Book Reviews 905

(or agency) does not by itself decisively establish that point—as if the term alone
made the difference. In this sense A Nation of Agents will likely prove to be more
valuable for some of the separate sections that comprise it, especially those in
which it engages with specific arguments that disciplines have shaped, than for
providing a comprehensive view of American character/culture or for advancing
a very general thesis about our ever-changing nation.

doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfi088 John F. Wilson

Princeton University

Give Me That Online Religion. By Brenda E. Brasher. Rutgers University

Press, 2004. 203 pages. $21.95.

Religion on the Internet is a significant cultural phenomenon for a number

of reasons. First, it appeared online shortly after the development of the
MODEM program in 1978. In fact one of the first bulletin board systems (BBS)
developed had an active religion and spirituality section called ORIGINS.
Second, the appearance of religion on the Internet, particularly as early as 1978,
challenges traditional secularization paradigms that argue that religious partici-
pation and activity will decline with the advent of modernity and the develop-
ment of new technologies. Finally, online religious participation and activity has
been increasing at an incredible rate. In the year 2000 more people were using
the Internet for religious and spiritual reasons than were using the medium for
online banking or online dating services. In 2003 the Pew Internet and American
Life Project found that 64% of wired Americans have used the Internet for reli-
gious and spiritual purposes.
Brenda Brasher provides an early reflection upon this new shift in religious
activity and representation. Her work, Give Me That Online Religion, was among
the first books to explore this phenomenon. Originally published in 2001, it has
been republished by Rutgers University Press in a paperback edition with a new
preface in 2004. The goal of Brasher’s publication was twofold. The first aspect
explored the nature of online religious representation, attempting to ascertain
“how and why people access the Internet for religious and spiritual activity, and
the significance of this for the future of religion as well as the future of the Inter-
net” (ix). The second agenda of the publication was more controversial, and that
was to argue that online religion is an “integral part of our global future” and
something that should be “protected and supported” (11).
In the book Brasher approaches the study of religion on the Internet from an
ethnographic perspective. Her work is a compilation of personal reflections on
the developing medium, stories of early religion and Internet use, and interviews
of online religious participants. Each chapter in the book presents a different
aspect concerning the connection between religion and computer-mediated
communications and then explores some of the implications of this new
relationship.
906 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

One of the greatest difficulties in writing about the developing social aspect
of the Internet is keeping pace with its rapid changes. These changes occur in
two ways. First, the technology continues to develop. Computers have become
more powerful, broadband networks have expanded, and online interactivity
and virtual reality environments are increasing. Each of these developments in
technology affects the online world. The second significant change comes from
those studying the impact this technology has on our culture. “Internet Studies”
is a subdiscipline of a number of fields, and there is an enormous amount of
valuable work being presented on this topic. This is an issue for Brasher’s book,
since it was most likely written in 1999. Although there are two bibliographic
references from early 2000, it does feel out of touch with the developments of the
last five years. To compensate, Brasher provides a preface to the publication but
tries to present too much information in a relatively short space. This makes the
addition apologetic by introducing several new issues related to online religious
activity that she does not address in the publication. One of the most significant
shortcomings of the preface is a brief mention of the theoretical work of Erving
Goffman. Although she states the “dramaturgical approach to self-presentation
can be a useful tool in the effort to critically evaluate online religion” (xiii), she
does not explain how it is useful or what advantage could be gained by develop-
ing Goffman’s theories.
The preface provided by Brasher also has a weakness in that it does not
mention any of the substantial developments in the study of religion on the
Internet that have occurred since the year 2000. One of the most important was
the volume edited by Jeffery K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, Religion on the
Internet: Research Prospects and Promises (JAI Press, 2000). There have also been
two international conferences (University of Copenhagen in 2001 and Univer-
sity of Heidelberg in 2004), several dissertations, a number of journal articles,
and the recent edited volume by Lorne Dawson and Douglas E. Cowan, Religion
Online: Finding Faith on the Internet (Routledge, 2004). Suffice to say, there have
been a significant number of developments in this field that do not influence
Brasher’s book.
Give Me That Online Religion is a descriptive and reflexive work that pro-
vides several valuable insights but also contains methodological problems. One
key issue concerns a working definition for “online religion.” Although the book
is based upon this phenomenon, Brasher does not clearly set out what consti-
tutes this category. At times she refers to “online religion” from a substantive
perspective, describing it as a particular set of beliefs or spiritual representations;
in other cases she recognizes “online religion” as an activity.
Brasher begins the book by classifying online religion as a “crucial contem-
porary cultural outlet for our meaning heritage of the past” (6) but quickly shifts
to a functional classification stating, “it is helpful to keep in mind that online
religion is a type of spiritual activity made possible by the popularization of new
media technologies” (13). However, as the book develops, she uses the category
in a number of ways and is never explicitly clear if online religion represents
“doing” religion on the Internet or using the Internet to get, or provide, religious and
spiritual information. Her framework compensates by developing subcategories of
 Book Reviews 907

classification such as “online traditional religion” (42), “online religious practi-

