i s defined t o be t h e a p p l i e d
f o r c e o r t h e f o r c e i n d u c e d i n t h e member due t o t h e a p p l i e d
f o r c e , d i v i d e d by t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e member.
Working s t r e s s o f a member depends on t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : -

a) The v a r i a b l e q u a l i t y o f t h e member ( i f n o t homogeneous

material), and t h e s t a n d a r d o f workmanship during
f a b r i c a t i o n and e r e c t i o n .
b) Whether t h e l o a d i s g r a d u a l l y or suddenly applied.
c) Duration and c y c l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l o a d a t maximum
intensity.

- 21 -
 d) Whether t h e s t r u c t u r e i s a temporary one o r permanent
one.
e) degree of accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n of the f o r c e s .
f) Corrosion & future maintenance.
g) Various p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l o a d s and t h e d e g r e e
of p r o b a b i l i t y o f a l l l o a d i n g conditions a t worse,
occurring simultaneously, ( i . e . dead l o a d + l i v e l o a d +
i m p a c t + wind l o a d etc.).

So, t o m a i n t a i n a guard a g a i n s t some u n c e r t a i n t i e s due t o

the above p o i n t s , t h e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o r t h e l o a d factor
is always used. I n the following chapters i t w i l l be
noticed clearly that, allowances have been made t o t a k e
precautions a g a i n s t these u n c e r t a i n t i e s .

3.2. Scope

The main p u r p o s e o f t h e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s i s t o produce

the l i g h t e s t g i r d e r s compatible with economy and easy
maintenance. To o b t a i n this, i t i s necessary t h a t , both
t h e n e t t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n f l a n g e s a r e w o r k i n g a t t h e
maximum p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s e s and t h e depth o f t h e g i r d e r
should be s u c h t h a t t h e o v e r a l l w e i g h t of t h e whole girder
is minimum.

Once t h e s p a n s a r e known, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e b e n d i n g moments (B.M.), s h e a r f o r c e s ( S f ) e t c . , by
using B.S.153 P a r t 3A ( L o a d s ) . ( S e e appendix A p a r t 1 ) .
To d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r e s s e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s a r e t o be
decided first (See appendix A P a r t 2 ) : -

a) Approximate depth of the g i r d e r .

b) A r e a o f t h e web required.
c) S h o u l d t h e web be s t i f f e n e d .
d) The a p p r o x i m a t e f l a n g e areas.
e) D/T ratio
Where D = t h e o v e r a l l d e p t h o f g i r d e r ( a t t h e p o i n t o f
maximum B.M ) .

- 22 -
 and T = effective thickness of Compression flange,
f) Slendemess ratio; 1/r.

Where 1 = t h e e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h of the compression

member. ( S e e B.S.153 P a r t 4, c l a u s e s 5, 33 & 3 4 ) .
Where r = t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r a d i u s of g y r a t i o n .
The a d v a n t a g e s o f a welded p l a t e g i r d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e : -

a) i t i s e c o n o m i c a l , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e of t h e u s e of a
t h i n web p l a t e .
b) T h e r e a r e no c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n the welding process.
c) I t i s easy to e r e c t .
d) m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s a r e low.
e) neat appearance.

3.3. Working S t r e s s i n f l a n g e s :

R o b e r t s and K e r e n s k y ^ ^ ^ s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s no r i s k
o f f a i l u r e by i n s t a b i l i t y of the compression f l a n g e s , i f
the r a t i o of unsupported length to l e a s t r a d i u s gyration
( ''"/ry value) does n o t exceed 90 f o r a s y m m e t r i c a l I s e c t i o n .
K e r e n s k y , F l i n t & Brown^^^conducted a few e x p e r i m e n t s t o
p r o v e t h e above s t a t e m e n t , and they a l s o s a i d t h a t depth by
web t h i c k n e s s ( d / t ) and '^'^ry v a l u e s n o t e x c e e d i n g 90, d e v e l o p
a p l a s t i c moment o f a l m o s t maximum v a l u e . Therefore f o r
these g i r d e r s the allowable f i b r e s t r e s s e s need n o t be s h a r p l y
r e d u c e d from t h e maximum b a s i c v a l u e s g i v e n by y i e l d / f a c t o r
of s a f e t y . (A v e r y deep g i r d e r w i l l b u c k l e l a t e r a l l y a t a
much l o w e r s t r e s s t h a n t h e f l a n g e of a r o l l e d steel joist
o f t h e same w i d t h . )

B.S.153 p a r t 3B c l a u s e 28a recommends t h a t t h e t e n s i l e

and compressive bending s t r e s s e s , and should not
exceed the appropriate basic permissible s t r e s s e s (^/ dnc/ fr^c )
i n t a b l e 3 ( w h i c h i s 9*5 t o n f / i n ^ ) and where t h e f l a n g e s
h a v e e q u a l moment o f i n e r t i a about t h e y - y a x i s , critical

- 23 -
 s t r e s s , .. !202B^ ^ ^fj ^^„^/,„7

Tlmoshenko^^^derived the c r i t i c a l values o f equal

t e r m i n a l couples, applied t o a member i n the plane of
i t s maximum bending s t i f f n e s s and s u f f i c i e n t t o cause
o v e r a l l l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g . He assumed t h a t the beam was
supported a t i t s ends and no r e s t r a i n t i s afforded t o
bending a c t i o n s , but w i t h r o t a t i o n of the end sections
about i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l axis r i g i d l y prevented. He
expressed c r i t i c a l s t r e s s , which i s the maximum f i b r e stress
at the i n s t a n t o f b u c k l i n g as,

^s-^ C £ ^ ( ' ^ § ^ ) 1 /.

where "Zx = modulus o f s e c t i o n about x - axis

L - span
£ = Yo\mgs modulus.
/y = 2nd moment o f area o f the whole section about
y-axis
= modulus o f r i g i d t y .
A* = appropriate t o r s i o n constant
r- = Ix- ly

= gnd moment o f area o f the whole section about

^-axis. ^^^^^
<^ = warping constant = j f o r I sections.
= 2nd moment o f area o f the compression flange
only about y-y axis o f the g i r d e r .
^ = distance between flange centroids.

For symmetrical I s e c t i o n (symmetrical about x - a x i s ,

i n i t i a l l y ^uncfeformed along i t s l e n g t h and o f homogeneous
m a t e r i a l ) , equation 1 reduces t o

The second term i n s i d e the r o o t represents the c o n t r i b u t i o n

- 24 -
of the t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y o f the member. This i s a
governing f a c t o r f o r shallow "beams, but f o r deep p l a t e
g i r d e r s , t h i s i s n e g l i g i b l e , because the d i f f e r e n t i a l
f l a n g e bending provides the major resistance t o torque.
The recommended formula f o r c r i t i c a l s t r e s s i n B.S.153
p a r t 3B clause 28 b ( i i ) A , has been der: ived by the i n t r o -
d u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n approximate geometric p r o p e r t i e s . These
p r o p e r t i e s evaluated f o r symmetrical sections, provide a
lower l i m i t t o the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s . The p r o p e r t i e s are
l i s t e d below:-
,2
JSTJD'

Where B = flange breadth

T = e f f e c t i v e thickness of flange
D = o v e r a l l depth of the s e c t i o n

,3T
4 =

r •= /-o

S u b s t i t u t i o n the above vslues t o equation ( 2 ) ,

/70 OOG
s/O^U^^YTJ - ---
and t h i s equation (3) has been used i n c a l c u l a t i n g the
c r i t i c a l s t r e s s ( See appendix A Part I I para.5.3.C. )

= 25 -
 3.4. Working Shear Stress i n S o l i d Web Plate;

B.S.153 Part 3B clause 29a recommends t h a t the

c a l c u l a t e d average shear stress,^on the e f f e c t i v e
s e c t i o n a l area of the web should not exceed the given
2
value i n t a b l e 3, which i s 6«0 t o n f / i n f o r s t e e l grade
43A ( m i l d s t e e l ) or the permissible shear stress pq
should be c a l c u l a t e d as:-

where a = the greater c l e a r dimension of the web i n a

panel, not greater than 270 x thickness of the web,t.
where b = the l e s s e r dimension of the web i n a panel,
not g r e a t e r than 180t.
Among the above two values, whichever i s less should be
used and f q must not exceed the l e s s e r pq value (see
appendix A p a r t I I para A5'3 C ( i i ) ) .
This formula has been based on the theory of b u c k l i n g
of t h i n p l a t e as described by.Timoshenko^. According
to Kerensky and o t h e r s ^ a n a b s o l u t e l y f l a t p l a t e , which
i s subjected to shearing f o r c e s , w i l l remain f l a t u n t i l
the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s has reached. Once i t has reached the
c r i t i c a l s t r e s s , then i t w i l l buckle out of i t s o r i g i n a l
plane. I n i t i a l l y , t h i s buckle w i l l be very small, but i t
w i l l be more v i s i b l e , i f the load i s increased. To demon-
s t r a t e the above f a c t , i t may be shown t h a t the web p l a t e
a c t s as a bar which has both ends b u i l t i n . These are
r e a c t i v e moments t h a t prevent the ends from r o t a t i n g
d u r i n g b u c k l i n g . These end moments and the a x i a l com-
pressive forces are equivalent t o forces P a p p l i e d , as
shown i n the f i g u r e . I n f l e c t i o n p o i n t s are located where
the l i n e of a c t i o n of P i n t e r s e c t s the d e f l e c t i o n curve,
because a t these p o i n t s the bending moments are Zero. I t
may be noted t h a t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case, the i n f l e c t i o n

- 26 -
 p o i n t s , and the mid-point o f the span d i v i d e the bar i n -
to f o u r equal regions (see f i g 3*4)
The f i g u r e 1 i n d i c a t e s Kerensky's t h e o r e t i c a l and
experimental maximiun d e f l e c t i o n s f o r square simply
supported p l a t e s . I n h i s f i g u r e .curve A shows the values
f o r the a b s o l u t e l y f l a t p l a t e s and curve B give the values
f o r the p l a t e s which were i n i t i a l l y buckled. Prom curve A
i t may be observed t h a t the maximum web d e f l e c t i o n a t a
l o a d , which i s twice the c r i t i c a l value, i s approximately
equal t o the p l a t e thickness.
P
When load i s applied, the web p l a t e

) buckles; but before the p l a t e buckles,

the stresses i n i t are due t o the shear
only and a f t e r the p l a t e has buckled,
bending stresses are also Introduced,

) and i n a d d i t i o n , the middle plane of

the p l a t e i s deformed and extended,
i n t r o d u c i n g membrane t e n s i l e stresses,
which react on the compressive zone.
Fig 3*4 minimizing t h e i r i n f l u e n c e .

This i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the membrane t e n s i l e stresses,

i s the d i f f e r e n c e between the buckling o f the web plates
i n g i r d e r s and buckling o f the columns. Thus,^ according
to Kerensky, Euler load f o r t h i n sheets Pr£ILJ£ is
misleading, when i t i s applied t o c a l c u l a t e the c r i t i c a l
loads on web p l a t e s . The i n t e n s i t y o f the bending stresses
i s greater near the centre of the p l a t e where buckles are
l a r g e r and the shear stress i s almost uniform.

- 27 -
According t o the Huber-Von-Mises-Hencky theory, i f these
stresses are combined together, then the maximum o f

HfJ i-'S/sV i n relation to

Bergman's fs/^„^ r a t i o , where j/^^"^/^"^-/^/y -^^/^J)

represents the equivalent a x i a l stress or /5 x apparent

shear s t r e s s , (see f i g 2 ) .

( f x = l o n g i t u d i n a l stress i n web; f y = y i e l d s t r e s s , )
( f s = average shear s t r e s s ; fsc = c r i t i c a l shear stress)

Using the value o f the curve i n f i g . 2, an approximation

of the c r i t i c a l stress given by Timoshenko i s

Pigs. 5 & 4 are the o r i g i n a l work of Timoshenko. Kerensky

and o t h e r s ^ d e v e l o p e d Timoshenko's idea, by s u b s t i t u t i n g
d i f f e r e n t d/^ and b. r a t i o s .
o
According t o Timoshenko, c r i t i c a l s t r e s s , w i t h i n the e l a s t i c

where

D = f l e x u a l s t i f f n e s s o f the p l a t e . For a square p l a t e

fsc - ~^2} ' ' where \^ =Poissons r a t i o ,

and t h i s value can be used also f o r long rectangular p l a t e ,
b u c k l i n g i n t o many waves. When E = 30 x 10 i f e f / i n and
V = 0«3, according t o Timoshenko, f i s a function of
the r a t i o ^ and t h i s i s represented by the curves of the
f i g s . 3 and 4. These curves can be used f o r o b t a i n i n g f s c
values w i t h i n the e l a s t i c region. I f the m a t e r i a l has a

28 -
 sharply defined y i e l d p o i n t and f o l l o w s Hooke's law up
to t h a t p o i n t , where the compressive stress reaches the
y i e l d p o i n t o f the m a t e r i a l then the h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s ,
together w i t h the curves, determine the values of the
fsc f o r any value of the r a t i o ^/t.
Now, from Kerensky and o t h e r s ^ m o d i f i e d f i g u r e s
( f i g s 3 & 4 ) , Curves A give shear stresses, which f o r
a l l values o f ^ / t up to 240, exceed the c r i t i c a l stress
by an amount which w i l l cause an increase i n apparent
shear stress up t o y i e l d value and t h i s y i e l d w i l l not
occur over the whole p l a t e , but only a t the c r e s t of the
buckle. The equation f o r the permissible shear s t r e s s ,
given i n B.S.153 p a r t 3B clause 29a, has been obtained
by d i v i d i n g curves A by the required load f a c t o r of 1*45
and these approximate t o the s t r a i g h t l i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p . ( f i g 4)

- 2B -
 nrrrrr rrr-rn-

..lU-

ilii
li
•! -I

-I t

"1

10'
I-

i
1
U S - v>
ii

I- I:: I:

-i .. i-
:i • i

.i:-..!
iT-iTni-^TlF::
I
• 1 ... 1...
1 .......

t• • I •:;;!:•..i w]]
:•: !::::
1 ' - •• -— •

V-.: !•

....I.-

::!i:-:r
.... I

mm
.;:| .|:: - r - r

31
'^yt/^^^//i:> fu/jpo^ :u^i/3^/J//^ s y
 (

,1^ j:'.!:!'';:

T ^
:: . r - : - | ;;• • ; - r': j

!;:j:.|::;;L::J:.:.i:Li
i : • -i. :! -i i i . !

-4-
•i- -i: I

•r;~n:
i'' • •
Mi
 3.5. Web b u c k l i n g and reinforcement;

I t i s necessary t o employ both v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l

s t i f f e n e r s i n a deep p l a t e g i r d e r w i t h a high value of
depth t o thickness r a t i o ( ^ / t v a l u e ) . Timoshenko^said
t h a t the c r i t i c a l shear stress value f o r a simply supported
t 2
p l a t e i s a f u c t i o n o f ( /d) and therefore i t decreases
r a p i d l y w i t h the increases i n ^/t r a t i o . Thus, a web p l a t e
subjected t o shear stresses w i l l buckle before i t y i e l d s ,
i f the c r i t i c a l stress i s reached before the shear s t r e s s .
Sparkes & Heyman have shown by experiments t h a t f o r mild
s t e e l , web plates w i t h ^ / t r a t i o 90, u s u a l l y y i e l d before
b u c k l i n g . Kerensky & o t h e r s ^ s t a t e d t h a t , by using
h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r s , the o v e r a l l ^ ' / t r a t i o can be increased
up t o 300 w i t h one s t i f f e n e r and up t o 400 by using two
s t i f f e n e r s . B.S.153 Part 4 clause 26a ( i i ) recommends t h a t
the spacing o f the v e r t i c a l s t i f f e n e r s should never exceed
180 t o f the smaller c l e a r panel dimension and 270 t of the
greater c l e a r panel dimension. These l i m i t a t i o n s are t o
improve the u l t i m a t e l o a d - c a r r y i n g capacity o f the g i r d e r
and also f o r s t i f f e n i n g the web f o r f a b r i c a t i o n and t r a n s -
p o r t purposes.
Timoshenko s a i d , f o r an i n i t i a l l y plane p l a t e , the
2nd moment o f area of a p a i r of s t i f f e n e r s about centre
of the web ( I ) should be I = 0-3d^ */^'. . But Moore
said t h a t , no p l a t e can be i n i t i a l l y plane a t a l l and
t h e r e f o r e , f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes, I = ^/J> d ^ t ^ / i ^ 2 , i f
the maximum s t i f f e n e r d e f l e c t i o n i s t o remain small i n
comparison w i t h web. Kerensky & others^^^did some u l t i m a t e
load t e s t s on g i r d e r s and found t h a t Moore's I value i s
adequate. But B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 27b ( i ) recommends
(j3 +3 / 2

t h a t , the value o f I should n o t be less than 1*5 'b

(isee appendix A p a r t 1^ para. A5*9). This value i s about
3.35 times greater than t h a t of Timoshenko's t h e o r e t i c a l

- 34 -
 value f o r l o n g panels and 10 times greater f o r short panels.
For a given web thickness, the higher the shear, the
closer the spacing and the heavier the s t i f f e n e r s . B.S.153
p a r t 4 clause 27 b ( i i ) recommends t h a t the h o r i z o n t a l
s t i f f e n e r s should be used i n a d d i t i o n t o the v e r t i c a l
s t i f f e n e r s and one s t i f f e n e r should be placed a t a distance
from the compression flange equal t o / 5 o f the distance
from the compression flange t o the n e u t r a l axis when the
thickness o f the web i s l e s s than ^^/200 f o r s t e e l grade
43A, where d2 i s , twice the c l e a r distance from the
compression flange t o theneutural a x i s (see appendix A
Part I I para A 5 ' 8 ) . For economic reasons the ^ / t r a t i o
should be as h i g h as i t i s p e n n i t t e d and since a l i m i t e d
amount o f experimental data i s a v a i l a b l e , the above r u l e
i s based on t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s w i t h a s u i t a b l e f a c t o r
of s a f e t y . The h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r s must withstand a x i a l
loads due t o bending moments i n a d d i t i o n t o r e s t r a i n i n g
the web p l a t e from b u c k l i n g and so, the maximum i n e r t i a
r e q u i r e d i s dependant on the r a t i o o f the area o f the
s t i f f e n e r t o area o f the web p l a t e ( i . e . ^ ^dt"^"^ value,
see f i g 5 ) .
Kerensky & o t h e r s ^ s t a t e d t h a t the h o r i z o n t a l
s t i f f e n e r s are n o t expected t o carry any increases i n
a x i a l l o a d , when loads i n excess o f the t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i c a l
values are reached. Therefore, the t h e o r e t i c a l values are
increased by a f a c t o r and the minimum r i g i d i t y value i s
given by I = 4 b t ^ (see B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 27 ( i i ) *
The same statement has been j u s t i f i e d by Kerensky & others^
on f i g . 5. For f u r t h e r increases i n ^ / t r a t i o , an
a d d i t i o n a l h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r should be placed a t n e u t r a l
a x i s o f the g i r d e r , when web thickness i s l e s s than /250
f o r grade 43^^^ s t e e l . This s t i f f e n e r acts t o l i m i t the panel

- 35 -
dimensions and does n o t carry any d i r e c t load and there-
f o r e i t can be smaller than the upper h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r .
This s t i f f e n e r should have a 2nd moment o f area ( I ) not
l e s s than *^2* (see B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 27 i i ) .
The buckling o f a p l a t e due t o shearing a c t i o n , does
not cause f a i l u r e of a panel immediately, but produces a
change i n the manner i n which any a d d i t i o n a l shear load
i s c a r r i e d by the p l a t e . Rockey's^^^investigation showed
t h a t a f t e r b u c k l i n g has occured, the r i g i d i t y o f the p l a t e
normal t o the p r i n c i p a l compressive stresses i s increased
s l o w l y , while the t e n s i l e stresses increase r a p i d l y .
These p r i n c i p a l t e n s i l e stresses, which a c t along the length
of the waves, exert l a t e r a l and d i r e c t loads upon the
f l a n g e s . So, i t i s impo r t a n t t h a t the flanges should have
enough r i g i d i t y t o carry these loads. Rockey c a r r i e d out
some experiments on s t i f f e n e d p l a t e g i r d e r s and h i s f i n d i n g s
are:-

1. The web p l a t e s t a r t e d t o d e f l e c t as soon as the loads

were applied and these d e f l e c t i o n s were due t o the
presence o f i n i t i a l deformations, but these were
considerably l e s s than the thickness of the web p l a t e
and t h e r e f o r e n e g l i g i b l e .
2. For welded p l a t e g i r d e r s , the f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y o f
the flange about an axis passing through the centroid
of the flange and normal t o the plane of the web p l a t e
i s low and such a flange i s not capable of c a r r y i n g
loads w i t h o u t severe d e f l e c t i o n s . These d e f l e c t i o n s
w i l l increase the depth o f the web buckles and w i l l
cause increase i n bending stresses i n the web.
Subsequently, t h i s w i l l reduce the u l t i m a t e load
c a r r y i n g capacity o f the panel.
3. The post-buckled behaviour of web p l a t e subjected t o

- 36 -
 shear has shown t h a t the buckle formation and more p a r t i c -
u l a r l y the depth o f the buckles, i s a f f e c t e d by the
f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y o f the flanges.
I t i s apparent now t h a t , i n deep p l a t e g i r d e r where
- f ~ r a t i o i s h i g h , both v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r s
are necessary and the most e f f e c t i v e p o s i t i o n f o r a s i n g l e
h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r i s a t mid-depth o f the web. Rockey
has examined the i n f l u e n c e o f changes i n the size o f
t h i s c e n t r a l h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r and o f the v e r t i c a l
s t i f f e n e r s , upon the b u c k l i n g s t r e s s . Consequently, he
has suggested a new formula, superseding Timoshenko's
t h e o r e t i c a l formula and supported by the experimental
research work o f Budiansky, Conner, Kuhn, Petterson e t c .

