energies

Article
Semiconductor Devices in Solid-State/Hybrid Circuit
Breakers: Current Status and Future Trends
Chunyang Gu 1, *, Pat Wheeler 1 , Alberto Castellazzi 1 , Alan J. Watson 1 and Francis Effah 2
1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD,
UK; pat.wheeler@nottingham.ac.uk (P.W.); alberto.castellazzi@nottingham.ac.uk (A.C.);
alan.watson@nottingham.ac.uk (A.J.W.)
2 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa,
Ghana; fbeffah@umat.edu.gh
* Correspondence: chunyang.gu@nottingham.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-786-702-9397

Academic Editor: Tom Gregorkiewicz

Received: 16 February 2017; Accepted: 4 April 2017; Published: 6 April 2017

Abstract: Circuit breakers (CBs) are the main protection devices for both alternating current (AC)
and direct current (DC) power systems, ranging from tens of watts up to megawatts. This paper
reviews the current status for solid-state circuit breakers (SSCBs) as well as hybrid circuit breakers
(HCBs) with semiconductor power devices. A few novel SSCB and HCB concepts are described
in this paper, including advantage and limitation discussions of wide-band-gap (WBG) devices in
basic SSCB/HCB configuration by simulation and 360 V/150 A experimental verifications. Novel
SSCB/HCB configurations combining ultra-fast switching and high efficiency at normal operation are
proposed. Different types of power devices are installed in these circuit breakers to achieve adequate
performance. Challenges and future trends of semiconductor power devices in SSCB/HCB with
different voltage/power levels and special performance requirements are clarified.

Keywords: solid-state circuit breakers; hybrid circuit breakers; semiconductor devices; protection device

1. Introduction
In electric transmission, distribution systems and industrial fields, sensitive equipment must
be protected from long-period overload and instant short-circuit conditions. Among all protection
devices, the circuit breaker (CB) is the most efficient. With the rapid growth of the capacity of electric
systems, the maximum perspective fault currents have become higher than at any time in the past,
which requires even higher ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity for CBs, associated with ultra-fast
breaking capability, to avoid misinterruption of faults in both alternating current (AC) or direct current
(DC) systems. Otherwise the cable or terminal equipment might be destroyed [1].
For hierarchical low-voltage power networks, one main mechanical circuit breaker (MCB) works
together with several molded-case circuit breakers (MCCB). The main MCB should continue its service
in a certain degree of downstream fault condition with current-limiting (CL) behavior and wait for
the MCCB to clear the fault. With short-circuit faults the particular MCCB must disconnect as soon as
possible to avoid the effects of failure to do so [2].
For higher power applications with either high current, high voltage, or both, e.g., high-voltage
direct-current (HVDC) or medium-voltage direct-current (MVDC) systems, natural zero-voltage
crossing does not exist anymore because of their unipolarity, therefore causing more serious problems
for high power DC networks with MCBs. Applications with sensitive loads such as computer servers
or medical treatment equipment necessitate either ultra-fast fault clearance or instant current limitation
ability for CBs. The basic requirements of present and future circuit breakers should be:

Energies 2017, 10, 495; doi:10.3390/en10040495 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 495 2 of 25

(i) “Fully controllable”: The conducting and breaking of CBs should be fully controllable either by
automatic mechanical tripping or digital controls;
(ii) “Higher switching speed”: CBs should break the fault current as soon as they could to avoid
huge fault current destroying end equipment;
(iii) “Low conduction loss”: CBs should maintain the same scale of conduction loss as previous MCBs,
therefore the efficiency for normal operation must be appropriate;
(iv) “Smaller arcing”: For both DC and AC applications, electric arcing should be avoided or
suppressed to retain long lifetime of the CB itself, and at the same time, ensure definitized
tripping of the CB system.

In recent times, power semiconductor devices have been applied expansively in circuit breakers as
they are practically controlled switches [2]. The object called ‘solid-state circuit breaker (SSCB)’, is the
CB with pure semiconductor devices [3,4]. With silicon-based power devices, SSCBs offer tripping
speeds of up to hundreds of microseconds. Furthermore, as there is no mechanical components or
parts, neither contact erosion, electric arc, nor strong mechanical shake exists. On the other hand,
SSCBs present several disadvantages: (a) the unignorable on-state resistance means significant power
loss, which could cause critical heat and lower system efficiency; (b) semiconductors are sensitive
to transit over-voltage and heat-causing over-currents, which makes them a natural weakness of
the whole electric system and needs more self-protection technology; (c) the costs and physical
volume of semiconductor devices is no doubt a limitation for further development; (d) bidirectional
semiconductor devices [5,6] are needed for bidirectional applications (e.g., AC or power regeneration
fields), thus doubling the number of devices, redoubling the costs and complexity of control,
and reducing reliability. As a result, pure SSCBs are now used in low-power low-voltage (e.g., 24 V)
systems, where switching speed must be guaranteed, and power loss is not a priority. In future, by
applying next-generation wide bandgap devices e.g., silicon carbide (SiC) or gallium nitride (GaN),
the performance of SSCBs may be improved because of lower power loss, higher junction temperature,
better avalanche breakdown capability and so on.
Another main category of CB with semiconductor devices is actually a combination of SSCB and
MCB in a proper way to configure a new family, which is named “hybrid circuit breaker (HCB)” [7].
Taking the benefits of both sides, HCBs display lower power losses than SSCBs and higher switching
speeds than MCBs.
This paper discusses current status and future trends of semiconductor devices in SSCBs and
HCBs. In Section 2, a review of the previous and current status of SSCB and HCB is given with
comparisons and discussions. In Section 3, basic SSCB and HCB configurations are investigated with
novel control methods for fast switching and current limiting. Limitations of basic configurations are
described. Three novel circuit breaker configurations with features of fast switching and acceptable
normal-mode power loss are proposed afterwards. A discussion of semiconductor devices in CB
applications is put forward as a guideline for further design. Future trends and challenges are briefly
discussed in Section 4. The conclusions of this paper are gathered and sublimated in Section 5.

2. Review of Solid-State/Hybrid Circuit Breakers

As already discussed in Section 1, a circuit breaker should work properly to either switch fast
enough or be able to depress the fault current [8]. It is clear that the configuration of a circuit breaker will
vary with different applications, therefore there is no universal circuit breaker design concept. In the
review part, CBs for higher-voltage applications e.g., HVDC or MVDC which requires series-connected
semiconductors are simplified as one single device. Dynamic voltage balancing may be achieved by
gate control, paralleled resistors or arrestors.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 3 of 25

2.1. Fast-Breaking Mechanical Devices

Fast mechanical switches (FMSs) are used in a modern MCB [9–11]. The FMS could trip and clear
faults in hundreds of microseconds (usually within 10 ms), which makes it possible to interrupt a
low-frequency
Energies 2017,AC current of 50 Hz or 60 Hz before it goes up to the anticipated maximum value
10, 495 3 of [12,13].
25
Reference
Energies[14]
2017, describes
10, 495 a brief operation guide of MCCBs. The arcing phenomena of MCBs 3 of 25 are
[12,13].
presented inReference
[15,16]. FMS [14] describes a brief operation
is the fundamental guide of MCCBs.
of mechanical part of The arcing
HCBs, phenomena
which restrictsofthe
MCBs
tripping
[12,13].
are Reference
presented in [14] describes
[15,16]. FMS isathe
brief operation guide
fundamental of of MCCBs.part
mechanical Theofarcing
HCBs,phenomena
which of MCBs
restricts the
speed of the CB system.
are presented
tripping speedinof [15,16]. FMS is the fundamental of mechanical part of HCBs, which restricts the
the CB system.
tripping speed of the CB system.
2.2. Basic Solid-State/Hybrid Circuit Breakers
2.2. Basic Solid-State/Hybrid Circuit Breakers
2.2. shown
As Basic Solid-State/Hybrid
in Figure 1, aCircuit JapaneseBreakers
team introduced in 1994 a current-limiting circuit breaker
As shown in Figure 1, a Japanese team introduced in 1994 a current-limiting circuit breaker (CL-
(CL-CB) for
CB) for
low-voltage
As low-voltage
shown power
in Figure
power
systems
1, asystems
Japanese [12].
team
[12].
The CL-CB
Theintroduced
consists
in 1994
CL-CB consists
of high-speed
ofahigh-speed
current-limiting mechanical
circuit
mechanical
switch,
breakersolid-
switch, (CL-
solid-state
state switch e.g., gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), snubber circuit and voltage protection element e.g., e.g.,
CB) forswitch e.g.,
low-voltage gate turn-off
power systems thyristor
[12]. (GTO),
The CL-CB snubber
consists circuit
of and
high-speedvoltage protection
mechanical element
switch, solid-
zinc oxide
zinc (ZnO)
stateoxide
switch arrester.
e.g.,
(ZnO) This
gate turn-off
arrester. This is thyristor
considered
is aacommon
(GTO),
considered topology
snubbertopology
common ofof
circuit and CL-CB.
voltage
CL-CB. After twenty-three
protection
After e.g.,years
elementyears
twenty-three
zinc
of progress,
of oxide
progress, (ZnO)
solid-statearrester.
solid-state This is
switches
switches are considered
arechanging
changing a to
common topologybipolar
to insulated-gate
insulated-gate of CL-CB.
bipolar After twenty-three
transistors
transistors andyears
(IGBTs)
(IGBTs) and SiC
SiC
of progress, solid-state switches
metal-oxide-semiconductor
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effectare changing
field-effect transistor
transistor to(MOSFETs);
insulated-gate
(MOSFETs); andbipolar
and transistors
mechanical
mechanical (IGBTs)
switches and
are becoming
switches are SiC
becoming
metal-oxide-semiconductor
fasterfaster and faster.
and faster. field-effect transistor (MOSFETs); and mechanical switches are becoming
faster and faster.

Figure
Figure 1. An
1. An HCBfor
HCB for400
400VV class
class electric
electricpower
powersystems in 1994.
systems in 1994.
Figure 1. An HCB for 400 V class electric power systems in 1994.
2.3. CL-CBs with Switched Resistive Components
2.3. CL-CBs withwith
2.3. CL-CBs Switched Resistive
Switched Components
Resistive Components
2.3.1. CL-CBs with Ordinary Resistors
2.3.1.2.3.1.
CL-CBs withwith
CL-CBs Ordinary Resistors
Ordinary Resistors
In 1980, the United States Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) had proposed a CL method
In 1980,
in which the
In 1980, United
semiconductor States
the United Electric
States
devices are notPower
Electric Power
used, asResearch
Research Institute
Institute
shown in Figure (EPRI)
(EPRI)
2. Only had
had proposed
proposed
a constant-value a CLa method
resistorCL method
is used
in
in which which semiconductor
semiconductor
for current devices
devices
limiting [17]. are not
are not
A paralleled used, as
used, as
capacitor shown
is shownin Figure 2.
in Figure
an additional Only a constant-value
2. Only
component resistor
a constant-value
which is
avoids arcing of used
resistor
the is
for
forcurrent
currentlimiting
used contacts. [17].
limiting A paralleled
[17]. capacitor
A paralleled is an additional
capacitor component
is an additional which avoids
component whicharcing of the
avoids arcing
of thecontacts.
contacts.

Figure 2. EPRI switched impedance CB with resistor and mechanical switch in 1980.
Figure
Figure 2. EPRI
2. EPRI switched
switched impedanceCB
impedance CB with
with resistor
resistorand
andmechanical
mechanical switch in 1980.
switch in 1980.
As shown in Figure 3, a high speed switch (HSS) with a trip time less than 1 ms achieved by
As shown
installing in Figure 3, a repulsion
an electromagnetic high speedmechanism
switch (HSS)
andwith a tripmechanism
a spring time less than
was 1proposed
ms achieved[18].by
A
As shownaninelectromagnetic
installing Figure 3, a high speedmechanism
repulsion switch (HSS) and with
a a trip
spring time lesswas
mechanism than 1 ms achieved
proposed [18]. A by
CL component was also proposed in [18], consisting of HSS, a CL resistor and a counter pulse circuit.
installing
When an electromagnetic
CL component
a fault was also
occurs, repulsion
theproposed
fault current mechanism
in [18], consisting
could and a to
spring
of HSS,
be enforced a CL by
zero mechanism
resistor was
anda acounter
adding proposed
counter [18]. A CL
pulsecurrent.
pulse circuit.
component
When a was
fault also proposed
occurs, the faultin [18],
current consisting
could be of HSS,
enforced to a CL
zero resistor
by adding and
a a counter
counter
As in Figure 3, a current limiting device with resistive elements was put forward in [19] for medium- pulse pulse circuit.
current.
As in Figure
Whenvoltage
a fault 3,
occurs, a current
the limiting
fault
distribution network.current device
couldwith
be resistive
enforced elements
to zero bywas put
adding forward
a in
counter [19] for
pulse medium-
current. As in
voltage distribution network.
Figure 3, a current limiting device with resistive elements was put forward in [19] for medium-voltage
distribution network.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 4 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 4 of 25
Energies 2017,
Energies 2017, 10,
10, 495
495 44 of
of 25
25

Figure 3. CL device with high-speed switch and resistor in 1998.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. CL device with high-speed switch and resistor in 1998.
Figure 3. CL device with high-speed switch and resistor in 1998.
By combining fast mechanical switches, diode components, snubber circuits and CL impedances
in opposite
By directions,
By combining
combining fast Figure 4 shows
fast mechanical
mechanical a HCB
switches,
switches, withcomponents,
diode
diode separated current
components, snubberflowing
snubber circuitspath
circuits and CL
and [20].
CL When the
impedances
impedances
fault By combining
occurs,
in opposite one offast
the
opposite directions, mechanical
two
directions, Figure switches,
mechanical
Figure 44 shows
shows aa HCB diode
switches
HCB with components,
opens snubber
depending
with separated on
separated current thecircuits and
direction
current flowing
flowing path CL
of
path [20]. impedances
fault current.
[20]. When
When the
in the
in opposite
Then
fault the
occurs,directions,
current
one will
of theFigure
betwo 4 shows
commutated a
mechanicaltoHCB
its with separated
relevant
switches current
current-limiting
opens depending flowing
on path
impedance
the [20].
for
direction When
absorption.
of fault the fault
current.
fault occurs, one of the two mechanical switches opens depending on the direction of fault current.
occurs,
Then the one
the of thewill
current twobe mechanical
commutatedswitches
to its opens depending
its relevant
relevant on the impedance
current-limiting direction offor fault current. Then
absorption.
Then current will be commutated to current-limiting impedance for absorption.
the current will be commutated to its relevant current-limiting impedance for absorption.

