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EDITION
The
DISSERTATION
Journey
A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to
CAROL M. ROBERTS
CORWIN
A S A G E Company
Copyright © 2010 by Carol M. Roberts
All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their use is
authorized only by educators, local school sites, a n d / o r noncommercial or nonprofit
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permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
www.corwin.com
Roberts, Carol M.
The dissertation journey : a practical and comprehensive guide to planning, writing,
and defending your dissertation / Carol M. Roberts. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-7798-2 (pbk.)
1. Doctor of education degree—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Dissertations,
Academic—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Report writing—Handbooks, manuals,
etc. I. Title.
LB1742.R63 2010
808'.066378—dc22 2010020319
10 11 12 13 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
F o r e w o r d viii
Kenneth R. Stevenson
N e w to T h i s E d i t i o n χ
Preface xii
A N o t e to D o c t o r a l C a n d i d a t e s xiv
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s xvi
A b o u t t h e A u t h o r xviii
P A R T I: Q U E S T S A N D Q U E S T I O N S 1
1. D o Y o u H a v e W h a t It Takes? 2
W h y Take T h i s J o u r n e y ? 2
D o You H a v e W h a t It Takes to J o u r n e y to the P e a k ? 4
A v o i d i n g the H a z a r d s o f H i g h - A l t i t u d e C l i m b i n g 5
Procrastination 6
E m o t i o n a l Barriers 10
Writer's Block 11
W h a t A r e the Inner Essentials? 13
Summary 17
2. W h a t Exactly Is a D i s s e r t a t i o n ? 18
W h a t Is a D o c t o r a l Dissertation? 18
Typical Dissertation Structure 20
Studies U s i n g Q u a n t i t a t i v e M e t h o d o l o g y : S a m p l e F o r m a t 21
Studies U s i n g Qualitative M e t h o d o l o g y : S a m p l e F o r m a t 21
Alternative F o r m a t s 22
C o m p o n e n t s o f a Typical Dissertation 22
Major S t e p s in the Dissertation P r o c e s s 26
R o l e s a n d Responsibilities 29
Summary 30
3. W h a t A r e the Ethical C o n s i d e r a t i o n s in R e s e a r c h ? 31
Institutional R e v i e w B o a r d s 32
Rights of H u m a n Subjects 33
Ethical Issues in D a t a Collection 36
Ethical Issues in D a t a A n a l y s i s a n d Interpretation 38
P A R T II: P R E P A R I N G F O R T H E C L I M B 45
4. C h o o s i n g a D i s s e r t a t i o n Topic 46
A p p r o a c h e s to C h o o s i n g a Topic 46
W h e r e to L o o k for Potential Topics 47
S o m e Criteria for Topic S e l e c t i o n 49
Replication Studies 51
Replication Studies D o s a n d D o n ' t s 52
Summary 52
5. C r e a t i n g Your D i s s e r t a t i o n T e a m 53
P e a k Principle: A l w a y s C l i m b Fully E q u i p p e d 53
Selecting a Dissertation A d v i s o r 54
Selecting the C o m m i t t e e 55
The Care and Nurture of Advisors and
Committee Members 56
H o w to A p p r o a c h a Potential A d v i s o r 59
W h a t If N o O n e A g r e e s to B e Your A d v i s o r ? 60
C h o o s i n g Outfitters a n d Bearers
(Other Specialized C o n s u l t a n t s ) 60
W h e r e to L o c a t e Specialists 61
Summary 62
6. Dissertation S u p p o r t G r o u p s 63
Critical D e c i s i o n s 64
Strategies a n d Structures o f Successful S u p p o r t G r o u p s 64
Other Considerations 66
Summary 66
7. O r g a n i z i n g Y o u r s e l f 67
O r g a n i z e Your W o r k s p a c e 67
O r g a n i z e Your T i m e 68
Working Smart 70
Maintain Balance 72
Strategies for G e t t i n g a Life W h i l e Dissertating 73
Summary 74
P A R T I I I : B E G I N N I N G T H E C L I M B 75
8. U s i n g t h e I n t e r n e t a n d T e c h n o l o g y to C o n d u c t R e s e a r c h 76
C o n d u c t i n g Literature S e a r c h e s 77
O t h e r Helpful T e c h n o l o g y 80
U s i n g the Internet for D a t a C o l l e c t i o n 81
U s i n g Y o u r L i b r a r y ' s Electronic S e a r c h C a p a b i l i t y 82
U s i n g Y o u r Instructional T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r 82
Additional Online Resources 82
Tips to K e e p Y o u S a n e a n d P r o d u c t i v e 82
Summary 84
9. R e v i e w i n g t h e L i t e r a t u r e 85
Purpose and Scope 86
Preparation 88
Steps in C o n d u c t i n g a Literature R e v i e w 88
T e c h n i q u e s for Writing t h e Literature R e v i e w 106
A d v i c e o n Writing a Literature R e v i e w 107
Literature R e v i e w C h e c k l i s t 109
Summary 110
10. M a s t e r i n g t h e A c a d e m i c S t y l e 111
Qualities o f S c h o l a r l y Writing 111
C o m m o n Writing P r o b l e m s 113
Tips for G o o d Writing 114
Useful Verbs 120
Further Reading 120
Helpful Websites 120
Summary 121
P A R T I V : C L I M B I N G T O B A S E C A M P 122
11. W r i t i n g t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n 123
Problem Statement 124
Theoretical or C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k 129
Purpose Statement 134
Research Questions/Hypotheses 136
Significance o f the S t u d y 137
Delimitations 138
Assumptions 139
Definition o f Terms 139
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the S t u d y 140
Summary 140
12. Selecting a n d D e s c r i b i n g t h e M e t h o d o l o g y 141
Selecting the M e t h o d o l o g y 141
Further R e a d i n g 146
D e s c r i b i n g the M e t h o d o l o g y 148
D a t a Collection P r o c e d u r e s 157
Data Analysis 158
Limitations 162
Checklist o f E l e m e n t s to I n c l u d e in the
P A R T V: F I N A L P R E P A R A T I O N S F O R T H E P E A K 170
14. A n a l y z i n g a n d P r e s e n t i n g t h e R e s u l t s 171
U n d e r s t a n d i n g the D a t a 172
Writing the Introductory P a r a g r a p h 173
Tables a n d the N a r r a t i v e D e s c r i p t i o n 173
Presenting the F i n d i n g s 174
Further R e a d i n g 176
Summary 176
PART VI: F I N A L A S C E N T A N D
17. T h e N e x t P e a k 192
The Descent 192
Letting D o w n 193
Mount Analogue 193
Helping Others 194
Mentoring 194
Disseminating Your Study's Findings 194
Summary 198
Parting T h o u g h t s 199
A p p e n d i x A: S a m p l e D i s s e r t a t i o n T i m e l i n e — G a n t t C h a r t 200
A p p e n d i x B: S o u r c e of D a t a C h a r t 201
A p p e n d i x C: S a m p l e P a r t i c i p a n t Letter a n d Q u e s t i o n n a i r e 203
A p p e n d i x D: S a m p l e T a b l e — P r e s e n t i n g the R e s u l t s 210
A p p e n d i x E: D i s s e r t a t i o n C o n t e n t C h e c k l i s t 211
Bibliography 217
Index 222
Foreword
vlii
Foreword ix
Kenneth R. Stevenson
Professor, D e p a r t m e n t o f
E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p a n d Policies
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h Carolina
N e w to This Edition
I a m v e r y p l e a s e d to h a v e the o p p o r t u n i t y to w r i t e a s e c o n d edition of
m y b o o k , The Dissertation Journey: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide
to Planning, Writing, and Defending Your Dissertation. T h i s u p d a t e d a n d
e x p a n d e d edition includes n o t o n l y n e w information that is vital to n a v
igating the dissertation process, it also includes an e x p a n s i o n o f previ
ous topics for greater clarity a n d utility.
N e w features a d d e d to this s e c o n d edition include the following:
1. A n e w c h a p t e r t i t l e d " W h a t A r e t h e E t h i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n
R e s e a r c h ? " In this chapter, I discuss the central ethical issues
i n v o l v e d in c o n d u c t i n g research relative to h u m a n rights, data
collection, d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d interpretation, r e s p e c t for t h e
research site, writing, a n d disseminating the research.
2. N e w i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s , i m p o r t a n c e , a n d p u r p o s e
o f d e v e l o p i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l or c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k . It includes
responses to questions such as, " W h a t is a c o n c e p t u a l or theoret
ical f r a m e w o r k ? " " H o w d o e s a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k differ from
a theoretical f r a m e w o r k ? " " W h y d o y o u n e e d a c o n c e p t u a l or the
oretical f r a m e w o r k ? " a n d " H o w d o y o u find a c o n c e p t u a l or the
o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k ? " A l s o p r o v i d e d a r e e x a m p l e s from
dissertations for greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
3. A c o m p l e t e l y r e v i s e d a n d u p d a t e d c h a p t e r titled " U s i n g t h e
I n t e r n e t a n d T e c h n o l o g y to C o n d u c t R e s e a r c h . " Since m o r e and
m o r e researchers u s e the Internet and technology for all phases of
dissertation writing, I incorporated in this second edition n e w w e b -
b a s e d technologies. N e w information about search engines, evalu
ating websites, and social n e t w o r k i n g o n the w e b is also included.
4. A c o m p l e t e l y r e v i s e d a n d e x p a n d e d c h a p t e r o n r e v i e w i n g t h e
literature. I e x p a n d e d the steps in c o n d u c t i n g a literature r e v i e w
÷
New to This Edition xi
5. A t h o r o u g h u p d a t e of all w e b s i t e s a n d r e f e r e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g
n e w e d i t i o n s of w o r k s .
Preface
Candidates
xiv
A Note to Doctoral Candidates xv
N o o n e c l i m b s a h i g h m o u n t a i n alone. E x p e r i e n c e a n d expertise,
s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t are all n e e d e d . I a m i n d e b t e d to many-
p e o p l e w h o p r o v i d e d these necessities, w h i c h h e l p e d m a k e this b o o k a
reality. I a m m o s t appreciative o f the assistance a n d contributions o f m y
p r o f e s s i o n a l c o l l e a g u e s in the U n i v e r s i t y o f L a V e r n e ' s D o c t o r a l
P r o g r a m in O r g a n i z a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , w i t h w h o m I h a v e w o r k e d for
the past 22 years. T h e y freely share their w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e , from
w h i c h I learn so m u c h .
I w o u l d like to acknowledge and thank Drs. William Bearley, Donald
Clague, J a m e s C o x , T h o m a s Harvey, William Paulo, and Barbara Peterson.
T h r o u g h their insightful presentations at doctoral seminars, faculty
exchanges, and personal coaching, they provided foundational information
on preparing the core chapters of the dissertation (Chapters 1 through 5).
M a n y of the ideas expressed in these five sections of the b o o k encapsulate
the collective w i s d o m of these talented individuals, w h o , over the years,
contributed greatly to the quality of our doctoral program and to m y o w n
intellectual growth and development.
I also give special t h a n k s to M a r y T o w n s e n d , D o n n a Bentley, C l i v e
H o u s t o n B r o w n , D o n a l d H a y s , a n d L a r r y K e m p e r , w h o p r o v i d e d feed
b a c k a n d constructive s u g g e s t i o n s for i m p r o v i n g this w o r k . F o r the sec
o n d edition, I w i s h to t h a n k D o n n a Bentley, Librarian at the U n i v e r s i t y
of L a Verne, for h e r v a l u a b l e help in revising a n d u p d a t i n g the Internet
and t e c h n o l o g y resources. I also appreciate the s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e
m e n t to p u r s u e this project g i v e n b y D r s . B a r b a r a Poling, D e p a r t m e n t
Chair, a n d L e o n a r d Pellicer, D e a n o f the C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n a n d
Organizational L e a d e r s h i p at the U n i v e r s i t y o f L a Verne.
I also w a n t to t h a n k those doctoral students w h o m I h a v e h a d the
privilege o f instructing—and particularly those w h o invited m e to chair
their dissertations a n d serve o n their committees. T h e y helped m e u n d e r
stand the unique challenges associated with conducting high-quality
xvi
Acknowledgments xvii
M a r t h a A. A l c o c k Larry E. Decker
Professor o f E d u c a t i o n C. S. M o t t Professor o f
Capital U n i v e r s i t y Community Education
Columbus, O H F l o r i d a Atlantic U n i v e r s i t y
Boca Raton, F L
B e t t y J. Alford
A s s o c i a t e Professor R o x a n a DeliaVecchia
S t e p h e n F. Austin State University Assistant Dean
Nacogdoches, T X College of Education, Towson
Towson, M D
Jim Allen
Professor o f E d u c a t i o n a l Sarah Edwards
Psychology A s s i s t a n t Professor
Thelma P. Lally School of Education Teacher E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t
T h e C o l l e g e o f Saint R o s e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a at
Albany, N Y Omaha
Omaha, NE
Robert B . Amenta
Director o f E d u c a t i o n Douglas Fisher
Administration A s s o c i a t e Professor
California L u t h e r a n U n i v e r s i t y S a n D i e g o State U n i v e r s i t y
Thousand Oaks, C A San Diego, C A
xviii
PART I
Quests a n d
Questions
L i v e s o f great m e n all r e m i n d us
W e c a n m a k e our lives s u b l i m e ,
A n d , departing, l e a v e b e h i n d u s
1
1
Do You Have
What It Takes?