Timoshenko and others,/^^ af^ where K i s the

c r i t i c a l shear stress c o e f f i c i e n t whose magnitude w i l l
depend upon the support which the web receives from the
flanges and the s t i f f e n e r s . Rockey^'^^^said t h a t , f o r a
web, r e i n f o r c e d by the v e r t i c a l s t i f f e n e r s of Zero
t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y . S t e i n and F r a l i c h have provided
t h e o r e t i c a l values o f K f o r d i f f e r e n t values of s t i f f e n e r
r i g i d i t y . He also said t h a t , Kleeman has developed Stein
& F r a l i c h work t o allow f o r the e f f e c t of the t o r s i o n a l
r i g i d i t y o f s t i f f e n e r s . L a t e r Rockey established that
f o r s i n g l e sided s t i f f e n e r s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
the b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t , the non-dimensional parameter,
r a n d the aspect r a t i o (Vd) were
K ^ /<u -t Af?
Where K = K L V ; K^v i s the l i m i t i n g value of K, f o r a
web r e i n f o r c e d by v e r t i c a l s t i f f e n e r s only.
Ku = c r i t i c a l shear stress c o e f f i c i e n t of the
unstiffened plate.
stiffness r i g i d i t y
r =
^ r i g i d i t y o f s t r i p of web p l a t e equal t o clear
depth, d

- 37 -
 but r" ^ / / V where - "the l i m i t i n g value o f
for vertical stiffener.
A = a constant.

But, no s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e o r e t i c a l or experimental,
have been obtained f o r the case o f a web subjected t o
shear and r e i n f o r c e d by both v e r t i c a l and c e n t r a l h o r i -
zontal s t i f f e n e r s . Therefore, webs w i t h c e n t r a l h o r i z o n t a l
s t i f f e n e r s must s t i l l be designed according t o previous
p r a c t i c e , such as B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 27 (ii)» where i t
i s stated t h a t f o r h o r i z o n t a l s t i f f e n e r s , the 2nd moment
of area(l), should n o t be l e s s than 4 S i t ^ where Sf i s the
a c t u a l distance between s t i f f e n e r s (Jsee appendix A p a r t H
para. A 5 « 8 ) .

-38 -
 II ^t

- 39 -
 3.6. R e s t r a i n t s on s t a b i l i t y o f the compression f l a n g e ;

The s t a b i l i t y o f a beam member i s u s u a l l y ensured

by j u d i c i o u s connection o f r e s t r a i n t s along i t s l e n g t h .
I n through-bridge girders, i n t e r m i t t e n t r e s t r a i n t i s
provided by s t i f f e n e r s attached t o the transverse back
beams. I f the r e s t r a i n t s exceeds a minimum s t i f f n e s s ,
then the g i r d e r may be forced t o buckle w i t h nodes a t
these supports. I n such case, i t i s advised i n B.S.153
p a r t 4 clause 34» t h a t the compression chord should be
t r e a t e d as a s t r u t supported by a number o f d e f l e c t i o n a l
s p r i n g s . Seide and others^"'"^^sought t o define the minimum
s t i f f n e s s requirements, and found t h a t the b u c k l i n g occurs
w i t h a half-wave l e n g t h , equal t o the spacing, ( a ) , between
supports; w i t h more than three intermediate supports
w i t h i n the span o f the g i r d e r , the s t i f f n e s s o f each o f
these supports a t flange l e v e l should be defined as:-

where, a = s t i f f n e s s o f supports t o the through-bridge

g i r d e r , i . e . l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n per u n i t load
of t h e compression f l a n g e a t the frame nearest mid span
of the g i r d e r , taken as the h o r i z o n t a l d e f l e c t i o n o f the
s t i f f e n e r a t the p o i n t o f i t s i n t e r - s e c t i o n w i t h the centroid
o f t h e compression f l a n g e , under the a c t i o n o f u n i t
h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e a p p l i e d t o the frame.
a = distance between frames ( o r supports)
E = Young's modulus
I c = maximum moment o f i n e r t i a of compression flange
about y- y a x i s o f the g i r d e r .
B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 21(b) suggests t h a t i n the case o f
very r i g i d "frames where S i s l e s s than "^^^/^ » "the
h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e P s h a l l be obtained by p u t t i n g ^ - ^
and the e f f e c t i v e lengthy I a .

- 40 -
Kerensky and others said t h a t when l e s s than three
supports are used throughout the l e n g t h o f the g i r d e r ,
the ahove d e f i n t i o n o f s t i f f n e s s i s conservative.
According t o B.S153, the p e n n i s s i b l e compressive s t r e s s
i s 9 t o n f / i n . (from tahle 3) and t h i s value may be used
i n deep p l a t e g i r d e r provided t h a t the c r i t i c a l bending
stress , A
. , ILL (if , 4T7M 2

where ^ ^ ^
where B = w i d t h o f flange p l a t e
and ^ = a numerical c o e f f i c i e n t .
The above expression has been derived by Kerensky and others (5)
They also said t h a t i f > / i s greater than 1, the support
s t i f f n e s s may be reduced w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g the permissible
compressive s t r e s s . The curve p l o t t e d i n Fig. 6 may be
used t o estimate the modified s t i f f n e s s . Once the value
of i s known, from t h i s curve, the value o f <^ -
may be derived.
Again the curve can be used t o obtain the e f f e c t i v e
l e n g t h f o r b u c k l i n g over a half-wave l e n g t h , greater than
the spacing, a, i n which the s t i f f e n e r s are deformed d u r i n g
buckling.
Now the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s equation may be w r i t t e n as

^s.-^'^(ff -^(Sf 3
Where >/

For a given value o f JsJc * ^ '^^'^ ^® obtained

from the curve i n f i g . 6 and therefore /= -
Timoshenko''*c^eaitwi%f/j« problem and he states t h a t / = 2-2/FJTha .

- 41 -
Kerensky and o t h e r s ^ s a i d t h a t Timoshenko's expression
i s accurate when the half-wave-length contains several
s t i f f e n e r s and i s i n e r r o r as / ^, The numerical
constant has been modified and B.S.153 suggests t h a t

i^2-5\/£/c Sa . (ggg appendix A p a r t IL para. 5* 3b)

- '42 -
 iiliii

I:
••:;:iT

-43
 3.7. Welding

The e v o l u t i o n o f welding p r a c t i c e has followed

the outcome o f research and experience. Up t o 1930
r i v e t e d s t r u c t u r e s were popular. Although welding was
i n existance d u r i n g t h a t time, i t was used f o r l i m i t e d
purposes. Those days, f o r p l a t e g i r d e r s , flanges were
made up o f m u l t i p l e o f t h i n p l a t e s , graduated i n width
and then f i l l e t welds were applied along t h e i r edges.
For l o n g f l a n g e s , p l a t e s were b u t t welded, but i n a d d i t i o n
to the weld, f i s h p l a t e s (cover p l a t e s ) used t o be
r i v e t ed a t j o i n t s . I n e a r l y days, f i l l e t welds used i n
l o n g i t u d i n a l shear were considered t o be safer than b u t t
welds. Research and developments increased the confidence
i n welding and use o f b u t t welds f o r main j o i n t s and the
s u b s t i t u t i o n ;of s i n g l e thickness p l a t e s f o r m u l t i p l e -
p l a t e flanges took place. The allowable stresses i n
butt-welded connections v a r i e d from country t o country,
and i t was between 80 and 100 per cent o f the parent-
metal p e r m i s s i b l e t e n s i l e s t r e s s and from 89 t o 100 per
cent o f the parent-metal permissible compressive stress.
The extensive use o f t h i c k s i n g l e - f l a n g e p l a t e s , l e d t o
the r o l l i n g o f s p e c i a l flange p l a t e s , i n Germany d u r i n g
1930's. This was intended t o f a c i l i t a t e the welding
f a b r i c a t i o n and t o reduce the stress i n the web-to-flange
zone and t h i s also made x-ray i n s p e c t i o n much simpler.
I n U.S.A., the allowance f o r f a t i q u e o f the welded road
bridges was s e t out i n 1947 by the American Welding
Society and had the g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n U.S.A., than
i n U.K. as the design l o a d i n g systems i n these two coxintries
are n o t the same.

Research and development work on s t e e l and electrode

- 44 -
have improved the method of design and f a b r i c a t i o n . The
present knowledge of the behaviour of welded bridges has
increased the permissible stresses i n connections.
As mentioned above, i n e a r l y days, the permissible
stresses i n weld had been taken f a r l e s s than the per-
m i s s i b l e stresses i n parent-metal, not only t h a t , i n
a d d i t i o n t o the welds, reinforcement p l a t e s used to be
f i x e d t o take precautions against f a i l u r e . Now i t i s
known t h a t the s t r e n g t h of a dynamically loaded s t r u c t u r e
i s not improved by the a d d i t i o n of the e x t r a m a t e r i a l and
t h i s e x t r a m a t e r i a l introduces more stresses and consequently
the j o i n t becomes more susceptible to f a i l u r e . Today
welding i s e s s e n t i a l l y a ready means f o r achieving f u l l y
m o n o l i t h i c c o n s t r u c t i o n . I t i s economical i f combined
w i t h sound f a b r i c a t i o n p r a c t i c e . The inherent r i g i d i t y
of welded j o i n t s between cross g i r d e r s and main g i r d e r s
may be turned t o good account i n designing f o r the d i s -
t r i b u t i o n of l i v e load over a greater width of deck than
i f hinged ends t o the cross g i r d e r s were assumed i n design.
This w i l l increase the economy i n m a t e r i a l of the main
g i r d e r s on bridges where the l a t e r a l spacing of the g i r d e r s
i s comparatively close.

To design a s t e e l s t r u c t u r e , the f i r s t preference i s

given t o m i l d s t e e l , because i t i s cheap when compared w i t h
H.Y.Steel, e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e and s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r welding
I n general, the carbon content i n s t e e l should be l i m i t e d
to 0'25*/.» ii" welding i s t o be easy and t r o u b l e f r e e .
Steel c o n t a i n i n g more than 0*25*/* of carbon may be weldable,
but pre-heating i s necessary t o prevent cracks i n welding.
B.S.436O ( o l d B.S.I 5) does not l i m i t the carbon content
and does not i n s i s t upon a chemical analysis other than a

- 45 -
 l i m i t a t i o n o f sulphur and phosphorus and i t i s v i t a l to
have a constant manganese content (approximately 0*5 t o
0'65«/*)« The carbon content i n m i l d s t e e l depends on
the thickness o f the p l a t e (e.g. f o r i " thickness, approx.
0'16'/* and f o r 1 ^ " thickness approx. 0«24«/«). On t h i c k e r
m a t e r i a l , the carbon content w i l l increase more, to
maintain the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f the s t e e l w i t h i n
the s p e c i f i e d l i m i t s . Care must be taken, by o b t a i n i n g
the m i l l s chemical a n a l y s i s , t o ensure t h a t the carbon
content does not exceed 0«25'/*«
B.S.639 s p e c i f i e s which electrodes should be used. I t
recommends t h a t f o r manual process o f welding m i l d s t e e l ,
the electrodes should be covered -x. i f o r metal arc
welding. The p a r t s 1 & 2 o f the s p e c i f i c a t i o n , apply to
normal p e n e t r a t i o n electrodes and p a r t 1 &3 apply t o deep
p e n e t r a t i o n electrodes. I n an automatic process o f arc
welding, the deposited metal must have mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
equal t o those obtained by the d e p o s i t i o n o f electrodes
mentioned i n B.S.639.
A f i l l e t weld i s defined as being any f u s i o n weld
approximately t r i a n g u l a r i n transverse cross s e c t i o n , which
i s n o t a b u t t weld, but i n c l u d i n g a weld a t a comer j o i n t .
A f i l l e t weld, as deposited, should n o t be less than the
s p e c i f i e d dimensions which should be c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d as
t h r o a t thickness and/or l e g l e n g t h as appropriate. For
concave f i l l e t welds, the a c t u a l t h r o a t thickness should
not be l e s s than 0'7 times the s p e c i f i e d l e g l e n g t h . For
convex f i l l e t welds, the a c t u a l t h r o a t thickness should
not be more than 0.'9 times the l e g l e n g t h . The e f f e c t i v e
l e n g t h o f a f i l l e t weld should n o t be l e s s than f o u r times
the s i z e o f the weld.

- 46 -
 A b u t t weld i s defined as a weld i n which the metal l i e s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y w i t h i n the extension of the planes of the
surfaces o f the p a r t s j o i n e d or w i t h i n the extension of
the planes of the smaller of two p a r t s of d i f f e r i n g
sizes.

The size of a butt weld shall be specifird by the effective

throat thickness of the weld,the effective throat thickness of a
complete penetration butt weld being taken as the thickness of the thinner
part joined;and the effective throat thickness of an incomplete-penetration
butt weld i s taken as the minimum depth of the weld metal,excluding rein-
forcement, common to the parts joined.

B.S.153 p a r t 4 clause 59 reccomends only t h a t the

design o f welds i n s t e e l should be i n accordance w i t h
B.S.1856. So, the B.S.1856, which contains the general
requirements f o r the metal-arc welding f o r m i l d s t e e l , has
to be f o l l o w e d ; but t h i s does not provide w i t h any e m p i r i c a l
formulas t o work out the required weld size. The current
design i s based on the conventional e v a l u a t i o n of stress
i n welds as i t i s explained i n B.C.S.A. p u b l i c a t i o n No.6 ,
1952, (The use of welding i n s t e e l b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e ) and
a s p e c i f i c t e x t book reference (See appendix A p a r t 11
para. A 6 . ) .

- 47 -
;
 ^£/^/7P(T/'fff<:/ /Pre ^

He/J gyf/r/'/- h/eh p/o'f<^ i^ouge /a Sc>^J^^'

2 funs <S-3/nyn^3oo /^/r>,, 6>/< /^/y/'^r'ocJe

- 48 -
- 49 -
 ANALYSIS OF ORTHOTROPIC DECKi

4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ;

I n bridge c o n s t r u c t i o n , the magnitude o f loads

( b o t h moving and concentrated), are s t e a d i l y increasing.
To o b t a i n a reasonable long servicable bridge, engineers
have sought f o r l i g h t e r s t r u c t u r e , which means a decrease
i n s e l f weight (dead load) o f the bridge members. Steel
decks have been used i n bridge c o n s t r u c t i o n since the t u r n
o f thl-s century. Progress i n the design o f s t e e l decks was
achieved j u s t before the world war H . The i n i t i a l work
towards the a n a l y s i s o f the s t e e l deck o r the g r i d problems
was done by Faltus and Leonhardt. A f t e r the war Dasek i n
Czechoslovakia proceeded f u r t h e r i n t o the c l a r i f i c a t i o n
of the load d i s t r i b u t i o n methods. I n 1930's. The American
I n s t i t u t e o f Steel Construction (A.I.S.C.) introduced a
system o f s t e e l p l a t e deck system, which i s known as
" B a t t l e deck f l o o r " , i n an attempt t o reduce the dead load
of highway bridges. The f u n c t i o n o f the deck p l a t e was
to t r a n s m i t the l o c a l wheel loads transversely t o the
s t r i n g e r s as a p a r t o f t h e i r top flanges, w i t h an assigned
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h . The deck p l a t e d i d not p a r t i c i p a t e i n
the f l o o r beam stresses and also d i d not c o n t r i b u t e much
towards the r i g i d i t y and s t r e n g t h o f the main c a r r y i n g
members o f the bridge.

I n 1946, Guyon derived a s o l u t i o n f o r o r t h o t r o p i c

p l a t e s o f n e g l i g i b l e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y . He showed t h a t
any v a r i a t i o n o f load can be handled, i f the c o e f f i c i e n t s
of l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n are employed. Later Massonnet
derived v a l i d r e l a t i o n s from the p r i n c i p l e s given by G uyon
and Massonnet's formulations included also the e f f e c t s o f

- 50 -
t o r s i o n . Working from these basic p r i n c i p l e s , a number
of researches c a r r i e d out numerous experiments, which
c o n t r i b u t e d t o the f u r t h e r developments o f the o r t h o t r o p i c
deck system. Bares has s y s t e m a t i c a l l y compared a l l these
t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental data and made some conclusive
statements which extended the range o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f the
o r t h o t r o p i c deck system.
The a n a l y t i c a l approach t o the problem o f the aniso-
t r o p i c p l a t e i s based on some simple assumptions. Bares-
Massonnet*'"^'^^ stated t h a t Poisson-Kirchoff's assumptions
may be used and they are:-

1. The m a t e r i a l o f the p l a t e i s p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c ( t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p obeys the Hooke's l a w ) .
2. The m a t e r i a l o f the p l a t e i s homogeneous.
3. The thickness o f the p l a t e i s small, compared w i t h
i t s other dimensions.
4. The p o i n t s which are normal t o the middle plane o f
the p l a t e , i n i t i a l l y , should remain normal t o middle
plane o f the p l a t e , even a f t e r bending, which means:

J
1

therefore -z hi

- ^51" -
 5. Normal stresses i n the d i r e c t i o n transverse to the
plane of the p l a t e are n e g l i g i b l e and the thickness
of the p l a t e does not change during or a f t e r bending,
6. The d e f l e c t i o n s of the p l a t e are smaller than i t s
thickness.
7. The d i r e c t i o n s of a l l external forces are perpen-
d i c u l a r t o the plane of the p l a t e .
4.2. Description;

I n orthotropic p l a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s t e e l p l a t e deck
i s used instead of the more common r e i n f o r c e d concrete slab
deck (composite c o n s t r u c t i o n ) . The p l a t e i s topped w i t h
a wearing surface, which may be concrete or some other
l i g h t w e i g h t wearing surface such as bitumen bound base ' ^.
surface. The deck p l a t e serves the f u n c t i o n of d i s t r i b u t i n g
loads t o the c a r r y i n g members. As the deck provides a
l a r g e area, o r t h o t r o p i c p l a t e deck may be very e f f i c i e n t
i n r e s i s t i n g bending. Bowling^"^^^ and others have shown
by experiments t h a t the s t i f f e n e d - s t e e l deck has a large
reserve of s t r e n g t h under wheel loading. This capacity
i s provided by the membrane strength of the deck p l a t e .
Bowling also said t h a t the compressive and t e n s i l e forces
are developed through the shear connection between deck
and the main g i r d e r webs and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n across the
w i d t h of the deck i s dependant upon the deck's shear
r i g i d i t y , the geometry of the bridge and the applied load.
A f t e r doing a number of experiments, Dowling concluded
t h a t , the f i n i t e element method employing rectangular s h e l l
elements may be used to analyse three dimensional o v e r a l l
and l o c a l e l a s t i c behaviour of an o r t h o t r o p i c s t e e l deck,
subjected t o both l a t e r a l and inplane bending. The inplane
l o a d i n g i n the deck caused by ..Its composite a c t i o n w i t h
the main g i r d e r s may have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on the maximum