Figure 4. Hybrid CL CB with separated current-limiting path in 2009.

Figure 4.
Figure Hybrid CL
4. Hybrid CL CB
CB with
with separated
separated current-limiting
current-limiting path
path in
in 2009.
2009.
2.3.2. CL-CBs with Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistors
2.3.2.An
2.3.2. CL-CBs
HCBwith
CL-CBs withPositive
with Positive Temperature
Temperature
CL ability Coefficient
which isCoefficient
Temperature Coefficient
a complex Thermistors
Thermistors
Thermistors
hybrid structure with positive temperature
coefficient
An HCB
An (PTC)
HCBwith
HCB resistor
with
with CLCLCL [2],
ability as
ability shown
which
ability which
which in Figure 5,
is aa complex
is a complex
is complexwas proposed
hybrid
hybrid hybrid
structure in 1996.
structure
with
structure Thistemperature
with
positive
with CL-CB
positiveis temperature
positive put forward
temperature
coefficient
based
(PTC) on
coefficient Figure
(PTC)
resistor
coefficient (PTC) 1.resistor
[2], With
resistor
as the
[2],PTC
shown
[2], as resistor,
shown
in shown
as Figure in a huge
Figure
5, Figure
in was fault
5, wascurrent
proposed
5, was proposed could
in 1996.
proposed in be CL-CB
This
in reduced
1996.
1996. This isautomatically
This CL-CB
CL-CB is put when
put forward
put forward
is forward
based
the
based
on
basedmechanical
on Figure
Figure
on Figure switch
1. With1. the
1. With
With is
PTCturned
the PTC off.
the resistor, After
PTC resistor,
resistor,
a huge the fault
aa huge
huge switch
fault
fault fault decreases
current
current
current could
couldcould to a reasonable
be reduced
be reduced
be reduced value,
automatically
automatically the
when
automatically GTO
when
the
when
will
the turn
mechanical off
mechanical
the mechanical to commutate
switch
switch is
is turned
switch the
turned remaining
off.
off. After
is turned After current
the fault
off. After the into
fault
theswitch the
switch arrester to
decreases
decreases
fault switch clear
to a
to a reasonable
decreases the fault.
reasonable The time
value,
value, the
to a reasonable constant
the
GTO the
value, GTO
willGTO
turn
of
offatoPTC
will
will turn resistor
off to
commutate
turn off isthe
high,
to commutate
commutate which
remaining
the reduces
the remaining
remaining the
current into applications
current into the
the arrester
current into ofarrester
theto this configuration
arrester
clear to fault.
the
to clear the
clear the in high-speed-response
fault.
Thefault.
time The time of
constant
The time constant
a PTC
constant
situations.
of aa PTC
PTCisresistor
resistor
of resistor is high,
high, which
is high, whichthe
reduces
which reduces the applications
applications
reduces the applications of this
this configuration
of this configuration
of configuration in high-speed-response
in high-speed-response
in high-speed-response situations.
situations.
situations.

Figure 5. HCB with PTC resistor in 1996.

Figure 5. HCB with PTC resistor in 1996.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. HCB
HCB with
with PTC
PTC resistor
resistor in
in 1996.
1996.
As shown in Figure 6, an CL HCB with PTC resistor was proposed in 2003 [21]. The CB consists
of aa fast
As transfer
fastshown
transfer
shown inswitch
switch
Figure (FTS),anaCL
6,(FTS), fast
CL aHCB
HCB disconnecting
fast switch
disconnecting
with PTC (FDS),
switch
PTC resistor
resistor a bi-directional
was (FDS),
proposed 2003semiconductor
a bi-directional
in 2003 switch
semiconductor
[21]. The
The CB consists
consists
As in Figure 6, an with was proposed in [21]. CB
(e.g.,
switch with
of aa fast four
(e.g.,
fast diodes
with
transfer four and
diodes
switch a GTO),
(FTS),andaa aafast
PTC
GTO),
fast resistor
a PTC and aswitch
load
resistor
disconnecting switch
and load(LS).
a(FDS),
(FDS), The(LS).
switch FTS turns
The FTSoff at a fault
turns off to
at
of transfer switch (FTS), disconnecting switch aa bi-directional
bi-directional semiconductor
semiconductor
force
a fault the
to
switch (e.g.,current
force the
(e.g., with into
with four a semiconductor
current
four diodesinto
diodes and a
and aa GTO), branch.
semiconductor
GTO), aa PTC Then
branch.GTO
PTC resistor will
Then
resistor and turn
GTO
and aa load off
will to let
turn
load switch the
off
switch (LS). toPTC
let
(LS). The resistor
the
The FTS PTC
FTS turns absorb
resistor
turns off
off at
at
switch
the
a energy.
absorb
fault the
to Finally,
energy.
force the the lowered
Finally,
current the
into acurrent
lowered will
semiconductor be broken
current will
branch. by
be the LS,
broken
Then GTO which
by the
will alsowhich
LS,
turn contributes
off to also
let to insulation
contributes
the PTC to
resistor
a fault to force the current into a semiconductor branch. Then GTO will turn off to let the PTC resistor
of the CB
insulation
absorb thesystem.
of the CBFinally,
energy. system.the
Finally, the lowered
lowered current
current will
will be
be broken
broken byby the
the LS,
LS, which
which also
also contributes
contributes to to
absorb the energy.
insulation of
insulation of the
the CB
CB system.
system.
Energies 2017, 10,
Energies 2017, 10, 495
495 5 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 5 of 25

Figure 6. Hybrid CL-CB with PTC in 2003.

Figure 6. Hybrid CL-CB with PTC in 2003.

2.3.3.
2.3.3. CL-CBs
CL-CBs with Superconductors
with Superconductors
Superconductors
2.3.3. CL-CBs with
High temperature
High temperature superconductors
temperature superconductors
superconductors could could be
could be used
be used as
used as CL
as CL devices.
devices. In
CL devices. In 1995,
1995, aaa current
current limiter
current limiter was
limiter was
was
High In 1995,
proposed
proposed on
on this
this basis
basis [8].
[8]. With
With negligible
negligible resistance
resistance below
below under
under a
a critical
critical temperature,
temperature, and
and
proposed on this basis [8]. With negligible resistance below under a critical temperature, and relatively
relatively
relatively high resistance
high above
resistance above the critical
above temperature, temperature,
the critical temperature, the current
the current limiting could be achieved
high resistance the critical the current limiting couldlimiting
be achievedcouldautomatically
be achieved
automatically
automatically and
and smoothly.
smoothly. Superconductors
Superconductors may
may be
be used
used for
for power
power distribution
distribution systems
systems which
which areare
and smoothly. Superconductors may be used for power distribution systems which are not sensitive to
not
not sensitive
sensitive to
to cost
cost and
and dimensions
dimensions [22–24].
[22–24].
cost and dimensions [22–24].
As shown
showninin
As shown Figure
inFigure
Figure 7, aa superconductor-based HCB for
for HVDC was
was proposed in
in [25] with
As 7, a7,superconductor-based
superconductor-based HCBHCB
for HVDC HVDC
was proposed proposed
in [25] with [25] with
residual
residual
residual current
current breaker
breaker for
for insulation,
insulation, superconductor
superconductor fault
fault current
current limiter
limiter (SFCL)
(SFCL) for
for automatic
automatic
current breaker for insulation, superconductor fault current limiter (SFCL) for automatic current
current
current limiting,
limiting, an ultrafast
ultrafast disconnector
an disconnector disconnector switch
switch as
as main
main mechanical
mechanical switch,
switch, aa line
line commutation
commutation
limiting, an ultrafast switch as main mechanical switch, a line commutation switch (LCS)
switch
switch (LCS) to
to guide the fault current into the
the main
main semiconductor switch, andand aa surge arrester bank
to guide(LCS) guide
the fault the into
current faultthe
current
main into
semiconductor semiconductor
switch, and a switch,
surge arrester surge
bank arrester
to absorb bank
the
to
to absorb
absorb the
the energy
energy stored
stored on
on the
the line
line inductor.
inductor.
energy stored on the line inductor.

Figure
Figure 7. Superconducting HVDC
7. Superconducting HVDC HCB
HCB in
in 2015.
2015.
Figure 7. Superconducting HVDC HCB in 2015.

On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, superconductors
superconductors could
could be
be treated
treated as an
as an automatic
an automatic commutation
automatic commutation
commutation switch
switch to
to
transfer
transfer the current from a mechanical switch to a main semiconductor switch [26]. Some experts
transfer the
the current
current from
from a a mechanical
mechanical switch
switch to to
a a
mainmain semiconductor
semiconductor switch
switch [26]. [26].
Some Some
experts have
experts
have
have investigated
investigated
investigated superconductors
superconductors as
as inductive
as inductive
superconductors components,
components,
inductive and usedand
components, used
them
and them
in CL
used in
in CL
CL applications
applications
them [27,28].
applications
[27,28].
[27,28].
2.4. CL-CBs with Other Switched Components
2.4.
2.4. CL-CBs
CL-CBs with
with Other
Apart from Switched
resistive
Other Components
components,
Switched Components other passive components, e.g., inductors and capacitors,
couldApart
also be usedresistive
together with semiconductor devices for current limiting. As a series-connected
Apart from
from resistive components,
components, other other passive
passive components,
components, e.g., e.g., inductors
inductors andand capacitors,
capacitors,
component,
could also inductors
be used are used
together widely
with for CL
semiconductor purposes, but
devices the
for voltage
current overshoot
limiting. As caused
a by inductive
series-connected
could also be used together with semiconductor devices for current limiting. As a series-connected
currents
component, must be taken into accountwidely
to ensure the safety of the semiconductor devices. On the contrary,
component, inductors
inductors areare used
used widely for for CL
CL purposes,
purposes, butbut the
the voltage
voltage overshoot
overshoot caused
caused by by
there is nocurrents
inductive overvoltage
must problem
be taken for capacitors
into account asensure
to CL components,
the safety butthe
of thesemiconductor
current cannotdevices.
be limited
On
inductive currents must be taken into account to ensure the safety of the semiconductor devices. On
properly
the because the limitation process is indirect. AnotherCLoption is forming the a combination of
the contrary,
contrary, there
there is
is no
no overvoltage
overvoltage problem
problem forfor capacitors
capacitors as
as CL components,
components, but but the current
current cannot
cannot
capacitor
be and inductorbecause
as a resonant limitation
circuit. The impedance of this kind of circuit could change from
be limited
limited properly
properly because the the limitation process
process isis indirect.
indirect. Another
Another option
option is is forming
forming aa
negligible
combination to aofhigh value by
capacitor and adding
inductorsemiconductor
as a resonant switches,
circuit. which
The is considered
impedance of more
this suitable
kind of as a
circuit
combination of capacitor and inductor as a resonant circuit. The impedance of this kind of circuit
CL
couldcomponent than a pure inductor or capacitor.
could change
change fromfrom negligible
negligible to
to aa high
high value
value by
by adding
adding semiconductor
semiconductor switches,
switches, which
which is is considered
considered
more suitable as a CL component than a pure inductor
more suitable as a CL component than a pure inductor or capacitor. or capacitor.
Energies 2017,
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Energies 2017, 10, 495 6 of 25

2.4.1. CL-CBs
2.4.1. CL-CBs with
with Inductive
Inductive Components
Components
2.4.1. CL-CBs with Inductive Components
2.4.1. CL-CBs with Inductive Components
To limit
To limit fault
fault currents,
currents, a series-connected
series-connected inductor
inductor is is more
more effective
effective [29] [29] than
than aa paralleled
paralleled
To limit fault currents, aa series-connected inductor is more effective [29] than a paralleled
To
capacitor.limit
capacitor. IfIf fault
an
If an currents,
inductor
an inductor
inductor is isa series-connected
added
is added without
added without inductor
assistance
without assistance
assistance of is
of more effective
semiconductor
of semiconductor [29] than
switches,
semiconductor switches, a
switches, theparalleled
the capacitor.
impedance
the impedance
impedance of
of
capacitor. of
If
thean inductor
inductor
the inductor
inductor may is
may added
cause
may cause without
cause considerableassistance
considerable
considerable phase phaseof semiconductor
shifts
phase shifts and
shifts and switches,
voltage
and voltage drops,
voltage drops, the impedance
which
drops, which results
which results
results inof
in the
bad
in bad inductor
voltage
bad voltage
voltage
the
may cause
regulation
regulation andconsiderable
and higher
and higher phase
system
higher system shifts
losses.
system losses.
losses. and voltage drops, which results in bad voltage regulation and
regulation
higher A system
CL
A CL
CL device losses.
device
device with with a superconductor
with aa superconductor
superconductor and and two
and two inductors
two inductors
inductors was was proposed
was proposed
proposed in in 2008,
in 2008, where
2008, where
where the the
the
A
A CL device
superconductor only
superconductor with
only works a
works assuperconductor
as an
an automatic and
automatic switch, two
switch, and inductors
and inductors was
inductors work proposed
work as as currentin 2008,
current limiters where
limiters [26]. the
[26]. As
As
superconductor only works as an automatic switch, and inductors work as current limiters [26]. As
superconductor
shown
shown in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 8, only
8, the
8, the works as
inductance
the inductance an
inductance of automatic
of element
of element
element L switch,
L
L22 is and
2 is higher
is higher inductors
than
higher than that
than that work
of
that of
of LL as
1. When
L11.. When current
a fault
When aa fault limiters
occurs,
fault occurs, [26].
occurs, thethe
the
shown
As shown of
resistance
resistance in the
of Figure
the 8, the inductance
superconductor
superconductor of element
increases
increases L2 is higher
significantly,
significantly, thethan
and the
and faultthat
fault of L1commutates
current
current . When a fault
commutates occurs,
to the
to the two
two
resistance of the superconductor increases significantly, and the fault current commutates to the two
the resistance
inductors.
inductors. Theofsemiconductor
The the superconductor
semiconductor increases
switches
switches then significantly,
then trip to
trip allow and
to allow theeliminate
L22 to
L to fault current
eliminate commutates
the fault
the fault current.toThis
current. the
This
inductors. The semiconductor switches then trip to allow L 2 to eliminate the fault current. This
two inductors.is
configuration
configuration isThe semiconductor
complicated
complicated because
because switches
of its
of then trip
its passive
passive andtosuperconductive
and allow L2 to eliminate
superconductive the fault current. This
components.
components.
configuration is complicated because of its passive and superconductive components.
configuration is complicated because of its passive and superconductive components.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. A
A superconductor
superconductor CL-CB
CL-CB with
with two
two inductors
inductors in
in 2008.
2008.
Figure 8. A superconductor CL-CB with two inductors in 2008.