W r i t i n g a d i s s e r t a t i o n is a p e r s o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e a n d
c a n b e a p e a k e x p e r i e n c e — o n e o f t h o s e life-fulfilling m o m e n t s .
A b r a h a m M a s l o w ( 1 9 6 8 ) referred to t h e m as " m o m e n t s o f h i g h e s t
h a p p i n e s s a n d f u l f i l l m e n t " (p. 7 3 ) a n d a d d e d , " A p e a k e x p e r i e n c e is
felt as a s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g , self-justifying m o m e n t w h i c h c a r r i e s its o w n
i n t r i n s i c v a l u e w i t h i t " (p. 7 9 ) . H e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e w o r t h o f t h e e x p e -
rience m a k e s the pain worthwhile. Robert Schuller (1980) also talked
a b o u t p e a k e x p e r i e n c e s in h i s b o o k The Peak to Peek Principle. H e
called a peak experience "an experience of success, achievement, and
accomplishment w h i c h feeds your self-esteem, w h i c h then e x p a n d s
y o u r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e " (p. 9 9 ) a n d a d d e d , " I t ' s a n e x p e r i e n c e that l e a v e s
y o u w i t h an a w a r e n e s s that y o u are m o r e t h a n y o u e v e r t h o u g h t y o u
w e r e " (p. 113).
These positive, uplifting, and inspiring words speak to the high accom-
plishment of completing a doctoral dissertation. M a n y high points and joys
happen along the dissertation journey—some simple, s o m e exhilarating.
Moments such as realizing you really do have a researchable topic, having
your proposal accepted, obtaining an acceptable questionnaire return rate,
and creative moments and intellectual
insights are all triumphs along the path. Research has revealed that the
The instant your advisor calls y o u "doc- attitude you have at the beginning of
tor," the ecstasy of walking to " P o m p and a task determines the outcome of that
Circumstance" at graduation, and w h e n task more than any other single
your doctoral hood is placed over your factor. For example, if you believe you
h e a d are self-fulfilling, unforgettable will be able to succeed at a particular
moments that m a k e the hard w o r k and undertaking and you approach the
Procrastination
To procrastinate means to put off intentionally and habitually doing
something that should be done. It is a habit that steals away some of life's
greatest opportunities, yet it is a habit most of us possess. Many books
deal with overcoming procrastination, yet we seem to either put off read-
ing them or fail to heed their advice. This habit, quite common among
dissertation students, can result in an ABD (all-but-dissertation) status
rather than an EdD or PhD. This amounts to aborting the climb to the
peak and settling for heartbreak hill. I am acutely aware of the whole
complex of dazzling excuses proffered by dissertation writers. With my
doctoral students, I found that dissertation avoidance is often elevated to
an elegant art form. Certainly, there are occasionally excellent reasons for
putting off working on your dissertation. Emergencies, interruptions
from others, and acts of God happen to
all of us from time to time. However,
Putting off an easy thing makes it
hard, and putting off a hard one
the students I worry about are those
makes it impossible. who keep themselves from starting or
continuing because they fear the
-George H. Lonmer
unknown, lack the self-confidence to
move ahead on their own, or engage in
irrational thinking, such as awfulizing. They convince themselves the
task is awful, horrible, and unbearable. But putting it off only postpones
the inevitable. It is critical that you learn to recognize those signs that
indicate you are putting off working.
There are two physical laws that apply equally well to people and
objects with regard to the habit of procrastination. They are Newton's
law of inertia and Parkinson's Law.
EXERCISE
Here is an excellent exercise to help you learn about your excuses. It was
developed by Stan Hibbs (drhibbs@drhibbs.com) and reprinted in the All-But-
Dissertation Survival Guide located at www.ecoach.com. He asks that you write
out every excuse you make for not working on your dissertation. Then write a
rebuttal for each excuse. He gives the following examples:
(Continued)
8 Quests and Questions
(Continued)
Rebuttal: My time is limited, but I can always get started and get something
done. I'll feel so much better if I do.
Rebuttal: I don't feel very excited about working on it today, but I'll feel great if
I make some progress.
Rebuttal: Yes, there are some things I could do, but that's not going to get me my
doctorate. I'll go on the errands after I make some progress today.
Once the rebuttal list is complete, write each one down on a separate 3" χ 5"
index card. Carry these cards with you to use as flash cards to memorize your
rebuttals. It's much harder to procrastinate when your excuses don't work anymore.
desk. It h e l p s j o g y o u r m e m o r y .
dissertation as a m o u n t a i n with
. . . r 11 i. ι j - j. The journey of a thousand miles
s t a i r s — a set o f s m a l l s t e p s l e a d i n g t o , . ; , .,
., τ, . . . ; . , , · . begins and ends with one step,
t h e t o p . It is i m p o r t a n t t o b r e a k it
d o w n into small, achievable goals -LaoTse
a n d t a k e it s t e p b y s t e p .
O n e strategy is to m a k e a c o n t r a c t w i t h y o u r s e l f that states specific
goals, establishes c o m p l e t i o n dates, a n d offers r e w a r d s for attaining
y o u r goals. It is i m p o r t a n t that y o u w r i t e these c o m p l e t i o n dates o n
y o u r a p p o i n t m e n t calendar. T h e r e ' s a w o n d e r f u l feeling o f exhilaration
that g o e s a l o n g w i t h a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . It g i v e s y o u a n e w b u r s t o f e n e r g y
to k e e p m o v i n g .
Procrastination s h o u l d n o t b e a p l e a s a n t e x p e r i e n c e . If y o u procras-
t i n a t e b y s o c i a l i z i n g o r g e t t i n g a c u p o f coffee, s t o p it! P r o c r a s t i n a t e
in u n p l e a s a n t c o n d i t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , l o c k y o u r s e l f in y o u r office—
n o visitors, n o coffee. W h e n t h e e n j o y m e n t g o e s away, s o will y o u r
procrastination.
5. Discipline Yourself
o v e r c o m e inertia.
-Jim Ryan, Sportsman
Emotional Barriers
Students often describe their experience o f writing the dissertation as a
roller-coaster ride, with definite ups and d o w n s associated with each phase
of the process. T h e y refer to the d o w n times as the dissertation doldrums,
where they feel discouraged, depressed, frustrated, and anxious. T h e y even
doubt their ability to complete the project. These feelings are predictable for
anyone trying to achieve a h i g h goal; however, these negative emotions can
easily overpower you. If y o u don't address them, they will immobilize you,
sap your energy, and keep y o u from achieving your goal. W h e n things go
well, y o u are elated and y o u soar o n cloud nine. These feelings of exhilara-
tion provide the m o m e n t u m to "keep o n keeping on." T h e ups and d o w n s
of dissertating—the pains and the joys—are experienced b y all writers. It's
part of the dissertation process and to b e expected. Here are s o m e strategies
to help y o u deal with the dissertation doldrums:
Writer's Block
All dissertation writers experience w r i t e r ' s b l o c k at s o m e point during
the process. It's that longing to b e a n y w h e r e b u t in front o f the computer.
W h e n this happens, everything else in y o u r life takes priority over writ
ing. Taking the d o g for a w a l k , cleaning y o u r closets, running errands,
w a s h i n g clothes, a n d e-mailing friends appear crucial. W r i t e r ' s b l o c k can
b e caused b y a n y n u m b e r o f factors: lack o f confidence, fear, time con
straints, n o outline, personal issues, frustration w i t h y o u r topic, perfec
tionism, weariness. It is important to identify the obstacles that stifle y o u r
writing. In other w o r d s , take time to fall b a c k a n d regroup. Unfortunately,
there is n o m a g i c formula to keep y o u in the writing groove, b u t here are
s o m e strategies that m i g h t help y o u keep the w o r d s flowing.
1. I o u g h t to w r i t e X b e c a u s e . . .
2. I refuse to w r i t e X b e c a u s e . . .
Commitment
Commitment is t h e w i l l i n g n e s s to d o w h a t e v e r it t a k e s to a c h i e v e
y o u r g o a l . It is o n e t h i n g to start s o m e t h i n g ; it is q u i t e s o m e t h i n g e l s e
to c o m p l e t e it. A g e n u i n e c o m m i t m e n t is a p r o m i s e y o u m a k e to
y o u r s e l f to s t i c k it o u t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e o b s t a c l e s y o u face or h o w
m a n y t i m e s y o u a r e k n o c k e d d o w n . Y o u s i m p l y g e t u p a n d p r e s s on.
14 Quests and Questions
Perseverance
Perseverance is that attribute that impels you to go on resolutely,
in spite of obstacles, criticism, adversity, fears, or tears, to overcome
the inevitable discouragement and disappointment that accompa-
nies mountainous-type projects. It means putting in the hard work
necessary to get the job done, even when you don't want to. Having
spent long, relentless hours of effort
Nothing in the world can take the over a long period of time, it's easy
place of persistence. Talent will n o t . . . to lose heart and want to quit. This
genius will n o t . . . education will is when you dig deep into your inner
not.... Persistence and determination reserves and keep going. Remember
alone are omnipotent. there is a big difference between
-Calvin Coolidge
quitting and wanting to quit. The
difference is between being ABD (all-
but-dissertation) and becoming a
doctor. High achievement is not reserved for those with innate tal-
ent or high IQs. It is dependent on desire and perseverance—on that
extra effort. Students start their doctoral program expecting to be
successful, but only those who are willing to pay the price and do
what's required finish. There's an old saying, "A big shot is only a
little shot who kept shooting."
Stamina
High-altitude climbing takes a tremendous amount of energy. It
involves continual exertion and makes brutal demands on your legs,
lungs, and heart. Stamina is what it takes! It's not optional. Writing a dis-
sertation requires stamina—the strength to sustain long hours of work
and yet maintain high performance. This is especially difficult when
Do You Have What It Takes? 15
Courage
It takes courage to face the fears and doubts that often accompany
writing a dissertation. During the first class of the research sequence
at the university where I teach, I ask my students to describe the
greatest fears and anxieties they have about the dissertation process.
16 Quests and Questions
Spirit of Adventure
Adventure is defined as (1) an undertaking usually involving danger
and unknown risks and (2) an exciting or remarkable experience. The
spirit of adventure means accepting a risk and standing up to your fear
of the unknown—taking the path less traveled. The central motivation
for adventuring is to attempt something you're not sure can be done, to
go somewhere you're not sure you can go.
If you know what you want, why you want it, and are willing to sac-
rifice and endure many obstacles to get it, then you have the true
spirit of adventure. It's all about being
Whatever you dream you can do, willing to explore your own limits.
begin it. Boldness has genius, power Whether it's a physical adventure or a
and magic. mental one, it is always replete with
-Goethe excitement, hazards, and triumphs
along the way. Are you comfortable
with ambieuitv? Climbers must risk
and face uncertainty. If you believe your journey to become a doctor is
an adventure filled with new learnings and discoveries about yourself,
Do You Have What It Takes? 17
Summary
This first chapter h e l p e d y o u u n d e r s t a n d the dissertation j o u r n e y as a
p e a k experience, a transformative a n d fulfilling life event. C o m p l e t i n g
the j o u r n e y successfully requires u n d e r s t a n d i n g the sacrifices, stresses,
and uncertainties y o u face along the path. It also requires k n o w i n g
strategies to deal w i t h the m a j o r h a z a r d s facing dissertation writers:
procrastination, e m o t i o n a l barriers, a n d w r i t e r ' s block.
C l i m b i n g the dissertation m o u n t a i n safely a n d successfully requires
i n n e r essentials s u c h as c o m m i t m e n t , p e r s e v e r a n c e , s t a m i n a , a positive
m e n t a l attitude, c o u r a g e , a n d a spirit o f a d v e n t u r e . C o m m i t m e n t is the
p r o m i s e y o u m a k e to y o u r s e l f to c o m p l e t e the dissertation regardless of
the obstacles y o u face a l o n g the way. P e r s e v e r a n c e m e a n s staying the
c o u r s e e v e n w h e n y o u d o n ' t w a n t to. S t a m i n a requires the ability to sus
tain l o n g h o u r s o f w o r k w h i l e j u g g l i n g w o r k a n d family obligations a n d
still a c h i e v i n g y o u r goal. A p o s i t i v e m e n t a l attitude m a k e s the difference
b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c i n g m i s e r y or j o y a l o n g the path. C o u r a g e o v e r c o m e s
fear a n d self-doubt. A spirit o f a d v e n t u r e m e a n s a w i l l i n g n e s s to explore
y o u r o w n limits a n d v i e w the dissertation j o u r n e y as a q u e s t filled w i t h
n e w learnings a n d discoveries.
T h e next chapter familiarizes y o u w i t h the m o u n t a i n ' s terrain—the
dissertation d o c u m e n t itself. Y o u learn about the dissertation's structure,
format, typical c o m p o n e n t s , major steps in the process, a n d individual's
roles a n d responsibilities.
2
What Exactly Is a
Dissertation?