- 52 -
s t r i n g e r d e f l e c t i o n s and stresses under design l a t e r a l
load, p a r t i c u l a r l y when the s t r i n g e r s are i n i t i a l l y
deformed.
The A.I.S.C. have stated t h a t the stresses i n any
member o f a loaded o r t h o t r o p i c s t e e l deck i s due t o the
combined e f f e c t s o f the various f u c t i o n s perfonned by
the deck i n the bridge s t r u c t u r e . The main bridge system,
w i t h the s t e e l p l a t e deck and l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s a c t i n g as
a p a r t o f the main c a r r y i n g members o f the bridge.
The s t i f f e n e d s t e e l p l a t e deck consists of the long-
i t u d i n a l r i b s , transverse f l o o r beams and the deck p l a t e
as the common upper f l a n g e , a c t i n g as the bridge f l o o r .
The s t e e l p l a t e deck transmits the l i v e load d i s t r i b u t i o n
to the main g i r d e r s as a simple beam. The p a r t i c i p a t i o n
of the deck i n the main g i r d e r stresses causes tension i n
the areas o f the negative moments o f the main g i r d e r s and
compression i n the area o f the p o s i t i v e moments. Due t o
the ample l o n g i t u d i n a l and transverse s t i f f e n i n g of the
deck p l a t e by the r i b s and f l o o r beams, the f a c t o r of
s a f e t y against buckling o f the deck i n compressive- stress
areas i s q u i t e high. The l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s a c t as cont-
inuous beams supported by the f l o o r beams which transmit
t h e i r load t o the main g i r d e r s . The transverse f l o o r beams
d e f l e c t p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o the loads they carry and thus
provide e l a s t i c supports f o r the l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s . The
f l o o r beams connected t o the main g i r d e r s are taken as
(18^
simply supported beams. The assumption*" ^ i s t h a t , the
r i b s and the f l o o r beams c a r r y i n g l o c a l l y applied loads
are t o a c t as purely f l e x u r a l members, i . e . free from
a x i a l f o r c e s , conforming t o the usual f i r s t - o r d e r theory
of bending, disregarding the e f f e c t s o f the d e f l e c t i o n s
on the stresses.
The bending moments i n an o r t h o t r o p i c s t e e l deck depends

- 53 -
on the f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :-
a) Loading
b') f l o o r beam spacings.
c) main g i r d e r spacings.
d) the magnitudes and the r a t i o o f the three characteristic
s t i f f n e s s e s o f the s u b s t i t u t e o r t h o t r o p i c p l a t e used
to represent the a c t u a l system, which are the f l e x u r a l
s t i f f n e s s e s i n the X & Y axis d i r e c t i o n and the e f f e c t i v e
t o r s i o n a l s t i f f ness.
The main f u n c t i o n o f the deck p l a t e i s t o d i r e c t l y support
the t r a f f i c load and t o transmit i t t o the l o n g i t u d i n a l
r i b s and i t should possess an adequate capacity t o carry
the t r a f f i c load and also should have some reserve capacity
to support any excess loading due t o occasional heavy
v e h i c l e or f u t u r e increase i n any f u r t h e r loading. I t
should also be capable o f r e s i s t i n g the e f f e c t s of the
p u l s a t i n g and a l t e r n a t i n g stresses occuring a t c r i t i c a l
p o i n t s o f the deck p l a t e under the e f f e c t s of the passing
wheel loads.
The design o f the o r t h o t r o p i c deck system i n t h i s
p r o j e c t has been c a r r i e d out by f o l l o w i n g A.I.S.C's
recommendations, (see appendix B) i n t h e i r design manual
(1.8)
f o r o r t h o t r o p i c s t e e l p l a t e deck bridges ^ ^.

- 54 -
 ANALYSIS OF MAIN GIRBSRS; LIMIT STATE THEORY

5.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ;

The u l t i m a t e value o f the p l a s t i c theory i s c l o s e l y

connected w i t h the p h y s i c a l behaviour o f materials beyond
the e l a s t i c l i m i t .
P l a s t i c i t y may be defined as the property of a m a t e r i a l
which enables i t t o be deformed continuously and permanently
w i t h o u t rupture d u r i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n o f stresses exceeding
those necessary t o cause y i e l d i n g o f the m a t e r i a l . Thus,
permanent d i s t o r t i o n occurs under s t r e s s and t h i s d i s t o r t i o n
can be b u i l t up t o l a r g e amounts. So, the f i n a l d i s t o r t i o n
does n o t depend upon the f i n a l s t a t e o f stress alone, but
upon the s e r i e s o f stress^sfrom the very beginning.
B a k e r ^ p o i n t e d out t h a t , as compared w i t h e l a s t i c
design methods, more r a t i o n a l and economical designs can
be achieved by the use of p l a s t i c methods. I n an e l a s t i c
design method, the stresses due t o working load should not
exceed permissible working stresses, which are l a i d down
i n the B r i t i s h standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n , v i z B.S.153, 449 ete.
The working loads are supposed t o be the loads which w i l l
be a p p l i e d t o the s t r u c t u r e , i n normal usage, during the
l i f e t i m e o f the s t r u c t u r e and the working permissible
stresses are intended t o ensure an adequate margin of safety
to accomodate the unpredictable over-loads, d e f e c t i v e
m a t e r i a l s etc.
Neal(21) stated t h a t , as the loads increase, y i e l d i n g
spreads q u i t e r a p i d l y through the most h i g h l y stressed
s e c t i o n . When t h i s s e c t i o n has y i e l d e d f u l l y , i t i s t r a n s -
m i t t i n g a bending moment which f o r a beam i s about 1*15

- 55 -
times g r e a t e r than the bending moment which was developed
at f i r s t y i e l d . At t h i s p o i n t , according t o p l a s t i c
method, a h i n g i n g a c t i o n occurs a t t h i s s e c t i o n , the hinge
r o t a t i o n t a k i n g place w h i l e the bending moment t r a n s m i t t e d
across the hinge, remains constant. When t h i s hinge a c t i o n
operates, the l o n g i t u d i n a l f i b r e s o f the beam are extending
or c o n t r a c t i n g w h i l e the s t r e s s i n them remains constant
at the y i e l d value, so t h a t each f i b r e may be f l o w i n g i n
a completely p l a s t i c manner. The fundamental hypothesis
of the p l a s t i c theory i s t h a t , a p l a s t i c hinge can undergo
r o t a t i o n o f any magnitude, provided t h a t the bending moment
remains constant a t the f u l l y p l a s t i c value. Baker iand others
have summarised t h e i r t h e o r i e s and experimental f i n d i n g s
(22)
i n many p u b l i c a t i o n s . Beedle^ ^ a t Lehigh U n i v e r s i t y ,
published r e c e n t l y , h i s f i n d i n g s on p l a s t i c design. B.S.153
i n i t s present form does not mention any consideration o f
p l a s t i c design. I n the f o l l o w i n g chapters, i t i s intended
to i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t o f p l a s t i c method o f design o f
the welded p l a t e g i r d e r b r i d g e , which has already been
analysed e l a s t i c a l l y .
The h i s t o r y o f p l a s t i c behaviour o f any m a t e r i a l had
been observed many years ago. I n 1914, Kazinczy o f Hungary,
was probably the f i r s t t o c a r r y out t e s t s on fixed-end
beams and came t o a conclusion t h a t , the f a i l u r e took place
when y i e l d i n g had occured a t three cross-sections, a t
which h i n g i n g a c t i o n s occured. Thus, the concept o f the
p l a s t i c hinge was e s t a b l i s h e d . K i s t o f Holland i n 1917
also published papers, about h i s f i n d i n g s i n p l a s t i c
behaviour o f d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l s . I n 1926, Gruning i n
Germany, took i n t e r e s t i n t h i s new approach and published
a book on t h i s t o p i c . This book contains general r e s u l t s ,
concerning the f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s o f p i n - j o i n t e d trusses,
but the contents o f the book were t h e o r e t i c a l and no e x p e r i -
mental c o n f i r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e . Several i n v e s t i g a t o r s

- 56 -
c a r r i e d out experiments on simple and continous beams,
but M a i e r - L e i b n i t z may be put as the p a t h - f i n d e r f o r the
p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s o f continuous beams during 1928 and 1929.
B l e i c h i n 1932 published an a r t i c l e i n B e r l i n , which was
devoted t o a review o f the p l a s t i c methods f o r beams and
p o r t a l frames. Girkmann also published a paper, about a
year e a r l i e r than B l e i c h , which suggested an approximate
method o f designing m u l t i - s t o r e y and multi-bay rectanguler
frames. I n 1936 M a i e r - L e i b n i t z , c o l l e c t e d a l l the i n f o r -
mation r e g a r d i n g the up-to-date experiments and developments
which was also published.

I n t e r e s t i n the p l a s t i c theory was stimulated i n the

U.S.A., a f t e r Van-den Brock published h i s paper i n 1940,
and he named the p l a s t i c theory as " l i m i t design". Baker
was the f i r s t t o r e a l i s e t h a t , the p l a s t i c theory might
be the simple and r a t i o n a l method f o r the design o f complex
frames. A study o f the behaviour of frame members which
f a i l e d a f t e r they have reached y i e l d p o i n t was made and
hy 1956, Baker described the work i n "The Steel Skeleton",
v o l . 2 . Home reviewed Merchant, Wood and others work i n
1961, which-dealt w i t h s t a b i l i t y o f frames. Recently, the
use o f p l a s t i c methods o f design has been common p r a c t i c e
i n the U.K. (B.S.449 and the revised e d i t i o n o f B.S.153,
which i s n o t published a t the time t h i s t h e s i s i s w r i t t e n )
and the U.S.A.

I n the f o l l o w i n g chapters a study has been made t o

i n v e s t i g a t e the modes o f f a i l u r e o f the f o l l o w i n g : -
1. Main g i r d e r s .
a) due t o bending.
b) due t o shear.
c) due t o combination o f bending and shear.
d) d e f l e c t i o n .
2. Simple p l a s t i c f a i l u r e o f cross g i r d e r s w i t h centre "hinge"
3. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e l o c a l l y i n deck.

- 57 -
5.2. Main Girders - Design Considerations;

a) I n bending - I n a symmetrical p l a t e g i r d e r , subjected

to bending, the s t a t i c c a r r y i n g capacity i s reached,
when the compression flange f a i l s . The compression
flange may be considered as an i s o l a t e d column. When
b u c k l i n g i s concerned, a column has three degrees o f
freedom^^"^^: i ) V e r t i c a l l y , i i ) l a t e r a l l y , and/or
i i i ) t o r s i o n a l l y . Fig.5*2.1(b) shows a l l these d i r e c t i o n
of movements.
i) V e r t i c a l b u c k l i n g o f the f l a n g e : I n bending, the top
f l a n g e o f a p l a t e g i r d e r i s i n compression and i f i t
i s r i g i d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s then i t w i l l be the only
c a r r i e r o f the compressive f o r c e ; t h i s , together w i t h
the bottom flange which i s i n tension, w i l l provide
the r e s i s t a n c e • t o the bending moment. I n a p l a t e g i r d e r
the web i s braced w i t h the flanges continuously, and
since the required bracing s t i f f e n e s s i s small, the
da.nger o f compression flange f a i l u r e i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c -
t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o high slendemess r a t i o . When the
g i r d e r i s i n process o f bending, the curvature increases
a uniform compressive stress on the upper and lower
edges o f the web. I f the web i s subjected t o bear t h i s
k i n d o f s t r e s s , then the f a i l u r e w i l l occur s i m i l a r
to t h a t o f an Euler column under a stress i n t e n s i t y o f

lijhTT ""~ ' .

Easier suggested t h a t t o prevent v e r t i c a l buckling,
the applied force should be smaller than the r e s i s t i n g
f o r c e . That means, .

A ' Aw
This / t r a t i o l i m i t depends o n - J j r a t i o and i n general
Aw
t h e - j - j - r a t i o i s n o t below O'b.

- 58 -
 a.

V.-" "ii* ••

- 59 -
For an upper l i m i t o f ^ / t r a t i o , equation 2 may be used
i n p r a c t i c a l design, provided ^ r a t i o has been taken
as 0*5. I n the case where every flange f i b e r reaches
y i e l d s t r e s s before f a i l u r e , then the flange force A/^
should be obtained. The flange s t r a i n must be greater
than the y i e l d s t r a i n , because, an e l i m i n a t i o n o f r e s i d u a l
stress ( ) , requires a s t r a i n <^ = (^^^LS) , Now
s u b s t i t u t i n g the known numerical values,

equation 2 may be w r i t t e n as

7 ^ ^ i ^^"^^ s t e e l <rz = t3'2S /fc/2///>?^,

(/^ = 7'S/o/z/T^/n^dnc^/3ooo/s^z/zo^y the *^/t r a t i o becomes

l e s s than 360.

f 28^
ii) Lateral buckling: de Vries^ 'stated t h a t , the l a t e r a l
b u c k l i n g o f a p l a t e g i r d e r depends on the parameter
o f '"^/BT
Basler^^'^^suggested t h a t , t o obtain l a t e r a l buckling stress
•fcwo formulas should be used; each one applicable when the
other becomes unnecessarily r e s t r i c t i v e . Timoshenko
s t a t e d t h a t the resistance o f an I - beam against l a t e r a l
b u c k l i n g consists o f two p a r t s : St.Venant t o r s i o n and
warping t o r s i o n . These are r e f e r r e d t o as pure t o r s i o n
and flange bending t o r s i o n . The St.Venant p a r t i s due t o
t w i s t i n g o f each component p l a t e where the angle of t w i s t
gives r i s e t o a shear stress flow. The warping c o n t r i b u t i o n
i s due t o l a t e r a l bending o f the flange p l a t e s .
The St. Venant t o r s i o n equation i s

^ - M - ^ '
and the warping t o r s i o n ,
r,H . . ^

- 6o -
Easier's concept o f the equation 4 i s t h a t , o f a column
whose e f f e c t i v e cross-section i s composed of the compression
flange and '^fe>'^^ o f the web, (see f i g 5-2.2).
I n order t o r e f l e c t these two p a r t s , the expression
f o r the c r i t i c a l bending moment i s r e - w r i t t e n by Easier as

-I

Where

- <2>

Therefore, the equation 5 can now be r e - w r i t t e n as

- <S

Since (T' - -f!

Where Z - .^A^f/-^ / ^ )

Therefore,
/-^r, A*^
---7
Z '

- 61 -
 I n equation 7

term ^J^= |'<;^^^'/^^ .because the numerator becomes

{

term[^^2^= 1, i f the flange thickness, T'tit /-Pxif^ and

i f y^Aiy i s n e g l i g i b l e i n compared w i t h , then

termf 4 ) = the radius o f g y r a t i o n , o f the equivalent

^"'^ column composed o f the compression flange and
V6''^^ o f the web i s defined as r*^ = ^
but A = -f^A^ = ^)
»^
Hence ^

term(4)=

Therefore the term

Hence i ? ^ / ^ /V^ = / [ ^ ^ ^ / / ; } ^ + (^T^^^/V;}' _ a

Thus, i t i s proved by Basler, t h a t the r e l a t i o n

between these three stresses i s the same as t h a t e x i s t i n g
between the sides of a r i g h t angled t r i a n g l e and the l e n g t h
o f the hypothenuse represents the c o r r e c t c r i t i c a l stress',
t h e r e f o r e , a conservative estimate o f the l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g
s t r e s s may be obtained, i f one o f the approximation formulae
i s used alone. When isither o f the two values o f <r^r{^y)S {i^)
i s predominant, the other can be neglected, since the l e n g t h
of the hypothenuse i s only s l i g h t l y more than the l a r g e r
l e g o f the t r i a n g l e . I n p l a t e g i r d e r i , the warping t o r s i o n
i s g e n e r a l l y the governing f a c t o r and the design should be
(27)
based on the column concept^ as stated above.

- 62 -
 Pig.5*2.3 shows the c r i t i c a l buckling stress o f a p l a t e
g i r d e r , p l o t t e d against the slenderness r a t i o o f a column
whose e f f e c t i v e cross-section i s composed o f the commpressive
flange and V ^ t h o f the web. By assuming V t r a t i o o f 3
and w i t h various slenderness r a t i o s , the stress r e s u l t i n g
from the formula (Tcrfi/) and the exact stress (Tc/'fi/fi^)
have been p l o t t e d i n the same co-ordinate system. I n t h i s
f i g u r e , i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t the exact l a t e r a l t o r s i o n a l
b u c k l i n g s t r e s s Tc^rf^^;^) y considering both warping and
St. Venant t o r s i o n , exceed simple column p r e d i c t i o n only
a l i t t l e f o r a web slenderness r a t i o jS = 200 and even less
f o r h i g h e r values o f ^. Because the phenomenon of l a t e r a l
b u c k l i n g , i f St. Venant t o r s i o n n i s neglected, i s simply
one o f the l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g o f the compression flange, the
b u c k l i n g curves i n the i n e l a s t i c range must be those o f
weak a x i s b u c k l i n g o f wide flange type columns. Easier
concluded t h a t , f o r welded g i r d e r s , the c r i t i c a l stress i n
the i n e l a s t i c range must be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . He
suggested t h a t , the basic column curve shown i n f i g 5.2.4
should be used f o r l a t e r a l buckling o f p l a t e g i r d e r s
analysed w i t h the warping t o r s i o n concept:

^ - /. (2il^' o
<r^ ' 4 ^
for ^ < X < , ^ = -ZTT7

for X > ]/2 w i t h

I n f i g . 5.2.4, f i r s t the standard slendemess r a t i o A'',

which makes the p l o t independant o f y i e l d s t r e s s , i s used f o r
the abscissa scale. Next the scale f o r the parameter ^
v a l i d only f o r = -=0=1 O GG// as shown.

- 63 -
 (

0'5

La/er^/ Bi/CK//W^ S/^rfsses /-gr^/ri^/grs /i////^ S/e/?

- 64 -
 mmm^
1 mwm
m m m
.L:.uru.:l.—rn-rr
iHllilll
id.
Hi;?
Hiiii£EF'|:"-^irpi
[Pi
ti:fl •n^:ir:r;..-:r:
fa
41-

Sliiiii
tt:-
mm
i m tintrfar liiBi
+3
m

- 65 -
F i n a l l y , the established parameter, buckling length t o
flange width i s presented. This lowest abscissa scale
i s a p p l i c a b l e only i n the case, when the compression flange
i s rectangular i n shape. The equation 6, f o r the general
(21)
l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g , has been based on the assumption^ ''that,
the shape o f the g i r d e r cross-section i s preserved a t the
i n s t a n t o f buckling. This assumption i s i n v a l i d f o r p l a t e
g i r d e r s w i t h high slenderness r a t i o and also when the
transverse s t i f f e n e r s are n o t f i t t e d t o the tension flange.
However, t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y o f the v a l i d i t y o f the assumption,
concerns only the St.Venant t o r s i o n p a r t , because i f i s
dependant on an underfoimed cross-section whose component
p l a t e s are assumed t o be forced through the same angle of
t w i s t . I f the j o i n t between the tension flange and web i s
pinned, the t o r s i o n a l constant K i n equation 6 w i l l be
reduced t o h a l f the value f o r a r i g i d j o i n t , cojisequently,
the value o f c r i t i c a l stress ^{i/) w i l l be reduced t o
30*/o, but value o f (T^^C^) w i l l not be a f f e c t e d a t a l l .
As s t a t e d above, the warping t o r s i o n i n a p l a t e g i r d e r i s
the predominant c o n t r i b u t i o n t o l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y , a
deformation o f p r o f i l e shape has got very l i t t l e e f f e c t on
the r e s u l t i n g b u c k l i n g s t r e s s .
i i i ) Torsional b u c k l i n g o f the flange p l a t e : V e r t i c a l -
b u c k l i n g o f the flange p l a t e i s independant of any other
e f f e c t s , because i t occurs i n a d i r e c t i o n of symmetry.
But the t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g o f the flange p l a t e should be
t r e a t e d w i t h the l a t e r a l buckling, otherwise the estimate
o f the stresses due t o the buckling w i l l become very con-
s e r v a t i v e . I f a l l r e s t r a i n t on the flange from the web
i s neglected, then the s i t u a t i o n reduces t o buckling o f a
l o n g , hinged p l a t e under pure edge compression a t i t s ends.
Therefore, the only parameter on which the flange p l a t e
b u c k l i n g s t r e s s depends i s the r a t i o o f outstanding width
to p l a t e thickness, i . e . -^/2T r a t i o .