A bridge-structured
A bridge-structured solid-state
solid-state CL
CL device
device based
based on
on a single
single inductor
inductor working
working in in different
different modemode
A bridge-structured solid-stateCL
bridge-structured solid-state CLdevice
devicebased onaaasingle
basedon singleinductor
inductorworking
workinginin different
different mode
mode is
is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 99 [30].
[30]. In
In normal
normal operation,
operation, thyristors
thyristors T
T 1, T2 off and T3, T4 on, the configuration is
, T off and T , T on, the configuration is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 9 [30].
9 [30]. InIn normal
normal operation,thyristors
operation, thyristorsT1T,1,TT2 2off
1 2 offand
andTT33,, TT44 on, the configuration is
3 4
then aa DC
then DC inductor
inductor with
with negligible
negligible effect
effect on
on AC
AC power
power quality.
quality. When When a fault
fault occurs,
occurs, T
T11,, T
T2 onon and
and T
T33,,
then a DC inductor with negligible on AC
effect on AC power
power quality.
quality. When When aaafault
fault occurs,
occurs,TT11,, T
T222 on and T33,,
T44 off,
T off, the
the inductor
inductor changes
changes fromfrom DC
DC mode
mode toto AC
AC mode,
mode, therefore
therefore the the fault
fault current
current could
could be be reduced.
reduced.
T off, the inductor changes from DC mode to AC mode, therefore the fault current
4 off, the inductor changes from DC mode to AC mode, therefore the fault current could be reduced.
4 could be reduced.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Solid
Solid state
state CL-CB
CL-CB with
with an
an AC
AC inductor
inductor and
and aa DC
DC inductor
inductor in
in 2015.
2015.
Figure 9. Solid state CL-CB with an AC inductor and a DC inductor in 2015.

2.4.2. CL-CBs
2.4.2. CL-CBs with
with Inductor-Capacitor
Inductor-Capacitor (L-C)(L-C) Components
Components
2.4.2. CL-CBs with Inductor-Capacitor (L-C) Components
In 1980,
1980, EPRI
EPRI had
had also
also proposed
proposed a tuned-impedance
tuned-impedance CL CL devices,
devices, asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10.
10. Without
Without
In
In 1980, EPRI had also proposed aa tuned-impedance CL devices, as shown in Figure 10. Without
fault, the
fault, the mechanical
mechanical switch
switch isis in
in open
open state,
state, which
which cause
cause almost
almost zero
zero impedance
impedance on on a series L-C
L-C
fault, the mechanical switch is in open state, which cause almost zero impedance on aa series
series L-C
resonant circuit.
resonant circuit. When
When a short-circuit
When aa short-circuit
circuit. When short-circuit fault happens,
fault happens,
short-circuit fault the
happens, the switch
the switch turns
switch turns
turns onon after
on after fault
after fault detection, then
resonant fault detection, then
detection, then
adds an
adds an additional
additional impedance
impedance to to the
the circuit
circuit to
to eliminate
eliminate the
the fault
fault current.
current. The
The equivalent
equivalent impedance
impedance
adds an additional impedance to the circuit to eliminate the fault current. The equivalent impedance
in the
in the parallel
parallel mode
mode is resistive,
resistive, therefore
therefore nono undesired
undesired phase
phase shift
shift is
is added
added [17].
[17].
in the parallel mode isis resistive, therefore
therefore nono undesired
undesired phase
phase shift
shift is
is added
added [17].
[17].

Figure 10.
Figure 10. EPRI tuned-impedance
EPRI tuned-impedance CL devices
tuned-impedance CL
CL devices in
in 1980.
1980.
Figure 10. EPRI devices in 1980.
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In 1998, a hybrid current-limiting interrupting device (HCLID) was proposed by experts at the
Technical University
Technical Universityof of Gdansk,
Gdansk, Gdansk,
Gdansk, Poland.
Poland. The
The structure
structure of
of the
the HCLID
HCLID is
is simple:
simple: a mechanical
contact, two diode and two thyristors, together with an L-C series-connected circuit [31,32]. As seen
in Figure 11, the HCLID may inject a countercurrent into the main path to provide zero-crossingzero-crossing
conditions. The
The mechanical
mechanical switch
switch could
could open in reduced current status with fast speed and small
arcing. The
Thepre-charged
pre-charged capacitor
capacitorandand
inductor increase
inductor the dimensions
increase and costand
the dimensions as well
costas as
complexity,
well as
complexity,
which which
is suitable forislow-voltage
suitable for low-power
low-voltageapplications.
low-power applications.

11. Hybrid CL interrupting device (HCLID) in 1998.

Figure 11.
Figure

L-C current limiting

L-C current limiting components
components have been mentioned
have been mentioned in [33] in
in [33] in 2002.
2002. In In Figure
Figure 12,12, aa more
more
complex approach have been investigated to ensure CL performance and normal operating [34].
complex approach have been investigated to ensure CL performance and normal operating [34].
Current goes through mechanical switch, inductor of transformer and C
Current goes through mechanical switch, inductor of transformer and C2 . Negligible impedance2. Negligible impedance
2

formed
formed bybyaaresonant
resonantcircuit.
circuit.When
Whena fault
a faultoccurs, the the
occurs, mechanical switch
mechanical is tripping
switch with awith
is tripping veryasmall
very
arc. The current commutate from main path to the series-connection
small arc. The current commutate from main path to the series-connection of of S 1 and
1 S and C 1 , where
1 C , where S11 isS aisbi-
a
1 1 1
directional controllable semiconductor switch e.g., thyristor, GTO, insulated-gate
bi-directional controllable semiconductor switch e.g., thyristor, GTO, insulated-gate bipolar transistorbipolar transistor
(IGBT) and
(IGBT) and integrated
integrated gate-commutated
gate-commutated thyristor
thyristor (IGCT).
(IGCT). By
By using
using CC111 and
and SS222,, the
the remaining
remaining circuit
circuit
results in a very high impedance with significant current limitation properties. The
results in a very high impedance with significant current limitation properties. The current-limiting current-limiting
capability
capability is strengthened by
is strengthened by closing
closing SS222 to
to add
add more resistance and
more resistance and inductance.
inductance. A power dissipative
A power dissipative
element is used to absorb the remaining circuit energy when the circuit breaker
element is used to absorb the remaining circuit energy when the circuit breaker is turned off to interrupt is turned off to
interrupt the
the current. current.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Hybrid
Hybrid CL-CB
CL-CB with
with complex
complex tuned
tuned L-C
L-C elements in 2012.
elements in 2012.

A solid-state fault current limiting (SSFCL) CB is put forward in Figure 13, using an L-C tank for
A solid-state fault current limiting (SSFCL) CB is put forward in Figure 13, using an L-C tank for
voltage network applications [35]. Two diodes and five thyristors are needed to form a rectifier. When
voltage network applications [35]. Two diodes and five thyristors are needed to form a rectifier. When
a fault occurs, this circuit changes into a rectifier bridge and rectifies the AC voltage.
a fault occurs, this circuit changes into a rectifier bridge and rectifies the AC voltage.
Energies 2017,
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Figure 13. SSFCL

Figure SSFCL CB using
using resonant
resonant L-C
L-C tank
tank in
in 2015.
2015.
Figure 13.
13. SSFCL CB
CB using resonant L-C tank in 2015.
2.5. Controllable
2.5. Controllable Semicondcutor
Semicondcutor Devices
Devices for
for Current-Limiting
Current-Limiting
2.5. Controllable Semicondcutor Devices for Current-Limiting
Current-Limiting
2.5.1. CL-CB with
2.5.1. with Semiconductor Power Power Switches
2.5.1. CL-CB
CL-CB with Semiconductor
Semiconductor Power Switches Switches
As
As shown in Figure 14 [36], an SSCB could work
work as
as aa CL
CL device.
device. This
This ‘fault-current
‘fault-current limiting
limiting and
and
As shown
shown in
shown inFigure
in Figure14
Figure 1414[36],
[36],an
[36], ananSSCB
SSCBcould
SSCB could
could work
work as as a CL
a CL device.
device. ThisThis ‘fault-current
‘fault-current limiting
limiting and
interruption device
interruption device (FCLID)’
(FCLID)’ has has a bi-directional
bi-directional semiconductor
semiconductor switch,
switch, e.g.,
e.g., IGBT or or power
power metal-
metal-
and interruption
interruption device
device (FCLID)’ has aa has
(FCLID)’ a bi-directional
bi-directional semiconductor
semiconductor e.g., IGBT
switch,switch, e.g., or
IGBT IGBT or power
power metal-
oxide-semiconductor
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), resistor-capacitor (RC) snubber circuit, and a
oxide-semiconductor field-effect
metal-oxide-semiconductor transistor
field-effect
field-effect transistor (MOSFET),
transistor resistor-capacitor
(MOSFET),
(MOSFET), (RC)
(RC) snubber
resistor-capacitor
resistor-capacitor circuit,
(RC) snubber
snubber and
and aa
circuit,circuit,
voltage
voltage varistor
varistor (i.e.,
(i.e., a nonlinear
aa nonlinear resistor).
resistor). The
The semiconductor
semiconductor switches
switches could be controlled with
and a voltage
voltage varistor
varistor (i.e., (i.e., a nonlinear
nonlinear resistor).
resistor). TheThe semiconductor
semiconductor switchescould
switches couldbe
could becontrolled
be controlled with
controlled with
pulse-width modulation
pulse-width modulation (PWM)
(PWM) or or a linear-region
linear-region gate
gate signal
signal to
to limit
limit the
the current.
current.
pulse-width modulation
modulation (PWM)
(PWM) or or aaa linear-region
linear-region gate
gate signal
signal to
to limit
limit the
thecurrent.
current.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Solid-state
Solid-state circuit
circuit breaker
breaker in
in 2006.
2006.
Figure 14. Solid-state circuit breaker in 2006.
When with
When with a short-circuit
short-circuit condition,
condition, the
the current
current is is limited to to a value higher
higher than
than the
the nominal
When withaaashort-circuit
When with short-circuit condition,
condition,thethe
current
current is limited
is limited
limited to aa value
to a value higherhigher
value than the the nominal
nominal
than current,
nominal
current, therefore
current, therefore the the power
power lossloss will
will higher
higher than
than the
the nominal
nominal powerpower input
input of of the
the system.
system. This
This
therefore the powerthe
current, therefore losspower
will higher thanhigher
loss will the nominal
than thepower inputpower
nominal of the system.
input ofThis the configuration
system. This
configuration
configuration could
could not work in CL mode on a long-term basis, and as the power must be absorbed
could not work
configuration in CLnot
could mode
not work
work onin
ina CL
CL mode
mode on
long-term aa long-term
basis,
on and as the
long-term basis,
power
basis, and as
as the
andmust be power
the absorbed
power must
mustby be absorbed
metal
be oxide
absorbed
by metal
by metal oxide
oxide varistor
varistor (MOV)
(MOV) afterwise,
afterwise, MOV
MOV components
components with with large
large dimensions
dimensions are are needed.
needed.
varistor (MOV) afterwise, MOV components with large dimensions
by metal oxide varistor (MOV) afterwise, MOV components with large dimensions are needed. are needed.
Figure 15
Figure 15 shows
shows a HCB with with multi-function [37].[37]. This configuration
configuration consists of of a fast mechanical
mechanical
Figure 15 shows aa HCB HCB with multi-function
multi-function [37]. ThisThis configuration consists
consists of aa fast
fast mechanical
switch,
switch, a diode bridge, a controllable semiconductor device (GTO or IGBT) and protection
switch, aaadiode
switch, diode
diode bridge,
bridge, aa controllable
a controllable
bridge, semiconductor
semiconductor
controllable device
deviceor (GTO
device (GTO
semiconductor or
or IGBT)
IGBT) and
(GTO protection
IGBT) and protection
andcomponents.
protection
components. If
components. If a fault is is noticed
noticed by by the
the current sensor,
sensor, thethe fast mechanical
mechanical switch
switch will
will switch
switch off
If
components. If aa fault
a fault is noticed by is
fault thenoticed the current
currentbysensor, the fast
current sensor, the fast
mechanical fastswitch will switch
mechanical switchoff switch off
immediately.
will off
immediately.
immediately. The
The fault
fault current commutates into the diode bridge. On and off status of the
The fault current
immediately. fault current
Thecommutates current intocommutates into
into the
the diode bridge.
commutates diode
On and
the diode offbridge.
status ofOn
bridge. Ontheand off
off status
status of
semiconductor
and of the
part is
the
semiconductor part
semiconductor part isis determined by by the only
only controllable semiconductor
semiconductor switch.switch. Either
Either aa PWM
PWM
determined
semiconductor by the only
part is determined
determined by the
the only controllable
controllable semiconductor switch. Either
controllable a PWM signal
semiconductor or linear
switch. gate avoltage
Either PWM
signal or linear
signal linear gate
gate voltage
voltage signal
signal could be be applied. A A resistor-capacitor-diode (RCD) (RCD) snubber
snubber circuit
circuit
signal or
could
or be gate
linear applied.
voltage signal could
could be applied.
A resistor-capacitor-diode A resistor-capacitor-diode
applied.(RCD) snubber circuit works
resistor-capacitor-diode together
(RCD) withcircuit
snubber MOV
works
works together
together with MOV for semiconductor device transit protection.
for together with
semiconductor
works with MOV
device for
for semiconductor
MOVtransit protection. device
semiconductor device transit
transit protection.
protection.