A n y successful m o u n t a i n c l i m b , w h e t h e r actual or m e t a p h o r i c a l ,
requires k n o w l e d g e o f the terrain a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e m o r e
k n o w l e d g e , the better the c h a n c e o f success. N o m o u n t a i n e e r w o u l d
b e g i n a major a s c e n t w i t h o u t a solid u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the u n i q u e n a t u r e
of the m o u n t a i n , its challenges, characteristics, a n d vagaries. S o , too,
m u s t a dissertation writer fully u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e o f the doctoral
dissertation. T h i s chapter describes the e s s e n c e o f the dissertation—its
c o m p o n e n t parts, major steps in the dissertation p r o c e s s , a n d the roles
a n d responsibilities o f those i n v o l v e d .
18
What Exactly Is a Dissertation? 19
P h D D e g r e e s : T h e s t a n d a r d research-oriented d e g r e e w h i c h
indicates that the recipient h a s d o n e , a n d is p r e p a r e d to d o , orig
inal research in a major discipline. T h e P h D usually requires
three y e a r s or m o r e o f p o s t g r a d u a t e w o r k i n c l u d i n g an original
research dissertation or project.
M D , E d D , J D , etc.: D e g r e e s w i t h e m p h a s i s o n professional
k n o w l e d g e a n d practice. T h e s e d e g r e e s n o r m a l l y require three
or m o r e y e a r s o f p r e s c r i b e d p o s t g r a d u a t e w o r k (p. 5 6 ) .
/ Chapter Two \
Review of J
y Literature "
/ What is known? Nv
^^<^ What is unknown? / " ^
/ Chapter One \ / Chapter \
Introduction 1 { Three I
y Significance / y Methodology /
/ Chapter F i v e y / \
/ Conclusions \ / Chapter Four \
I Recommendations!^ \ Results I
K i n d o f research
Instrumentation
D a t a collection p r o c e d u r e s
Statistical a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s
Chapter 4 Limitations
Results
Findings
Chapter 5 Summary
Conclusions, implications, recommendations
Conceptual framework
Topic a n d research p r o b l e m
R a t i o n a l e / p u r p o s e o f the s t u d y
Guiding questions
Significance o f the s t u d y
Delimitations
Chapter 3 Methodology
Rationale a n d a s s u m p t i o n s for the qualitative
design
Type of design
R e s e a r c h e r ' s role
Site a n d s a m p l e selections
D a t a collection t e c h n i q u e s
M a n a g i n g a n d recording data
D a t a analysis p r o c e d u r e s
Chapter 4 M e t h o d s for v e r i f i c a t i o n / t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s
Chapter 5 Limitations
R e s u l t s / o u t c o m e o f the s t u d y
Discussion
C o n n e c t i o n s to previous research a n d
theories
Conclusions
Implications
S u g g e s t i o n s for future research
Alternative Formats
M o d e l - B u i l d i n g Studies
Chapter 2 Literature r e v i e w
Chapter 3 Methodology
Chapter 4 A n a l y s i s o f data
C a s e Studies
Chapter 2 Literature r e v i e w
Chapter 3 Methodology
Chapters 4 - 6 C a s e studies
Chapter 7 Analysis of themes
Chapter 8 C o n c l u s i o n s , implications, a n d
recommendations
Copyright Page
Copyrighting the dissertation, although highly desirable, is
optional. It is n o t required that y o u formally register y o u r dissertation
w i t h the U . S . C o p y r i g h t Office in order to o b t a i n c o p y r i g h t protection,
b u t it is h i g h l y desirable to d o s o in c a s e o f a n y c o p y r i g h t litigation.
R e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r y o u f o r m a l l y register w i t h the U . S . C o p y r i g h t
Office, a n o t i c e o f c o p y r i g h t s h o u l d a p p e a r o n the p a g e i m m e d i a t e l y fol
l o w i n g the title p a g e . T h i s i n f o r m s others that y o u r dissertation is n o t
available for unrestricted use.
Table of Contents
T h e t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s is e s s e n t i a l l y a t o p i c o u t l i n e o f y o u r d i s s e r
t a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g all h e a d i n g s a n d s u b h e a d i n g s , w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g
page numbers. T h e following are generally included: acknowledg
ments, dedication, statement of the problem, review of the literature,
24 Quests and Questions
Chapter 3: Methodology
T h e m e t h o d o l o g y section d e s c r i b e s in detail h o w the s t u d y w a s c o n
ducted. T h i s c h a p t e r u s u a l l y consists o f the following sections: k i n d o f
research, s a m p l e a n d / o r p o p u l a t i o n , instrumentation, data collection
p r o c e d u r e s , data analysis, a n d limitations o f the study.
Chapter 5: Conclusions,
Recommendations, Implications
This section describes w h a t the findings m e a n and w h a t conclusions
y o u drew from the research questions that guided y o u r study. It details
h o w y o u r findings c o m p a r e w i t h those in the literature and with y o u r
conceptual framework. Included in this chapter are practical implications
for professional practice as w e l l as r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for further research.
Appendixes
M a t e r i a l s that d o c u m e n t i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e dissertation
that w o u l d b e too lengthy, a w k w a r d , or distracting to i n c l u d e w i t h i n
the text s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d as a p p e n d i x e s . T h e s e m a t e r i a l s m i g h t b e
r a w data, letters o f i n t r o d u c t i o n to participants, l o n g or c o m p l e x tables,
a n d questionnaires. S u c h detail is useful to a n y o n e trying to replicate
y o u r s t u d y in the future. P l a c e i t e m s in the a p p e n d i x e s in t h e o r d e r
t h e y a p p e a r in the text. W h e n m o r e t h a n o n e a p p e n d i x is u s e d , e a c h
m u s t b e d e s i g n a t e d b y a letter (e.g., A p p e n d i x A , A p p e n d i x B ) as w e l l
as b y a title.
a. It n e e d s to h o l d y o u r interest o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f time.
b . It m u s t b e m a n a g e a b l e in size.
d. It s h o u l d b e d o a b l e w i t h i n y o u r t i m e frame a n d b u d g e t .
e. It m u s t b e b a s e d o n obtainable data.
f. It s h o u l d b e o f interest to a n advisor or c o m m i t t e e .
What Exactly Is a Dissertation? 27
3. Select an Advisor
S p e n d t i m e g e t t i n g to k n o w t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e a v a i l a b l e
to b e y o u r a d v i s o r or c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s . P r e s e n t y o u r p r o s p e c t u s /
p r o p o s a l to t h o s e w i t h w h o m y o u m i g h t like to w o r k , a n d get their
v i e w s a b o u t the topic a n d p r o p o s e d m e t h o d o l o g y . O n c e y o u select y o u r
advisor, y o u w o r k w i t h h i m or h e r to focus a n d refine y o u r topic into a
m a n a g e a b l e study.
y o u r a d v i s o r c o n c u r s , a formal p r o p o s a l m e e t i n g m a y b e held. In m o s t
instances, a p p r o v a l o f y o u r p r o p o s a l b e c o m e s a c o n t r a c t b e t w e e n y o u
a n d y o u r c o m m i t t e e . Y o u are to satisfactorily c o n d u c t the s t u d y as
d e s c r i b e d in the p r o p o s a l , a n d the c o m m i t t e e signs off o n t h e proposal.
a. P a s s e d w i t h n o revisions n e e d e d
b . P a s s e d w i t h m i n o r revisions
c. P a s s e d w i t h major revisions
d. N o t p a s s e d , yet, defense to b e c o n t i n u e d
e. F a i l e d
Summary
T h e doctoral dissertation is a formal d o c u m e n t that d e m o n s t r a t e s y o u r
ability to c o n d u c t original research that contributes to t h e o r y or practice.
A l t h o u g h variations exist, typical dissertations consist o f chapters that
p r o v i d e b a c k g r o u n d to the topic, a literature review, a description o f the
m e t h o d o l o g y , findings, c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for action
a n d future research. M a j o r steps in the dissertation p r o c e s s include
selecting a topic, p r e p a r i n g a p r o s p e c t u s , selecting an advisor a n d c o m
mittee m e m b e r s , c o m p l e t i n g a n d defending a p r o p o s a l , c o n d u c t i n g the
research, w r i t i n g the dissertation, participating in the oral defense, m a k
ing corrections, a n d graduating.
N o w that y o u k n o w the dissertation terrain, it's t i m e to consider the
ethical considerations in research. It is vital to b e a w a r e o f the v a r i e t y o f
ethical issues that arise in all p h a s e s o f the dissertation process. T h e n e x t
chapter describes ethical issues s u c h as the rights o f h u m a n subjects, the
ethics o f data collection a n d analysis, reporting findings, w r i t i n g u p
research, a n d c o p y r i g h t law.
3
Considerations in
Research?
31
32 Quests and Questions
Informed Consent
All prospective participants m u s t b e fully informed about the proce-
dures a n d risks involved in the research project before they agree to take
part. In addition, the principles o f freedom a n d a u t o n o m y allow individ-
uals to refuse to participate in the s t u d y or to w i t h d r a w at a n y time with
n o recriminations. In other words, their participation m u s t b e voluntary.
F o l l o w i n g are the b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t that m u s t b e pro-
v i d e d to e a c h participant:
(Continued)
34 Quests and Questions
(Continued)
SOURCE: United States Department of Health and Human Services, Code of Federal
Regulations (45 CFR 46.116(a), pages 14-15.
Confidentiality
Assuring confidentiality is a p r i m a r y responsibility o f all researchers.
The t e r m confidentiality, according to Sieber (1992), "refers to a g r e e m e n t s
w i t h p e r s o n s a b o u t w h a t m a y b e d o n e w i t h their d a t a " (p. 5 2 ) . It refers
to the identity o f individual participants a n d to the information from
participants. All participants in a research study m u s t b e informed
about w h a t h a p p e n s to the data collected from t h e m or about t h e m a n d
be assured that all data will b e h e l d in confidence. Individual n a m e s
should not b e u s e d in a n y publication a b o u t the research study. O n c e a
What Are the Ethical Considerations in Research? 35
To protect your privacy, the following measures will ensure that others do not
learn your identity or what you tell me.
3. The audio tapes will be reviewed only in my home (and in the office of my
thesis adviser).
4. The tapes and notes will be destroyed after my report of this research has
been accepted for publication (or in the case of an unpublished thesis-
after my thesis has been accepted by the university)...
All students adjust to college life in different ways. With this research, I hope to
describe common thoughts, feelings, and experiences of UA students. This study
involves completing a questionnaire that typically takes 10 minutes.
Thank you!
Student name
Title
University
Telephone
E-mail address
Recording Data
A u d i o a n d v i d e o recording raise significant ethical issues d u r i n g
data collection. To o b t a i n greater accuracy, t o d a y ' s researchers a l m o s t
a l w a y s record unstructured or s e m i s t r u c t u r e d interviews. First a n d
foremost, obtain p e r m i s s i o n from the participants a n d e x p l a i n w h y y o u
w i s h to a u d i o or v i d e o record the i n t e r v i e w or observation. In addition,
explain h o w the r e c o r d i n g s will b e u s e d a n d h o w t h e y will b e stored
a n d ultimately d e s t r o y e d following data transcription. A l s o , assure c o n
fidentiality b y u s i n g fictitious n a m e s or c o d e s .
38 Quests and Questions
and Interpretation
t e c h n i q u e s , m u s t b e clearly d e s c r i b e d a l o n g w i t h a n a c c e p t a b l e
Plagiarism
Warning! Writing a dissertation that i n c l u d e s p l a g i a r i s m c a n b e h a z
a r d o u s to y o u r career, y o u r d e g r e e , a n d y o u r reputation. S e v e r e p e n a l
ties c a n b e levied against t h o s e w h o i g n o r e the c o p y r i g h t l a w or take it
lightly. P l a g i a r i s m a n d c o p y r i g h t infringement are serious matters, o n e
of the w o r s t a c a d e m i c sins.
What is plagiarism?
W h e n e v e r y o u u s e a source extensively, c o m p a r e y o u r p a g e w i t h
the original. If y o u t h i n k s o m e o n e c o u l d run h e r [or his] finger
a l o n g y o u r s e n t e n c e s a n d find s y n o n y m s or s y n o n y m o u s
phrases for w o r d s in the original in r o u g h l y the s a m e order, try
again, (p. 170)
3. Do not assume that certain professions are gender related (e.g. "the scien-
tist.. . he") and avoid sexual stereotyping (e.g., "a bright and beautiful female
professor").
4. Avoid gender-biased pronouns (e.g., "A consultant may not always be able to
see his clients"). A few nonsexist alternatives to this pervasive problem are to:
a. Add the other gender: "his or her clients." This alternative should be used
only occasionally because it can become very cumbersome. It is, however,
preferable to awkward constructions such as s/he, him/her, or he(she).
7. Don't make unsupported assumptions about various age groups (e.g., that the
elderly are less intellectually able or are remarkable for continuing to work
energetically), (pp. 284, 288)
42 Quests and Questions
a n d l i n e s y o u w i s h to c o p y o r q u o t e , a n d t h e title a n d p u b
l i s h e r o f t h e w o r k in w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e p u b l i s h e d .
T h e f o r m a l s o s h o u l d i n c l u d e a p l a c e for t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r ' s
T h i s p r o c e d u r e p r o b a b l y w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y if y o u later d e c i d e to
p u b l i s h a n article or w r i t e a b o o k b a s e d o n y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n . S h o u l d
y o u w i s h to p u r s u e m o r e i n - d e p t h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c o p y r i g h t law,
refer to W i l l i a m S. S t r o n g ' s (1998) The Copyright Book: A Practical Guide.