- 66 -
I n f i g . 5*2'5 , the c r i t i c a l flange p l a t e stress i s
plotted*'^"^^ as a f u n c t i o n o f t h i s parameter and A'',
I n the i n e l a s t i c range the curve i s obtained by assuming
that,
a) the onset o f strain-hardening o f flange p l a t e i s a t
X' = a'45 .
b) the compressive r e s i d u a l stress of ^ f)^^=}/2) e x i s t s .
c) the t r a n s i t i o n curve i s tangent t o the curves a t these
two p o i n t s .
(21)
Then the expressions o f the buckling curve are

for

/
f3

for > /e with

r4

Where p l a t e b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t Ar= 0-425.

again assuming y i e l d s t r a i n <fy ^O'oo/f , the c r i t i c a l
s t r e s s can be expressed i n the terms o f the p l a t e slender-
ness r a t i o "^/2T as shown on the second abscissa scale
i n f i g . 5 * 2 ' 5 . I n order t o e l i m i n a t e t o r s i o n a l buckling
as a primary cause of f a i l u r e , the c r i t i c a l stress o f the
flange p l a t e given by equation 12, should exceed t h a t o f
l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g given by equation 9, r e s u l t i n g i n

f o r p l a s t i c range, < T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n between

S( ^ been p l o t t e d i n f i g 5*2'6.

- 67 -
 Hp, Hi:

•mi :;:r:;:
111
m
-III - a
m m
T;;.|.r:r^
•to
...... ix,..
—::rr:nr.-rr irtn:rrntr-irr:n-I::.; ::: -f—

; i . , 4-i;„l...,.rl.. 1- ) i

tl;: h i d n^;l4:;t::i:.;-!-;: ' .::;3i:t: i.!:r;

-;rirr;;ji_r-;

_ltt:-"i'..--j:r.: i : : . : : i t

I - ;-

II- T
pv^^ .2.5
-1

-I
m -'•••i-

y:ii;;:n;fji:::i:;.:i.::T'i:
• • " !•
i «-«lJ. 1
- 68 -
 msmm
|T'j^[[!:[i!:i(';!T!'!:^IT!.i

•!: ri • :r::; • :rrittr: i ? • c i ^ i : ; T h r t T | i t U:ttrr: t::.-3::.-

;pt:.

-i-riziin::!

' J1::: Fl?Fx E " * ^ ? i i ~ fe--

i; I
._^,.r::j

a;;;:
.,:::-!::•
Design Considerations

A. Ostapenko & others^ ^ stated t h a t the u l t i m a t e strength

of a p l a t e g i r d e r under pure bending and having the
l a r g e p o r t i o n o f the web i n compression may be assumed
to be c o n t r o l l e d by the f a i l u r e of the compression
flange column. Ostapenko's equation f o r the u l t i m a t e
moment

where /t^ = 2nd moment o f area web

C^iL/ = y i e l d s t r e s s , web
(7^ = b u c k l i n g stress o f the compression flange

l i m i t a t i o n on equation 16 are the f o l l o w i n g (^5^;-

if > ^ then use CylL = <7y,

and i f (^^. ^-S^/^) <0

then use / ^ - 2-S3 ) -n • —^ /3

The buckling stress o f the compression flange i s

c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s ^ : -
1. L a t e r a l buckling: ^
Check _ ^ 4. /2 ^ ^

^ "7^^^ ''^
- 70 -
 where / = unbraced l e n g t h o f the compression flange
( i . e . distance o f v e r t i c a l s t i f f e n e r centres)

and A " ^ / / - ^ - ArAk)^^-^Z . — 21

where = 2nd moment o f area of the compression flange

about the v e r t i c a l a x i s .

2. Local t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g :

check y > /? + ^ ,

<r;F '[f - o-S>b ( <=>-4-3f^'^]ff^ 22

the equation 22 i s f o r CD'4-£> ^ ^' ^ ]/2

or ^ = ^ ^ >^ ^3

where x"' - h2(^-^Vf^ .

24-
B. Basler ^^'^^stated t h a t the strength p r e d i c t i o n o f
a g i r d e r cross s e c t i o n , subjected t o pure bending i s
not so d i f f i c u l t , because only three possible types of
compression flange b u c k l i n g have t o be considered; but
some d i f f i c u l t i e s i n s p e c i f y i n g admissible compressive
flange stresses may appear. This i s due t o the presence
of the f o l l o w i n g parameters, which i n f l u e n c e the r e s u l t : -

As i t has been seen before ^ and ^ control

l a t e r a l and t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g o f the compression flange
and and i n f l u e n c e the u l t i m a t e bending moment.

- 71 -
A s l e n d e r wet burdens t h e f l a n g e s w i t h t h e s t r e s s e s
w h i c h t h e web c a n n o t r e s i s t . T h i s l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e
o f t h e c o m p r e s s i v e f l a n g e s t r e s s e s above t h e n o m i n a l l y
caculated values.

^- I n s h e a r : - B a s l e r ^ s t a t e d t h a t the u l t i m a t e shear
f o r c e Yu o f a t r a n s i v e r s e l y s t i f f e n e d p l a t e g i r d e r , d e p e n d s
on the f o l l o w i n g v a r i a b l e s :

i) the s t i f f e n e r spacing, a .
ii) t h e c l e a r d e p t h o f web p l a t e between flanges,d.
iii) web p l a t e t h i c k n e s s
iv) t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s : y i e l d s t r e s s and youngs
modulus ( y i e l d s t r e s s , (7^ = /s-2S ^on/'//j7'^& /jooo /o/z/
S i n c e p l a s t i c s h e a r f o r c e , Vp h a s t h e d i m e n s i o n o f a f o r c e ,
then i t must be p o s s i b l e t o e x p r e s s the u l t i m a t e shear
force, Vu i n t h e form o f Vu = ? P ' f ( a , d , t , / y , E ) , where
f i s a f u n c t i o n and i s n o n d i m e n s i o n a l . I t i s also possible
to e x p r e s s <fy i n terms o f . A l l t h e above v a r i a b l e s .
can o n l y o c c u r i n r a t i o s and let *^ - ^ ^ / - •
Thus, t h e u l t i m a t e s h e a r l o a d may be r e - w r i t t e n i n t h e form

of Vt^ ^ Vp f f'^;/^, '

Prom Von M i s e s ' y i e l d c o n d i t i o n f o r plane s t r e s s , the

shear y i e l d s t r e s s Ty = ^ ( s e e f i g 5-2.7) and t h e f u l l
plastic shear f o r c e i s reached when y i e l d i n g o c c u r s through-
out t h e web d e p t h . Hence Vjb = = ^ <r^c/t 2S
Prom f i g . 5*2.8 ( a ) i t may be n o t i c e d t h a t , a f i e l d o f
uniform t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s (f^ f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e web's c r o s s -
s e c t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g s h e a r f o r c e , V i s dependent on
the i n c l i n a t i o n <ji> o f t h e t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s . P i g 5*2.8 ( b )
proves ^ ^ ^ ^ t h a t the V i s maximum when <^ * •^•^"/^ee f i g 5.2.8^-

Thus a t e n s i o n f i e l d , w h i c h i s a membrane s t r e s s field,

i s dependent on t h e boundaries o f t h e p l a t e . These
b o u n d a r i e s may be r e s t r i c t e d by means o f s t i f f e n e r s , a s

- 72 -
 shown i n f i g 5*2*8 ( c ) . A thin-web p l a t e g i r d e r , which
is subjected to shear, w i l l reach a stage a t which the
compressive s t r e s s cr^ ( f i g 5»;2.7 a ) c e a s e s to i n c r e a s e ,
b e c a u s e t h e web d e f l e c t s . When fbhe s h e a r f o r c e is in-
creased yielding initiates along the t e n s i o n diagonal
and a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of the a p p l i e d shear force causes
a wider portion o f t h e web t o y i e l d . As s t a t e d above,
t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n f i e l d w i d t h i n c r e a s e s by v i r t u e o f
decrease i n the i n c l i n a t i o n of the t e n s i o n s t r e s s with
r e s p e c t to the g i r d e r a x i s . So, an optimum v a l u e of the
tension f i e l d c o n t r i b u t i o n A V^- t o t h e s h e a r f o r c e Vff—
is reached.

Therefore ^ (^^r) ['^ ^ ^ '' ^

with S f<^J = C/COS^ - <^S^/3<^ , ^/g jTiTi/i/CtTS /o

or, ^x. ^ = - ^ ^

or , - //-^^

and ^r^g^ = /• / - ^j==^==^]i 27

and cc>s^ -.[2/7^(y^-""J]'^^ 26

Prom t h e above e q u a t i o n s , Basler^pointed out t h a t t h e

tension s t r i p inclination i s less t h a n t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of
the p a n e l diagonal and t h e s t r i p width a l i t t l e w i d e r than
h a l f the g i r d e r depth. E a s i e r also stated that i n . plate
girders with s l e n d e r webs, t h e u l t i m a t e shear load i s : -
\/u = Vz + \/!r ?9

- 73 -
If any p o s t b u c k l i n g b e n e f i t i s c o n t r i b u t e d by the tension
f i e l d action, then

Vz - Vcr ^ T^e/f Vp I t . so

From e q u a t i o n s 29 and 30 the u l t i m a t e s h e a r l o a d

31

Where, ^ Jf . ( ^r)^,: S,, S.. .^jK 3) - | |^ ^^^^

for limitingtase of <^ - 45"

^ (T^ ^ - Tar
then, _fF = /_ 32

using equations 31 and 32

l/^ . ^ , / - ^ 33

Where l / ^ = ultimate shear force

" = p l a s t i c shear force
" '^s/ = yield stress = ^ where ^ ^-7^s^>2

" ^ = Vd

When ^ ^ /, /r =^-34- •+ ^?

and when ^ /, = 4 t h i s v a l u e f o r /<

is only f o r shear buckling c o e f f i c i e n t f o r pin-ended
rectangular plates.

- 74 -
77777777
L^<r

A
% 1

2 (C-; id)

Cc)

- 75 -
 An a l t e r n a t e way E a s i e r h a s e x p r e s s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
values f o r the c r i t i . c a l s h e a r stress:-

for ^ <r / 3^ /< = ^-34 -f-4^^

r.. . (P^y 34

Zrr = ^^^^ . (pA 3S

Fig. 5*2.9 shows t h e dependance o f u l t i m a t e shear force

on **/d and ^ / t r a t i o .

It i s obvious t h a t i t i s necessary t o p r o v i d e the

load bearing s t i f f e n e r s a t the point of a plate girder
where p o i n t loads are applied, i t i s also necessary to
provide i n t e i i n e d i a t e s t i f f e n e r s to preserve the shape o f
the p l a t e g i r d e r s c r o s s - s e c t i o n and t o e n s u r e post-buckling
strength. To p r e s e r v e t h e shape o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n , a
c e r t a i n minimum number o f s t i f f e n e r s a r e r e q u i r e d a t
certain cross-centre- and t o e n s u r e t h e post-buckling
strength, t h e s t i f f e n e r s s h o u l d have a c e r t a i n minimum
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area, (As), To d e t e r m i n e t h e s e two f a c t o r s ,
the g i r d e r ' s c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y may be d i v i d e d i n two p a r t s : -
i) S i m p l e beam a c t i o n up t o T = Tcr and
ii) Tension f i e l d a c t i o n up t o y i e l d i n g i n t h e web.
E a s i e r s t a t e d t h a t , t h e s h e a r s t r e s s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to s i m p l e
beam a c t i o n , c a u s e s no a x i a l l o a d i n t h e s t i f f e n e r i n any
respect, t h e s t i f f e n e r s h o u l d o n l y be r i g i d enough t o f o r c e ,
a t i t s l o c a t i o n , a nodal l i n e i n the l a t e r a l deflection
mode o f t h e web. I n tension field, t h e s t i f f e n e r must resist
the v e r t i c a l components o f t h e d i a g o n a l s t r e s s e s out o f
the web a t one end and t r a n s f e r them t o i t s o t h e r end, i . e .
it s h o u l d have t h e c a p a c i t y to s u s t a i n compression.

- 76 -
 3iitt !.:-:ti!..:

iliilii
r:fmil:nTiT!-tdniltou:

EliTiX

igiiilBii^

- 77 -
 According to E a s i e r , f o r c e i n the s t i f f e n e r <

= ^.t.c/(^^. . . . . . . 3<.

f o r maximum s h e a r f o r c e t h e v a l u e o f (Tf may be t a k e n

from t h e e q u a t i o n 32
When ^ /

^ -^fr^{,- ^] ^ ^ ^ ) ^7

when ^ » <iy^ ^ > I ? '

The s t i f f e n e r f o r c e Ps c a n be r e s i s t e d by t h e a c t u a l
a r e a o f t h e s t i f f e n e r s A s . , because when t h e t e n s i o n f i e l d
i s a l r e a d y formed, t h e p^ri of t h e web a t t h i s s t a g e i s
unrestricted t o y i e l d i n g and no a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s can be
borne by t h e web. I n c a s e o f s t i f f e n e r s used i n p a i r s ,
( s e e f i g . 5 * 2 ' 1 0 a ) , t h e a r e a r e q u i r e d i s , As •= ^^^^ -
E u t i f l o c a l b u c k l i n g i s t o be a v o i d e d then,
2
^ o-<=>/£fFZ
•Y (c/J 33

I n t h e c a s e where a s i n g l e p l a t e (one s i d e d ) s t i f f e n e r i s
used ( s e e 5«2'10 b ) then,

_ — i — 40

But i f F s i s i n c r e a s e d and t h e s t i f f e n e r i s p r o p o r t i o n e d i n
s u c h a way t h a t t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d y i e l d i n g i s p o s s i b l e prior
to s t i f f e n e r b u c k l i n g , t h e n
- ^ • ^Oa.
when c f y = 0*0011, E a s i e r s a i d t h a t t h e maximiun v a l u e
ot Fs = 5-0 X 1 0 " ^ (TX^/? , which g i v e s
/ 2
y i e l d i n g a l o n g t h e l o a d i n g edge: As - 0*0020 d
— 4i
and y i e l d i n g a l l over the c r o s s - s e c t i o n : As = 0*0012 d'

- 78 -
V T r YT T 1 T T T T T,

-5>

•As

^ . t f ' ax/'a/ /eat/ ^u^e

TTT

il
4-'

One' Sic/ec/ S/z/y^rp^r'S

 I

» « »>y T y u t . r l l . i l I T.

— r.

TTT

If .rr i i T.T t

'.-r"L--J;.^: Vv . _ ••'S*.'..'lEwV^-
 In t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s i t was i n t e n d e d t o d e s c r i b e
E a s i e r ' s d e s i g n method o f t h e p l a t e g i r d e r , i n s h e a r . Now
it will be a p p r o p r i a t e to consider Hockey's method o f
dealing w i t h t h e s h e a r problem. Pig. 5•2•^^ shows Hockey's
a s s u m p t i o n o f modes o f s h e a r failure.

He s t a t e d t h a t , i f there a r e no i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n the
web plate of a plate girder, then p r i o r to b u c k l i n g i t
does n o t impose any l a t e r a l l o a d i n g upon t h e boundary
members. B u t once t h e web h a s b u c k l e d , i t h a s no c a p a c i t y
t o c a r r y any more c o m p r e s s i v e l o a d across t h e d i a g o n a l ( J«^y)
and therefore t h e web h a s t o c a r r y t h e a d d i t i o n a l shear
loads by a d i a g o n a l t e n s i l e membrane a c t i o n , w h i c h h a s been
referred a s " t r u s s type a c t i o n " T h i s membrane a c t i o n
may impose:; l a t e r a l f o r c e s upon t h e f l a n g e s and s o t h e
g i r d e r may f a i l due t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p l a s t i c hinges
in the flanges. T h i s t y p e o f f a i l u r e depends on t h e s t i f f -
ness o f the flange p l a t e s and a s t h e b u c k l i n g stress increases,
t h e membrane a c t i o n d e c r e a s e s . I f the flange plates are
stiff enough, t h e n t h e web and t h e s t i f f e n e r s d e v e l o p a
f u l l membrane a c t i o n . When t h e web h a s d e v e l o p e d t h e f u l l
membrane a c t i o n , t h e n i t cannot c a r r y any more s h e a r f o r c e ,
and a t that point the flanges and t h e s t i f f e n e r s c a r r y t h e
additional s h e a r f o r c e which together a c t as V i e r e n d e e l
frame.

Easier^assumed t h a t t h e web p l a t e may f a i l due t o

the d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e i n c l i n e d p l a s t i c band ( s e e f i g 5•2.8)
anchored a g a i n s t the v e r t i c a l stiffeners. This assumption
is b a s e d on t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e f l a n g e s o f most o f t h e
plate g i r d e r s a r e too f l e x i b l e to r e s i s t t h e membrane a c t i o n .
Rockey s a i d t h a t , t h i s type o f c o l l a p s e mode may " s i g n i f i c a n t l y
u n d e r e s t i m a t e and o v e r e s t i m a t e " t h e s t r e n g t h of the girder.
A c c o r d i n g t o Rockey, when a web p l a t e i n s h e a r , buckles
p r i o r t o y i e l d i n g , t h e n t h e f a i l u r e i s due t o t h e development

- 80 -
 of a diagonal t e n s i o n band w h i c h i s f u l l y y i e l d e d to-
gether with t h e development o f the p l a s t i c hinges i n
the fla.nge to form a mechanism ( s e e f i g . 5* 2* 11 and 12).
Rockey h a s p r o v e d by e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t the w i d t h o f the
d i a g o n a l band, s.(see f i g 5*2'8 c ) and the position
of the p l a s t i c h i n g e s depends on the '^Iq^.X ratio,
Where I = f l e x u r a l . r i g i d i t y o f the compression flange
about an a x i s t h r o u g h i t s c e n t r o i d and
perpendicular t o web plate.
" <J7 = spacing between the transverse stiffeners.
" t = thickness o f the web plate.

Hockey's t h e o r y o f s h e a r web d e s i g n : As i n welded

f 32")
plate girders, flanges have low torsional rigidity^-^ ''
it has been assumed t h a t the s h e a r web i s simply supported
on a l l e d g e s . H o c k e y ' s ^ ^ ^ ^ p r e v i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s show t h a t
t h e web develops a tension band ( s e e f i g . 5 * 2 ' 1 2 ) . The
angle of i n c l i n a t i o n o f the tension band, {<^) i s equal
to the inclination o f the geometrical d i a g o n a l and the
tension band i s sjnnmetric w i t h respect to the geometric
diagonal. The width of t h i s tension band i s assumed to
be such t h a t the i n t e r c e p t o f i t s boundry w i t h the flange
coincides with the p o s i t i o n of the p l a s t i c h i n g e s i n the
flanges.
Hockey and E a s i e r both a g r e e t h a t the a n g l e of
inclination of the tension field will be c l o s e to 4 5 ° . In
a v e r t i c a l l y web s t i f f e n e d plate girder (see fig.5*2•13),
i t may be seen t h a t there are two stress regions, i)two
t r i a n g u l a r wedges i n w h i c h the critical shear stress
subjected to a c t , i i ) a y i e l d e d d i a g o n a l s t r i p . A c c o r d i n g
to Rockey, the tension stress, acts uniformly over
the d i a g o n a l band and yield occurs, when ,^7^ r e a c h e s
a value of (Tty •

- 81 -
 111
Ill

HIM
i
I s ^1 I
^1
^•1 H

if 1 4

Si
5 ^ ? S I

I n

t 1 vn
II, 1^

s 5 §
II
- 82 -
 a -c

/Cy. S"2-/3.

(b)

- 83 -
Under t h e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n a s shown i n f i g 5*2.14, the
stress i n t h e d i a g o n a l web s t r i p i s g i v e n by

^ Tc^ I 42

Now Rockey h a s u s e d t o u b e r Von M i s e s p l a s t i c i t y c o n d i t i o n ,

that i s , (f^ =
where, cr^ = maximum compressive s t r e s s as per Mises
& i^ty^ = tensile yield s t r e s s i n web.

but, ^ . /7p~V^^^T^r^^VJ^
substituting equations 4 2 into 43,

^ = - / Tcr^/^24> ^ / ^ ^ y - tJI^^I ^^)^. 3J 44

The v e r t i c a l component Vff- due t o t h e d i a g o n a l stress

may be w r i t t e n a s

The c r i t i c a l s h e a r f o r c e to cause t h e web p l a t e t o b u c k l e ,

l/^^ ^ Tew c/f

and =

Now, v/^/ = Vcr* 4 \/^

Values o f C may be t h e o r e t i c a l l y found by u s i n g Hockey's

c o l l a p s e mechanism a s shown i n f i g . 5*2.12.