Figure
Figure 15. Multifunction
15. Multifunction HCB
Multifunction HCB in
HCB in 2008.
in 2008.
2008.
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Multifunction HCB in 2008.
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Figure
Figure 16
16 shows
shows aaa typical
typical CL-CB
CL-CB configuration,
configuration, with
with which
which the
the current
current could
could be
be eliminated
eliminated by
by
Figure 16 shows typical CL-CB configuration, with which the current could be eliminated by
fast
fast switching
switching of
of mechanical
mechanical switch
switch and
and semiconductor
semiconductor switches
switches [38].
[38].
fast switching of mechanical switch and semiconductor switches [38].

Figure 16. Hybrid

Figure 16. Hybrid CL-CB
CL-CB in
in 2012.
2012.

As shown in Figure
Figure 17,17, ASEA
ASEA Brown
Brown Boveri
Boveri (known
(known as as ABB)
ABB) inin Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland,
Switzerland, have
As shown in Figure 17, ASEA Brown Boveri (known as ABB) in Zurich, Switzerland, have
proposed hybrid
hybrid CB
CB for
for HVDC
HVDC systems
systems without
without arcing
arcing and
and without
without more
more induction
induction loss
loss [39].
[39]. The
The
proposed hybrid CB for HVDC systems without arcing and without more induction loss [39].
commutation
commutation switch
switch is a semiconductor
is aissemiconductor with
with very
very low
low breakdown voltage, so that the on-state
The commutation switch a semiconductor with very lowbreakdown
breakdownvoltage,
voltage,so
sothat
that the on-state
voltage and
and on-state
on-state loss
loss are
are extremely
extremely low.
low. When
When aa fault
fault occurs,
occurs, the
the commutation
commutation switch
switch will
will open,
voltage and on-state loss are extremely low. When a fault occurs, the commutation switchopen, will
and the
and the current
current commutates
commutates to main
to main semiconductor branch. After the branch current becomes zero,
open, and the current commutates to semiconductor branch.
main semiconductor After After
branch. the branch current
the branch becomes
current zero,
becomes
the mechanical
the mechanical disconnector
disconnector switch
switch opens
opens rapidly
rapidly without
without arcing,
arcing, and
and keeps aa long
long insulation
zero, the mechanical disconnector switch opens rapidly without arcing, andkeeps
keeps a long insulation
distance. Then main semiconductor switch opens to send all electronic electronic energy toto surge arrester
arrester bank.
distance. Then main semiconductor switch opens to send all all electronic energy
energy to surge
surge arrester bank.
bank.
The main semiconductor switch as well as the surge arrester bank bank are
are series-connected
series-connected for high
The main semiconductor switch as well as the surge arrester bank are series-connected for high
voltages, as described
described at at the
the beginning
beginning of
of this
this section.
section.
voltages, as described at the beginning of this section.

Figure 17. ABB hybrid HVDC circuit breaker in 2011.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. ABB
ABB hybrid HVDC circuit
hybrid HVDC circuit breaker
breaker in
in 2011.
2011.

2.5.2. Active
2.5.2. Active Bridge
Bridge Configurations
Configurations of of CL-CBs
CL-CBs
2.5.2. Active Bridge Configurations of CL-CBs
Reference [40]
Reference [40] introduced
introduced aa CL-CB
CL-CB for for AC
AC grids
grids withwith aa three-phase
three-phase thyristor
thyristor bridge.
bridge. As As shown
shown
in Reference
Figure 18a, [40]using
by introduced
a a CL-CBseries-connected
three-phase for AC grids with a three-phase
isolating thyristor
transformer, bridge. As
three-phase shown
thyristor
in Figure 18a, by using a three-phase series-connected isolating transformer, three-phase thyristor
in Figure
bridge and18a, byinductor,
using a three-phase series-connected
influenceisolating transformer, three-phase thyristor
bridge and aa DC
DC this CL-CB
inductor, this CL-CB could
could not influence
not the grid
the grid voltage
voltage in ordinary
in ordinary working
working mode,
mode,
bridge
but and
when aa DC inductor,
short-circuit this
fault CL-CB
happens, could
the not
DC influence
side the
inductancegrid voltage
will be in
added ordinary
into working
the circuitmode,
loop
but when a short-circuit fault happens, the DC side inductance will be added into the circuit loop
but when a short-circuit
automatically, therefore fault happens,
achieving no the for
delay DCtheside inductance
fault current will be added into the circuit loop
limitation.
automatically, therefore achieving no delay for the fault current limitation.
automatically,
showntherefore
As shown in Figure
Figure achieving
18b, if no transformer
if the
the delay for theisfault takencurrent limitation.
off from
from the first
first figure,
figure, single-phase
single-phase H- H-
As in 18b, transformer is taken off the
bridgeAs shown in
configuration Figure 18b,
could if
alsothe
be transformer
used for CL is taken
purposes. off from the
Another first figure,
AC-side single-phase
inductor is H-bridge
added up to
bridge configuration could also be used for CL purposes. Another AC-side inductor is added up to
configuration
this circuit could
circuit working also
working together be used
together with for
with DC CL purposes.
DC inductor.
inductor. With Another
With the the AC AC-side
AC inductor, inductor
inductor, the is
the current added
current ratingup to
rating of this
of the circuit
the circuit
circuit
this
working
could be together
increased, with DC inductor.
however, an MOV Withmustthe ACbe inductor, the
connected current
across the rating
AC of the circuit
inductor to couldthe
protect be
could be increased, however, an MOV must be connected across the AC inductor to protect the
increased,
semiconductor however, an MOV
devices must be connected
from over-voltage
over-voltage damage across
[41].the AC inductor to protect the semiconductor
semiconductor devices from damage [41].
devices from
As shown
shown inover-voltage
in Figure damage
Figure 18c,
18c, let’s
let’s go[41].
go oneone step
step further,
further, replacing
replacing two two thyristor
thyristor withwith diodes,
diodes, andand two
two
As
As shown
thyristors with in Figure
IGCT 18c, let’s
switches, thengothis
one stepconfiguration
third further, replacing could two thyristor
obtain a with
similar diodes, andOnly
performance. two
thyristors with IGCT switches, then this third configuration could obtain a similar performance. Only
thyristors with IGCT
two controllable
controllable switches, then
semiconductor this third
devices configuration
are needed
needed [42]. could obtain a similar performance. Only
two semiconductor devices are [42].
two controllable semiconductor devices are needed [42].
Energies 2017, 10, 495 10 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 10 of 25

Energies 2017, 10, 495 10 of 25

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 18. Inductor-bridge type solid state current limiters: (a) Three-phase series thyristor bridges
(a)
Figure 18. Inductor-bridge (b) (a) Three-phase series thyristor
type solid state current limiters: (c) bridges with
with isolating transformers (4-arms); (b) Single-phase thyristor bridges with DC inductor; (c) Half-
isolating transformers
Figure 18.IGCT
(4-arms);
Inductor-bridge
(b)
type
Single-phase thyristor bridges with DC inductor; (c) Half-controlled
controlled bridges with ACsolid stateinductors.
and DC current limiters: (a) Three-phase series thyristor bridges
IGCTwith
bridges withtransformers
isolating AC and DC(4-arms);
inductors.
(b) Single-phase thyristor bridges with DC inductor; (c) Half-
controlled
Static IGCT bridges
synchronous with
series AC and DC inductors.
compensators (SSSC), as a series-connected semiconductor converter
Static synchronous
module, seriesbycompensators
were investigated a few experts (SSSC), as a series-connected
for CL purposes semiconductor
[43–46]. As shown in Figure 19,converter
SSSC
module, Staticinvestigated
synchronous by series compensators (SSSC), as a series-connected semiconductor converter
has thewere
same H-bridge structure a few asexperts
a staticfor CL purposes
synchronous [43–46]. As(STATCOM),
compensator shown in Figure 19, SSSC
but uses has
series-
module, were investigated by a few experts for CL purposes [43–46]. As shown in Figure 19, SSSC
theconnection
same H-bridge structure as a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), but uses
rather than paralleled connection [47]. The SSSC can provide controllable compensating series-connection
has the same H-bridge structure as a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), but uses series-
rather thanand
voltage paralleled connection
capacitive or inductive[47].power,
The SSSC whichcancould
provide controllable
improve compensating
the quality voltage
of electric energy and
[48].
connection rather than paralleled connection [47]. The SSSC can provide controllable compensating
SSSC
capacitivemayor be a good
inductive multi-functional
power, which flexible
could fault
improve current
the limitation
quality of component
electric energysolution.
voltage and capacitive or inductive power, which could improve the quality of electric energy [48]. be
[48]. SSSC may
a good multi-functional
SSSC flexible fault current
may be a good multi-functional flexiblelimitation component
fault current limitation solution.
component solution.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 19. SSSC bridge current limiters in 2000 and 2012: (a) Single-phase cascaded H-bridge with
Figure 19.capacitors;
separating SSSC bridge current limiters in 2000with
and 2012: (a) DC
Single-phase
capacitor cascaded H-bridge with
Figure 19. SSSC bridge (b) Three-phase
current limitersbridges
in 2000 andcommon
2012: (a) Single-phase and isolating
cascaded transformer.
H-bridge with
separating capacitors; (b) Three-phase bridges with common DC capacitor and isolating transformer.
separating capacitors; (b) Three-phase bridges with common DC capacitor and isolating transformer.
2.6. Summary
2.6. Summary
2.6. Summary
A brief summary is put forward in Table 1 to show the circuit breakers in different categories,
A brief summary is put forward in Table 1 to show the circuit breakers in different categories,
and discuss their advantages
A brief summary and disadvantages.
is put forward in Table 1 toSome
showobservations are warranted:
the circuit breakers in different categories,
and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. Some observations are warranted:
and(a)discuss their advantagesasand disadvantages. Some observations are warranted:
(a) Mechanical
Mechanicalswitches,
switches, asoneonehalf
half of
of the HCBconfiguration,
the HCB configuration, needmore
need more investigation
investigation about
about lifting
lifting
the tripping
the tripping speed;
speed; as one half of the HCB configuration, need more investigation about lifting
(a) Mechanical switches,
(b)(b)HCBs
HCBs with
withauxiliary
auxiliary semiconductor switcheswill
semiconductor switches willbe
bewidely
widelyused
usedfor
for HVDC
HVDC systems
systems because
because of of
the tripping speed;
their natural superiority: no-arcing, acceptable switching speed, and low
their natural superiority: no-arcing, acceptable switching speed, and low transmission power transmission power
(b) HCBs loss;with auxiliary semiconductor switches will be widely used for HVDC systems because of
loss;
their
(c)(c) natural superiority: no-arcing,
Superconductor-based
Superconductor-basedcircuit
acceptable
circuit breakers
switching
are quite
breakers are quite expensive
expensive
speed, and
andhave
and
low
havehuge
hugetransmission
size/weight,
size/weight,
power loss;
so they
so they
(c) Superconductor-based
may
maybebeonlyonlyused
used in circuit
in HVDC breakers
HVDC systems are quite
because of
systems because expensive
of their and have
theirinsensitivity huge
insensitivityofoffloor size/weight,
floor space.
space. so
Further
Further they
may be only used
investigation
investigation could
could inbe
beHVDC systems because
onimplementation
on implementation and of their insensitivity
andhigher-temperature
higher-temperature of floor space. Further
superconductors;
superconductors;
investigation
(d)(d) AsAs could beisison
current-limiting
current-limiting implementation
becoming
becoming and higher-temperature
more intelligent,
intelligent,semiconductor
semiconductordevices superconductors;
deviceswill bebe
will widely applied,
widely applied,
(d) Asbut but their reliability must
their reliabilityismust
current-limiting be taken
be taken
becoming into account;
intointelligent,
more account; semiconductor devices will be widely applied,
(e)(e) Resistive
butResistive
their CL-CBhas
CL-CB
reliability has
must really
really high power
be high
taken power dissipation,
dissipation,ititmight
into account; mightbebeonly
only used
usedforfor
short-term
short-termlimiting;
limiting;
(f)(f) Inductive
Inductive CL-CB
CL-CB and
and L-C
L-C based
based CL-CB
CL-CB are
are sensitive
sensitive to
tofrequency
frequency changes,
changes, so the
so robustness
the robustness is is
(e) Resistive CL-CB has really high power dissipation, it might be only used for short-term limiting;
not perfect. The dynamic response must be analyzed before
not perfect. The dynamic response must be analyzed before any conduction; any conduction;
(f) Inductive CL-CB and L-C based CL-CB are sensitive to frequency changes, so the robustness is
not perfect. The dynamic response must be analyzed before any conduction;
Energies 2017, 10, 495 11 of 25

(g) Bridge-connected CL-CB has the best flexibility and controllability, but may suffer from higher
power loss and the need for other additional components. Active CL-CB with SSSC may be a
good solution for DC/AC systems for its controllable reactive power generation capability and
its multi-function of short-circuit protection;
(h) Wide-band-gap (WBG) devices e.g., SiC MOSFET are recommended for fast breaking as well as
current limiting, but the overall cost should be taken into consideration.