Recommended Websites
• Office o f R e s e a r c h Integrity
http: / /ori.dhhs.gov
Recommended Books
• Israel, M., & Hay, I. (2006). Research ethics for social scientists.
T h o u s a n d O a k s , C A : Sage.
• K i m m e l , A. (1988). Ethics and values in applied social research.
N e w b u r y Park, NJ: Sage.
Summary
Ethical issues arise in all aspects o f c o n d u c t i n g research. This chapter
focused o n e n h a n c i n g y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t ethical issues such as
the rights o f h u m a n subjects, data collection, data analysis a n d interpre
tation, reporting research findings, plagiarism, writing u p research, a n d
other ethical considerations s u c h as copyright law, protection o f y o u r
dissertation, a n d protection o f o t h e r s ' w o r k u s e d in y o u r dissertation.
N o w it is t i m e to prepare for the c l i m b . T h e first step is to select an inter
esting, researchable topic to investigate. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s s o m e
approaches to c h o o s i n g y o u r topic, w h e r e to l o o k for potential topics,
and criteria for topic selection.
PART II
Preparing
—Anonymous
45
4
Choosing a
Dissertation Topic
5. Dissertations. R e v i e w p r e v i o u s l y w r i t t e n dissertations. C o n s u l t
P r o q u e s t D i s s e r t a t i o n s a n d T h e s e s Dissertation Abstracts
International a n d American Doctoral Dissertations, from w h o m
y o u c a n order dissertations o f interest. C h a p t e r 5 o f m o s t disser
tations i n c l u d e s a section titled " R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for F u t u r e
R e s e a r c h . " T h i s is a g o l d m i n e o f potential topics.
48 Preparing for the Climb
in a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d i n t e g r a t e d fashion, r e s e a r c h o n
educational topics,
d. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE).
Since 1 9 0 2 , the y e a r b o o k h a s p u b l i s h e d a n a n n u a l v o l u m e
organized a r o u n d s o m e central t h e m e , for e x a m p l e , B e h a v i o r
Modification in Education. Distinguished scholars in these
areas write the articles. T h e topics are selected b e c a u s e o f their
timeliness or i m m e d i a t e practical v a l u e to educators and
researchers (Martin, 1980, p. 7 ) .
p r e v i o u s l y u n r e c o g n i z e d , c h a l l e n g e existing truths or a s s u m p
t i o n s , afford n e w i n s i g h t s i n t o l i t t l e - u n d e r s t o o d p h e n o m e n a ,
or s u g g e s t n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f k n o w n facts t h a t c a n alter
5. It has to have obtainable data. You must b e able to collect data for the
study from an appropriate sample size in a reasonable period of time.
HELPFUL HINT
Start a dissertation topic file. As you get ideas about possible topics, place them
in a separate file folder that you can review from time to time. This helps keep
your topic antenna up and alert for new ideas.
HELPFUL HINT
• A truism: You will encounter a wide range of opinions regarding the worth
of any dissertation topic. Some might think it outstanding, while others
claim it has no value. Such a variety of opinions reflects each individual's
particular interest, experience, or bias. The thing to remember is that you
only have to satisfy your dissertation committee to pursue a topic that
interests you.
Choosing a Dissertation Topic 51
Replication Studies
O n e strategy in p u r s u i n g a dissertation topic is to replicate a p r e v i o u s
study. R e p l i c a t i o n s i m p l y m e a n s d o i n g the s t u d y again. Often students
think repeating a n o t h e r ' s s t u d y is c h e a t i n g a n d j u s t a n e a s y w a y out. It
is quite the opposite. K n o w l e d g e a c c u m u l a t e s i n c r e m e n t a l l y t h r o u g h
studies that b u i l d o n e a c h o t h e r o v e r time, a n d replication a d d s strength
a n d clarity to research findings. Y o u c a n m a k e a v a l u a b l e contribution
b y repeating an i m p o r t a n t study.
It m a y b e i m p o r t a n t to verify, reinforce, or contradict the results o f
earlier studies (Balian, 1994).
REMEMBER
Caution: It would not be wise to replicate a trivial study or one with weak
methodology or incorrect statistics.
Summary
Selecting a n appropriate topic is o n e o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t decisions
y o u m a k e o n y o u r dissertation journey. T h i s chapter s u g g e s t e d s o m e
effective a n d efficient w a y s to select a topic a n d offered s e v e n criteria to
consider. Replicating a previous s t u d y is often desirable a n d appropri-
ate since k n o w l e d g e a c c u m u l a t e s t h r o u g h studies that b u i l d o n e a c h
other over time.
With the n e c e s s a r y gear a n d a topic that interests y o u , the n e x t step
is obtaining expert g u i d e s to h e l p y o u reach the p e a k . T h e n e x t chapter
concentrates o n selecting a n d w o r k i n g w i t h y o u r dissertation advisor,
c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s , a n d others responsible for guiding the dissertation
process.
5
Creating Your
Dissertation Team
1. Student-chair c o m p a t i b i l i t y
2. C h a i r reliability
3. C h a i r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s
4. C h a i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s t u d e n t ' s n e e d s
5. C h a i r accessibility
2. T h e p e r s o n reads drafts in a t i m e l y m a n n e r .
3. T h e p e r s o n m a k e s s o u n d , helpful c o m m e n t s a n d suggestions.
4. T h e p e r s o n is a c c e s s i b l e — w i l l i n g to talk w i t h y o u or m e e t regu
larly w i t h y o u .
The best advisor is one who can be your ally, advocate, and adversary when
he or she needs to be.
RULE 1
Always Submit Drafts of Your Best Work
Resist the temptation to submit drafts that are not carefully thought out,
organized, or well written. It is inappropriate to throw something
together in the h o p e that it gets approved or that y o u r advisor will think
and edit for you. With a polished draft, y o u r c o m m i t t e e can focus its feed-
b a c k on substance rather than style and format. Take time to carefully
proofread each page. Y o u can pick up m a n y mistakes b y reading it aloud
to yourself or to another. It also helps to h a v e a critical friend read it over
before y o u submit it to the committee. Very often c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s '
initial impressions are lasting ones. D a v i d Sternberg (1981) said it well:
It h a s b e e n m y e x p e r i e n c e as a dissertation a d v i s e r a n d e d i t o r /
consultant for several publishers that the r e a d e r ' s attitudes a n d
appraisal o f a m a n u s c r i p t are disproportionately s h a p e d b y the
first draft w h i c h c o m e s to his [or her] attention. If the first
i m p r e s s i o n is unfavorable, successive drafts—even substantially
revised o n e s — n e v e r quite erase the m e m o r y or s m e l l o f the first
stinker, (p. 131)
RULE 2
Accept Criticism With Grace and Nondefensiveness
RULE 3
Always Incorporate Your Committee's Recommendations for Revisions
C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s s p e n d c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e r e a d i n g a n d critiquing
y o u r drafts. Usually, t h e y are c o n s c i e n t i o u s a b o u t m a k i n g s u g g e s t i o n s
for i m p r o v e m e n t . It is n o t O K to i g n o r e their s u g g e s t i o n s . T h e y trust
y o u to i n c o r p o r a t e their ideas into y o u r study. B e sure to indicate o n
y o u r r e t u r n drafts w h e r e y o u i n c o r p o r a t e d their s u g g e s t i o n s (boldfaced,
c o l o r e d highlighter, or italics, or in a p e r s o n a l n o t e to t h e m ) . Often, sug-
gestions are n e g o t i a b l e . If y o u disagree w i t h a n y o f the c h a n g e s sug-
gested b y a c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r , call that p e r s o n to discuss the situation.
P r e s e n t y o u r ideas p e r s u a s i v e l y a n d w i t h tact a n d diplomacy. S h o w that
y o u are flexible a n d o p e n to their o p i n i o n s rather than defensive o f y o u r
o w n position. S u c h an a p p r o a c h resolves y o u r differences in an a m i a b l e
fashion.
RULE 4
Respect Your Committee's Time Constraints
RULE 5
Keep a Positive, Cheerful Attitude
RULE 6
Take the Initiative, but Expect Guidance
RULE 7
Maintain Contact
Project title:
From: To:
Date:
Period covered:
Investigator's telephone:
Activities completed:
Activities continued:
Activities initiated:
Problems:
Other:
In a d d i t i o n to s e n d i n g a w r i t t e n p r o g r e s s r e p o r t b y m a i l , fax, o r
e-mail, y o u s h o u l d also m a k e a t e l e p h o n e c o n t a c t e v e r y m o n t h or six
w e e k s to k e e p c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s open.
B e sure to s e e k a d v i c e w h e n y o u n e e d it. Often, s t u d e n t s inhibit
t h e m s e l v e s in this regard a n d d o n ' t w a n t to a p p e a r i g n o r a n t or i n c o m -
petent. It is e a s y for a d v i s o r s to o v e r e s t i m a t e the d e p t h o f their s t u d e n t s '
k n o w l e d g e . J u s t d o n ' t b e a pest! R e m e m b e r to share the j o y o f d i s c o v e r y
as w e l l as the obstacles o v e r c o m e .
A d h e r i n g to these s e v e n rules creates a m o r e h a r m o n i o u s relation-
ship w i t h y o u r a d v i s o r a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s a n d e n s u r e s a relation-
ship b a s e d o n m u t u a l respect a n d s h a r e d responsibility.
Technical Assistance
Often, students require assistance w i t h the technical aspects o f writ
ing a dissertation. G e t t i n g h e l p w i t h q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e s i g n a n d statistical
analysis is reasonable. U n l e s s y o u w e r e the valedictorian o f y o u r statis
tics class, it b e h o o v e s y o u to c o n s u l t a statistician; h o w e v e r , it is vital
that y o u k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t statistics to u n d e r s t a n d his or h e r advice.
A n e x p e r i e n c e d statistician c a n assist y o u w i t h analysis techniques,
interpretation o f the n u m b e r s g e n e r a t e d , table presentations, a n d tech
nical writing. H e or she s h o u l d act as a tutor to h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d
w h y a particular test w a s u s e d a n d w h a t the results m e a n . H o w e v e r ,
y o u are responsible for u n d e r s t a n d i n g y o u r statistics a n d defending
their u s e at y o u r oral defense.
Writing Assistance
C o n s i d e r u s i n g an editor t h r o u g h o u t the dissertation p r o c e s s .
C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s d o s o m e editing; h o w e v e r , their p r i m a r y role is to
assist y o u w i t h c o n c e p t u a l clarity. T h e y appreciate receiving drafts that
p a s s the literacy test. A n editor c a n b e a close friend skilled in g r a m m a r
w h o u n d e r s t a n d s dissertation-style writing. If y o u r w r i t i n g leaves a bit
to b e desired, then definitely hire a professional. It s a v e s y o u h o u r s o f
grief a n d a m u l t i t u d e o f drafts. J u s t r e m e m b e r that editorial assistance
for a dissertation is p e r m i s s i b l e a n d e n c o u r a g e d , b u t only in matters of
style, not content.
Summary
Selecting an advisor a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s is o n e o f the m o s t vital
decisions y o u m a k e . Ideally, these individuals s h o u l d like y o u r topic,
m a k e helpful suggestions, return drafts in a t i m e l y m a n n e r , b e accessi
ble, a n d h o l d y o u a c c o u n t a b l e for quality w o r k . In this chapter, I sug
gested s e v e n rules to h e l p y o u m a i n t a i n a g o o d w o r k i n g relationship
w i t h y o u r advisor a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s a n d offered g u i d a n c e in
o b s e r v i n g appropriate etiquette w h e n a p p r o a c h i n g a potential advisor.
O t h e r available resources to h e l p y o u c o m p l e t e the dissertation are sta
tisticians, editors, typists, a n d so on.
Your preparation for the c l i m b t h u s far i n c l u d e d filling y o u r b a c k
p a c k w i t h the inner essentials, identifying a topic to research, a n d select
ing expert guides, outfitters, a n d bearers. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r centers o n
p e e r dissertation s u p p o r t g r o u p s a n d p r o v i d e s strategies o n their for
m a t i o n a n d structure.
6
Dissertation
Support Groups
Critical Decisions
T h e r e are n o clear-cut rules for creating a viable dissertation support
group. E a c h g r o u p m u s t d e t e r m i n e its o w n goals, expectations, a n d
w o r k i n g procedures. B u t before j u m p i n g into a g r o u p or a t t e m p t i n g to
create o n e , s o m e critical decisions s h o u l d b e m a d e if the g r o u p is to sur
vive a n d benefit all m e m b e r s . H e r e are s o m e to consider:
CAVEAT
Select group members carefully. There are certain personality types that make
group work difficult and tiresome. Domineering types; shy, retiring types; and
negative thinkers place considerable stress on a group. Also, there are those
who are extremely needy emotionally and drain the group's energy by asking
everyone to help them cope. For the group to be satisfying, all participants need
to both give and take equally—to critique and be critiqued.
Other Considerations
Rather than joining a s u p p o r t group, consider w o r k i n g w i t h o n e other
person—a dissertation buddy. S o m e o n e y o u k n o w w e l l a n d w i t h w h o m
y o u are v e r y compatible c o u l d b e m o r e efficient than a larger group. In
today's world, y o u m i g h t consider creating a virtual s u p p o r t group.