- 84 -
 His c o l l a p s e mechanism assuSbes t h a t t h e h i n g e c o i n c i d e s
w i t h t h e edge o f d i a g o n a l s t r i p and t h e l o a d i n g c o n s i s t s
of the v e r t i c a l component of the diagonal t e n s i l e membrane
stress (TJy. Then t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s mechanism reduces
to the s o l u t i o n of the equation,

('^"f-C/"^'^
Where Z p f = p l a s t i c modulus o f t h e f l a n g e p l a t e .
Hockey p r o p o s e s t h a t when t h e web b u c k l i n g s t r e s s i s less
than h a l f the shear y i e l d stress, a depth o f web pla;te

Z = 3o{-f/_ iLEfr* ) be assumed to a c t w i t h t h e

flange assembly.

Hockey p r o v i d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s to s a t i s f y
the equation 46:

a ) f o r v e r y t h i n web and r i g i d f l a n g e s

Tcr ^ o then,

but f o r r i g i d > f l a n g e s C -OS^n^ f o r s q u a r e web p a n e l ^zJ*^^"

then Zy . T/^

b) f o r v e r y t h i c k web Ter

. *. Tu - "Typ^y
c) f o r very f l e x i b l e flanges

^ d}= c:> i f t h e f l a n g e s have z e r o s t i f f n e s s and

c a n n o t w i t h s t a n d any l a t e r a l force,

then 71 ^ Tcr

If /3 Tcr exceeds the l i m i t of p r o p o r t i o n a l s t r e s s ,

then the e f f e c t i v e modulus i s l e s s t h a n modulus o f
elasticity ( E ) and t h i s r e d u c e s t h e c r i t i c a l stress.

- 85 -
 E a s i e r h a s recommended that Tcr s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d by Tc/*
When Tcr >
/J

and Hockey s t a t e d that

"Ter _ ^ _ o-/<2> Ty,^ _ __ _

I n f i g . 5*2.9 dependence o f t h e u l t i m a t e s h e a r f o r c e on
^/d and ^ / t have been p l o t t e d f o r both Hockey's and
Easier's equations.

Ostapenko and o t h e r s ^ ^ ^ ^ d e r r i v e d the f o l l o w i n g formulas

f o r the case o f pure s h e a r , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e beam a c t i o n
theory: For a p l a t e g i r d e r , with t h e a r e a and t h i c k n e s s
o f t h e t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n f l a n g e s equal ( a s i n case
o f t h i s p r o j e c t ) and f o r X^OSS (strain-hardening range),

- \/^ff/^4'3^^.^s->.)''^^J^i^-l^(0)j — - 49

for ^ss 4. X 4: (elastic-plastic range)

for /A > (elastic range)

=^./fiM^^^h
Where = plastic shear o f t h e web = ^ <^

^•^^ ^ r //JV^^ — ^

'•^K = p l a t e b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . Assuming t h e web i s f i x e d

- 86 -
 a t the' f l a n g e s and s i m p l y supported a t t h e t r a n s v e r s e
s t i f f e n e r s (agrees w i t h Rockey's statement^^^^y,

£>3

Where ^ < f-O

2-36
or, /C = 3-33 S4

Where ^ i'O

I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d by R o c k e y ^ t h a t the p o s i t i o n

o f t h e p l a s t i c f l a n g e h i n g e depends on t h e f l a n g e ' s
r e l a t i v e 8tiffntfS5. The p a r t i a l t e n s i o n f i e l d (see f i g . 5 * 2 . 1 3
and 14) r e n d e r s t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f a p l a t e girder
under pure shear a s : -

£5
.(34) , t h i s e q u a t i o n i s v a l i d f o r
a c c o r d i n g t o Herzog^

^ • 7 ^ < ^ i-C only.

If ^ Z.a'-7S b u t > /'fi then t h i s e q u a t i o n t o be m u l t i p l i e d

by t h e f a c t o r s

_ ^ - o-d y 1
thus
>

or
E q u a t i o n 55^ and s& a r e v a l i d o n l y when ^ y f4o .
For webs w i t h an i n t e r m e d i a t e s l e n d e m e s s ^

Vu - ij>'{i/A-^^){iL^) i7
Pig.5*2^15 shows t h e p a t t e r n o f a c o l l a p s e mechanism
w h i c h occurs i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l l y s t i f f e n e d web o f a p l a t e
girder. C o n s i d e r i n g Panel 1 , i t i s s t a t e d ^ t h a t t h e

- 87 -
p a n e l w i l l impose l a t e r a l l o a d i n g on t h e f l a n g e and a
y i e l d zone w i l l d e v e l o p as i n d i c a t e d w i t h h i n g e s forming
in t h e f l a n g e s , t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e hinge,Gi i n t h e f l a n g e
v a r y i n g w i t h t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e f l a n g e and t h e b u c k l i n g
s t r e s s i n the panel. Panel 2 which i s t h e a d j e c e n t panel,
w i l l a c t as a v e r y s t i f f f l a n g e , a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e
longitudinal stiffener. The p o s i t i o n o f t h e h i n g e i s
assumed by Rockey, a t o sa , Therefore t h e shear l o a d
i n panel 1,

Vf = \_Tcria/i^ / tS//7^<^i (rfi/f (c, S8

and

V2 = -i-(o-£a+ Cz)^//?^<p2 ^ y ^ l 39
But t o t a l shear l o a d on t h e whole web,

V - ]/f -f- \/2 J (f'-^ / efuo/fon 58 4-5^)

Longbottom and Heyman^ derived the f o l l o w i n g design

formulas, a f t e r experimenting w i t h numbers o f m i n i a t u r e
welded p l a t e g i r d e r s w i t h ^ / t r a t i o o f 8 5 , 2 4 1 , 299 and
401, compared w i t h B.S.153 normal l i m i t s BS, 240, 300 and
400:-
i) t h e a p p l i e d loads should be m u l t i p l i e d by a s u i t a b l e
l o a d f a c t o r and t h e bending moment, and the' shear
f o r c e should be c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e p l a s t i c hinges.
ii) t h e average shear s t r e s s , Zo = and should n o t
exceed times the y i e l d s t r e s s , ( o f t h e web)
i i i ) t h e p e r m i s s i b l e p l a s t i c bending s t r e s s , (7^ i n t h e
web should be

= 1 / ^ ^ - 3TJ ^1

i v ) f l a n g e should be designed as / i ^ = -f- <s,2

where = J57" {V~J ff^^

and = ^ ^ •

- 88 -
- 89 -
 R e f e r r i n g t o f i g 5«2.16, t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e Bc a t
^ = Jh i m p l i e s t h a t t h e web f a i l s i n shear and
t h e g i r d e r can c a r r y any amount o f moment up t o Mf ,
w h i c h i s t h e moment o f r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e f l a n g e above.
The curve r e p r e s e n t s a g i r d e r w i t h ^/t r a t i o o f 8 5 . B.S.153
2
a l l o w s a maximum p e r m i s s i b l e shear s t r e s s o f 6 t o n f / i n ,
b u t a m i l d s t e e l (B.S.4360 grade 4 3 A ) , h a v i n g a y i e l d
s t r e s s o f 15*25 t o n f / i n ^ w i l l y i e l d in shear a t ^ - ^ ^ =
8.80 t o n f / i n ^ . So, t h e l o a d f a c t o r f o r a s i m p l y
s u p p o r t e d g i r d e r s h o u l d n o t be g r e a t e r t h a n ^ g ^ ^ = 1 . 4 7 .
S i m i l a r l y , t h e l o a d f a c t o r i n bending ( t o 9*5 t o n f / i n ^ as
s t a t e d i n B.S.153) i s about 1*85 f o r a s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d
girder. Longbottom and Heyman suggested that, a uniform
l o a d f a c t o r o f 1*75 s h o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e . Home suggested \9
t h a t , i f the depth o f t h e p l a t e g i r d e r i s moderately
l a r g e r than the f l a n g e t h i c k n e s s then
^ ^ ^(A^ 65
and = Ta c>4
I f f a i l u r e occured w i t h combined bending and shear deform-
a t i o n , t h e n t h e mean web shear s t r e s s /V Ta , where AJ
i s t h e l o a d f a c t o r , and t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e moment o f
r e s i s t a n c e s h o u l d be

N M = c/^Afir^^ " J - ^A/ ^ I &6

S u b s t i t u t i n g the value o f i n e q u a t i o n 63 and d e n o t i n g

_4f ratio

When Af i s l a r g e r t h a n At>^ t h e n t h e s e c t i o n may f a i l i n

shear w i t h o u t bending. I n t h a t case /V = ( ^*^zi, )-
Home s t a t e d t h a t t h e c o r r e c t v a l u e o f l o a d f a c t o r i s
l o w e r o f t h e two above e s t i m a t e s . I t has been assumed t h a t

- 90 -
 t h e d e s i g n o f t h e web p l a t e i s governed by t h e a l l o w a b l e
shear s t r e s s . I f some l i m i t a t i o n o f shear s t r e s s i s made
by To , t h e n t h e e q u a t i o n &4 s h o u l d be r e - w r i t t e n as

V - ^-')4^tJ <^7

At a load f a c t o r M , t h e mean shear s t r e s s i n t h e web

becomes

/ ^ J-^ "Zer and t h a t q u a n t i t y should

be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r A / 2 ^ i n t h e e q u a t i o n 65, a l s o sub-
s t i t u t i n g the value f o r from e q u a t i o n 63 t o e q u a t i o n
65, t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e l o a d f a c t o r becomes,

68

The v a l u e s o f / / c a l c u l a t e d form t h e e q u a t i o n s 66 and 68

have been shown i n f i g , 5*2*17. The v a l u e s f o r ^ , To
and <7y have been t a k e n from B.S.153 p a r t 3B, t a b l e 3.
Home s t a t e d t h a t when ^ - ? "^^y then the

minimum l o a d f a c t o r f o r v a l u e i s o b t a i n e d .

I n f i g 5'2'18, Home suggested t h a t , t h i s c h a r t may

be used t o f i n d t h e minimum p r a c t i c a l l o a d f a c t o r obtained:,.
u n d e r combined l o a d i n g , because t h e maximum shear s t r e s s
may n o t be so l i m i t e d t h a t , i t w i l l c o n t r o l t h e d e s i g n
o f normal s e c t i o n . He a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e l o a d f a c t o r
o f 1 « 8 5 f o r pure bending and 1*47 f o r pure shear f a i l u r e
w h i c h has been suggested by l o n g b o t t o m and Heyman i s n o t
j u s t i f i a b l e , because t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s t o o much. Home's
suggestion i s t h a t s a f e t y f a c t o r s h i g h e r than 1«5 are
nowhere r e q u i r e d .

- 91 -
 A.I.S.C. proposed t h a t when = O'OOH, t h e n t h e
f a c t o r s a g a i n s t u l t i m a t e l o a d and y i e l d i n g a r e A4/= 1*65
and A>y= I . 4 6 .

E a s i e r suggested t h a t t h e A/c/ = 1.83 and = I.73.

I f B a s l e r ' s suggested f a c t o r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d then t h e
e q u a t i o n 33 becomes:-

/ 7^
4'
2A/U

with
>- 63

— = Jl^S7r^\/3£ < Tor- — > '^'-^

-92 -
 1 1 1
1
- -|
- - -[ !-
- -
1 1

- - ---- :h[: „.

- I 1
*
t ' '
1 1 >
1 ' '
-- - - - - - - - - - - - •- 1
__L.k .. _ 1 .
-f-
- i - r •
- - -
•-
• i 1

- m
I'll
1 ; i 1
: r r r r
- 1
- 1 i : 1
- - -
•
ill!
;:L:LLj:
1 ..L_rn.
1 t i l l
1 • ; I 1 [ i I _i L
i 1 1 1 i i 1
1 1 1 1 • 1 i_
1 1 1 I r
73j1 1 ! i 1 1
1 I 1 1 ( ! 1 ! : 1 1 1
/ .An
' I T ' ! 1 i 1 1 1 i j i
in'
i i 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 i
1
1 v
•1
n
i

m r1
71 • .

1 1
1
!
1
i
! ! i 1
i 1. ' L
—
V ! .i ! 1 ! 1 1 ! ! t 1 ! i ! 1 1
1 1 : . 1

Mil

L-L-LJ-
ill i i
J...L
'IZI'
1 1
H4-U- 1 ~

J L
J _L
T' tH.i iI i
j 1 -*

i i

- 93 -
 1-4

O ) 2 3 4 5 . 6 7
mean sAear s/ress m uueb /-onf/zh^

L CPCKJfactors ane/er comh/riedShear^oree^ her^d/ng — / j y A/o/'/^e.

- 94 -
 C. Main G i r d e r under combined bending and shear:

Most p l a t e g i r d e r s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o be under com-

b i n e d b e n d i n g and shear. I n some cases, a p l a t e g i r d e r
may be s u b j e c t e d t o bending moments o n l y , b u t n o t j u s t
t h e shear f o r c e . Easier^^stated t h a t i n a s l e n d e r web
o f a p l a t e g i r d e r t h e s t r e s s rearrangement i s due t o t h e
web d e f l e c t i o n s , and i n p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s chapter
i t has a l r e a d y been s t a t e d . I n stokey web o f a p l a t e
g i r d e r , b e n d i n g moment cannot be c a r r i e d by t h e web, because
of high concurrent shear i s t r a n s f e r e d t o t h e f l a n g e through
yielding.

E a s i e r proposed t h e t h r e e f o l l o w i n g equations f o r
momennts o f a s y m m e t r i c a l girder cross-section:-
= ^ c/ Af 70
A/y= (T^ c/{Af -h iApj) 7/
A4p= tr^ c/(A^ -/-iA,^) 72

Where M/ ^ f l a n g e moment which i s c a r r i e d by t h e f l a n g e s

a l o n e , when t h e s t r e s s e s over t h e f l a n g e a r e equal t o
the y i e l d s t r e s s .

/^y = y i e l d moment w h i c h i n i t i a t e s y i e l d i n g a t t h e
c e n t r o i d o f t h e compression f l a n g e s .

and M/>= p l a s t i c moment which i s t h e r e s i s t i n g moment

of a f u l l y yielded cross-section.

A f t e r a l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n i s f i x e d , t h e shear f o r c e
and t h e bending moment a t any c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f a p l a t e
g i r d e r , denote t h e l o a d i n t e n s i t y . Thus, t h e moment/shear
r a t i o i s independent o f t h e l o a d and c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e
loading condition.

- 95 -
 E a s i e r ^ ^ e x p r e s s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s i n terms
of stress:-

M = ^{A^^-M^)[f- ( ^^/^Jj 73

^. - + f^^-^''n /u- . Ai^)ii 7>

Z Mf/ /^t/ L^-( -^^ -t^/ J 74-

The e q u a t i o n 76, has been d e r i v e d from

= f l a n g e s t r e s s , q— , due t o bending

A4v/
/Z = yield stress^ <^

/^>v = average shear s t r e s s i n t h e web

Vu/
/An= u l t i m a t e shear s t r e s s i n t h e web

and t h e r a t i o o f ^^^^ and "^which a r e expressed i n

e q u a t i o n 7<3,7I ,and 72 .

C o n s i d e r i n g A/ = 1*65 as p e r A -J. s c.
(T^ (27 - 77
C o n s i d e r i n g />/= 1*83 as p e r AAS/^o*
(T < (Z4-5 - // X % ^ / ) 73

(^American A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway O f f i c a l s ) .

- 9 6^ -
 E a s i e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e presence o f shear has both
a d e t r i m e n t a l and a b e n e f i c i a l a s p e c t . The b e n e f i c i a l
a s p e c t i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t shear f o r c e s always i m p l y
a moment g r a d i e n t and t h u s , o n l y a s h o r t g i r d e r p o r t i o n
i s a f f e c t e d by t h e maximiun moment. The adverse aspect
i s t h a t a web w h i c h i s exhausted by shear cannot s i m u l -
t a n i o u s l y take i t s a l l o t t e d bending moment and t h e
f l a n g e s w i l l have t o compensate f o r i t , resulting i n a
h i g h e r f l a n g e s t r e s s t h a n computed by t h e s e c t i o n a l
modules concept.

The o v e r t u m i n g moment c a u s i n g l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g i s
made o f a c o n t r i b u t i o n by t h e compression f l a n g e and
a n o t h e r by t h e web. A rearrangement o f s t r e s s e s between
t h e web and t h e f l a n g e , does n o t change t h e o v e r a l l o r
r e s u l t i n g o v e r t u m i n g moment. L e t t h e u l t i m a t e bending
moment be Alu , w h i c h i s due t o t h e f l a n g e i n s t a b i l i t y ,
then the equation = / . Now, t h i s e q u a t i o n i s
i n d e p e n d e n t o f shear, but applies also t o l a t e r a l buckling.

Easier's equation f o r l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g a r e as f o l l o w s : -

^ . f ' ^ 79

when < / /2 Ct

Jk. ^ So
y
when

where

z
and C, ^ ^7yntr/or' = f'7S - /'OS/< -&G-3^'

where /< = r a t i o o f t h e s m a l l e r end moments o f a l o n g -

i t u d i n a l g i r d e r segment free from. inteTspariuloads
t o t h e l a r g e r end moment.

- 97 -
 C^2)
Rockey^"^ s t a t e d t h a t t h e web p l a t e s a r e u s u a l l y
subjected t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f bending and shear. The
f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s a r e t o be c o n s i d e r e d when d e t e r m i n i n g
the f a i l u r e l o a d o f a web p l a t e l o a d e d i n shear and
bending:-
a) t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e b u c k l i n g s t r e s s o f t h e web due
t o t h e presence o f t h e bending o r d i r e c t s t r e s s and
t h i s b u c k l i n g s t r e s s %rr , can be c a l c u l a t e d from

+ (^)-' — — - ^'
where (7^^ = c r i t i c a l bending s t r e s s when a c t i n g together
w i t h shear s t r e s s .
= c r i t i c a l b e n d i n g s t r e s s when t h e p l a t e i s
subjected t o pure bending.
'Z^/r? = c r i t i c a l shear s t r e s s when a c t i n g combined
w i t h bending s t r e s s
"Z^v = c r i t i c a l bending s t r e s s when t h e p l a t e i s
subjected t o pure shear.

In case o f a l l edges s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d ; -

- ^ ' • ' { ^ F 0 p } l ' ^ ^ f

b) t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e magnitude o f t h e p l a s t i c modulus
Z/s o f t h e f l a n g e s due t o t h e presence o f t h e a x i a l
compressive and t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s . For f l a n g e s h a v i n g
a s i m p l e r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n t h e reduced modulus i s : '
^ = zpf - f%)'J
where (7~ = a x i a l s t r e s s i n t h e f l a n g e
and <r^ = y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e f l a n g e p l a t e .