Table 1. Summary of CL-CBs (mechanical or semiconductor) [49].

Categories Main Components Advantages Disadvantages

Poor maintenance,
One-time devices Fuses [1,50] Lowest size & cost
unclear melting time
Fast Small size, low Electric arc with contact
breaking FMS [2,9–11,13–16,51,52]
power loss erosion, low speed
manner Reusable components
Complex structure,
HCB/SSCB [12] Fast, small arcing
relatively high cost
Low cost, constant
Switched resistor [17–20] High power dissipation
resistive current
Switched PTC
Resistive Auto-limiting High power dissipation
resistors [2,21]
elements
Switched Switched
Auto-limiting with
passive superconductor High cost, huge size
resistive current
components devices [8,22–26]
No extra heat,
Switched inductor Sensitive to changing of
un-changeable
[26,29,30] frequency
Current current
With others
limiting No extra heat,
manner Sensitive to changing of
Switched L-C [17,31–35] relatively low
frequency
impedance for L-C

Semiconductor Simple structure, High power dissipation

PWM control [36,38]
switches & resistive current of MOV
Controlled energy Simple structure, High power dissipation
Gate voltage control [37]
passive & absorbers resistive current of semiconductors
power Controlled bridge with Controllable current, high current harmonics
devices inductor [40–42] no additional heat with thyristor
Other bridge
concepts No additional heat,
Complex structure,
SSSC [47] controllable current,
capacitor charging issues
low THD

3. Novel Circuit Breaker Concepts with Different Power Devices

This part discusses basic HCB/SSCB configurations with different control methods as well as
semiconductor devices. Novel configurations are proposed afterwards based on the basic topologies
with some good features. The applications of different power devices in these circuit breakers are
analyzed with further discussion.

3.1. Basic HCB/SSCB Configuration in Low-Voltage AC/DC Grids

Figure 20 shows the basic configuration of HCB/SSCB. SSCB consists of a semiconductor main
switch (SMS) and a metal oxide varisor (MOV). HCB is the combination of SSCB with fast mechanical
switch (FMS) and mechanical disconnector (MD). The latter two are optional for different applications.
Both PWM control (i.e., a pulsed gate signal) and linear region gate control (variable gate voltage
signal for semiconductors) of SMS are appropriate for AC and DC applications, even better with
WBG semiconductor devices of higher switching speed and higher junction temperature. A novel
phase-shift control method could be used for AC applications, avoiding supplementary impedance
(e.g., inductor and resistor) because of natural zero-voltage-crossing ability.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 12 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 12 of 25

Energies 2017, 10, 495 12 of 25

Figure 20. Basic SSCB/HCB configuration diagram.

Figure 20. Basic SSCB/HCB configuration diagram.
3.1.1. Fast Breaking of SSCBFigure
or HCB20. with
Basic WBG Devices
SSCB/HCB configuration diagram.
3.1.1. Fast Breaking of SSCB or HCB with WBG Devices
For SSCB with WBG devices, the functions of component could be described as follows:
3.1.1.SSCB
For Fast Breaking
with WBG of SSCB or HCB
devices, the with WBG of
functions Devices
component could be described as follows:
(a) FMS carries the main current with low conduction loss;
For SSCB with WBG devices, the functions of component could be described as follows:
(a) (b)
FMSSMS
carries
is tothe
cut main current
off fault currentwith
withlow conduction
a higher speed; loss;
(b) SMS is to cut off fault current with a higher speed;loss;to avoid over voltage across SMS;
(c)
(a) MOV
FMS absorbs
carries thethe remaining
main currentenergy
with of
low line inductance
conduction
(d) A mechanical disconnector is needed to ensure electrical insulation while all turned off.
(c) (b)
MOV SMS is to cut
absorbs theoff fault current
remaining with aofhigher
energy speed;
line inductance to avoid over voltage across SMS;
(c) Figure
MOV absorbs
21 showsthe remaining
the energy
photograph of of
an line inductance
HCB/SSCB toprototype
testing avoid overwith
voltage across SMS;
SiC MOSFETs
(d) A mechanical disconnector is needed to ensure electrical insulation while all turned(15 Cree
off.
(d) A mechanical disconnector is needed to ensure electrical insulation while all turned off.
C2M0025120D in a parallel, common-source configuration to allow bi-directional power flow) or
Figure
silicon 21 shows
(Si)
Figure IGBT thethe
photograph
(Infineon
21 shows ofofan
FZ600R17KE3)
photograph anHCB/SSCB testingprototype
as a comparison.
HCB/SSCB testing Aprototype
GIGAVAC with
with SiC
GX26CCB
SiC MOSFETs (15 Cree
mechanical
MOSFETs (15 Cree
C2M0025120D
C2M0025120D in a parallel, common-source configuration to allow bi-directional power flow) or or
switch is in
chosena parallel,
as the FMS common-source
part of HCB. configuration to allow bi-directional power flow)
silicon (Si) IGBT
silicon (Infineon
(Si) IGBT FZ600R17KE3)
(Infineon FZ600R17KE3) as aas
comparison. A GIGAVAC
a comparison. A GIGAVAC GX26CCB
GX26CCBmechanical switch
mechanical
switch
is chosen asisthe
chosen
FMSaspart
the of
FMS part of HCB.
HCB.

Figure 21. Photograph of a HCB/SSCB prototype with SiC power MOSFETs or Si IGBTs.

Figures
Figure 22
21.and
Figure 23 show of
21. Photograph
Photograph thea experimental
of results of
a HCB/SSCB prototype
HCB/SSCB prototype withHCB
withSiC operation
power
SiC power (tripping
MOSFETs
MOSFETs current
or SiorIGBTs. 150 A for
Si IGBTs.
Figure 22) with a SiC MOSFET and Si IGBT. In Figure 22a, it is apparent that the on-state resistance
of SiCFigures
MOSFET is very
22 and 23 showsmall the
(about 3.33 mΩ), results
experimental therefore both FMS
of HCB and SMS
operation are conducting
(tripping current 150during
A for
Figures
normal 22 and 23Figure
operation. show23the experimental
shows that the results
total clear of HCB
time operation
(including turn-off(tripping
time of current
FMS, 150 A for
turn-off
Figure 22) with a SiC MOSFET and Si IGBT. In Figure 22a, it is apparent that the on-state resistance
Figureof 22)
SiCofwith
time SMSaand
MOSFET SiC MOSFET
isenergy
very small and
absorbing
(aboutSitime
IGBT.
3.33by In Figure
MOV)
mΩ), of SiC
therefore22a, it is
MOSFET
both FMSapparent
based
and SMS HCBthatis the
are loweron-state
conductingthan forresistance
a Si
during
of SiC MOSFET
IGBT-based is
HCB.very small (about 3.33 mΩ), therefore both FMS and
normal operation. Figure 23 shows that the total clear time (including turn-off time of FMS, turn-offSMS are conducting during
normal operation.
Figures 24 Figure
and 25 23
show shows
the that the
experimental total clear
results time
of SSCB (including
operation
time of SMS and energy absorbing time by MOV) of SiC MOSFET based HCB is lower than for a Si turn-off
(tripping time
current of FMS,
150 A turn-off
for
time Figure
of SMS24)
IGBT-based with
and SiC MOSFET
energy
HCB. absorbing and time
Si IGBT.by As
MOV)the peak
of SiCcurrent
MOSFETof Si IGBT
based based
HCB SSCB is higher
is lower thanthan
for a Si
that
IGBT-based of SiC
Figures MOSFET based SSCB, the switching speed of the latter is still
HCB.24 and 25 show the experimental results SSCB operation (tripping current 150 A for higher. Figure 25a confirms
this result.
Figure
Figures 24) Figure
24with
andSiC 2525b shows
MOSFET
show the
theand normal
Si IGBT.operation
experimental As the efficiency
peak
results SSCBcomparison
current
of ofoperation
Si IGBT based of these
SSCB
(tripping two is SSCBs. It isA for
higher 150
current than
observed
that SiCthat the power loss of the SiC MOSFET-based SSCB is lower than that of the Si25a IGBT-based
Figure 24)ofwith MOSFET
SiC MOSFET based SSCB,
and Sithe switching
IGBT. As the speed
peakofcurrent
the latterofisSistill
IGBT higher.
basedFigure
SSCB isconfirms
higher than
SSCB whenFigure
this result. the current is small.
25b shows the normal operation efficiency comparison of these two SSCBs. It is
that of SiC MOSFET based SSCB, the switching speed of the latter is still higher. Figure 25a confirms
Device
observed selection
that the power andlossspecification
of the SiC should be grounded
MOSFET-based SSCBinispractical
lower than application
that of the requirements.
Si IGBT-based It
this result.
is Figure 25b
apparent shows the normal the operation efficiency
of HCBcomparison of be
these twothan
SSCBs.
that It is
SSCB when that, with
the current SiC MOSFET,
is small. clearing speed and SSCB will higher
observed that
with Device
Si the
IGBT. power
The
selectionpower lossloss
and of of
thea SiC
SiC MOSFET-based
specification MOSFET-based
should be grounded SSCB
SSCB in is
may lower
be lower
practical than
thanthat
thatof
application of the
a SiSi IGBT-based
IGBT
requirements. oneIt
SSCBwithwhen the current
appropriate
is apparent is
device
that, with small.
SiCselections.
MOSFET, the clearing speed of HCB and SSCB will be higher than that
Device selection
with Si IGBT. The and
power specification
loss of a SiCshould be grounded
MOSFET-based SSCB in may practical
be lowerapplication
than that ofrequirements.
a Si IGBT one It is
apparent
with that, with SiC
appropriate MOSFET,
device the clearing speed of HCB and SSCB will be higher than that with
selections.
Si IGBT. The power loss of a SiC MOSFET-based SSCB may be lower than that of a Si IGBT one with
appropriate device selections.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 13 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 13 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 13 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 13 of 25

Energies 2017, 10, 495 13 of 25

(a) (b)
Figure 22. Experimental(a) current waveforms of HCB with different semiconductor
(b) (b) devices: (a) With
(a)
SiC MOSFET; (b) With Si IGBT.
Figure
Figure 22. Experimental
22. Experimental (a)currentwaveforms
current waveforms of
of HCB
HCBwith
withdifferent
different (b)
semiconductor devices:
semiconductor (a) With
devices: (a) With
Figure
SiC22. Experimental
MOSFET; (b) Withcurrent
Si IGBT.waveforms of HCB with different semiconductor devices: (a) With
SiC MOSFET;
Figure 22. (b) With Si
Experimental
SiC MOSFET; (b) With Si IGBT. IGBT.
current waveforms of HCB with different semiconductor devices: (a) With
SiC MOSFET; (b) With Si IGBT.

Figure
Figure 23. Comparison
23.23.
Comparison of HCB with Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET: Total clear time.
Figure ComparisonofofHCB
HCB with SiIGBT
with Si IGBTand
andSiC
SiC MOSFET:
MOSFET: Total
Total clearclear
time.time.

Figure 23. Comparison of HCB with Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET: Total clear time.
Figure 23. Comparison of HCB with Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET: Total clear time.

(a) (b)
(a)(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 24. Experimental current waveforms of SSCB with different semiconductor devices: (a) With
SiC
Figure MOSFET; (b)
24. Experimental
ExperimentalWith Si IGBT.
current waveforms of SSCB withdifferent
differentsemiconductor
semiconductor devices: (a) With
With
Figure
Figure 24. 24. Experimental current
(a)current waveformsof
waveforms ofSSCB
SSCB with
with different (b) devices:
semiconductor (a) With
devices: (a)
SiC MOSFET;
SiC (b)
MOSFET; With
(b) Si
With
SiC MOSFET; (b) With Si IGBT.IGBT.
Si IGBT.
Figure 24. Experimental current waveforms of SSCB with different semiconductor devices: (a) With
SiC MOSFET; (b) With Si IGBT.