With compatible software a n d c o m p u t e r skills, it s e e m s the s a m e a m o u n t
of support could b e given online through chat r o o m s , online editorial cri-
tiques, online coaches (faculty or c o m p e t e n t alumni), a n d so on.
Summary
Consider joining a peer dissertation support group. It can provide both
emotional and a c a d e m i c s u p p o r t d u r i n g the dissertation process.
However, before creating or joining a dissertation support group, consider
the following: type o f leadership, individual needs, n u m b e r s o f m e m b e r s ,
stage in the dissertation process, and time schedules. This chapter identi-
fied s o m e successful strategies that could enhance the support group's
effectiveness. In lieu o f a dissertation support group, consider w o r k i n g
with a dissertation b u d d y or creating a virtual support group.
Before b e g i n n i n g the c l i m b u p the m o u n t a i n , y o u s h o u l d p a y atten-
tion to organizing yourself. T h e n e x t chapter provides helpful hints o n
organizing y o u r w o r k s p a c e a n d y o u r time, w o r k i n g smart, a n d m a i n -
taining b a l a n c e in y o u r life.
7
Organizing Yourself
— C h r i s t o p h e r R o b i n in
A . A . M i l n e ' s Winnie the Pooh
67
68 Preparing for the Climb
• C o m p u t e r a n d printer
• C o m f o r t a b l e , e r g o n o m i c chair
• Sturdy, decent-sized d e s k
• G o o d lighting
• A p p r o p r i a t e reference m a t e r i a l s (dictionary, t h e s a u r u s , style
m a n u a l , etc.)
• N e c e s s a r y materials (printer ink cartridges, etc.)
• B o o k c a s e
• Filing cabinet
• File folders
• Writing materials (pens, pencils, sticky notes, tablets, etc.)
• " I d e a s " n o t e b o o k to j o t d o w n ideas that c o m e to y o u
2. Time Schedule
Creating a strict schedule of h o u r s each d a y or w e e k to w o r k on y o u r
dissertation is essential. I cannot e m p h a s i z e this enough. N o real progress
can b e m a d e without o n g o i n g i n v o l v e m e n t with y o u r study. Otherwise,
y o u spin y o u r w h e e l s trying to figure out w h e r e y o u left off the last time.
Try to schedule as m a n y u n b r o k e n hours as possible for uninterrupted
concentration. I find that in a b l o c k o f t w o hours, I can m a k e considerable
progress. A s m u c h as possible, maintain daily progress—even if it is only
15 m i n u t e s at a time. This w a y y o u r m i n d stays focused a n d y o u r sub-
conscious working. It helps to set a goal for h o w m u c h w o r k y o u will
accomplish e a c h d a y or w e e k a n d to k e e p a record to determine if y o u r
goal w a s met. This keeps y o u m o v i n g a n d motivated.
REMEMBER
• Plan each day. Block out 30 minutes, an hour, three hours, or whatever time
you can to work on your dissertation.
• Choose a scheduling strategy that works for you. You may choose to work in
terms of hours and minutes worked or pages written. Figure out which works
best for you.
• Stick to your schedule.
3. TO-DO List
In the t i m e m a n a g e m e n t literature, experts s u g g e s t m y r i a d tech-
n i q u e s for m a n a g i n g a To-Do list. S o m e r e c o m m e n d listing e v e r y t h i n g
70 Preparing for the Climb
HELPFUL HINT
Be sure to keep your To-Do list handy, on your bulletin board or day planner or
in your purse or pocket.
Working Smart
W o r k i n g h a r d is n o t e n o u g h — y o u n e e d to w o r k smart to e n s u r e that the
h o u r s y o u s c h e d u l e for dissertation w o r k are truly p r o d u c t i v e ones.
D e v e l o p i n g efficient habits a n d routines a n d a p p l y i n g the v a r i o u s tech-
n i q u e s described in this b o o k are s o m e o f the w a y s y o u c a n w o r k w i t h
the least a m o u n t o f w a s t e d time, m o t i o n , a n d money. H e r e are s o m e rec-
o m m e n d a t i o n s for w o r k i n g smart.
Organizing Yourself 71
2. Learn to Say No
Learn to say no to nonvital, trivial requests. In the book Secrets for a
Successful Dissertation (Fitzpatrick, Secrist, & Wright, 1998), the authors
expressed this idea well:
Practice making responses such as, "I'm sorry, I'm not available that
night," "I can't do that task today, but how about next week?" "How about
asking John instead?" or "What would
you like me to give up to do this?" Be Life can get away from us through
gracious with people, but be firm with time. thousands of little dribs and drabs.
Your dissertation year is not the
- Β . E. Criessman
time to be president or chairperson of
anything, take on additional responsi-
bilities, give a presentation, or attend a conference. Eliminate unneces-
sary activities and accept only those obligations you consider absolutely
necessary. You must be ruthless with your time and energy. Learn to say
no when you should, and learn to say it without guilt.
72 Preparing for the Climb
Maintain Balance
F i n d i n g the right b a l a n c e b e t w e e n y o u r dissertation a n d the rest o f
y o u r life is difficult. All w o r k a n d n o p l a y p u t s c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s s u r e
o n y o u . It c a u s e s illness, d e p r e s s i o n , b u r n o u t , a n d e x h a u s t i o n . M o s t
doctoral students I h a v e k n o w n report the first t h i n g that g o e s is their
fitness routine. T h e y a l s o m e n t i o n the strain the dissertation c a u s e s in
family relationships.
H a v i n g a life b e y o n d the dissertation is important. To finish, y o u
n e e d to put the dissertation first. T h i s m e a n s p u t t i n g other life areas o n
Organizing Yourself 73
hold from time to time. However, you needn't always give up other
important life activities and devote every waking moment to your dis-
sertation. Working all the time will likely lead to burnout.
One way to get a handle on balancing your life while dissertating is
to write down all the things most important in your life (health, family,
friends, hobbies, fun, etc.). Then you can identify strategies to help keep
them in balance.
Summary
M a k e organization a n d p l a n n i n g a top priority in y o u r dissertation j o u r
ney. It is i m p o r t a n t to o r g a n i z e y o u r w o r k s p a c e so y o u c a n concentrate
a n d b e productive. It is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t to o r g a n i z e y o u r t i m e to m a x
imize e n e r g y a n d k e e p o n track. C r e a t e at least three s c h e d u l i n g plans:
(a) an overall dissertation timeline, (b) a daily or w e e k l y schedule, a n d
(c) a To-Do list. W o r k s m a r t b y d e v e l o p i n g efficient habits a n d routines
such as (a) w o r k i n g at a time w h e n y o u are m o s t productive, (b) learning
to say no, (c) scheduling frequent joy breaks, (d) knowing your timewasters,
a n d (e) r e w a r d i n g y o u r efforts. M a i n t a i n b a l a n c e b e t w e e n y o u r disser
tation a n d the rest o f y o u r life b y taking care o f y o u r b o d y a n d increas
ing family support.
F o l l o w i n g the g u i d e l i n e s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d t h u s far
p u t s y o u firmly o n t h e p a t h a n d r e a d y to b e g i n t h e c l i m b to the top.
T h e n e x t c h a p t e r h e l p s y o u a c q u i r e the skills o f u s i n g t h e I n t e r n e t a n d
t e c h n o l o g y to c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h t h r o u g h o u t t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f writ
i n g a d i s s e r t a t i o n a n d offers tips to k e e p y o u s a n e a n d p r o d u c t i v e in
the p r o c e s s .
PART III
The journey of a thousand miles begins and ends with one step.
— L a o Tse
75
8
and Technology
to Conduct Research
B e c o m e c o m p u t e r l i t e r a t e a n d I n t e r n e t s a v v y ! Y o u d o n ' t n e e d to
b e c o m e a c o m p u t e r g e e k , b u t y o u d o n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d h o w
to e x p l o i t y o u r c o m p u t e r to m a k e y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a r c h e a s i e r .
It b e h o o v e s y o u t o b e c o m e a p o w e r u s e r o f y o u r c o m p u t e r a n d its
m a j o r p r o g r a m s . T h e r e c e r t a i n l y a r e d o w n s i d e s to c o m p u t e r s . A n y
u s e r k n o w s t h e f r u s t r a t i o n o f c r a s h e s , l o s t files, a n d i n o p e r a b l e soft
w a r e . B u t for t h e m o s t p a r t , it w i l l b e y o u r b e s t f r i e n d a n d m o s t
e s s e n t i a l t o o l for c o m p l e t i n g y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n . H a r d w a r e a n d soft
w a r e a d v a n c e s c o n t i n u e to m a k e c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h m o r e and
m o r e efficient.
T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e I n t e r n e t m a y b e u s e d in a v a r i e t y o f w a y s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e y m a y b e u s e d for the
following.
N u m e r o u s s o f t w a r e p a c k a g e s a r e a v a i l a b l e to h e l p y o u in e a c h o f
t h e a r e a s l i s t e d . It is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s b o o k to p r o v i d e in-
depth information. Several online resources, books, and articles are
a v a i l a b l e to a s s i s t y o u . I w i l l , h o w e v e r , offer s o m e r e s o u r c e s a n d
h e l p f u l tips for u s i n g t h e I n t e r n e t a n d t e c h n o l o g y in t h e r e s e a r c h
process.
76
Using the Internet and Technology to Conduct Research 77
Preparing Surveys
• Mailing labels
• Survey processor
• Desktop publishing
CAVEAT
Remember, anyone can put whatever they like on the Web. The information may
or may not be accurate. Always be a critical and careful consumer of
information and ensure that the information source is valid. Refereed journals,
books, and so on are still the key to high-quality information collection.
Search Engines
Search e n g i n e s are tools d e s i g n e d to s c a n the W o r l d W i d e W e b for
sites a n d p a g e s , w h i c h are t h e n stored in i n d e x e s or databases. Y o u
search the c o n t e n t s o f d a t a b a s e s b y t y p i n g selected k e y w o r d s in the text
b o x located o n the search e n g i n e ' s h o m e p a g e . T h e search e n g i n e t h e n
retrieves d o c u m e n t s that m a t c h y o u r k e y w o r d s a n d displays the results
r a n k e d in order o f that e n g i n e ' s relevance.
Online Help
• H o w to enter searches
• W h a t truncation s y m b o l to u s e
• H o w to display results
• H o w to print or d o w n l o a d records
Using the Internet and Technology to Conduct Research 79
Evaluating Websites
Since a n y o n e c a n p o s t i n f o r m a t i o n o n the Internet w i t h o u t a n y over
sight or editing or fact c h e c k i n g , it is i m p o r t a n t that y o u e v a l u a t e a n y
information that y o u find o n the Internet to d e t e r m i n e its credibility a n d
authority before using it in y o u r research. L o o k at the U R L to see if it is
a p e r s o n a l w e b s i t e , an e d u c a t i o n a l site, a c o m m e r c i a l site, or a nonprofit
organization site. L o o k for a u t h o r s h i p o f the site (is there an " A b o u t U s "
link s o m e w h e r e o n the p a g e ? ) a n d w h e n the p a g e w a s last u p d a t e d .
D o e s the site try to p e r s u a d e or to sell s o m e t h i n g , or is it s i m p l y p r o
v i d i n g information? Is there a n y b i a s that y o u c a n detect? C a n y o u val
idate the information t h r o u g h a n o t h e r s o u r c e ? T h e Teaching L i b r a r y at
the U n i v e r s i t y o f California at B e r k e l e y h a s a n o t h e r e x c e l l e n t g u i d e o n
evaluating web pages (www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/
Internet/Evaluate.html).
Blogs
Searching Blogs
Wikis
For group projects, a w i k i is a wonderful resource. A w i k i is a w e b -
site that users c a n c h a n g e u s i n g a w e b browser. O n e o f the b e s t k n o w n
wikis is W i k i p e d i a , the e n c y c l o p e d i a created a n d edited b y its users.
Since a n y o n e can p o s t to s o m e w i k i s , y o u n e e d to b e careful to evaluate
the information a n d the credibility o f the p e o p l e p o s t i n g the informa
tion. D o a G o o g l e search o n a topic s u c h as "bilingual e d u c a t i o n w i k i s , "
a n d y o u will find a variety o f resources.
h u m a n v o i c e in p l a c e o f a k e y b o a r d o r m o u s e . Y o u talk, it types! S o m e
products for your consideration are Dragon Naturally Speaking 9 Preferred,
W i n d o w s S p e e c h R e c o g n i t i o n ( i n c l u d e d w i t h the W i n d o w s Vista oper
ating s y s t e m ) , a n d for M a c s , M a c S p e e c h D i c t a t e .
You m a y also obtain a s m a l l digital r e c o r d e r that a l l o w s y o u to i n p u t
data from a n y w h e r e . Y o u c a n c a p t u r e m e e t i n g s , i n t e r v i e w s , p h o n e calls,
p e r s o n a l t h o u g h t s , a n d so on, w h i c h c a n t h e n b e transferred directly
into y o u r c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h the s p e e c h r e c o g n i t i o n p r o g r a m . T h e r e are
several p r o d u c t s o n the m a r k e t : Sony, O l y m p u s , a n d D r a g o n are s o m e
y o u m i g h t l o o k into.