' - 98 -
 \

/^^. 5 "2-/3

- 99 -
c) When a p a n e l i s l o a d e d i n d i r e c t compression, 1he
c e n t r a l area o f t h e p a n e l b u c k l e s , becoming unable t o
c a r r y any f u r t h e r d i r e c t s t r e s s and any a d d i t i o n a l direct
l o a d has t o be c a r r i e d by t h e web m a t e r i a l a d j a c e n t t o
the f l a n g e s and s t i f f e n e r s . As t h e s t r e s s distribution
i n a y i e l d e d p a n e l whiuh i s s u b j e c t e d t o b o t h shear and
b e n d i n g , i s v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d , Rockey s t a t e d t h a t , after
the panel i s buckled, the f l a n g e s alone c a r r y the a d d i -
t i o n a l shear l o a d s by t h e development o f a d i a g o n a l
membrane s t r e s s ^ y . So, when a web p l a t e i s l o a d e d by
d i r e c t bending s t r e s s e s and a l s o by shear s t r e s s e s , t h e
v a l u e o f n t h e d i a g o n a l s t r e s s , / t y comes t o

•f-J - ^^^^J • <96

Pig. 5*2'19 shows a t y p i c a l example o f a p a n e l o f a p l a t e

g i r d e r r e i n f o r c e d by b o t h t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l
s t i f f e n e r s and s u b j e c t e d t o bending and shear. I n panel 1,
t h e r e i s a d i r e c t compressive s t r e s s o f (Ti^tr/ and a pure
b e n d i n g s t r e s s a t t h e f l a n g e t o web j u c t i o n o f T^Sf •
Rockey suggested that the c r i t i c a l stresses , (77^6 ^ and
Zio niay be c a l c u l a t e d , w i t h i n reasonable accuracy by t h e
equation^ ^

Where (/^^ = t h e c r i t i c a l u n i f o r m d i r e c t a x i a l s t r e s s t o
cause b u c k l i n g
<7cr6 = t h e compressive edge s t r e s s c a u s i n g b u c k l i n g
i n :the p a n e l when loaded i n pure bending.
'Zcr' = t h e u n i f o r m shear s t r e s s t o cause b u c k l i n g

Now, ^
- yf f • 7/V/.7 when a l l edges a r e s i m p l y supported,-<5«S
'are

- 100 -
 When l o n g i t u d i n a l edge i s
clamped and t h e o t h e r s a r e
s i m p l y supported 89

When t h e compressive l o n g -
i t u d i n a l edge i s clamped,
the otheis s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d - - - 90

= [7-07-^^^-y ][/^^fyt][^"^^ l o n g i t u d i n a l edge

( i s clamped, t h e o t h e i s s i m p l y
supported. 99

T h e r e f o r e , once t h e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s e s , ^^w^*, & ^'or

t h e i n d i v i d u a l panels have been determined, the stress
d i s t r i b u t i o n a t b u c k l i n g w i l l be known and t h e c o l l a p s e
l o a d f o r each o f t h e panels may be o b t a i n e d by u s i n g t h e
equations:-

and

^ = 2f^3ZaJy^2^-^(7^S/^^^-2(^&s'^)-^]/f37^J/nf^^^J>n^<^ -
/4{^'^ ' <r;^A J
The s o l u t i o n o f these two e q u a t i o n s i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t and
t o use them i n p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n w i l l be a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d
C 29T
work. Ostpenko and o t h e r s ^ -^''suggested t h a t t h e "beam
a c t i o n " shear f o r t h e combined l o a d s i s
Vm -
where \//rf = beam a c t i o n shear under combined l o a d s .
'2^ = shear b u c k l i n g s t r e s s under combined l o a d s ,
area o f t h e web
Now, / <^ )+ .7~/^ / r-c ) = /. 5/
-22 2 <7cr6
y<:_j ^
3/^
Where J'
4/ =
- 101 - lOIEHOf
1 4 JUL w ,
 yf,- d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t r o i d a l a x i s t o t h e compression
edge o f t h e web
<7^= b e n d i n g b u c k l i n g , s t r e s s a t t h e extreme compression
f i b r e o f t h e web
R- r a t i o o f t h e maximum t e n s i l e s t r e s s o r minimum
compressive s t r e s s , t o t h e maximum compressive stress.

'"^ yaff.y^ 4 s/i

/3-54 - /•£-<S>4^ + /3-32/?'^ -^3-36/^^ 5/^*

. <7^ i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o

Then, ^^r^y^/^-r^.^ _

Ostapenko's proposed f o r m u l a f o r u l t i m a t e shear i s ,

adding the r e s u l t s o f the f o l l o w i n g equations:-

1 . l/^ = Zr7 • At^

The s t r e n g t h o f a p a n e l i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e f a i l u r e
o f t h e compression f l a n g e and a t t h i s p o i n t , moment i s
dominant. Ostapenko developed t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a from
the n u m e r i c a l computa-output:-

Where ^ = <=>-333 ?s -o-/3<2> for o^a ^ A <

3 - ^'23S^ - €> <OS X ^/Z

- 102 -
 V/^ = I n c o m p l e t e t e n s i o n f i e l d a c t i o n shear under
combined loads.
\//c = frame a c t i o n shear under combined l o a d s
(f^^ = b u c k l i n g s t r e s s o f t h e compression f l a n g e column
= p l a s t i c shear o f t h e web

= t e n s i o n f i e l d a c t i o n shear under pure shear

The u l t i m a t e shear i s ^
^ \//r? Vrc -h \/fc 54
and t h e moment ^ A-^^ = a. u ^ .

T h i s moment s h o u l d be checked so t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t
exceed A^^-
Herzog*^^^^stated t h a t i n p l a t e g i r d e r s w i t h v e r y thin
web-s, e s p e c i a l l y those welded a u t o m a t i c a l l y , crippling
can become a problem. So he suggested t h a t t h e web
c r i p p l i n g load i s

3&

Where = length o f the patch load

" < ^ = maximum b e n d i n g s t r e s s i n compression f l a n g e .

A.A.S.H.O. recommends t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s f o r l o a d
f a c t o r design:-
for f l e x u r a l members, assiune t h a t compact s e c t i o n s a r e
capable o f f o r m i n g p l a s t i c h i n g e s , which when t h e p l a s t i c
moment i s a t t a i n e d , r o t a t e under i n c r e a s i n g l o a d s w i t h
little o r no change i n moment. Braced s e c t i o n s t h a t do
n o t q u a l i f y as compact a r e presumed i n c a p a b l e o f d e v e l o p i n g
moments i n excess o f t h a t a t f i r s t y i e l d o f t h e s e c t i o n s .

- 103 -
 For f u l l y braced, compact, s y m m e t r i c a l s e c t i o n s : -

1. W i d t h - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f f l a n g e p r o j e c t i o n should
n o t exceed, - ^<=>-<±.

2. Depth-thickness r a t i o o f t h e web should n o t

exceed, ^ _ ^2/
^ ~

3. The compression f l a n g e should be supported laterally

at i n t e r v a l s n o t exceeding t h e d i s t a n c e s : -

^ = ^^^^— ^2 ^ '='•7/^/ -•- 99.

V

/ ^
/ ^ Af
l a r g e r o f t h e bending moments a t two a d j a c e n t
braced p o i n t s

A^= S m a l l e r o f t h e bending moments a t those braced

points.

4. ••••• a x i a l compression should n o t exceed,

^ ~ <^'/sA foo
where A = area o f the c r o s s - s e c t i o n

5. Shear s h o u l d n o t exceed,
\/ = ^-^^^t^f/^ /<^/
The moment c a p a c i t y f o r f u l l y braced s e c t i o n s may
be c a l c u l a t e d from^

Members w i t h a x i a l l o a d s i n excess o f 0«15A/y should be

d e s i g n e d as beam columns.

- 104 -
 Transverse s t i f f e n e r s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e web members
not satisfying the f o l l o w i n g equations:-

a) \/ = o-SS (T^

where ^ = unsupported d i s t a n c e between f l a n g e components,

The web d e p t h - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o w i t h t r a n s v e r s e stiffeners

s h o u l d n o t exceed, -2D _

I f a g i r d e r p a n e l i s s u b j e c t e d t o combined shear and

b e n d i n g , w i t h shear exceeding ^-^l^where Vu i s the
u l t i m a t e shear f o r c e , t h e n t h e moment c a p a c i t y , should
n o t exceed^

where t h e shear c a p a c i t y

S p a c i n g o f t r a n s v e r s e s ^ f f e n e r s may be determined from

e q u a t i o n 104 i n accordance w i t h r e q u i r e d shear c a p a c i t y .
But t h e s p a c i n g s h o u l d n o t exceed 1•5D. A t t h e ends o f
s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d g i r d e r s , t h e f i r s t s t i f f e n e r space
s h o u l d n o t exceed

1/ '''^
Where \/ = end shear
The a r e a o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t i f f e n e r should be a t l e a s t
As =y[<^-/£Sn^{/-<T) - /Srf^] /o(h
Where J5 = 2'^ f o r single plate
Maximum w i d t h - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o p e r m i t t e d f o r a t r a n s v e r s e
stiffener i s 4^ = 82-3 _

Where 6 = projecting width of s t i f f e n e r

- 105 -
L o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f e n e r s a r e r e q u i r e d when t h e web d e p t h -
t h i c k n e s s r a t i o exceeds t h e v a l u e g i v e n i n e q u a t i o n 1^52.
It s h o u l d be p l a c e d a t "^/5 d i s t a n c e from t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e
o f t h e compression f l a n g e . The r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n should
be a t l e a s t . ,——
r . yo3
727

I n t h e d e s i g n o f t r a n s v e r s e s t i f f e n e r s used w i t h a
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f e n e r , t h e depth o f t h e deepest sub-
panel should replace D i n the formulas. Also, the s e c t i o n
modulus o f each t r a n s v e r s e s t i f f e n e r s should be a t l e a s t

Z,,. . ----- fo^

Where ^s^. = S e c t i o n modulus o f t r a n s v e r s e stiffener

" Zs/. - S e c t i o n modulus o f h o r i z o n t a l stiffener

A l l these above f o r m u l a s a r e u^ed i n appendix E

t o work o u t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e main p l a t e g i r d e r s ,
which has a l r e a d y been designed e l a s t i c a l l y , (see
appendix A p a r t 1 1 ) .

- 106 -
 d. Deflection:

The p r o p o r t i o n i n g o f t h e main g i r d e r s i s such t h a t

d e f l e c t i o n i s n o t l i k e l y t o be w o r t h y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
The d e f l e c t i o n o f the suspended span i s about 1 i " and
a camber o f 1 f " f o r the whole span i s q u i t e adequate.
A c r o s s camber o f 1 i n 48 i s enough t o a l l o w d r a i n a g e o f
the road surface. T h i s i s achieved by p l a c i n g the g i r d e r
b e a r i n g s a t t h e r e q u i r e d v a r i a t i o n i n l e v e l on the support-
ing p i e r s and abutments.

One o f t h e advantages o f c o n t i n u o u s g i r d e r d e s i g n
based on p l a s t i c t h e o r y i s t h a t , t h e s t r e s s e s , which are
i n d u c e d by the s e t t l e m e n t o f s u p p o r t s are a l r e a d y taken
i n t o account. Baker^stated t h a t the s e t t l e m e n t s o f
s u p p o r t s i s i r r e l e v a n t t o p l a s t i c d e s i g n , because, the
r e l a t i v e s e t t l e m e n t o f s u p p o r t s has no e f f e c t on the
f u l l moments a t f a i l u r e . The g i r d e r s w i l l d e f l e c t elasti-
c a l l y as i t i s l o a d e d u n t i l h i n g e s developed^^^^and the
s l i g h t change o f geometry w i l l tend t o cause a r e d u c t i o n
i n the collapse load. But i f t h e p l a s t i c range i s s m a l l
or t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n s are l a r g e , s t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g w i l l
t a k e p l a c e b e f o r e c o l l a p s e and t h e g i r d e r w i l l tend t o
increase i n strength with increasing deflection. How-
(25)
e v e r Home and Chin^ ' s t a t e d t h a t f o r a s i m p l y supported
beam = ^ •

where = p l a s t i c component o f d e f l e c t i o n
Z = Span
and hinge rotation
but =
where Sc = central deflection
and Se = e l a s t i c deflection.

So, f o r the main g i r d e r s t h i s i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e , b u t f o r

for t h e cross g i r d e r s , the above assumption may be a p p l i e d

- 107 -
 to f i n d the c e n t r a l deflection.

B.S.I 53 does n o t s p e c i f y any l i m i t i n d e f l e c t i o n ,

b u t i n p a r t 4, c l a u s e 2 1 , t a k e s care o f t h e l a t e r a l
d e f l e c t i o n o f the plate girder. B.S.449 clause 15 s t a t e d
t h a t " t h e maximum d e f l e c t i o n due t o l o a d s o t h e r than t h e
w e i g h t o f t h e s t n i c t u r a l f l o o r s o r r o o f s h a l l n o t exceed
V36O o f t h e span"

5.3. Cross G i r d e r - L i m i t s t a t e a n a l y s i s ;

I t may be n o t i c e d from p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s ( o f e l a s t i c
method o f a n a l y s i s ) t h a t t h e cross g i r d e r s a r e p l a c e d a t
11*5 feet centres. The c r o s s g i r d e r s a r e b o l t e d (with
H.S.F.G.Bolts) t o t h e main g i r d e r s and t h e r e f o r e i t i s
assumed t h a t t h e c r o s s g i r d e r s a r e f u n c t i o n i n g as s i m p l y
s u p p o r t e d beams.

From s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d beam t h e o r y i t i s known t h a t ,

if t h e l o a d i s i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y from Zero, t h e beam a t
f i r s t behaves e l a s t i c a l l y . E v e n t u a l l y , a t a c e r t a i n value
of t h e l o a d , t h e c e n t r a l bending moment reaches t h e p l a s t i c
moment and p l a s t i c hinge.: i s t h e n formed. No f u r t h e r
i n c r e a s e o f l o a d i s p o s s i b l e i f e q u i l i b r i u m i s t o be main-
t a i n e d , f o r t h e bending moment cannot r i s e above t h e v a l u e
of t h e p l a s t i c moment. But t h e p l a s t i c hinge may ( b y
t h e o r y ) undergo r o t a t i o n t h r o u g h any angle w h i l e t h e bending
moment and t h e l o a d remain c o n s t a n t . The beam can thus
c o n t i n u e t o d e f l e c t a t c o n s t a n t l o a d due t o t h i s hinge action
and so f a i l s by p l a s t i c c o l l a p s e . The beam remains e l a s t i c
everywhere except a t t h e c e n t r e and s i n c e t h e l o a d i s
c o n s t a n t , t h e bending moments d u r i n g c o l l a p s e i m p l i e s
constancy o f the curvatures. The i n c r e a s e i n d e f l e c t i o n
d u r i n g c o l l a p s e i s due t o t h e r o t a t i o n a t t h e c e n t r a l p l a s t i c
hinge.

- 108 -
 C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n and r e s t r i c t i o n
and s t r e n g t h p r o v i s i o n s , p l a s t i c d e s i g n i s best s u i t e d
t o beams which a r e f i x e d o r c o n t i n u o u s . Simply supported
beams o f f e r no advantage. When c o l l a p s e l o a d has been
reached, a s u f f i c i e n t number o f p l a s t i c hinges must form
t o c r e a t e a mechanism. U s u a l l y , t h r e e such hinges a r e
r e q u i r e d , one a t each ( f i x e d ) end and t h e o t h e r a t t h e
p o s i t i o n o f maximum span moment a t c o l l a p s e . A t a l l these
h i n g e s t h e v a l u e o f t h e p l a s t i c moment g e n e r a l l y must be
e q u a l t o g i v e a p e r f e c t mechanism.

I n appendix P an a t t e m p t has been made t o see t h e

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e v a l u e s o f a c t u a l p l a s t i c modulus v a l u e
and t h e r e q u i r e d p l a s t i c modulus v a l u e , u s i n g a t y p i c a l
f l o o r beam s e c t i o n w i t h deck p l a t e , which has a l r e a d y
been e l a s t i c a l l y a n a l y s e d .

- 109 -
 ORTHOTROPIC DECK SYSTEM; LIMIT STATE ANALYSIS

6.1 Design Considerations;

The deck system used i n t h i s p r o j e c t , c o n s i s t s o f

l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s and t h e t r a n s v e r s e cross g i r d e r s ,
(@ 11«5 f e e t c e n t r e s ) , b o t h u t i l i z i n g t h e deck p l a t e as
t h e i r top flange. T h i s p a r t i c u l e r system may be t r e a t e d
as an i n d e p e n d e n t member o f t h e b r i d g e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l
shear c o n n e c t i o n s between t h e main g i r d e r s and t h e deck
i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a l . As t h i s system o f deck i s an independenf
member o f t h e b r i d g e , no l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e can be t r a n s -
f e r e d from t h e main g i r d e r s i n t o t h e deck^ The
l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s a c t as continuous beams and t r a n s m i t
the l o c a l e f f e c t o f e x t e r n a l l o a d s , i n t o t h e cross g i r d e r s ,
w h i c h c a r r y t h e i r l o a d t o t h e main g i r d e r . The cross
g i r d e r s d e f l e c t p r o p o r t i o n a l l y t o these loads and p r o v i d e
e l a s t i c supports f o r the l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s . Due t o t h e
common f l a n g e ( t h e deck p l a t e ) , and t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f
t h i s common f l a n g e , t h e r i b s cannot a c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y t o
each o t h e r ; so t h e r i b s w i t h o u t any l o a d should also
d e f l e c t and become s t r e s s e d as shown i n f i g . 6 * 1 , s e c t i o n
a - a.

It appears t o be obvious t h a t t h e c r o s s - g i r d e r s framed

i n t o s i n g l e - w e b g i r d e r s a r e s i m p l y supported, and have been
t r e a t e d separately i n chapter 5*3. A.I.S.C. s t a t e d , _ t h a t
the r i b s and t h e c r o s s - g i r d e r s c a r r y i n g l o c a l l y a p p l i e d
l o a d s a r e t o a c t as p u r e l y f l e x u r a l s t r u c t u r a l members.
E x p e r i m e n t s have been c a r r i e d o u t and i t has been e s t a b l i s h e d
t h a t i f t h e l o a d on t h e deck has been i n c r e a s e d beyond t h e
u s u a l wheel l o a d , o r t h e r a t i o o f t h e d e f l e c t i o n t o t h e

- 110 -
 span o f a r i b i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , then s t r e s s e s b e g i n t o
appear i n t h e loaded r i b s i n a d d i t i o n t o the p u r e l y f l e x u r a l
s t r e s s e s , and an a d d i t i o n a l t e n s i o n due t o a membrane a c t i o n
o f t h e deck p l a t e o c c u r s . I n c r e a s ^ ^ n t . s - i n l o a d s and the /
c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e f l e c t i o n s , cause t h e ' r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e
s t r e s s e s i n the system and t h e membrane s t r e s s e s r e p l a c e
t h e f l e x u r a l s t r e s s e s which are predominant under w o r k i n g
l o a d s . T h e r e f o r e , w i t h l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s , t h e deck p l a t e
behaves d i f f e r e n t l y from t h a t p r e d i c t e d by the u s u a l f l e x u r a l
t h e o r y which d i s r e g a r d s the e f f e c t o f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f
a system on i t s s t r e s s e s and i t s s t r e n g t h has been found
many t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n p r e d i c t e d by the o r d i n a r y f l e x u r a l
f 18^
theory^ '. T h i s s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r i s due t o the com-
b i n a t i o n o f t h e membrane a c t i o n o f t h e p l a t e and the p l a s t i c
s t r e n g t h reserve o f the h i g h l y s t a t i c a l l y indeterminate
system o f t h e deck. However, a more p r e c i s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h i s e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d s t r u c t u r a l mechanism, o f a
s t e e l deck p l a t e under l a r g e l o a d i s s t i l l l a c k i n g and no
such e x p e r i m e n t has y e t been c a r r i e d o u t t o c l a r i f y this
sort of structural behaviour.
Tests have been c a r r i e d o u t by Hooke & Rawlings^ ^'^^
t o f i n d o u t the d e f l e c t i o n p r o f i l e o f clamped r e t a n g u l a r
p l a t e s , and each p l a t e was loaded w e l l i n t o the p l a s t i c
range. The p l a t e s were o f m i l d s t e e l w i t h w i d t h / t h i c k n e s s
r a t i o s covered t h e range from 50 t o 160 and had aspect
r a t i o s (B = ^/s) o f 1. ^/3 and ^ 3 . These t e s t s r e s u l t s
a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h i s p r o j e c t , i f i t i s assumed t h a t the
wheel l o a d w i l l be p l a c e d on the deck as shown i n fig. 6'1 C^)
Hooke & Rawlings e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s are g i v e n by,
^ = 7/'C ( ^ > 3f 2S
Where b = the w i d t h o f the s t r i p o f the p l a t e
" t = t h i c k n e s s o f the p l a t e
" = central deflection .