tioners” (69), and even recognizing online religion as “an emergent expression
of public values” (142); but without a clear definition it is at times difficult to
follow her argument. This becomes problematic when examining her case stud-
ies. For example, David uses the Internet to get information about a Catholic
Order and a monastic retreat. Brasher argues that in this case, “online religion
simply provided novel access to a traditional religious practice,” and “online
religion functioned as a sign; it pointed to but did not contain sacred meaning”
(72). However, this view is contradicted when Brasher claims “online religion is
a consequential spiritual practice” (69), and people “find or seek out online reli-
gion, valuing it because it meets a pressing spiritual need” (71).
As an early examination of religion on the Internet, Brasher displays much
of the cyber-enthusiasm that was prevalent at that time. However, to Brasher’s
credit, she was one of the few people studying this phenomenon to temper her
enthusiasm of the new communication technology with practical fears and
concerns. In particular, she recognized the impact that commercialism was
having on website content, issues of censorship and the impact of the digital
divide, and also the blurred boundaries that were beginning to appear in rela-
tion to online religion and online entertainment. However, Brasher does argue
that online religious participation is something that should be embraced,
encouraged, and enjoyed as a legitimate religious experience. This gives the
impression that online religion is becoming the be all and end all of religion in
the next millennium. “The imaginative energy of this new medium is fueling a
new dimension in religious practice and thought. Rushing toward us, online
religion crashes against the shoals of more traditional religious ideas and
practices . . . Given that outrunning a tidal wave is never an option, the best
possibility open to us may be to run toward the wave, to leap into its force and
surf its energies to a new shore. If so, we may find that surfing spiritual change
is exhilarating, frightening, and slightly dangerous. It may even be fun. Regard-
less, in this case it is a necessary skill, given our techno-cultural circumstances”
(44). Despite the recommendation, there are individuals and groups that
believe the Internet medium cannot facilitate authentic religious and spiritual
experiences. This is a complicated and difficult issue, since even within the
same tradition, including Wicca, there are people who support online religious
practice and others who do not. This situation demonstrates how problematical
studying religion on the Internet can be and why significant research needs to
continue to be undertaken on this topic.
When Give Me That Online Religion was published in 2001, the Christian
Science Monitor recognized it as one of the top ten books of the year, and it
remains an important introductory study of online religious participation and
activity. Brasher’s strengths come from her case studies and interviews, and also
her work on our cyborg nature. Chapter Seven “Existential Doubt, or Does a
Cyborg Have a Soul?” is a creative and insightful exploration of the relationship
between ourselves, computer technology, and religion—as strange as it sounds,
this is a relationship that exists for a significant portion of our society and some-
thing that will become more prevalent as the Internet expands as a cultural tool.
908 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

Give Me That Online Religion remains an essential read for anyone interested
in exploring the phenomenon of religion on the Internet, but I also believe it is
time for Brasher to revise her work and publish Give Me More of That Online
Religion. There have been too many developments for her not to present us with
a new and updated exploration of the religious dimension of our Internet
culture.

doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfi089 Christopher Helland

Gorsebrook Research Institute

Public Vision, Private Lives: Rousseau, Religion, and 21st-Century

Democracy. By Mark S. Cladis. Oxford University Press, 2003. 298 pages.
$49.95.

Few thinkers have written as beautifully or as controversially as Jean-Jacques

Rousseau. In his extensive study of the often overlooked theological voice in
Rousseau, Mark S. Cladis reveals a man torn between his allegiance to the opti-
mism of the Enlightenment and the pessimism of Augustinianism. Cladis uses
the public–private dichotomy to illustrate the tensions in Rousseau’s thought as
well as the brilliance of Rousseau’s social prescriptions. The State of Nature
becomes the Garden inhabited by Rousseau’s Solitaires, content but unable to
experience love. The movement to society is humanity’s Fall, and Rousseau’s
hope for a different social arrangement emerges as four paths to Redemption.
Cladis sees more divergence between Rousseau’s texts as he highlights religion’s
role in a rich, democratic, pluralistic society.
In his discussion of the Fall Cladis walks us through the seven stages of the
journey from our idyllic solitary existence in the Garden to our alienated depen-
dency within Society. These stages emerge from Cladis’s reading of the Discourse
on the Origin of Inequality, and, although not explicitly presented as stages by
Rousseau, Cladis makes a compelling case to see them as such.
In the Garden the Solitaires enjoy a simple existence with few needs; their
self-sufficiency leaves them free from the pains of association. However, because
they are alone, the inhabitants of the Garden cannot be truly happy (51). The
first stage of the Fall occurs when something in the Garden changes—“the occa-
sional drought or severe winter” (52)—and forces the Solitaires to develop tools
to assist in their sustenance. They then begin to reflect and experience the pride
that comes from differentiation from animals.
Next the Solitaires form simple associations to accomplish tasks. Although
initially transitory, these associations increase in frequency and mutual trust.
Language follows as a requirement of amplified interdependence.
Families form, a gender division of labor appears, and property becomes
privatized in the third stage of the Fall. “With the introduction of family units,
sleeping under ‘the first tree’ is no longer satisfactory, giving rise to the first huts;
with the huts appears a distinction between the private domestic space for