D i s s e r t a t i o n s u p p o r t g r o u p s m i g h t find c o n f e r e n c i n g software a n
excellent w a y to h o l d w e b m e e t i n g s or o n l i n e c o n f e r e n c e s . Y o u c a n find
out about two good programs at t h e following sites: G e n e s y s
(www.genesys.com) and Saba Centra (https://nal.saba.com/Default
.aspx).
Best, S., & Krueger, B. (2004). Internet data collection (quantitative applications in
the Social Sciences). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Couper, M. (2008). Designing effective web surveys. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Dillman, D. (2007). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.).
New York: Wiley.
Sue, V. (2007). Conducting online surveys. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
If y o u are c o n s i d e r i n g c o n d u c t i n g a w e b survey, I h i g h l y r e c o m
m e n d that y o u r e a d the f o l l o w i n g article:
Wright, Κ. B. (2005). Researching inter-based populations: Advantages and dis
advantages of online survey research, online questionnaire authoring soft
ware packages, and web survey services, journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 30(3), article 11. Available from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/
voll0/issue3/wright.html
t e c h n o l o g y resources s a v e s y o u m u c h t i m e a n d frustration a n d
i m p r o v e s the a p p e a r a n c e o f y o u r dissertation.
REMEMBER
"If anything can go wrong, it will!" And, "If there is a possibility of several things
going wrong, the one that will cause the most damage will be the one to go wrong."
Corollary: "If there is a worst time for something to go wrong, it will happen then."
84 Beginning the Climb
Symantec www.symantec.com
BlacklCE Defender www.black-ice-firewall.com
ZoneAlarm www.zonealarm.com
Summary
L e a r n i n g to use the Internet a n d t e c h n o l o g y efficiently s a v e s consider
able time in c o n d u c t i n g y o u r research. T h e y are v a l u a b l e tools in all
p h a s e s o f the dissertation process: writing the d o c u m e n t , c o n d u c t i n g
the literature search, preparing surveys, collecting a n d a n a l y z i n g data,
a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g via the Internet.
F o l l o w i n g the guidelines a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s presented t h u s far
p u t s y o u firmly o n the p a t h a n d ready to c l i m b to the top. T h e n e x t
chapter h e l p s y o u acquire the skills to c o n d u c t a substantive, c o m p r e
hensive, a n d systematic literature r e v i e w in y o u r field o f interest.
9
Reviewing
the Literature
A r e v i e w o f the literature is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e w i t h o u t it y o u
T h i s a m o u n t s to s h o w i n g that y o u h a v e u n d e r s t o o d the m a i n
1. F o c u s the p u r p o s e of y o u r s t u d y m o r e precisely
2. D e v e l o p a c o n c e p t u a l or theoretical f r a m e w o r k that m i g h t b e
u s e d to g u i d e y o u r research
4. P r o v i d e a historical b a c k g r o u n d for y o u r s t u d y
9. U n c o v e r questionnaires or tests p r e v i o u s l y v a l i d a t e d
I h o p e I c o n v i n c e d y o u of the i m p o r t a n c e o f d o i n g an early a n d c o m
p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w o f the literature. T h e benefits are n u m e r o u s , espe
cially in the initial stages o f d e s i g n i n g a dissertation study.
O n e o f the b i g g e s t frustrations s t u d e n t s e n c o u n t e r is d e t e r m i n i n g
h o w l o n g a n d h o w c o m p r e h e n s i v e the r e v i e w s h o u l d b e . E v e n t h o u g h
y o u m u s t read b r o a d l y to d e v e l o p p e r s p e c t i v e a b o u t y o u r topic, d o n ' t
m a k e the m i s t a k e o f thinking that y o u m u s t i n c l u d e in the b i b l i o g r a p h y
e v e r y b o o k , article, or s t u d y read. T h e literature r e v i e w is n o t a n aggre
g a t i o n o f e v e r y b o o k a n d article related to y o u r topic; it is a l w a y s selec
tive. Therefore, y o u m u s t b e d i s c r i m i n a t i ng a n d i n c l u d e only the m o s t
relevant information. R e m e m b e r that bigger is not better! T h e s h o t g u n
a p p r o a c h indicates a lack o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t w h a t is relevant informa
tion. Unfortunately, n o m a g i c formula exists to g u i d e y o u r selection; it
is a j u d g m e n t call o n y o u r part. Y o u k n o w it is t i m e to quit w h e n y o u
k e e p e n c o u n t e r i n g the s a m e references a n d c a n ' t find i m p o r t a n t n e w
resources.
88 Beginning the Climb
Preparation
In m u c h the s a m e w a y y o u r advisor b e c o m e s y o u r significant other dur
ing the dissertation process, the library b e c o m e s y o u r second h o m e .
M u c h time is spent there, a n d it b e h o o v e s y o u to c o m p l e t e l y familiarize
yourself w i t h the library before starting y o u r literature review. K n o w
w h a t references are available a n d w h e r e to find them, w h a t services the
library provides, a n d the regulations a n d procedures regarding the u s e
of library materials. S p e n d t i m e b r o w s i n g the stacks; use call n u m b e r s
related to y o u r topic to find the appropriate sections.
It is also w i s e to c u l t i v a t e a l i b r a r i a n or t w o . T h e i r k n o w l e d g e a n d
e x p e r t i s e c a n s a v e y o u c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e s e a r c h i n g for i n f o r m a t i o n .
M o s t l i b r a r i a n s are w i l l i n g to m a k e a p p o i n t m e n t s to h e l p y o u c r e a t e
a s e a r c h strategy, d e t e r m i n e a p p r o p r i a t e p r i n t a n d e l e c t r o n i c data
b a s e s for y o u r r e s e a r c h n e e d s , a n d e x p l a i n i n t e r l i b r a r y l o a n s e r v i c e s
a v a i l a b l e to y o u . It is a l s o a g o o d i d e a to c o n s u l t l i b r a r i a n s a b o u t n o n
t r a d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o n y o u r topic, s u c h as t h i n k t a n k s , p r o f e s s i o n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s , g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n t s , a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s from nonprofit
organizations.
D o take t i m e to explore other libraries a n d materials centers. Y o u
m a y b e able to u s e regional college or university or special libraries n e a r
y o u r h o m e t h r o u g h consortia a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h y o u r h o s t university.
You m a y also b e able to p u r c h a s e a library card to get access to another
library; however, s p e n d t i m e d o i n g an o n l i n e search o f the library's cat
alog for relevant resources before s p e n d i n g y o u r money. A s k y o u r local
librarian to h e l p y o u locate local libraries or information centers that
m a y b e relevant to y o u r research.
Example:
W h a t effect d o e s parental i n v o l v e m e n t h a v e o n the drop-out rate of
bilingual m i d d l e school students? K e y w o r d s are
• parental i n v o l v e m e n t
• drop-out rate
• bilingual
• m i d d l e school students
HELPFUL HINT
Since you will be returning to the library time and again to continue your review,
it is wise to develop a system of keeping track of which key words or descriptors
you have checked in which volumes of which indexes. One effective way is to use
a sheet of paper for each abstract or index you consult and create a matrix.
Across the top, include the key words, or descriptors, you selected for that
reference; down the left margin, list the dates of the volumes, starting with the
most recent. As you go through each volume, place a check under the descriptors
you used next to the date of the volume you used.
Boolean Operators
b y c o m b i n i n g t e r m s u s i n g the w o r d s A N D , O R , or N O T . F o r e x a m p l e ,
to search for " W h a t effect d o e s a l c o h o l h a v e o n college s t u d e n t s ' self-
e s t e e m ? " type as y o u r w o r d s : alcohol, college students, self-esteem.
Truncation
Online Help
Instructions for u s i n g electronic d a t a b a s e s are built into the system.
L o o k for online h e l p b u t t o n s or links s u c h as " a d v a n c e d s e a r c h " a n d
"search tips." C o n s u l t o n l i n e h e l p to learn
• H o w to enter searches
• W h a t truncation s y m b o l to use
• H o w to display results
• H o w to print or d o w n l o a d records
Encyclopedia of Education
Encyclopedia of Leadership
Dissertations
ETS TestLink
(Continued)
94 Beginning the Climb
(Continued)
(www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.1488512ecfd5b8849a77bl3bc3921509/7vgnext
oid=ed462d3631df4010VgnVCM1000O022f95190RCRD&vgnextchannel=85afl97a484f40
10VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD)
Tests in Print
These are only a few sources of measurement available. Check with your library
and the Internet under your specific academic discipline.
Books
Ebrary (full text electronic books available through subscription by your library)
(http://books.google.com/books?um=l&q=&btnG=Search+Books)
NetLibrary (full text electronic books available through subscription by your library)
Grey Literature
• Working papers
• Technical reports
• Government documents
Reviewing the Literature 95
• Government documents
• Conference or symposia proceedings
• White papers
• Business documents
• Newsletters
• Monographs
• Letters and diaries
While these are not scholarly documents, they can provide up-to-date facts and
statistics to broaden knowledge about a particular topic. The downside is that
they are often difficult to find, and they must be carefully evaluated as they are
not peer reviewed. One way to locate grey literature is to search the agency or
institution that produces the literature; another w a y is to consult a librarian. For a
thorough explanation of grey literature and how to find it, refer to Doing a
Literature Search by Chris Hart (2004), Chapters 7 and 8. You will also find a
selection of web-based resources in grey literature at Grey Literature Network
Service (www.greynet.org).
WestEd (www.wested.org)
Name A Β C D Ε F G Etc.
Castle, 1989 X
Fullan, 1991 X X X X X X
Garmston, 1991 X X X X
Etc.
Total 16 9 9 11 15 12
Authors
2. For every book or article you read, write a brief summary in your own
words that illustrates the essential points. A l s o i n c l u d e inferences
you can make about your study and conclusions you can draw
from the b o o k or article.
4. Develop a coding system so you can identify the type of materials con
tained on each summary sheet. Usually, this is d o n e b y y o u r vari
ables, k e y topics, or b y t h e descriptors u s e d in locating the
references. Write the n a m e at the top o f the sheet.
5. As you are reading, be alert for quotations that might be useful in pre
senting your review. If y o u find q u o t a b l e material, b e sure to c o p y
it carefully w i t h the q u o t a t i o n m a r k s a n d i n c l u d e the p a g e from
w h i c h it w a s taken. I n c l u d i n g q u o t a t i o n m a r k s h e l p s y o u r e m e m
b e r w h i c h s t a t e m e n t s are direct quotations. Y o u do n o t w a n t to
i n a d v e r t e n t l y p l a g i a r i z e o t h e r s ' i d e a s . T o o often, s t u d e n t s
o v e r u s e q u o t a t i o n s in their dissertations. A g o o d rule o f t h u m b
for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r or n o t to directly q u o t e an a u t h o r w a s
p r o v i d e d b y B o r g a n d G a l l (1983). T h e y said to q u o t e " o n l y m a t e
rials that are stated v e r y skillfully, or in v e r y c o n c i s e t e r m s , or are
typical a n d clear reflections o f a particular p o i n t o f v i e w the
s t u d e n t w i s h e s to illustrate" (pp. 1 8 2 - 1 8 3 ) . Try to limit the number
of direct quotations.
6. Place your summaries in a computer file and then print it out, leaving
wide margins. Y o u n o w h a v e a c o m p l e t e record o f w h a t the litera
ture stated a b o u t the v a r i a b l e s or k e y c o n c e p t s in y o u r study.
7. Read through your summaries and lookfor important themes, big issues,
commonalities, and differences. M a k e n o t a t i o n s in the m a r g i n s o f
y o u r s u m m a r y sheets. T h i s p r o v i d e s the basis for d e v e l o p i n g a
logical, c o h e r e n t outline.
A t e c h n i q u e that c a n b e u s e d in p r e p a r a t i o n for s y n t h e s i s w r i t i n g is
to build tables to summarize the literature, a t e c h n i q u e p r o m o t e d b y G a l v a n
(2006). H e b e l i e v e s that b u i l d i n g tables is an effective w a y to overview,
organize, a n d s u m m a r i z e the literature. In his b o o k , Writing Literature
Reviews, G a l v a n (2006) p r o v i d e d e x a m p l e s o n h o w to b u i l d s u m m a r y
tables s u c h as a table o f definitions a n d k e y t e r m s a n d c o n c e p t s , a table
100 Beginning the Climb
• D i s c u s s h o w a n d w h y i d e a s a b o u t y o u r topic h a v e c h a n g e d o v e r
time
• M a k e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n the sources cited
• Discuss literature that has a direct b e a r i n g o n y o u r area o f study
(Continued)
102 Beginning the Climb
Figure 92 (Continued)
If y o u w a n t y o u r r e v i e w to b e c o h e r e n t , logical, a n d w e l l o r g a n i z e d ,
create a topic outline. It h e l p s to d o this p r i o r to w r i t i n g ; h o w e v e r , d o n ' t
b e s u r p r i s e d if it c h a n g e s as y o u w r i t e . I n w r i t i n g y o u r outline, first list
104 Beginning the Climb
the m a i n topics a n d t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e y s h o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d . T h e n ,
u n d e r e a c h h e a d i n g d e t e r m i n e the logical s u b h e a d i n g s . A d d i n g addi-
tional s u b h e a d i n g s d e p e n d s o n the c o m p l e x i t y o f y o u r p r o b l e m . T h e
outline h e l p s y o u see h e a d i n g s that n e e d r e a r r a n g i n g to create a logical
flow o f thought. F o l l o w i n g is an e x a m p l e o f a partial topic o u t l i n e from
a dissertation.