- 111 -
 Comparison w i t h t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e t h e o r y based
on t h e assumption t h a t y i e l d f i r s t occurs when p l a s t i c
s e c t i o n s form a t t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e l o n g s i d e s showed
t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l values o f were i n every case
l o w e r t h a n those g i v e n by t h e e q u a t i o n . The e x p e r i m e n t a l
v a l u e s d i d n o t l e a d t o a s t r a i g h t - l i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p and
for lower values o f / t tended t o t h e o r i g i n and n o t
31'25. Also the theory predicted t h a t plates having the
same ^^/t would n o t y i e l d a t t h e same v a l u e o f ^^/t, b u t
the v a l u e i n c r e a s e d as p decreased .
f 18^
Experiments have been c a r r i e d out^ ''on deck p l a t e
p a n e l s w i t h c l o s e d r i b s a t U n i v e r s i t y o f S t u t t g a r t where
the dimensions o f the t e s t panel w i t h t r a p e z o i d a l r i b s
were f o r a half..;scale model o f an a c t u a l b r i d g e deck p a n e l .
The purpose o f these experiments was. t o determine t h e
e f f e c t o f t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y , which i s more pronounced
w i t h l o n g e r r i b spans. The r i b d e p t h - t o span r a t i o was
chosen as V44 and t h e m a t e r i a l was m i l d s t e e l . The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s f o r a c o n c e n t r a t e d wheel l o a d (W)
were competed w i t h t h e f l e x u r a l t h e o r y and t h e v a l u e s were
as follows;-
2
a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s @ W = 1*45 ton/. , 8*84 t o n f / i n
y i e l d s t r e s s i n r i b @ w = 2*56 t o n f
u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h @ W = 3*8 t o n f
The d e f l e c t i o n l i n e o f t h e loaded r i b was almost a
straight line. A measurable membrane c o n d i t i o n occured
w e l l w i t h i n the e l a s t i c l i m i t , before reaching the p l a s t i c
l i m i t a t any p o i n t and w i t h t h e d e f l e c t i o n under l o a d o n l y
V5OO o f t h e r i b span. A t f u r t h e r l o a d increments (W = 5 tonnes,
w h i c h i s beyond t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l o a d ) , an almost l i n e a r
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l o a d and t h e d e f l e c t i o n was observed.
A t t h i s l o a d i n g a d e f l e x i o n o f V300O o f t h e r i b span was
measured. The c o n c l u s i o n o f these t e s t s i s t h a t , t h e a c t u a l

- 112 -
u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s i s much g r e a t e r
t h a n t h e computed v a l u e s . The a c t u a l s a f e t y a g a i n s t
r e a c h i n g t h e y i e l d p o i n t s t r e s s i s h i g h e r than t h e computed
values. U n l i k e i n a beam, r e a c h i n g p l a s t i c i t y a t one l o c a -
t i o n o f t h e deck p l a t e does n o t mean a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o i n t
a t w h i c h t h e s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r i s changed i n any
s i g n i f i c a n t way.

I n Appendix G, c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p r o v i d e d t o examine
t h e i n e l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f t h e o r t h o t r o p i c deck.

- 113 -
 i C/'aSSp/'/'c^e/'t

US."
9

—_4

- lis -
6.2 U l t i m a t e l o a d t e s t on t h e deck;

I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d ^ ' t h a t , under i n c r e a s i n g

l o a d s , t h e e l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f t h e p l a t e evidenced by
the l a c k o f d e f o r m a t i o n s a f t e r removal o f the l o a d s ,
extends c o n s i d e r a b l y beyond the l i m i t s p r e d i c t e d by t h e
f l e x u r a l theory. Membrane s t r e s s e s are developed as the
l o a d s and d e f l e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e s , which causes h o r i z o n t a l
r e a c t i o n s a t t h e s u p p o r t s and compressive s t r e s s e s i n the
p o r t i o n s o f t h e p l a t e a d j o i n i n g the loaded a r e a , and a t
h i g h e r l o a d i n g , p l a s t i c h i n g e s are formed over the s u p p o r t s
and t h e f l e x u a l s t r e s s e s are r e p l a c e d by t h e membrane
stresses. Due t o t h e r e s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t o f the unloaded
p o r t i o n s o f the p l a t e , t h e d e f l e c t i o n s are l i m i t e d , even
at t h e c r i t i c a l l o c a t i o n s o f t h e p l a t e where p l a s t i c h i n g e s
a r e formed. At the f i n a l stage o f l o a d i n g , t h e s t r a i n -
h a r d e n i n g phase has been observed and t h u s t h e f u l l tensile
s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l has been developed b e f o r e the
r u p t u r e a t the u l t i m a t e load.

In
f i g u r e 6-2 r e s u l t s o f a f u l l s c a l e l o a d i n g t e s t
M 8^
has been shown^ '. This t e s t was c a r r i e d out on a m i l d
s t e e l deck p l a t e . Prom t h e l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n diagram, i t
may be n o t e d t h a t , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f the t e s t specimen was
fully e l a s t i c up t o the l o a d o f 32*5 tonnes; between 32.5
tonnes t o 75 tonnes t h e l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n curve i s f l a t t e r ,
w h i c h means, i t i s i n p l a s t i c range, f i n a l l y the d e f l e c t i o n
i n c r e m e n t s under h i g h e r l o a d s ( o v e r 75 tonnes) are s m a l l e r ,
w h i c h i s due t o the s t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g e f f e c t s . The ultimate
s t r e n g t h o f the p l a t e reached a t t h e l o a d ^/2 = ^'^^/2 tonnes.,
so, i f t h e d e s i g n l o a d i s W = 10 tonnes, the s a f e t y a g a i n s t
rupture i s = 27*6 t i m e s . I t has been concluded^
t h a t , t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e p l a t e under the w o r k i n g l o a d s
cannot be used t o judge the u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f the
plate.

- 116 -
 A.I.S.C.'s f o r m u l a f o r u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y o f the p l a t e
i s based on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a f l a t b a r . I t has s t a t e d
t h a t a f l a t s.teel b a r f i x e d a t b o t h ends and u n i f o r m l y
l o a d e d w i t h A'per u n i t l e n g t h , a c t s as a c a b l e , at failure,
w i t h t h e l o a d c a r r i e d by a x i a l s t r e s s e s only, sustained
by t h e r e a c t i o n s a t supports. The t o t a l e l o n g a t i o n a t
f a i l u r e was found t o be v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e t e n s i l e t e s t
o f a specimen o f e q u a l l e n g t h .

For a b a r o f span,5> and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area A,

u l t i m a t e l o a d , M/u is g i v e n by:-

5i ^
Where Ac/ = u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f t h e m a t e r i a l

^cy = u l t i m a t e e l o n g a t i o n = (y^) '

The v a l u e o f i s 14*/• f o r a m i l d s t e e l b a r .
The u l t i m a t e l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y of a plate with a iiniformly
d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d i n g system e x t e n d i n g o n l y over a p o r t i o n
of the width o f the p l a t e w i l l be much g r e a t e r than t h a t
o f a bar loaded over i t s f u l l w i d t h ; t h e r e f o r e an
empirical correction coefficient A^^/ 2S^ has been
proposed.^ '.

Thus t h e above e q u a t i o n f o r t h e u l t i m a t e load,Wu

may be w r i t t e n as: . ^ y ^ ^ ^

Where t = plate thickness

" U4/ = u l t i m a t e l o a d , /if.^ev sq. i n .
" Au - u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e s s , p e r sq.in.
" -5/ = l o n g i t u d i n a l r i b s p a c i n g , i n .
" = ultimate elongation o f the m a t e r i a l , corresponding
to the t e n s i l e stress, .

However,^ A . I . S. C. suggested t h a t t h e above forariula- ds

c o r r e c t enough, b u t f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i f i c a t i o n o f
t h i s formula i s desirable.

- 117 -
 0^
1
3t I

I
1
I
i
fOO

/O TO JO

- 118 - •
 119

7.0 D iscuss ion

T h i s t h e s i s has i l l u s t r a t e d t h e e v o l u t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c
and l i m i t s t a t e t h e o r i e s t o a p l a t e g i r d e r b r i d g e . Design of p l a t e
g i r d e r b r i d g e s e l a s t i c a l l y , has been w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d in the c u r r e n t
e d i t i o n o f B.S, 153 and s t r e s s c o m p u t a t i o n s a r e no l o n g e r a p r o b l e m t o an
e n g i n e e r , o n c e t h e l o a d i n g c o n c e p t i o n s a r e c l e a r and t h e f i n a l b e n d i n g
moment and s h e a r f o r c e d i a g r a m s a r e o b t a i n e d . However, t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
o f e l a s t i c s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s now a p p e a r t o be l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n an
understanding of the c o l l a p s e behaviour of the s t r u c t u r e . In l i m i t s t a t e
t h e o r y , i t has been n o t i c e d t h a t , f o r e v e r y s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e e x i s t s a
u n i q u e number o f i n d e p e n d e n t mechanisms o f c o l l a p s e and e v e r y o t h e r
mechanism may be f o r m e d by c o m b i n i n g t h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l modes. By
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e K i n e m a t i c t h e o r e m , t h e a c t u a l c o l l a p s e mode can be
i n d e n t i f i e d as t h e l o w e s t v a l u e o f t h e c o l l a p s e l o a d c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
m e c h a n i c s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and e v e r y l i k e l y mode s h o u l d be investigated.
In t h i s t h e s i s , o n l y a few p r o b a b l e modes have been i n v e s t i g a t e d and the
r e s u l t i n g mode has been c o n f i r m e d as t h e t r u e mode by c o m p u t i n g t h e
s t a t i c a l l y a d m i s s i b l e b e n d i n g moment i n w h i c h t h e f u l l y p l a s t i c moment
o f r e s i s t a n c e i s nowhere exceeded.

An e x t e n s i v e s t u d y has been made t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r k d o n e by B a s l e r ,

R o c k e y , : O s t a p e n k o and o t h e r s , on t h e u l t i m a t e l o a d method o f d e s i g n f o r
plate girders. In the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs, a concluding re-statement is
made.

O s t a p e n k o and o t h e r s s t a t e d t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f a p l a t e g i r d e r
u n d e r p u r e b e n d i n g and h a v i n g t h e l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e web i n compression
may be assumed t o be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n f l a n g e
column. Basler s t a t e d t h a t the s t r e n g t h p r e d i c t i o n of a p l a t e g i r d e r
c r o s s s e c t i o n , s u b j e c t e d t o p u r e b e n d i n g i s n o t so d i f f i c u l t , b e c a u s e ,
o n l y t h r e e p o s s i b l e t y p e s o f c o m p r e s s i o n f l a n g e b u c k l i n g have t o be
considered; b u t some d i f f i c u l t i e s i n s p e c i f y i n g a d m i s s i b l e c o m p r e s s i v e
f l a n g e s t r e s s e s may a p p e a r . A s l e n d e r web b u r d e n s t h e f l a n g e s w i t h t h e
s t r e s s e s w h i c h t h e web c a n n o t r e s i s t . T h i s l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e o f t h e
c o m p r e s s i v e f l a n g e s t r e s s e s above the n o m i n a l l y c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s .

Rockey s t a t e d t h a t , i f t h e r e a r e no i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n t h e web p l a t e o f a-
p l a t e g i r d e r , t h e n p r i o r t o b u c k l i n g i t does n o t impose any l a t e r a l loading
upon t h e b o u n d a r y members. B u t o n c e t h e web has b u c k l e d , i t has no
c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y any more c o m p r e s s i v e load a c r o s s t h e d i a g o n a l and
t h e r e f o r e t h e web has t o c a r r y t h e a d d i t i o n a l s h e a r l o a d s by a d i a g o n a l
t e n s i l e membrane a c t i o n . T h i s membrane a c t i o n may impose l a t e r a l forces
upon t h e f l a n g e s and so t h e g i r d e r may f a i l due t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
p l a s t i c hinges i n . t h e f l a n g e s w i t h consequent l o c a l b u c k l i n g . I f the
f l a n g e p l a t e s a r e s t i f f e n o u g h , t h e n t h e web and t h e s t i f f e n e r s d e v e l o p
a f u l l membrane a c t i o n . When t h e web has d e v e l o p e d t h e f u l l membrane
a c t i o n , t h e n i t c a n n o t c a r r y any m o r e s h e a r f o r c e and a t t h a t p o i n t t h e
f l a n g e s and t h e s t i f f e n e r s c a r r y t h e a d d i t i o n a l s h e a r f o r c e w h i c h t o g e t h e r
a c t as a V i e r e n d e e l f r a m e . B a s t e r p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e web p l a t e may fail
due t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e i n c l i n e d p l a s t i c band a n c h o r e d a g a i n s t t h e
v e r t i c a l s t i f f e n e r s . T h i s i s based on t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e f l a n g e s o f m o s t
p l a t e g i r d e r s a r e t o o f l e x i b l e t o r e s i s t t h e membrane a c t i o n . Rockey
s t a t e d t h a t t h i s t y p e o f c o l l a p s e mode may " s i g n i f i c a n t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e
and o v e r - e s t i m a t e " t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e g i r d e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Rockey, when
a web p l a t e i n s h e a r , b u c k l e s p r i o r t o y i e l d i n g , t h e n t h e f a i l u r e i s due
t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d i a g o n a l t e n s i o n band w h i c h i s f u l l y y i e l d e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h the development of the p l a s t i c hinges i n the f l a n g e t o form
a mechanism. Rockey has p r o v e d by e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t t h e w i d t h o f t h e
d i a g o n a l band and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p l a s t i c h i n g e s depends on t h e r a t i o
 120

I/a^t w h e r e I i s t h e s e c o n d moment o f a r e a o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n f l a n g e a b o u t
an a x i s t h r o u g h i t s c e n t r o i d and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o web p l a t e , a i s t h e s p a c i n g
b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t i f f e n e r s and t i s t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e web p l a t e .

Rockey has shown by e x p e r i e m e n t s t h a t t h e web d e v e l o p s a t e n s i o n band. The

a n g l e o f i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e t e n s i o n band i s e q u a l t o t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f
the g e o m e t r i c a l d i a g o n a l o f a s t i f f e n e d p a n e l . The w i d t h o f t h i s t e n s i o n
band i s s u c h t h a t , . t h e i n t e r c e p t o f i t s bounc^y w i t h t h e f l a n g e c o i n c i d e s
w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p l a s t i c hinges i n the f l a n g e s . Baster agreed w i t h
Rockey's s t a t e m e n t and b o t h a g r e e d t h a t t h e a n g l e o f i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h i s
t e n s i o n f i e l d w i l l be c l o s e t o kS , u n l e s s web b e h a v i o u r i s m o d i f i e d by
the s t i f f e n e r g e o m e t r y .

B a s t e r and Rockey b o t h s t a t e d t h a t t h e web p l a t e s a r e u s u a l l y s u b j e c t e d t o

a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b e n d i n g and s h e a r . Baster s t a t e d t h a t the presence of
s h e a r has b o t h a d e t r i m e n t a l and a b e n e f i c i a l a s p e c t . The b e n e f i c i a l
a s p e c t i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t s h e a r f o r c e a l w a y s i m p l y a moment g r a d i e n t
and t h u s , o n l y . a s h o r t p o r t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by t h e maximum moment. The a d v e r s e
a s p e c t i s t h a t , a web w h i c h i s " e x h a u s t e d " by s h e a r c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
t a k e i t s a l l o t t e d b e n d i n g moment and t h e f l a n g e s w i l l have t o compensate f o r
i t , r e s u l t i n g i n a h i g h e r f l a n g e s t r e s s t h a n computed by t h e s e c t i o n a l
modulus concept. A c c o r d i n g t o Rockey, when a p a n e l i s l o a d e d i n d i r e c t
c o m p r e s s i o n , t h e c e n t r a l a r e a o f t h e p a n e l b u c k l e s , becoming u n a b l e t o
p a r t i c i p a t e any f u r t h e r i n r e s i s t i n g d i r e c t s t r e s s and any a d d i t i o n a l d i r e c t
l o a d has t o be c a r r i e d by t h e web m a t e r i a l a d j a c e n t t o t h e f l a n g e s and
stiffeners. As t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a y i e l d e d p a n e l w h i c h i s s u b j e c t e d
t o b o t h s h e a r and b e n d i n g i s v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d , Rockey s t a t e d t h a t , a f t e r
the panel i s b u c k l e d , t h e f l a n g e s a l o n e c a r r y the a d d i t i o n a l loads. Thus
Bast'er and Rockey v i r t u a l l y a g r e e d on t h e s e assumptions.

A f t e r e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h numbers o f m i n i a t u r e w e l d e d p l a t e g i r d e r s w i t h
d / t r a t i o 85, 2 k ] , 2 3 3 and ^401 (compared w i t h B.S. 153 normal l i m i t s 85, 2kO
300 and AOO) , L o n g b o t t o m £ Heyman s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e l o a d f a c t o r i n b e n d i n g
s h o u l d be a b o u t 1 .85, and 1.^7 i n pure shear f o r a simply supported g i r d e r .
But H o m e s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e v a l u e s a r e n o t j u s t i f i a b l e , because t h e d i f f e r -
ence i s t o o g r e a t . Home's s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t , t h e load f a c t o r s h i g h e r than
1.5 a r e n o w h e r e r e q u i r e d . E a s t e r ' s s u g g e s t i o n i s 1.83 and 1.73 respectively.
B.S. k % 3 recommends a l o a d f a c t o r o f 1.75 f o r dead p l u s s u p e r i m p o s e d l o a d i n g
and an i n c r e a s e i n w o r k i n g s t r e s s e s o f 25 p e r c e n t , i f such i n c r e a s e i s
s o l e l y due t o t h e e f f e c t o f w i n d . T h i s i m p l i e s a r e d u c t i o n i n c o l l a p s e load
f a c t o r t o 1.4. Such a r e d u c t i o n i s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , b e c a u s e , f u l l
w i n d and s u p e r l o a d c a n n o t a c t a t t h e same t i m e . For c e r t a i n m u l t i - s t o r e y
b u i l d i n g s , b r a c e d a g a i n s t w i n d and w h e r e r i g o r o u s l o a d p a t t e r n s a r e w a r n e d ,
t h e l o a d f a c t o r o f 1.4 may be used on dead p l u s s u p e r i m p o s e d p l u s w i n d l o a d s .
A.I.S.C. p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e s e v a l u e s s h o u l d be I . 6 5 and 1.46 respectively.
As t h e A.I.S.C. code i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e U.S. (and i n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e
d e s i g n i n t h e U.K.), i t may be a d v a n t a g e o u s t o use a l o a d f a c t o r o f 1 .65 on
dead p l u s s u p e r i m p o s e d l o a d i n g and c a r r y o u t a second a n a l y s i s a t a l o a d
f a c t o r o f 1.46 on dead p l u s s u p e r i m p o s e d p l u s w i n d l o a d s . F i n a l l y , t h e more
c r i t i c a l o f t h e s e two c a s e s w i l l g i v e t h e a c t u a l d e s i g n .

From t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h , i t a p p e a r s t o be c e r t a i n t h a t a
new d e s i g n c o d e m u s t change many o f t h e p r e s e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e d e s i g n o f
plate girders. These c h a n g e s w i l l , a l s o , depend on t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f new
philosophies of design. Whereas p r e v i o u s p r o c e d u r e s w e r e aimed a t t h e
p r e v e n t i o n o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e i n any component o f t o o h i g h s t r e s s e s , t h e new
a p p r o a c h m u s t t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e new k n o w l e d g e o f t h e mechanisms o f f a i l u r e ,
 121

and o f s u c h t h i n g s as t h e p o s t - b u c k l i n g b e h a v o u r o f web p l a t e s , w i t h t h e
a c c o m p a n y i n g changes i n f l a n g e and s t i f f e n e r f u n c t i o n . Such c h a n g e s ,
when a p p l i e d t o t h e d e s i g n c o d e , m u s t r e s u l t i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e
d e t a i l e d d e s i g n o f t h e components o f t h e g i r d e r , s u c h as t h e p r o v i s i o n
o f g r e a t e r l o c a l b e n d i n g s t i f f e n e s s i n f l a n g e s and v e r t i c a l web s t i f f e n e r s .
Some o f t h e s e changes w i l l r e s u l t i n more e c o n o m i c a l d e s i g n , w h i l e some
w i l l n o t have t h i s e f f e c t .

R e t u r n i n g . t o the d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the g i r d e r b r i d g e , which i s

the s u b j e c t o f t h i s t h e s i s , p l a s t i c d e s i g n o f t h e c r o s s g i r d e r s o f f e r s
no a d v a n t a g e , b e c a u s e o f t h e s i m p l e s u p p o r t e d c o n d i t i o n . Consistent with
the changes i m p l i e d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f u l t i m a t e load a n a l y s i s , p l a s t i c
d e s i g n g i v e s a d v a n t a g e s o f economy t o beams w h i c h a r e f i x e d a t t h e i r ends o r
are continuous. When t h e c o l l a p s e l o a d has been r e a c h e d , a s u f f i c i e n t number
o f p l a s t i c h i n g e s m u s t f o r m t o c r e a t e a mechanism. U s u a l l y , t h r e e s u c h
h i n g e s a r e r e q u i r e d , one a t e a c h ( f i x e d ) end and t h e p o s i t i o n o f maximum
span moment a t c o l l a p s e .