(a)
(a)
(a)
Figure 25. Cont.
(a)
Energies 2017, 10, 495 14 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 14 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 14 of 25

(b)
(b)
Figure 25. Comparison of SSCB with Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET: (a) Total clear time; (b) Normal
25. Comparison
Figure 25. Comparison of of SSCB
SSCB with
with Si
Si IGBT
IGBT and
and SiC MOSFET: (a) Total clear
clear time;
time; (b) Normal
Normal
operating efficiency.
efficiency.
operating efficiency.
3.1.2. Current Limitation Method with PWM Strategy
3.1.2. Current
3.1.2. Limitation Method
Current Limitation Method with
with PWM
PWM Strategy
Strategy
With current limitation by PWM chopping for semiconductors, SiC MOSFETs get higher marks
With
With current
than Si
current limitation
IGBTslimitation
because ofby by PWM
their
PWM chopping
higher for
junctionfor
chopping semiconductors,
temperature and lower
semiconductors, SiC MOSFETs
switching
SiC MOSFETs get higher
losses.
get higher26
Figure marks
marks
than Si
than Si IGBTs
IGBTs
shows because
a case of(simulation
studyof
because their higher
their higher junction
results) temperature
of PWM-based
junction temperature and lower
current
and lower switching
switching
limitation losses. Figure
with a discontinuous
losses. Figure 26
26
shows current.
a case Although
study the current
(simulation ripple is
results)large,
of the downstream
PWM-based devices
current may be still
limitation
shows a case study (simulation results) of PWM-based current limitation with a discontinuous current.working
with a for specific
discontinuous
loads
current. (e.g., incandescent
Although the ripple lamps).isThe
currentisripple large, elimination of semiconductor
the downstream device loss and junction
Although the current large, the downstream devicesdevices
may bemaystill be still
working working for specific
for specific loads
temperature
loadsincandescent could
(e.g., incandescent be obtained by reducing switching frequency.
(e.g., lamps). lamps). The elimination
The elimination of semiconductor
of semiconductor device loss device loss and
and junction junction
temperature
temperature
could couldby
be obtained bereducing
obtainedswitching
by reducing switching frequency.
frequency.

Figure 26. Case study (simulation results) of PWM CL strategy: Discontinuous current.

3.1.3. Current Limitation by Gate Voltage Control

Figure 26. Case study (simulation results) of PWM CL strategy: Discontinuous current.
As the on-state voltage of power MOSFET or IGBT could be controlled by changing the gate
voltage signal, the current limitation may be achieved by linear region control. In this condition,
Current Limitation by Gate Voltage
3.1.3. power Voltage Control
Control
MOSFET or IGBT works as a variable resistor. WBG devices may be also better for this
application
As because
the on-state of higher
voltage allowable
of power power dissipation.
MOSFET But this
or IGBT could beiscontrolled
now still restricted because
by changing of gate
the
the power module package temperature limit.
voltage signal, the current limitation may be achieved Figure 27 show
achieved by linear a case
linear region study of
region control. this scheme with
control. In this condition,
Simulation Program with Integrated
works as Circuit
as aa variable Emphasis
variable resistor. (SPICE)
resistor. WBG devices software. A detailed Cree SiC
power MOSFET or IGBT works devices may be also better for this
MOSFET C2M0025120D SPICE model (105 in parallel) is placed in the simulation for variable gate
application because
because ofof higher
higherallowable
allowablepower
powerdissipation.
dissipation.ButButthis is is
this now still
now restricted
still because
restricted becauseof
voltage control with different drain to source resistance.
thethe
of power
powermodule
module package
package temperature
temperaturelimit.
limit.Figure
Figure2727show
showaacase
casestudy
study of
of this
this scheme with
Simulation Program
Simulation Programwith
with Integrated
Integrated Circuit
Circuit Emphasis
Emphasis (SPICE)
(SPICE) software.
software. A detailed
A detailed Cree SiC Cree
MOSFETSiC
MOSFET C2M0025120D
C2M0025120D SPICE
SPICE model model
(105 (105 in is
in parallel) parallel)
placedisinplaced in the simulation
the simulation for variable
for variable gate
gate voltage
voltage with
control control with different
different drain to drain
sourcetoresistance.
source resistance.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 15 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 15 of 25

Energies 2017, 10, 495 15 of 25

(a) (b)
Figure 27. Case study(a)(simulation results) of linear region CL strategy with(b)SiC MOSFET: (a) Line
Figure 27. Case study (simulation results) of linear region CL strategy with SiC MOSFET: (a) Line
current
Figure and
27. junction
Case studytemperature
(simulation without
results)current
of limiting;
linear region (b)
CL With current
strategy withlimiting.
SiC MOSFET: (a) Line
current and junction temperature without current limiting; (b) With current limiting.
current and junction temperature without current limiting; (b) With current limiting.
3.1.4. A Novel Current-Limiting Method for Basic HCB in Low-Voltage AC Grids
3.1.4.3.1.4.
A Novel Current-Limiting
A Novel Method
Current-Limiting Methodfor
forBasic HCBin
Basic HCB inLow-Voltage
Low-Voltage AC
AC Grids
Grids
In this Section, a novel current-limiting control strategy is proposed and applied to basic SSCB
circuit
In In breaker
this Section,
this configurations
a novel
Section, without any added
current-limiting
a novel current-limiting controlpassive
control components
strategy
strategy isisproposed
proposed (see Figure
andand 20).
applied
applied toThetocurrent
basic basic
SSCBSSCB
limitation
circuit breaker
circuit isconfigurations
breaker implemented bywithout
configurations phase-shifting
withoutany of AC voltage
any added
added passive
passive and current, therefore
components
components (see(see obtaining
Figure
Figure controlled
20). 20).
The The current
current
zero crossing
limitation is of current.
implemented As
by the semiconductor
phase-shifting
limitation is implemented by phase-shifting of of ACswitches
voltage is full
and on or
current, off, there
therefore will be no
obtaining significant
controlled
voltage and current, therefore obtaining controlled
power loss onofSSCB, which means that there is no extra heat generated, asthere
shown
willin
beFigure 28. With
zero zero crossing
crossing current.
of current. AsAs
thethe semiconductor
semiconductor switches
switchesisisfull
fullononoror
off,off, there will no
besignificant
no significant
the schematic phase-shifting method inthere
Figure 28,extra
the heat
semiconductor is in zero in
current switching
power loss on SSCB, which means that there is no extra heat generated, as shown in Figure 28.With
power loss on SSCB, which means that is no generated, as shown Figure 28. With the
(ZCS)
the condition,
schematic therefore reduce
phase-shifting methodtheinpower
Figureloss evensemiconductor
28, the more. All fully-controlled
is in zero currentsemiconductor
switching
schematic
devices phase-shifting
could be applied.method in Figure 28, the semiconductor is in zero current switching (ZCS)
(ZCS) condition, therefore reduce the power loss even more. All fully-controlled semiconductor
condition, therefore reduce the power loss even more. All fully-controlled semiconductor devices
devices could be applied.
could be applied.

Figure 28. The principle of the phase-shifting current-limiting method.

Figure
Figure 28.28.
TheThe principleof
principle ofthe
the phase-shifting
phase-shifting current-limiting
current-limitingmethod.
method.
As shown in Figure 28, two components form the line current: the damping component
and the repeating
As shown component
in Figure . When theform
28, two components fundamental angularthe
the line current: frequency is constant (e.g.,
damping component
As
50 shown
Hz or 60 in Figure
Hz), the 28,
duty
and the repeating component
two
ratio components
of semiconductorform the line
device in current:
one period the
is
. When the fundamental angular frequency
damping
, the per-unit (p.u.) i(e.g.,
component
is constant damp and
peak
the repeating component
50 Hz or 60 irepeat
Hz), the duty ratio. of
When the fundamental
semiconductor device inangular frequency
one period is is constant
ωg per-unit
, the (e.g.,
(p.u.) peak50 Hz
or 60 Hz), the duty ratio of semiconductor device in one period is Dgate , the per-unit (p.u.) peak current
Ig,peak and p.u. root mean square (RMS) current Ig,RMS could be described as the functions of phase
 Energies 2017, 10, 495 16 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 16 of 25
current , and p.u. root mean square (RMS) current , could be described as the functions
of phase angle of the system impedance and gate phase angle ∈ [0, − ], that is:
ωg t 2
angle of=the system = impedance
( , ) sys
ϕ , and
,
gate
,
phase
=
, angle
= θ gate(∈ 0,, π −) sys
ϕ and , that
,
is: D
, = = π= =
gate ,
,
I Ig,RMS
= g,peak




f Dgate θgate( , ϕsys, , Ig,peak,pu
). Iupm = f Ipeak,pu θgate , ϕsys and Ig,RMS,pu = Iupm = f IRMS,pu θgate , ϕsys .
,
Figure 29a shows the detailed control diagram upon this strategy. And a basic simulation result is
Figure 29a shows the detailed control diagram upon this strategy. And a basic simulation result
shown
is shownin Figure 29b. 29b.
in Figure It is It
definite thatthat
is definite peakpeak
current or RMS
current or RMS current
currentcould be controlled
could be controlled very well
very with
well
peak current reference signal. With the benefits of low cost, control robustness
with peak current reference signal. With the benefits of low cost, control robustness with linear load, with linear load, good
control
goodaccuracy, low size,low
control accuracy, lowsize,
weight, and finally
low weight, andlower
finallyheat
lower dissipation, this control
heat dissipation, methodmethod
this control could be
used in many areas. However, in the application fields which requires
could be used in many areas. However, in the application fields which requires good AC current good AC current waveform
performance, simpler control
waveform performance, or only
simpler DC or
control operation,
only DC this method
operation, is method
this not applicable.
is not applicable.

(a)

(b)
Figure 29. Phase-shifting current-limiting method: (a) General control diagram of current limitation;
Figure 29. Phase-shifting current-limiting method: (a) General control diagram of current limitation;
(b) Type Z ( = 3 ) simulation waveforms: instant/peak reference/RMS currents and gate signals.
(b) Type Z (Iupm = 3In ) simulation waveforms: instant/peak reference/RMS currents and gate signals.

3.1.5. Limitation of Basic SSCB/HCB Configurations

3.1.5. Limitation of Basic SSCB/HCB Configurations
Although basic SSCB and HCB are simple in structure, and can be working in a series of mode
Although
(fast basic
switching, SSCBlimiting
current and HCB are simple
by PWM, in structure,
current limiting byand
gatecan be working
voltage control,incurrent
a serieslimiting
of mode
(fast switching, current limiting by PWM, current
by phase shifting), there are a few limitations: limiting by gate voltage control, current limiting by
phase shifting), there are a few limitations:
(a) The switching speed of a basic HCB depends on the tripping performance of FMS, which limits
(a) The theswitching
switchingspeed
speed of
of aHCBs
basictoHCB
several milliseconds;
depends on the tripping performance of FMS, which limits
(b) the
The power loss of basic SSCBs is high and not acceptable in many cases, therefore they are not
switching speed of HCBs to several milliseconds;
suitable in many applications;
(b) The power loss of basic SSCBs is high and not acceptable in many cases, therefore they are not
(c) Current limiting by PWM introduces high power losses on MOV components and current
suitable in many applications;
limiting by gate voltage control introduces high power loss on semiconductor power devices,
(c) Current limiting by PWM introduces high power losses on MOV components and current limiting
therefore the application area is limited;
by gate voltage control introduces high power loss on semiconductor power devices, therefore
(d) Current limiting by phase shifting could only be used in AC systems and with large current
the application area is limited;
harmonics;
(d) Current limiting by phase shifting could only be used in AC systems and with large
current harmonics;
Energies 2017, 10, 495 17 of 25

Energies 2017, 10, 495 17 of 25

(e) Although SiC devices may confer an advantage to basic SSCB/HCB configurations with fast
Energies 2017, 10, 495 17 of 25
breaking
(e) (higher
Although SiC switching
devices may speed),
conferPWM current limiting
an advantage (higher switching
to basic SSCB/HCB speed with
configurations and junction
fast
temperature),
breaking linearswitching
(higher gate voltage control
speed), PWM current
current limiting
limiting (higherswitching
(higher junction speed
temperature),
and the cost
junction
(e) Although SiC devices may confer an advantage to basic SSCB/HCB configurations with fast
of SiC MOSFETs
temperature), is still
linear much
gate higher
voltage than
control that
current of Si
limiting IGBTs,
(higherwhich bounds
junction the
temperature),
breaking (higher switching speed), PWM current limiting (higher switching speed and junction spread
the of SiC
cost
of
MOSFETs SiC MOSFETs
in circuit is still
breaker much higher
applications.than that of Si IGBTs, which bounds the spread
temperature), linear gate voltage control current limiting (higher junction temperature), the cost of SiC
MOSFETs
of in circuit
SiC MOSFETs is breaker applications.
still much higher than that of Si IGBTs, which bounds the spread of SiC
3.2. NovelMOSFETs
CB Configurations with Different
in circuit breaker Semiconductor Devices
applications.
3.2. Novel CB Configurations with Different Semiconductor Devices
Novel circuit breaker configurations based on SSCB/HCB concepts are investigated to improve
3.2. Novel
Novel CBcircuit
Configurations with Different Semiconductor
breaker configurations Devices concepts are investigated to improve
based on SSCB/HCB
performance, as mentioned in Section 3.1.5. Three novel HCB/SSCB configurations are proposed
performance, as
Novel circuit mentioned in Section
breaker configurations 3.1.5. Three
based the novel HCB/SSCB
on SSCB/HCB configurations
concepts are proposed
are investigated to improve in
in this section: with Configuration 1 (hybrid), fault current is broken by the FMS itself; With
this section:
performance, with Configuration
as mentioned 1
in Section (hybrid), the
3.1.5.isThree fault
novel current is broken by the FMS itself; With
Configuration
Configuration 2 (hybrid),
2 (hybrid),thethe
fault
faultcurrent broken byHCB/SSCB configurations
aa series-connected
series-connected are proposedtransfer
semiconductor in
this section: with Configuration 1 current
(hybrid),is the
broken
faultbycurrent is broken bysemiconductor
the FMS itself;transfer
With
switch (STS)(STS)
switch to ensure
to2ensurethere is no
there arcing for the mechanical part;with
with Configuration 3 (pure SSCB),
Configuration (hybrid), theisfault
no arcing
currentforisthe mechanical
broken part; Configuration
by a series-connected 3 (pure
semiconductor SSCB),
transfer
the fault
the current
fault is broken
current is by by
broken SMSSMS with
with the
the help
help of
of STS,which
STS, whichisisanan ultra-fast
ultra-fast solution
solution withwith acceptable
acceptable
switch (STS) to ensure there is no arcing for the mechanical part; with Configuration 3 (pure SSCB),
power loss.
power
the faultloss.
current is broken by SMS with the help of STS, which is an ultra-fast solution with acceptable
power loss.
3.2.1. 3.2.1.
Configuration 1: HCB
Configuration with
1: HCB Capacitor
with Capacitor
3.2.1.Configuration
Configuration
Configuration 1 is11:shown
isHCB with
shown Capacitor
ininFigure
Figure30,
30,which
which consists
consists ofofan anFMS,
FMS, a semiconductor
a semiconductor accessary
accessary
switchswitch
(SAS),(SAS),
a a capacitor
capacitor and and
an an
MOV MOV arrester.
arrester. FMS FMS
is is
used used
to to
carry carry
the the
main
Configuration 1 is shown in Figure 30, which consists of an FMS, a semiconductor accessarymain normal
normal operation
operation current
current
switchanyand
(SAS), break any
a capacitor huge fault
and (up current
an MOV (up to the ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity I cu) as
and break huge fault current to thearrester.
ultimateFMS is used to breaking
short-circuit carry the capacity
main normal operation
Icu ) as well. SAS is
well. SAS
current is the
and semiconductor
break any huge switch which
fault can
tocarry a surge current (i.e., fault current) for a certain
the semiconductor switch which cancurrent
carry a(up
surge the ultimate
current short-circuit
(i.e., fault current)breaking
for acapacity Icu) as of
certain amount
amount
well. SASofistime,
the and should be switch
semiconductor a thyristor-type
which can device
carry e.g.,
a normal
surge currentthyristor
(i.e., andcurrent)
fault GTO. Aforcapacitor
a certainis
time, implemented
and should betoa force
thyristor-type
the current
device e.g.,
across
normal
zero,
thyristor
therefore a
and GTO. A capacitor
thyristor-based SAS could
is implemented
turn off
amount of time, and should be a thyristor-type device e.g., normal thyristor and GTO. A capacitor is
to force the current across zero, therefore a thyristor-based SAS could turn off automatically.
automatically.
implemented to force the current across zero, therefore a thyristor-based SAS could turn off
automatically.