I. Introduction
A. Focus on women college presidents
B. Overview of the areas to be covered
C. Restatement of the purpose of the study and its importance
HELPFUL HINT
Obtain a 9" χ 12" box in which you can hang file folders. Then, create a file
folder for each heading and subheading in your outline. Insert the articles and
notes related to each in the folder. The advantage of putting them in a box
rather than a file cabinet is that you can keep it near your computer at all times,
and you can carry it with you if necessary.
Style Manuals
I h i g h l y r e c o m m e n d that y o u b e c o m e familiar w i t h y o u r r e q u i r e d
style m a n u a l a n d b e g i n u s i n g it c o n s i s t e n t l y in w r i t i n g y o u r literature
r e v i e w as w e l l as o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f y o u r dissertation. It's n o t as e a s y as
it s e e m s to learn the n u a n c e s o f h e a d i n g s , in-text c i t a t i o n s , end-of-text
references, footnotes, a n d tables a n d figures. M a s t e r i n g t h e s e tech-
n i q u e s e a r l y s a v e s y o u c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a n d effort in t h e l o n g run.
Subjects Results
Summarize
Pull t o g e t h e r e a c h major section w i t h a brief s u m m a r y at the e n d .
S u m m a r i e s h i g h l i g h t a n d clarify the m a i n points o f a section, especially
if it is long a n d c o m p l e x . C o n c l u d e b y h i g h l i g h t i n g a n d s u m m a r i z i n g
the k e y points m a d e t h r o u g h o u t the literature review.
Emphasize Relatedness
R e m e m b e r to link studies together b y c o m p a r i n g the similarities
a n d differences a m o n g t h e m . To k e e p from b o r i n g the reader, b e sure to
u s e transitions to integrate p a r a g r a p h s .
If s e v e r a l s t u d i e s s a y e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e thing, it is n o t n e c e s s a r y
to d e s c r i b e e a c h o n e . Y o u c a n m a k e a s u m m a r y s t a t e m e n t
f o l l o w e d b y all t h e r e l a t e d references, for e x a m p l e , " S e v e r a l s t u d i e s
h a v e f o u n d . . . ( B r o w n , 2 0 0 7 ; J o n e s , 2 0 0 8 ; S m i t h , 2 0 0 6 ) . " B e careful n o t
to i g n o r e s t u d i e s that c o n t r a d i c t o t h e r s t u d i e s . Y o u m a y e v a l u a t e t h e m
a n d try to figure o u t a p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , " C o n t r a r y
to t h e s e s t u d i e s is t h e w o r k o f S m i t h a n d J o n e s ( 1 9 9 8 ) , w h o f o u n d . . . ."
5. Be Selective
Avoid the t e m p t a t i o n to report e v e r y t h i n g y o u read. A literature
review is n o t a collection o f e v e r y b o o k a n d article relating to a topic.
Include o n l y material directly related to y o u r s t u d y ' s p u r p o s e a n d the
n e c e s s a r y b a c k g r o u n d to y o u r variables. All the b o o k s a n d articles y o u
read w e r e n e c e s s a r y to h e l p y o u b e c o m e an expert in y o u r s t u d y area.
Like in a c o u r t r o o m , all the a d m i s s i b l e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d m u s t pertain
directly to the case a n d question at h a n d .
p o i n t s o f the topic).
T h e r e v i e w is w e l l o r g a n i z e d . It f l o w s logically. It is n o t
fragmented.
T h e r e v i e w c o n t a i n s o p p o s i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w (especially if the
researcher h a s a strong bias).
T h e r e is a s u m m a r y at the e n d o f e a c h m a j o r section as w e l l as
at the e n d o f the chapter.
110 Beginning the Climb
5 years.
T h e r e is an appropriate a m o u n t o f p a r a p h r a s i n g a n d direct
quotation.
T h e direct quotations do n o t detract from the readability o f the
chapter.
Summary
It is i m p o r t a n t to r e a d a n d a n a l y z e t h e literature s u r r o u n d i n g your
s t u d y as e a r l y as p o s s i b l e in the d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o c e s s . To d o this effi
ciently, y o u s h o u l d t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r i z e y o u r s e l f w i t h the library
a n d its v a r i o u s s e a r c h tools. T h e r e are e i g h t b a s i c s t e p s for c o n d u c t i n g
a literature r e v i e w :
1. Identify k e y w o r d s or descriptors
2. Create a search q u e r y
6. S y n t h e s i z e the literature
7. O r g a n i z e the literature
Mastering the
Academic Style
Organization
• R a m b l i n g in literature r e v i e w
• Failure to d e v e l o p ideas in a logical s e q u e n c e
• P r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t s that are "all o v e r the w a l l "
• L a c k o f o r g a n i z a t i o n
• L a c k o f c o n s i s t e n c y
• Failure to u s e h e a d i n g s
• Inappropriate u s e o f the required style m a n u a l
• Little e v i d e n c e o f proofreading
Paragraphs
• O n e - s e n t e n c e p a r a g r a p h s
• U n c l e a r a n t e c e d e n t for this
• P a r a g r a p h s n o t d e v e l o p e d as a clear center o f t h o u g h t
• L a c k o f transitions
• W e a k transitions
• Failure to indicate w h e r e the p a r a g r a p h is g o i n g — " b o n e s w i t h o u t
a skeleton"
• I n t r o d u c i n g a topic a n d t h e n failing to d i s c u s s the topic
• L a c k o f details that are explicit a n d related to the m a i n idea
• P a r a g r a p h s that l a c k focus
Sentence Construction
• O v e r l o n g s e n t e n c e s
• Subject-verb a g r e e m e n t (e.g., data were is correct, n o t data was)
Direct Quotations
• I n a p p r o p r i a t e u s e o f direct q u o t a t i o n s
• E x c e s s i v e q u o t i n g
D o y o u r b e s t to write n a t u r a l l y as if y o u w e r e c o n v e r s i n g w i t h an
intelligent p e r s o n unfamiliar w i t h y o u r topic. W h e n y o u d o this, y o u r
writing takes o n the e n e r g y a n d liveliness o f g o o d conversation. S o
often students b e l i e v e t h e y m u s t w r i t e in a formal, stilted, g r a n d i o s e
m a n n e r quite different from the w a y t h e y talk. T h e r e is artificiality
about this k i n d o f writing that m a k e s it b o r i n g a n d tedious for readers.
People prefer reading simple, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e writing.
h e is a m a n w h o he
this is a subject that this subject
the reason w h y that is because
o w i n g to the fact that since
Preposition Alert!
h e l p t r i m e x c e s s w o r d s in y o u r w r i t i n g b y e l i m i n a t i n g o v e r u s e o f p r e p o -
sitions a n d their w o r d y b a g g a g e .
A d d i t i o n a l culprits to a v o i d are the c o m p o u n d prepositional p h r a s e
a n d v e r b s w i t h prepositions. F o l l o w i n g is a list o f c o m m o n c o m p o u n d
prepositional p h r a s e s a n d v e r b s w i t h prepositions a n d their m o r e con-
cise counterparts:
Qualifiers
2. B r e a k u p l o n g s e n t e n c e s w i t h internal e n u m e r a t i o n : (1), ( 2 ) . . .
3. B r e a k u p l o n g s e n t e n c e s w i t h bullet points
Passive: T h i s p a p e r w a s written b y m e .
One sign of the passive voice is the use of linking verbs such as was, will
be, have been, and is. Sentences containing any form of the verb to be are eli
gible for rewriting in active voice. Circle all the linking verbs in your o w n
Mastering the Academic Style 117
writing or have a computer highlight them. You will find that "75 percent
of them can be eliminated" (Munter, 1997, p. 69). Write as straightforwardly
as you can, using strong verbs—not ones that lack action (z's, was, etc.).
The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing is
a matter of style, not correctness. There is nothing inherently wrong
with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active
mode, do so.
1. To de-emphasize responsibility
Example: Rather than "You made an error," write "An error was
made."
2. To de-emphasize the writer
Example: Instead of "I recommend," write "It is recommended
that."
3. When the performer of the action is unknown or irrelevant
Example: "A house was broken into on Main Street."
Example: "Office mail is delivered twice a day."
To Signal Examples
Example for instance, an illustration, thus, such as, that is, specifically
of o n e s y l l a b l e a n d 1 2 2 are w o r d s o f
The secret of good writing is to strip
t w o s y l l a b l e s " (Zinsser, 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 2 ) .
every sentence to its cleanest
components. Every word that serves
Beware, then, of the long word
no function, every long word that
that's no better than the short
could be a short word, every adverb
word: assistance (help), numerous
that carries the same meaning that's
(many), facilitate (ease), individual
already in the verb, every passive
(man or w o m a n ) , remainder (rest),
construction that leaves the reader
initial (first), implement (do), suffi-
unsure of who is doing what-these
cient (enough), attempt (try), are the thousand and one adulterants
referred to as (called), and hun- that weaken the strength of a
dreds more. (Zinsser, 1994, p. 16) sentence. And they usually occur in
proportion to education and rank.
A research p a p e r i n v o l v e s assimi-
lating the w o r k s o f others a n d g i v i n g p r o p e r a c k n o w l e d g m e n t . O v e r -
q u o t i n g is a c o m m o n m i s t a k e . S t u d e n t s often string together a series o f
quotations c o n n e c t e d b y w o r d s s u c h as similarly, likewise, a n d on the other
hand. D o n ' t d o this! Q u o t a t i o n s s h o u l d b e u s e d sparingly. B o o t h ,
C o l o m b , a n d W i l l i a m s (1995) p r o v i d e d pertinent rules o f t h u m b a b o u t
w h e n to use direct q u o t a t i o n s a n d w h e n to p a r a p h r a s e y o u r sources:
U s e direct quotations:
P a r a p h r a s e y o u r sources:
Useful Verbs
A variety o f useful w o r d s c a n i n t r o d u c e quotations a n d h e l p a v o i d
repetitive constructions s u c h as " S m i t h s a i d , " or " S m i t h stated." M o r e
than just variety, these w o r d s also p r o v i d e e x a c t n e s s .
Further Reading
Bolker, J. (1998). Writing your dissertation in fifteen minutes a day. New York: Holt.
Danziger, E. (2001). Get to the point. New York: Three Rivers.
Hacker, D. (2007). A writer's reference (6th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.
O'Conner, P. (2009). Woe is I: The grammarphobe's guide to better English in plain
English (3rd ed.). New York: Riverhead.
Shulman, M. (2005). In focus: Strategies for academic writers. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.
Venolia, J. (2001). Write right! A desktop digest of punctuation, grammar, and style.
Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
Helpful Websites
P u r d u e ' s O n l i n e Writing L a b ( O W L )
• http: / / owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm
T h e Writing C e n t e r (University o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a )
• www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb
Summary
Scholarly, a c a d e m i c w r i t i n g requires the ability to express y o u r ideas
logically, clearly, concisely, a n d w i t h precision. S u c h w r i t i n g requires
c o m m a n d o f b a s i c w r i t i n g skills s u c h as logical organization, g o o d sen
tence a n d p a r a g r a p h construction, a n d appropriate transitions. T h i s
chapter offered eight tips d e s i g n e d to o v e r c o m e b a s i c p r o b l e m s disser
tation students face in scholarly writing. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s the
c o m p o n e n t s o f a dissertation's introductory chapter a n d offers e x a m p l e s
to clarify h o w to w r i t e e a c h section.
PART IV
Climbing
to Base Camp
—Arnold Glasow
122
11
Writing the
Introduction
T he i n t r o d u c t i o n c h a p t e r o f y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n sets t h e s t a g e for y o u r
s t u d y a n d t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s : t h e r e s e a r c h
p r o b l e m , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l or c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k , p u r p o s e s t a t e m e n t ,
r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s / h y p o t h e s e s , s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e study, d e l i m i t a
t i o n s , a s s u m p t i o n s , definition o f t e r m s , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e m a i n i n g
c h a p t e r s , a n d a s u m m a r y t h a t s t a t e s t h e k e y p o i n t s m a d e in t h e
c h a p t e r . M o s t i n t r o d u c t i o n s in t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s f o l l o w a s i m i l a r
p a t t e r n ; h o w e v e r , t h e y m a y v a r y a c c o r d i n g to t h e t y p e o f r e s e a r c h
methodology used.
Usually, the o v e r a l l structure o f C h a p t e r 1 m o v e s from the g e n e r a l
to the specific, b e g i n n i n g w i t h an o v e r v i e w o f the g e n e r a l area u n d e r
s t u d y a n d e n d i n g w i t h specific r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s / h y p o t h e s e s . T h i n k
of w r i t i n g C h a p t e r 1 in a V or f u n n e l - s h a p e d fashion, as s h o w n in
Figure 1 1 . 1 .
Let m e elaborate o n this funnel n o t i o n b y guiding y o u through a
thinking process to focus y o u r introduction. First, d r a w a large funnel
and fill it in to help y o u visually focus y o u r topic. T h e top o f the funnel
b e g i n s w i t h a description o f the general area to b e studied. Next, identify
a more specific p r o b l e m w i t h i n the general area. S a y w h y this p r o b l e m is
important to study a n d specify w h a t is already k n o w n about the prob
lem. T h e n , specify w h a t is not known about the p r o b l e m that is important
to study. Finally, state a specific p u r p o s e statement in o n e or t w o sen
tences followed b y research questions that g u i d e the study.