The d e c k s y s t e m used i n t h i s p r o j e c t i s an o r t h o t r o p i c deck and t o a n a l y s e

t h i s t y p e o f d e c k p l a s t i c a l l y , much, more.';research s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t .
A l t h o u g h , i n t h i s t h e s i s , a s t u d y has been made t o examine t h e p o s s i b l e
modes o f f a i l u r e , i t i s n o t enough t o a r r i v e a t any s u g g e s t i v e c o n c l u s i o n
to a n a l y s e t h e whole deck system, p l a s t i c a l l y .

The c a l c u l a t e d w e i g h t o f t h e p l a t e g i r d e r i s 26 t o n s ( a p p r o x . ) when e l a s t i c
d e s i g n m e t h o d i s a p p l i e d . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f i t has been d e s i g n e d u s i n g
more r e c e n t l y a q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e and u s i n g u l t i m a t e l o a d t e c h n i q u e s based on
t h i s , t h e w e i g h t c o u l d be r e d u c e d t o 21 t o n s ( a p p r o x . ) . T h e r e f o r e , a s a v i n g
o f a b o u t 19 p e r c e n t may be a c h i e v e d , i f t h e b r i d g e main g i r d e r s had been
designed p l a s t i c a l l y . No s a v i n g s can be made on t h e c r o s s g i r d e r s . From
the p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e main g i r d e r s a r e t o o
s h a l l o w t o f i x t h e c r o s s g i r d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e 38" deep p i v o t g i r d e r .
I f t h e d e p t h o f t h e g i r d e r s a r e i n c r e a s e d f r o m 6 1 | " t o 108" ( s a y ) , t h e
s a v i n g w i l l n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s q u i t e c l e a r from the evidence
w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h i s t h e s i s t h a t e c o n o m i e s can be made i n t h e d e s i g n o f
p l a t e g i r d e r s t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e d by r e c e n t r e s e a r c h ,
a l t h o u g h no p a r t i c u l a r g u i d a n c e i s y e t a v a i l a b l e f r o m a p u b l i s h e d code. I t
is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t i n t h e n e x t e d i t i o n o f B.S. 153, t h e r e w i l l be a m a j o r
c h a n g e and a l i m i t s t a t e a p p r o a c h w i l l be a d o p t e d r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s
dominance o f t h e e l a s t i c a n a l y s i s .
 122

8. Apprehension of the appendices.

8.1 Appendix A - ^art I Loading conditions.

a. Dead Loadsy; dead loadi^ have been considered for
i . the deck and troughings
i i . the cross g i r d e r s
iii. the asphalt s u r f a c i n g
i v . the walkway
V. snow.
Snow load has been taken i n t o consideration, as stated i n
B. S. 153 p a r t 3A.
b. L i v e Loads;
i. Type H.A. l o a d i n g system has beien considered as
recommended i n B.S. 1 5 3 , p a r t 3A, together w i t h the k n i f e
edge l o a d i n g ( f o r equivalent U.D.L. and k n i f e edge load,
see t a b l e 1 and f i g . 1, abstracted from B.S. 153, part 3 A ) .
i i . Type H.B. l o a d i n g system has been considered
separately as recommended by B.S. 1 5 3 , p a r t 3A.

The main g i r d e r s have been checked f o r the s t a b i l i t y

when the bridge should be i n c a n t i l e v e r c o n d i t i o n (see
appendix A paragraph 3 . 3 ) . Maximum moments and shear forces
have been computed f o r the... girders a t c a n t i l e v e r c o n d i t i o n
(see sketches sk. 1 and 2 ) . I n paragraph 4 , the maximiun
moments and shear forces have been computed f o r the main
g i r d e r s a t working p o s i t i o n , by applying the dead loads
and the l i v e loads, i n various ways, to confirm the worst
possible conbinations of the loads (see sketches sk. 3 to
10). ^en the moments and the shear forces, due t o HA
and HB l o a d i n g systems have been examined. However, i t
i s n o t i c e d t h a t , HA l o a d i n g system i s more c r i t i c a l than
the HB l o a d i n g system. I n paragraph 4 . 2 , e f f e c t of wind
 123

load on the main g i r d e r s has been considered.

8.2 Appendix A - Part I I ; Stress Computations.

Various s t r e s s computations have been provided i n t h i s
s e c t i o n of the appendix and most of the formulas are
obtained from B.S. 153 p a r t 3B and 4. ^ h i s s e c t i o n deals
w i t h the stresses f o r the main g i r d e r s only.

I n paragraph 5.3, a s e c t i o n has been selected t o

r e s i s t the maximum moments a t the worst possible loading
conditions. The s e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s areQcalculaited and
cEhen stresses are computed t o examine whether t h i s section
i s cabable o f ; r e s i s t i n g the maximum moments and shear
forces. F i n a l l y , the computed stresses are compared w i t h
the permissible stresses, as recommended i n B.S. 153 p a r t
3B and 4 .

I n Paragraph 5.4 a heavier s e c t i o n has been selected.

This s e c t i o n of the main g i r d e r i s a t the centre p i v o t ,
which i s ^ s i t u a t e d a t 114.5 f t . from the nose bearing.
The reason o f the heavier section i s , due t o the higher
bending moment value a t t h i s p o i n t .
The sections o f the main g i r d e r a t various distances
have been checked i n paragraph 5 . 5 , because heavier sections
may n o t be required over c e r t a i n lengths of the g i r d e r
and so, a s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y o f s t e e l may be saved.
I n paragraph 5 . 8 , the requirement of web reinforcements
has been computed as per the clauses stated i n B.S. 153
p a r t 3B.
 124

.8.3 Appendix B; Analysis o f Orthotropic Deck.

Maximum moments have been computed by applying dead
loads and l i v e loads (HA and HB type loading systems),
i n various ways t o obtain the worsifc possible loading conditions
The basic theory o f tie o r t h o t r o p i c deck system has been
adopted from A.I.S.C. Manual (18). The stresses have
been computed and again, the value o f computed stresses
have been compared w i t h the permissible stress values
as recommended by B.S. 153 parts 3B and 4.

8.4 >^ppendix C; Floor beams, connections e t c .

This s e c t i o n o f appendix provides the connection
d e t a i l s o f the bridge members. I n general, high strength
f r i c t i o n g r i p b o l t s are used a t the s i t e connections.
This s e c t i o n also provides the stress computations f o r
the f o l l o w i n g ;
i . deck over Kentledge box
i i . f l o o r beam a t t a i l jacks
i i ' i . Kentledge box d e t a i l
i v . slewing gear support steelwork
V. r i n g g i r d e r
v i . r o l l e r tracks

8.4 Appendix D; This appendix provides the computations

o f the p l a s t i c moments o f the main g i r d e r s . Various load
conditions are considered and f i n a l l y , the p l a s t i c moments
are summari ised i n page D20.

8.5 Appendix E; I n t h i s p a r t , attempts have been made

to o b t a i n l i g h t e r sections o f the main g i r d e r s by applying
l i m i t s t a t e theory. Many researchers have derived a number
o f foimulas f o r the design o f p l a t e g i r d e r s behaving
inelastically. A few o f those formulas have been used
 125

to be s a t i s f i e d about the f i n a l s e c t i o n chosen.

8.6 Appendix P; An attempt has been made to obtain a

l i g h t e r s e c t i o n f o r the cross-girders; but i t became
obvious t h a t , l i m i t s t a t e theory i s n o t appropriate to
a simply supported beam c o n d i t i o n .

8.7 Appendix G; I n e l a s t i c buckling o f the o r t h o t r o p i c

s t e e l deck has been analysed i n t h i s p a r t o f the appendix.
 Bibliography

1. Report o f the Bridge. Stress Committee - HMSO (1928)

2. B.S. 153- Parts 3A, 3B and 4 (1966) - Steel Girder
Bridges.
3. Home, M.R., "Wind Loads on Structures" - Journal
ICE 3 (Jan 1 9 5 0 ) .

4 . Roberts, G. and Kerensky, O.A., "Plate Girder Bridges" -

Conference on Welded S|;ructures - HH^SO ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
5. Kerensky, O.A., F l i n t , A.R., and Brown, W.C., - "The
Basis f o r Design o f Beams and Plate Girders i n the
Revisfed B.S. 153" - Proc. ICE Part I I I , Vol. 5 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
6. Timoskenko, S., - "Theory of E l a s t i c S t a b i l i t y " - McGraw
H i l l , New York.
7. Bergman, S.G.A., "Behaviour of Buckled Rectangular
Plates under the A c t i o n o f Shearing Forces" -
Stockholm 1948.
8. Longbottom, E. and Heyman, J. "Experimental Verification
of the Strength o f Plate Girders designed i n accord-
ance w i t h Revised B.S. 153" - I'roc. ICE ^ a r t I I I ,
Vol. 5 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .

9. Rockey, K.C., "Web b u c k l i n g and the Design of Wet Plates"

S t r u c t u r a l Engr. 36, (1958).
10. Rockey, K.C., "Shear Buckling o f a web Reinforced by
V e r t i c a l S t i f f e n e r s and a Central H o r i z o n t a l S t i f f e n e r . "
I.A.B.S.E. ( 1 9 5 7 ) .
11. Rockey, K.C., "Plate Girder Design - Flange s t i f f n e s s
Web Plate Behaviour", Engineering (1957).

12. B r a i t h w a i t e , R.G. and Davies, D.J., "Welded Highway

Bridges." - JICE 6 ( 1 9 5 0 ) .
 1 3 . Young, J.M. and Landaw, R.E., "A r a t i o n a l approach
to the design o f deep p l a t e g i r d e r s . " Proc. ICE
Part 1 l!1955-56).
14. Seide, P., Budiansky, Band Weinberger, R.A. "The
Buckling o f a Column on Equally Spaced D e f l e c t i o n
and R o t a t i o n a l Springs."
15. Timoshenko, S. " H i s t o r y o f Strength of M a t e r i a l s . "
McGraw-Hill (1953).

16. Bowling, P.J., "The behaviour o f Orthotropic Steel

Deck Bridges." Developments i n Bridge Design and
Construction - Crosby Lockwood ( 1 9 7 1 ) .
17. Bares, R., and Massonnet, C. "Analysis o f beam g r i d s
and o r t h o t r o p i c p l a t e s by the Guyon-MassonnetrBares
method." Crosby Lockwood ( I 9 6 8 ) .
18. "Design Manual f o r Orthoti/poiic Steel Plate Deck Bridges"
American I n s t i t u t e s o f Steel Corporation, NY (1963).
19. " S t r u c t u r a l Steel Designers Handbook" - McGraw-Hill
(1972).
20. Baker, J. P., Home, M.R. and Heyman, J., "The Steel
Skeleton Vol. 2." - Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
21. Neal, B.G. "The P l a s t i c Method o f S t r u c t u r a l Analysis."
Chapman and H a l l ( I 9 6 3 ) .
22. Beedle, L.S. " P l a s t i c Design o f Steel Frames." John
Wiley NY (1958).
2 3 . Home, M.R., "Fundamental Propositions i n P l a s t i c
Theory o f s t r u c t u r e s . " Journal ICE (1949-50) paper
number 5761.
24. Baker, J. and Heyman, J., " P l a s t i c Design o f Frames
Vols. 1 and 2" - Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press (1969 & 71).
 25. " P l a s t i c Design o f P o r t a l Frames i n Steel t o B.S. 9 6 8 "
BSCA p u b l i c a t i o n no. 29 ( 1 9 6 6 ) .
26. Heyman, J. " P l a s t i c design o f P o r t a l Frames." Cambridge
U n i v e r i s t y I'ress ( 1 9 5 7 ) .
27. Basler, K., and Thurlimann, B. "Strength o f Plate
Girders i n Bending" Proc Asce J S t r u c t . Div. ( 1 9 6 1 )
Vol. 8 7 , 5 7 . 6 .
28. de V r i e s , K., "Strength o f Beams as Determined by
L a t e r a l Buckling" Proc ASCE Vol 112 ( 1 9 4 7 ) .
29. Ostapenko, A., Chem, C. and Parsanejad, S. "Ultimate
Strength Design o f -^late Girder" Developments i n
Bridge design and c o n s t r u c t i o n - Crosby Lockwood ( 1 9 7 1 ) .
30. Basler, K., "Strength o f Plate Girders i n Shear."
Proc. ASCE Journal S t r u c t , ^ i v . Vol 8 7 , 5 7 . 7 . ( 1 9 6 1 )
31 . Basler, K., "Strength o f Plate Girders under combined
Bending and Shear." Proc ASCE . S t r u c t . Div. Vol.
87. 5T.7 (1961).

32. Rockey, K.C., "An Ultimate Load Method o f Design f o r

Plate Girders" Proc. o f the Conference on Steel
Bridges, BCSA ( 1 9 6 9 ) .
3 4 . Herzog, Max, A.M., "Ultimate S t a t i c Strength o f Plate
Girders from Tests." Proc. ASCE J. S t r u c t . Div.
Vol. 1 0 0 , 575 ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

3 5 . Baker, J. "Plastic Design i n Steel to B,S.968" B.C.S.A.

publication No.. 21 1963.
3 6 . "Plastic Design" B.C.S.A. publication No. 28 1965.
3 7 . Hooke, R, & Rawlings, B.,"An Experimental Investigation of.
the Behaviour of Clamped,Rectangular,Mild. Steel Plates Subject
To Uniform Tranverse Pressure',' Proc. I.C.E. Vol. /f2 (1969)
paper No. 7132.
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B.S. 153 : Part 3A : 1954

T A B L E 1. HIGHWAY LOADING. T Y P E HA
Equivalent U . D . L . to be used in conjunction with tlicknifcedge load. (See Fig. 1).

U.U.r..for U.D.L. for

U.D.T.. for tr:i:i5u-i.>c U.D.L.for • U.D.L. for . U.D.L. for
Lo.M.d lon^iliiilinnl I.oaJeil loiiijitL'diiial transverse
length, liiii'-rir foot sliiL'S p^-r sinlis :itid cri)5'^ b<?nt:;s per
slabs per slabs nntl cross
ft linear foot Cirdi-r> per liiie.ir foot
of ]ant' liiic'iT foot of ft of Imie line.nr foot
of Vsna of lone lineiir foot of
Inne ; lane
3 ! 24 200 • 24 200 22 700 12 4 870 3 250 : 2 600
4 1 17 000 1 17 000 11800 13 4 540 2 950 2 400
5 ; 12 250 j 12 250 7 700 14 4 210 •• 2 700 2 300
i
6 9 660 ! 8 850 5 800 3 880 , 2 500 2 200
7 8 230 . 6 550 4 600 16 1 3 550 i 2 400 2 200
8 7 250 { 5 200 3 900 17 ' 3 220 \ 2 300 . 2 200
9 6 440 1 4 520 . 3 400 18 ' 2 830 ' 2 250 2 200
10 5 800 1 4 000 3100 19 2 540 • 2 200 2 200
n 5 200 1 3 600 2 800 20-75 , 2 200 2 200 2 200

Loaded Load Loaded Lo.-.ded Loaded ; Load Loaded

. length Lo.id Lo;iJ Load
length length length

ft Ibr/lin ft Ibf/liii Ibf/lin ft Ibf/lin ft Ibf/lin

ft ft ft ft ft
80 2160 175 1 530 270 1210 430 1005 1 200 660
85 2 120 180 1500 275 1200 440 1000 1 300 630
90 2 080 185 1 480 280 1 190 450 990 1 400 600
"•"95 2 040 190 1460 285 1175 460 985 1 500 580
100 2 000 195 1440 290 1165 470 975 1 600 560
po/a//t 105 1960 200 1420 295 1 155 480 970 1 700 540
110 1920 205 1400 300 : 1145' 490 965 1 800 520
, 115 1890 210 1380 310 : 1130 500 960 1 900 510
2044^ ^ . 120 1860 215 1360 320 \ 1115 550 935 2 000 490
125 1830 220 1350 330 • 1105 600 910 2 100 480
130 1800 225 1335 340 1090 650 ' 885 2 200 470
135 1 770 2.^0 1320 3.S0 ' 1 080 700 860 2 300 460
140 1 740 235 1305 360 ' 1070 750 835 2 400 450
145 17.10 o^in 1 290 370 ' 1 080 ROO RIO 2 500 410
^ 150 1680 243 1280 380 j 1050 8ou 790 2 600 430
* 155 1650 250 1265 390 ' 1040 900 770 2 700 420
160 1620 255 1250 400 • 1030 950 750 2 800 410
165 1 590 260 1240 410 1020 1000 730 2 900 410
170 1550 265 : 1 225 420 1 1015 1100 690 3 000 400

NOTE TO T A B L E 1 A N D F I G . 1
/^es Ai//4iv/'^
^ N o r m i i l loading (Type H A ) appro.ximalely represents the efTcct of three vehicles, each
22 tons in weiyht, closely spaced, in each of two carriageway lanes, followed by lO-ton and
5-ton vehicles. For short span members, to allow for possible local cojiccntration of loads, the
effects of two 9-ton wheels 3 f t apart have been considered (i.e. appro.Kiniatcly two U^-^-ton
wheels with 25 per cent overstrcss).
I n general, normal loading is sufTicient to cover 30 units o f abnormal loading (Type H B )
for loaded lengths above 100 ft and for slabs (but sec Clause A 5 ) , and at least 20 units of
abnormal loading for beams having spans less than 100 ft carrying decks with a weight similar
to that o f an ordinary reinforced concrete slab. Where a bridge is definitely required to carry
abnormal loads in excess o f 20 units a check should be made.
A special case is a narrow bridge or one in which the carriageway is cantilevered beyond the
beams, where high stresses can occur under abnormal loading.
 Slabs .

Lane width Lane loading =

10 feet Load/sq ft = lai

to.S II
or less Knife edge load

c: ^ -
Lane width
A

over As above •I-

«-i to

Ill-g
. 10 feet

c c: -
g>ll5
13

•J i 'Nl'l/ vn DNICjVO"!
 A /3e7

2600C

2400i

2200C

20000
The loaded length i . the length o f the base o f the posi:ivc or
negative portion, a- the case may be, o f the influence line
diagram for the mer ber under consideration. The distributed
load selected shall \ that given in Fig. 1 and Table 1 for this
loaded length.
N O T E . Where t h e ; jsitivc or negative portion o f ihc base o f
theinilucnce lincco: sists of separated parts, as for continuous
construction, the n: aximum effect shall be determined by
consideration o f an;• part or combination o f separated parts,
using the loading a; propriatc to the length or the total c o m :
4000 bined length o f the loaded portions.

\ 12000

Q 10000

Beams

Longitudinal slabs

Transverse slabs

6 8 10 la
LOADED LENGTH: FEET
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 A /5

Case C - HA l o a d i n g (Cont.)

K n i f e edge l o a d - B.S. 153 P a r t 5A clause

In 1 s t , 2nd and 3 r d c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d i n g systems, i t has been sho™

t h a t the u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d v a r i e s w i t h t h e loaded l e n g t h , which
represents t h e o r d i n a r y a x l e loads o f the M.T. standard train, perfectly
distributed.

Nov, an i n v a r i a b l e l o a d o f 27001bf. per f o o t o f w i d t h w i l l be a p p l i e d a t

t h e s e c t i o n where i t w i l l , when combined w i t h t h e U.D. l o a d , be most
effective. T h i s i s a k n i f e edge loa.d and i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e excess i n
t h e M.T. standard t r a i n o f t h e heavy a x l e over the o t h e r a x l e s and this
excess b e i n g u n d i s t r i b u t e d . T h i s l o a d i s a p p l i e d f o r b e n d i n g moment a t
mid-span, a t mid-span p o i n t ; f o r shear a t the s u p p o r t , and f o r shear a t
any section.

In spans l e s s than t h e a x l e s p a c i n g which i s 10 f t , the concentration

serves t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e o v e r - d i s p e r s i o n o f the d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d . In
s l a b s t h e K.E. l o a d o f 2700 l b / f t o f w i d t h i s taken as a c t i n g p a r a l l e l
to t h e s u p p o r t i n g members, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the d i r e c t i o n i n which the
s l a b spans. I n longitudinal girders, stringers etc., this concentrated
l o a d i n g i s t a k e n as a c t i n g t r a n s v e r s e l y t o them, i . e . p a r a l l e l w i t h
t h e i r supports. I n t r a n s v e r s e beams the c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d i n g i s taken '
as a c t i n g i n l i n e w i t h them, i . e . 2700 l b / f t r u n o f beam.
However i n a l l cases, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f span l e n g t h , one K.E. load of
2700 l b / f t r u n o f w i d t h i s taken as a c t i n g i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the U.D.
l o a d a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e span o r l o a d e d l e n g t h .
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