Figure 30. Novel configuration 1: Hybrid solution of FMS + SAS + Capacitor + MOV.
Figure 30. Novel configuration 1: Hybrid solution of FMS + SAS + Capacitor + MOV.
Figure 30. Novel configuration 1: Hybrid solution of FMS + SAS + Capacitor + MOV.
3.2.2. Configuration 2: HCB with STS and Capacitor
3.2.2. Configuration 2: HCB with STS and Capacitor
3.2.2.Configuration
Configuration2,2:which
HCB with STSof
consists and
anCapacitor
STS, an SAS, a capacitor and an MOV arrester, is shown in
Configuration
Figure 31. STS is2,the
Configuration which consists
consistsofofan
2, series-connected
which anSTS,
STS, an
semiconductor SAS,switch
an SAS, aacapacitor
capacitor
which and
can
and an
ancarry
MOV MOV
the arrester,
normal
arrester, is shown
is operating
shown in in
current
Figure 31. STS
Figure and carry/break
is the
31. STS the fault
series-connected
is the current (up
series-connectedsemiconductorto I cu). With
semiconductor switch the voltage
switchwhich
which rating
can
can of only
carry
carry thethefew tens
normal
normal of volts
operating
operating
andand
current very
current small
and on-state
carry/break
carry/break resistance,
the fault
the paralleled
faultcurrent
current (up connection
to Icu
(up to cu).).With
Withofthe
Si voltage
theMOSFETs
voltage is a good
rating
rating of choice
of onlyonly for STS
few few
tens tens [53].
of volts
of volts
and very
and very smallsmall on-state
on-state resistance,paralleled
resistance, paralleled connection
connection ofofSiSiMOSFETs
MOSFETs is aisgood choice
a good for STS
choice for[53].
STS [53].

Figure 31. Novel configuration 2: Hybrid solution of FMS + STS + SAS + Capacitor + MOV.
Figure
Figure 31. Novel
31. Novel configuration
configuration 2:2:Hybrid
Hybridsolution
solution of
ofFMS
FMS++STS
STS+ SAS + Capacitor
+ SAS + MOV.
+ Capacitor + MOV.
In normal operation, FMS and STS carry the main current (continuous nominal current and up
to 10In
times of overload
normal current).
operation, The STS
FMS and advantage of Configuration
carry the 2 is the absence
main current (continuous of mechanical
nominal switch
current and up
In normal
arcing operation,
because the FMS
fault and
current STS
can carry
easily the main
commutate current
to the (continuous
SAS branch withnominal
STS. current
to 10 times of overload current). The advantage of Configuration 2 is the absence of mechanical switch and up to
10 times of because
arcing overloadthecurrent). Thecan
fault current advantage of Configuration
easily commutate to the SAS2branch
is the with
absence
STS.of mechanical switch
arcing because the fault current can easily commutate to the SAS branch with STS.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 18 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 18 of 25

3.2.3.Energies
3.2.3. Configuration
Configuration 3: Pure SSCB with Thyristor and STS (A Better Solution)
2017, 10, 495 3: Pure SSCB with Thyristor and STS (A Better Solution) 18 of 25

Configuration 33 (pure
Configuration (pure SSCB),
SSCB), which
which consists
consists ofof an
an SMS,
SMS, an an STS,
STS, an
an SAS
SAS andand anan MOV
MOV arrester
arrester isis
3.2.3. Configuration 3: Pure SSCB with Thyristor and STS (A Better Solution)
shown in Figure 32. The SMS is to carry the main normal operation and fault
shown in Figure 32. The SMS is to carry the main normal operation and fault current. To get a lower current. To get a lower
Configuration 3 (pure SSCB), which consists of an SMS, an isSTS,
on-state power
on-state power loss, SMS
loss, SMS could
could be symmetrical
be symmetrical thyristors.
thyristors. STS
STS is thean
the SAS and an MOVsemiconductor
series-connected
series-connected arrester is
semiconductor
shown
switch which in
which canFigure 32.
can carry The
carry the SMS
the normalis to carry
normal operating the main
operating current normal
current and operation
andcarry/break and
carry/break the fault current. To
fault current get
current asa lower
as well. SAS
SAS
switch the fault well.
on-state power loss, SMS could be symmetrical thyristors. STS is the series-connected semiconductor
is the
is the semiconductor
semiconductor switch switch which
which carries
carries aa surge
surge current
current (i.e.,
(i.e., fault
fault current)
current) for
for aa certain
certain amount
amount of of
switch which can carry the normal operating current and carry/break the fault current as well. SAS
time and
time and then breaks it, which could be a IGBT or a GTO (in consideration of cost). MOV arrester is
is thethen breaks it, which
semiconductor switchcould
whichbe a IGBT
carries or a current
a surge GTO (in consideration
(i.e., fault current)offor
cost). MOV
a certain arrester
amount of is to
to absorb
absorb the
theand
time
remaining
remaining energy
then breaks
energy of
of line
it, which
line inductance,
inductance,
could be a IGBT and
and protect
or a protect
GTO (in SMS
SMS from over-voltage.
from over-voltage.
consideration of cost). MOV arrester is
to absorb the remaining energy of line inductance, and protect SMS from over-voltage.

Figure
Figure 32. Novel
32.
Figure Novel configuration
configuration3:
configuration
32. Novel 3:3:Solid-state
Solid-state solution
solutionofof
Solid-state solution SMS
ofSMS
SMS ++ STS
+ STS + SAS
+ SAS ++ MOV.
+ MOV.MOV.

In normal
In normal
In normal operation,
operation, a aSMS
operation, SMS
a SMS (thyristor)
(thyristor)
(thyristor) carries
carries
carries the
thethe
mainmain
main current
current
current (continuous
(continuous
(continuous rated
rated
rated current
current
current andup
and and
to
up to up
10 to 10
times times
of of overload
overload current).
current). When
When aa short-circuit
short-circuit condition
conditionoccurs,
occurs,the fault
the could
fault
10 times of overload current). When a short-circuit condition occurs, the fault could be detected. Then a be
could detected.
be detected.
Then
a tripaistrip
Thensignal signalsignal is sent
is sent first
first totoSTS.
STS.With
Withaa very
very short delay
delay(in
(inmicroseconds), the STS STS
tripstrips
and and
trip sent first to STS. With a very short delayshort(in microseconds),microseconds),
the STS tripsthe and commutates
commutates
commutates the
the to fault
fault current
current to MOV
torapidly branch
MOV branch rapidly
rapidly with
with zero voltage.
zerothevoltage.After the current of SMS
the fault current MOV branch with zero voltage. After currentAfter
of SMSthebranch
current of SMS
definitely
branch definitely goes to zero, SMS turns off automatically. Then the remaining energy of line
branch
goes to definitely
zero, SMS goes to
turns off by zero, SMS
automatically. turns
Then off automatically. Then the remaining energy of line
inductance is absorbed MOV to reduce the the
lineremaining energy of line inductance is absorbed
current to zero. by
inductance
MOV to reduceis absorbed
the line by MOVtotozero.
current reduce the line current to zero.
3.2.4. Comparisons of These Configurations
3.2.4. Comparisons of These Configurations
As the tripping time of HCB depends on the speed of a mechanical switch, it is clear that this
As
pure the
theSSCBtripping
tripping time
mighttime ofofHCB
be ten HCBdepends
times depends
faster than on
onthe the
theHCB speed
speed
ones aofmechanical
of in a mechanical
Figures switch,
switch,
31 and 32, it ishave
it isalso
and clear clear
that thatpure
this
a very this
pure SSCB
small might
peak be
fault ten times
current. faster
Simulations than
have the
beenHCB
done ones
in the in Figures
PLECS 31 and
software to
SSCB might be ten times faster than the HCB ones in Figures 31 and 32, and also have a very small 32,
check andthe also have
performance a very
smallof
peak these
peak
fault threecurrent.
fault
current. novel CBs.
SimulationsThe results
Simulations of breaking
have have
been been
donedoneprocedure
in inPLECS
the fromsoftware
the PLECS Configuration
software to1check
to check to the
Configuration
the 3 of
performance
performance
these are
of these
threeshown
three
novel in
novelFigure
CBs.CBs. 33a–c.
TheThe The
results
results overall comparison
of breaking
of breaking of
procedure
procedure these
from three
from configurations
Configuration
Configuration is described
1 to1Configuration
to Configurationin 3 are3
Table 2.
are shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 33a–c.33a–c. The overall
The overall comparison
comparison of theseofthree
theseconfigurations
three configurations
is described is described
in Table 2.in
Table 2.

(a) (b)

Figure 33. Cont.

(a) (b)
Energies 2017, 10, 495 19 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 19 of 25

(c)
Figure 33. Simulation results of breaking procedure of Configuration 1, 2 and 3: (a) Configuration 1;
Figure 33. Simulation results of breaking procedure of Configuration 1, 2 and 3: (a) Configuration 1;
(b) Configuration 2; (c) Configuration 3.
(b) Configuration 2; (c) Configuration 3.
Table 2. Overall summary of the proposed CB configurations with brief comparisons.
Table 2. Overall summary of the proposed CB configurations with brief comparisons.
Type Configuration 1 (HCB) Configuration 2 (HCB) Configuration 3 (SSCB)
Power loss Lowest Low Low with thyristor
Typeclear time
Total Configuration
About 5.5 1 ms
(HCB) Configuration
About 6.5 ms 2 (HCB) Configuration
Less than 0.4 ms3 (SSCB)
Power
Peakloss
current Lowest
About 15.7 kA AboutLow 15.8 kA Low with
About 1470 thyristor
A
Carry Icu for milliseconds Carry Icu for milliseconds,
Total clear time FMS About 5.5 ms About 6.5 ms Less
N/Athan 0.4 ms
and break no need to break
Peak current SMS About N/A15.7 kA About N/A15.8 kA Carry 10 × InAbout
, no need 1470 A
to break
Component Carry I milliseconds
for Carry I cu for
formilliseconds
milliseconds, Carry 10 × In for microseconds
SAS
FMS Carry Icu forcu Carry Icu N/A
features milliseconds and break no need to break and break
Component Carry Icu for milliseconds
SMS
STS N/A
N/A N/A Carry
Carry1010× × IInnand
, nobreak
need to break
features and break
Capacitor Carry
Large Icucapacitor
film for Large Carry 10 × In for microseconds
SAS Carry Icufilm
for capacitor
milliseconds N/A
milliseconds Low on-state loss Ultra-fastand break
switching
Advantages Lowest on-state loss
No arc for FMS
Carry Icu for milliseconds Acceptable on-state loss
STS LargeN/A
film capacitor Largerandfilmbreak
capacitor Carry 10 × In and break
Disadvantages Complex structure
Large MOV arrestor Higher turn-off time
Capacitor Large film capacitor Large film capacitor N/A
Low on-state loss Ultra-fast switching
It is shown in Table 2 that
Advantages Configuration
Lowest on-state loss 2 suffers from even larger capacitor needs, and accurate
No arc for FMS Acceptable on-state loss
FMS trip delay time information is needed to avoid STS overvoltage. Therefore, Configuration 1 (as
Large film capacitor Larger film capacitor
HCB) and Configuration 3Large
Disadvantages (as SSCB) are recommended
MOV arrestor
as the proper configuration
Higher turn-off time
Complex forstructure
CB design.
With Configuration 3, symmetrical thyristors could be easily applied to achieve acceptable power
losses.
It is shown in gives
Figure 34 Tablea2case
thatstudy
Configuration 2 suffers
(experimental from
results) evencurrent
of peak larger comparison
capacitor needs, andtime
and clear accurate
FMS comparison
trip delay time
for HCBinformation
(similar to is needed to avoid
Configuration 1) and STS
SSCBovervoltage. Therefore, 3).
(similar to Configuration Configuration
In Figure 1
34a, about
(as HCB) 7.8 ms are needed
and Configuration as total
3 (as SSCB)clear
aretime, which mainly
recommended asdepends on the
the proper trip time of the
configuration for CB
mechanical
design. switch. The peak
With Configuration current can goes
3, symmetrical up to about
thyristors 570 A
could befor 150 Aapplied
easily tripping.toInachieve
Figure 34b, the
acceptable
total clear
power losses. time is less than 1 ms, and the peak current is just about 150 A. Figure 35 shows the
quantitative comparison of total clear time as a further comparison of HCB and SSCB. The ultra-high
Figure 34 gives a case study (experimental results) of peak current comparison and clear
speed switching is advantageous in peak fault current, total clear time and also equipment non-
time comparison for HCB (similar to Configuration 1) and SSCB (similar to Configuration 3).
destruction rate.
In Figure 34a, about 7.8 ms are needed as total clear time, which mainly depends on the trip
time of the mechanical switch. The peak current can goes up to about 570 A for 150 A tripping.
In Figure 34b, the total clear time is less than 1 ms, and the peak current is just about 150 A. Figure 35
shows the quantitative comparison of total clear time as a further comparison of HCB and SSCB.
The ultra-high speed switching is advantageous in peak fault current, total clear time and also
equipment non-destruction rate.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 20 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 20 of 25
Energies 2017, 10, 495 20 of 25

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 34. Comparison of experimental current waveforms at 150 A tripping: (a) HCB; (b) SSCB.
Figure 34. Comparison of experimental current waveforms at 150 A tripping: (a) HCB; (b) SSCB.
Figure 34. Comparison of experimental current waveforms at 150 A tripping: (a) HCB; (b) SSCB.

Figure
Figure Comparison
35.35.
Figure Comparisonof
35.Comparison ofHCB
of and
HCB and
HCB SSCB:Total
and SSCB:
SSCB: Total
Total clear
clear
clear time.
time.
time.

3.3. SummaryofofSemiconductor
SemiconductorDevices
DevicesininCB
3.3.
3.3. SummarySummary
of Semiconductor Devices in CBCB Applications
Applications
Applications
A case study of semiconductor device in basic SSCB/HCB and three novel configurations is
A case A study
case study
of 3. of semiconductor
semiconductor device inbasic
basic SSCB/HCB
SSCB/HCB and three novel configurations is
shown in Table For a basic SSCB,device
by usingina SiC MOSFET with third and three
quadrant novel configurations
operation (the same is
shown in Table 3. For a basic SSCB, by using a SiC MOSFET with third quadrant operation (the same
shown inasTable 3. For arectification),
synchronous basic SSCB,the bypower
usingloss
a SiCmay MOSFET
be reducedwith third
to an quadrant
acceptable operation
value. (the same
SiC bipolar
as synchronous rectification), the power loss may be reduced to an acceptable value. SiC bipolar
as synchronous rectification),
junction transistor theSiC
(BJT) and power loss
junction may
gate be reduced
field-effect to an
transistor acceptable
(JFET) value.
have similar SiC bipolar
switching
junction transistor (BJT) and SiC junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET) have similar switching
junction and conducting
transistor (BJT)features
and as as SiC
SiC MOSFETs.
junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET) have similar switching and
and conducting features SiC MOSFETs.
conducting features as SiC MOSFETs.
Table 3. Device examples for 360V DC LV circuit breaker designs.
Table 3. Device examples for 360V DC LV circuit breaker designs.
3. Device Si SiC
Table
Semiconductor Type Thyristorexamples for 360V DC
GTO MCTLV circuit
IGBTbreaker designs.
Si SiC
Semiconductor Type Thyristor GTO MCT IGBT MOSFET MOSFET/BJT/JFET
VS- SMCTTA6 NGTB40N MOSFET
AUIRFSA8 MOSFET/BJT/JFET
Example part number VS- DGT304RE SMCTTA6 NGTB40N Si
AUIRFSA8 C2M0040120D
SiC
Semiconductor Type ST1200C12K0P
Thyristor GTO 5N14A10
MCT 120SWG
IGBT 409-7P
Example part number DGT304RE MOSFET C2M0040120D
MOSFET/BJT/JFET
Rated voltage ST1200C12K0P
1200 V 1300 V 5N14A10
1400 V 120SWG
1200 V 409-7P
40 V 1200 V
Rated voltage
Rated 1200
1100VA 1300
390 V 1400
65 AV
SMCTTA65 1200
40 AV
NGTB40N 40 A
AUIRFSA V 1200AV
Example partcurrent
number VS-ST1200C12K0P DGT304REA 370 40
C2M0040120D
Rated current
Pulsed current 1100
25.7A kA 390 A
4 kA N14A10
65
6 kAA 120SWG
40 A
200 A 8409-7P
370 A
1440 16040AA
Pulsed
Reverse
Rated current
blocking
voltage 25.7 kA
Yes
1200 V 4 Yes
kA V
1300 6 No
1400kAV 200
NoA
1200 V 1440
NoVA
40 160
No A
1200 V
Reverse blocking
Loss parameters Yes
1.3 V Yes
2.0 V NoV
1.2 NoV
2.4 0.5No
mΩ 40 mΩNo
Rated current 1100 A 390 A 65 A 40 A 370 A 40 A
Basic
Loss SSCB
parameters SMS ×
1.3 V 2.0√V 1.2×V 2.4√ V 0.5×mΩ 40√ mΩ
Pulsed current
Configuration
Basic SSCB 1 SMSSAS 25.7
× √kA 4√kA
√ 6 kA
×× 200 ×√ A 1440×× A 160× √A
Reverse blocking
Configuration 1 SASSTS √ ×
Yes √×
Yes No×× No× √
No× ×
No ×
Configuration 2
SAS
STS × √V ×√ V × ×× ×√ ××
Loss parameters
Configuration 2 1.3 2.0 1.2× V 2.4 V 0.5 mΩ 40 mΩ
SMS
SAS √√ √
√√ ×√ √×× ×× ×√×
Basic
Configuration 3 SMS
SSCB STS × ×× ×
SMS √√× ×
√√ √ ×× √× ××
Configuration
Configuration 13 SAS
SAS
STS ×× ×√ ××× ×√× ×
×√ ×××
√
SAS
STS ×× √× ×
× × √ × ××
Configuration 2 √
ThyrisorsSAS are good devices as SAS in √
Configuration
× 1 and Configuration
× 2 because of their
× × high
pulse current.are
Thyrisors Compared
good with
√ as
devices GTOSASand
in MOS-controlled
√ thyristors
√ 1 and
Configuration (MCTs), 2thyristors
Configuration because may
of be the
their
SMS × × × high
best choice
pulse current.
Configuration 3 for SMS
Comparedin Configuration
with 3 with the lowest
GTO and MOS-controlled on-state loss.
thyristors √
(MCTs), thyristors may be the
STS × × × × ×
best choice for SMS in Configuration 3 with√the lowest on-state loss. √
SAS × × × ×

Thyrisors are good devices as SAS in Configuration 1 and Configuration 2 because of their high
pulse current. Compared with GTO and MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs), thyristors may be the best
choice for SMS in Configuration 3 with the lowest on-state loss.
Energies 2017, 10, 495 21 of 25

4. Future Trends and Challenges for Semiconductor Devices in CB

In future, semiconductor devices will be widely used in circuit breaker applications, thus
forming a fundamental part of any intelligent power grid. There are three future trends for power
semiconductor devices.

4.1. HCB for HVDC or MVDC: Very High Power

In HVDC or MVDC systems, hybrid circuit breakers will be used with the help of semiconductor
power devices, as shown in Figure 17. CBs will consist of SMS, FMS, SAS, STS, MOV and so on.
Therefore, low-voltage Si MOSFET/IGBT will be used as STS, and Si thyristor/IGBT/IGCT/GTO will
be working as SAS. The performance of HVDC/MVDC hybrid circuit breakers will mainly depend on
the switching speed of mechanical switches.
As for discussion for WBG devices in HVDC/MVDC, for low-voltage STS, the voltage rating may
be only tens of volts. Therefore, a SiC MOSFET may be not a good choice with a voltage rating higher
than 600 V. With the future development of 15 kV SiC MOSFETs or SiC IGBTs, these two kinds of WBG
devices may be possible choices as SAS for HVDC/MVDC, but series-connection is still needed for
high voltage ratings. As switching speed and power loss of HVDC/MVDC circuit breaker are not the
priority issue, Si thyristor/IGBT/IGCT/GTOs will not become obsolete in the next ten years.

4.2. SSCB for Medium Power: Very High Speed

Pure solid-state circuit breakers will be used for medium power applications for MV/LV medium
power systems with the construction of SMS (thyristor) plus STS. Fast switching in microseconds of
SSCB in medium power conditions could be achieved, with acceptable power loss of the circuit breaker
part, as shown in Figure 32. Regarding WBG devices in medium power systems, as the cost of MV SiC
devices could be quite expensive, and the conducting loss of SiC devices is not much lower than that
of symmetrical Si thyristors, so there are few potential uses for SiC devices in medium power high
speed circuit breakers.

4.3. SSCB for Low Voltage: Ultra High Speed Switching or Multi-Functional
For low power LV applications, pure solid-state circuit breakers will be used with WBG devices,
as shown in Figure 20:

(a) Ultra-high-speed switching with SiC devices or GaN devices;

(b) Current-limitation capability with WBG devices with higher junction temperature;
(c) Integration of multi-functional operation for intelligent solid-state circuit breakers.

Concerning WBG devices in ultra-high speed low voltage circuit breakers, for low voltages of
less than 1.2 kV, SiC MOSFET and GaN high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) will certainly be
widely used. The device selection will be basically based on the voltage rating of the applications.
With low-inductance low-voltage DC applications, traditional MOV protection devices may be not
necessary, considering the extended avalanche breakdown capability of WBG devices. Therefore the
weight and dimensions will be reduced even further.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, a review of the current status of SSCB/HCB is first discussed. Increasing amounts
of semiconductor devices are being used in SSCB and HCB. SSSC, with no additional heat, controllable
current and low current total harmonic distortion (THD), may be a good choice for high performance
circuit breakers. Basic SSCB and HCB configurations are investigated with fast-switching analysis and
experimental comparisons between SiC MOSFETs and Si IGBTs. Novel control methods, including
current limiting with PWM and gate voltage control are described and verified with simulations. It is
obvious that with WBG semiconductor devices, basic SSCB and HCB will achieve better performance
Energies 2017, 10, 495 22 of 25

with higher switching speed and lower system size (lower heat dissipation requirements). Three novel
circuit breaker configurations (HCB with capacitor, HCB with STS and capacitor, SSCB with STS and
thyristor as SMS) are put forward to further improve the performance of SSCB and HCB. The novel
SSCB configuration with STS and thyristor as SMS, with ultra-fast switching speed (microseconds)
and acceptable on-state power loss, may be a great choice for medium voltage systems.
In the future, SSCB and HCB with semiconductor devices will be very powerful choices for
HVDC/MVDC systems, offering very high speed for medium power low-voltage systems and
ultra-high speed switching or multi-functional for low-voltage low power intelligent power grids.
WBG semiconductor switching devices will thus win a place in the future circuit breaker family.

Author Contributions: Chunyang Gu, Alan J. Watson and Francis Effah conceived and designed the experiments;
Chunyang Gu performed the experiments; Chunyang Gu analyzed the data; Pat Wheeler, Alberto Castellazzi and
Alan J. Watson contributed analysis tools and English correction; Chunyang Gu and Francis Effah wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
ABB ASEA Brown Boveri Limited Company
AC Alternating current
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
CB Circuit breaker
CL Current-limiting
CL-CB Current-limiting circuit breaker
DC Direct current
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
FCLID Fault-current limiting and interrupting device
FDS Fast-opening disconnecting switch
FMS Fast mechanical switch
FTS Fast-opening transfer switch
GaN Gallium nitride
GTO Gate turn-off thyristor
HCB Hybrid circuit breaker
HCLID Hybrid current-limiting interrupting device
HEMT High-electron-mobility transistor
HSS High speed switch
HVDC High-voltage direct-current
IGBT Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
IGCT Integrated gate-commutated thyristor
JFET Junction gate field-effect transistor
L-C Inductor-capacitor
LCS Line commutation switch
LS Load switch
LV Low voltage
MCB Mechanical circuit breaker
MCCB molded-case circuit breaker
MCT MOS-controlled thyristor
MD Mechanical disconnector
MOS Metal oxide semiconductor
MOSFET Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
MOV Metal oxide varistor
MV Medium voltage
MVDC Medium-voltage direct-current
PTC Positive temperature coefficient
p.u. Per-unit
Energies 2017, 10, 495 23 of 25

PWM Pulse-width modulation

RC Resistor-capacitor
RCD Resistor-capacitor-diode
RMS Root mean square
SAS Semiconductor accessary switch
SFCL Superconductor fault current limiter
Si Silicon
SiC Silicon carbide
SMS Semiconductor main switch
SPICE Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis
SSCB Solid-state circuit breaker
SSFCL Solid state fault current limiting
SSSC Static synchronous series compensator
STATCOM Static synchronous compensator
STS Semiconductor transfer switch
THD Total harmonic distortion
WBG Wide-band-gap
ZCS Zero current switching
ZnO Zinc oxide

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