123
124 Climbing to Base Camp
\ Problem Statement /
\ What we know and don't /
\ know about the /
\ Questions /
Problem Statement
A research p r o b l e m c a n b e defined as " t h e issue that exists in the litera-
ture, in theory, or in practice that leads to a n e e d for the study. T h e
research p r o b l e m in a s t u d y b e c o m e s clear w h e n the researcher asks,
' W h a t is the n e e d for this s t u d y ? ' or ' W h a t p r o b l e m influenced the n e e d
to u n d e r t a k e this s t u d y ? ' " (Creswell, 2 0 0 2 , p. 8 0 ) . Basically, the p r o b l e m
statement provides an o v e r v i e w o f the study. It states (1) w h a t the s t u d y
is about, (2) w h y it is i m p o r t a n t a n d timely, (3) w h a t contributions are
m a d e to k n o w l e d g e a n d practice, a n d (4) h o w the s t u d y fits into the
existing state o f the art. T h e p r o b l e m statement tells the story b e h i n d
the variables or c o n c e p t s to b e studied a n d provides b a c k g r o u n d for the
p u r p o s e statement a n d research questions.
T h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t s h o u l d d o the following:
Line of Logic
T h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t b e g i n s w i t h a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n to the
s t u d y a n d , t h r o u g h a careful line o f r e a s o n i n g , focuses d o w n to b e c o m e
m o r e detailed a n d specific to y o u r study. Y o u r w r i t i n g s h o u l d b e clear,
precise, a n d directional. T h e r e s h o u l d b e a s e q u e n t i a l line o f logic. " T h e
d e l i n e a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m l e a d s directly to t h e s t a t e m e n t o f the pur-
p o s e . T h e p u r p o s e o f a n y s t u d y is to h e l p s o l v e the stated p r o b l e m "
(Martin, 1980, p. 4 0 ) . An important point to remember is that the line of logic
comes from you. It cannot be found directly in the literature.
1. W h a t d o w e a l r e a d y k n o w a b o u t this t o p i c ?
3. W h a t d o w e w a n t to k n o w a b o u t this topic?
T h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t is t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n w h a t w e a l r e a d y
k n o w a n d w h a t w e w a n t to k n o w . It is n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e b a c k -
g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t b o t h w h a t is k n o w n a n d w h a t is n o t k n o w n .
T h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t a l s o tells the s t o r y a b o u t w h y w e c a r e — w h y w e
s h o u l d c o n d u c t this study. It is i m p o r t a n t for the r e a d e r to k n o w w h a t
126 Climbing to Base Camp
/ I 1 1 Whole
( Your Study I 1 1 Probien
I . I I A Domain
\v \ — ^ \ Other Studies
Other Studies
Literature Sources
T h e variables o r factors y o u selected for s t u d y m u s t exist w i t h i n
s o m e conceptual or theoretical framework that y o u develop from reading
the literature. You c a n n o t j u s t pull y o u r topic o u t o f a hat. A p p r o p r i a t e
citations from the literature help p r o v i d e a justification for selecting
these variables or concepts. Creating a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k is o n e o f
the few places w h e r e y o u h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to display original
thought. If, h o w e v e r , y o u c o n d u c t a n inductive qualitative study, y o u r
variables or c o n c e p t s e m e r g e from t h e data. R a t h e r than starting w i t h a
conceptual framework, y o u investigate broad, general areas that
b e c o m e m o r e focused t h r o u g h data gathering in t h e field.
Your p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t m u s t e x p l a i n h o w y o u r s t u d y fits into t h e
existing state o f t h e art. M a r t i n (1980), in h i s b o o k Writing and Defending
a Thesis or Dissertation in Psychology and Education, delineated some of
the c i r c u m s t a n c e s into w h i c h y o u r p r o b l e m m i g h t fit:
Writing the Introduction 127
1. T h e r e is little or n o r e s e a r c h o n a p a r t i c u l a r topic.
2. T h e r e is s o m e r e s e a r c h b u t it h a s n o t b e e n a p p l i e d to e n o u g h
s a m p l e s or in e n o u g h s i t u a t i o n s to b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e l i a b l e
phenomenon.
Need to Know
W h a t is the n e e d for this p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y ? W h y d o e s this specific
s t u d y n e e d to b e c o n d u c t e d ? S o w h a t ? W h a t will y o u r s t u d y a d d to the
k n o w l e d g e b a s e ? " T h e n e e d for the s t u d y is e s t a b l i s h e d b y s h o w i n g
that there is a p r o b l e m o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e , e s t a b l i s h i n g that there is a
g a p in the k n o w l e d g e b a s e , a n d b y s h o w i n g w h y filling that p a r t i c u l a r
g a p is i m p o r t a n t or at least r e l e v a n t " ( O g d e n , 1 9 9 3 , p . 8 4 ) . H o w e v e r , the
major d i s c u s s i o n o f the s t u d y ' s i m p o r t a n c e m a y b e f o u n d in the s e c t i o n
" S i g n i f i c a n c e o f the S t u d y . "
• S t a t i n g w h a t w e s h o u l d do r a t h e r t h a n w h a t w e w a n t to know.
S u c h p h r a s e s as " w e m u s t . . . , " " w e s h o u l d . . . , " a n d "it is
i m p e r a t i v e t h a t . . . " b e l o n g in a p o s i t i o n paper. In short, stay off
a soapbox.
• Writing in " d i s s e r t a t i o n e s e " rather t h a n in English. T h i s c a u s e s
y o u r w r i t i n g to b e stilted, a w k w a r d , a n d artificial. J u s t s a y w h a t
y o u m e a n in n a t u r a l p h r a s e s .
• U s i n g u n n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d j a r g o n . T h i s k e e p s the
reader from u n d e r s t a n d i n g the m a i n idea o f w h a t y o u ' r e trying
to say.
• U s i n g e x t e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n s a n d references. T h e s e get in the w a y
of the logical flow o f ideas.
• U s i n g abstruse a r g u m e n t s . Refrain from m a k i n g p o i n t s that are
u n c l e a r or difficult to u n d e r s t a n d . Write in a clear, s i m p l e , a n d
straightforward m a n n e r .
• E n g a g i n g in p e r s o n a l reflections or editorializing. R e s e r v e this
for C h a p t e r 5.
• M a k i n g u n s u p p o r t e d c l a i m s or s t a t e m e n t s . T h e p r o b l e m m u s t b e
w r i t t e n in the c o n t e x t o f t h e o r y a n d relevant literature.
• U s i n g disjointed recitation o f the s t u d i e s cited. You c r e a t e the
line o f l o g i c a n d u s e literature citations to s u b s t a n t i a t e your
points.
T h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s o f y o u r dissertation s h o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d
thoughtfully a n d carefully, for this is the p l a c e to w i n or lose y o u r audi
ence. Therefore, introduce y o u r topic in a w a y that e n g a g e s r e a d e r s —
that captures their interest a n d m a k e s t h e m w a n t to c o n t i n u e reading.
Creswell (2008) called these o p e n i n g lines the "narrative h o o k , " a t e r m
h e c l a i m e d is " d r a w n from E n g l i s h c o m p o s i t i o n , m e a n i n g w o r d s that
serve to draw, e n g a g e , or h o o k the reader into the s t u d y " (p. 102). A con
v i n c i n g narrative h o o k , a c c o r d i n g to C r e s w e l l (2005), c o u l d i n c l u d e the
following:
or Theoretical Framework?
A w e l l - d e f i n e d c o n c e p t u a l or t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k h e l p s y o u to
v i e w y o u r a r e a o f i n t e r e s t m o r e acutely. L i k e a t e l e s c o p e or m i c r o
s c o p e , a c o n c e p t u a l or t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k n a r r o w s a n d b r i n g s
i n t o f o c u s y o u r field o f v i s i o n , w h i c h is n e c e s s a r y for l i m i t i n g t h e
s c o p e o f y o u r study. It h e l p s d e f i n e t h e r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m a n d struc
tures t h e w r i t i n g o f y o u r l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w . I n a d d i t i o n , it a c t s as a fil
t e r i n g t o o l to s e l e c t a p p r o p r i a t e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s a n d to g u i d e d a t a
c o l l e c t i o n , a n a l y s i s , a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f i n d i n g s . A c c o r d i n g to
M e r r i a m ( 2 0 0 1 ) , " A l l a s p e c t s o f t h e s t u d y are affected b y its t h e o r e t i c a l
f r a m e w o r k " (p. 4 7 ) .
or Theoretical Framework?
T h e b e s t w a y to select a n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n c e p t u a l or theoretical
f r a m e w o r k for y o u r s t u d y is to i m m e r s e y o u r s e l f in the research a n d
theoretical literature related to y o u r topic o f interest. Y o u m a y n o t find
a specific t h e o r y to g u i d e y o u r study; h o w e v e r , y o u will d i s c o v e r a
variety o f interrelated c o r e c o n c e p t s a n d s u b c o n c e p t s from w h i c h to
frame y o u r study.
Writing the Introduction 131
F o l l o w i n g are s e c t i o n s from a q u a n t i t a t i v e d i s s e r t a t i o n a b o u t s t u d e n t
p e r s i s t e n c e a n d a c a d e m i c s u c c e s s in an institution o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .
T h e researcher p r e p a r e d a s e p a r a t e section in C h a p t e r O n e d e v o t e d to
the s t u d y ' s u n d e r l y i n g theories.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
To properly frame this study... it was appropriate to go to the recognized experts
in college persistence. These theorists studied college persistence for over 35 years
and developed models that have been tested and validated.
Student persistence is complex, made up of many variables (Lewallen, 1993).
Studies since the 1970s attempted to isolate the most important and influential
elements of student retention, attrition, and ultimately persistence to bachelor
degree completion. Two theorists who heavily influenced the direction of this
research were Vincent Tinto and Alexander Astin (Blecher, Michael, & Hagedon,
2002; Colbert, 1999; Hutto, 2002).
Vincent Tinto in 1975 developed his "Model of Student Departure," which
postulated that students come to a college with a particular background
molded by their own unique genetics and environmental experiences and are
guided by certain aspirations toward particular goal completions. This back-
ground and goal setting impacted the academic and social integration of the
student at the university. Ultimately, Tinto theorized that the successful aca-
demic and social integration of a student led to successful persistence to
degree completion (Blecher, Michael, & Hagedorn, 2002; Tinto, 1975). Tinto's
theory has been widely quoted and reviewed over the last 30 years as evi-
denced by over 400 citations and at least 170 dissertations focusing on this
theory (Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000). The basic precepts of the theory
have been affirmed by many researchers (Aitken, 1982; Benjamin, 1993;
Pascarella, 1983; Terenzini, 1980, 1977, 1985).
In 1970, Alexander Astin began with a general education model focusing on
how students are impacted by their college experience. He then developed and
expanded it over the next few years and referred to it as the "Input-Environment-
Output" persistence model (Astin, 1970, 1975). Students enter higher education
with unique "input" variables, again based on their own genetics and particular
environmental experiences (Astin, 1970). Astin described these inputs as...Astin
defined the "environment" variables as "those aspects of higher educational insti-
tutions that are capable of affecting the student" (Astin, 1970, p. 3). These envi-
ronmental variables can be anything from institutional policies, associations with
other students, support programs, facilities, to specific curriculum (Astin, 1970).
(Continued)
132 Climbing to Base Camp
(Continued)
Note: The researcher then proceeded to describe the applicability of the Input-
Environment-Output Model to his particular study.
Spindle, B. (2006). A study of Alaska native student persistence and academic success at the
University of Alaska Anchorage. Doctoral Dissertation, University of La Verne.
The purpose of this study was to describe the knowledge, skills, behaviors,
and strategies associated with emotional intelligence that superintendents
perceived they use to address conflict in their organizations. This study also
determined the impact use of emotional intelligence had on superinten-
dents' perceptions of their ability to lead and manage their organizations.
(Ceery, 1997)
The conceptual framework for this study was the five concept areas of emo-
tional intelligence: understanding their own emotions, managing their own
emotions, motivating themselves, recognizing emotions of others, and
handling relationships with others. The matrix that outlines this conceptual
framework follows. Notice how this framework mirrors the purpose of the
study.
Knowledge Skills Behaviors Strategies
Understanding -Uses emotional self- -Displays self-regard -Is confident -Recognizes one's strengths and
their own emotions awareness -Is intuitive -Is assertive weaknesses
-Uses emotional self- -Is insightful -Capitalizes on strengths and improves
knowledge -Is reflective weaknesses through self-improvement
Managing their -Understands and uses -Is resilient -Holds back negative emotions to remain -Reframes problems
own emotions impulse control -Is flexible positive -Uses humor
-Understands and uses -Displays a tolerance for -Displays positive emotional behavior -Takes time out to relax
self-control dealing with stress
Motivating -Understands and believes -Is optimistic -Delays gratification -Sets personal goals
themselves in one's potential (potency) -Is hopeful -Displays positive energy -Breaks down large tasks into smaller
-Is persistent -Accepts responsibility for own behavior steps and
-Approaches challenges with -Focuses attention on the task at hand -Celebrates small successes
enthusiasm
Recognizing -Understands and -Reads people's nonverbal -Pays attention to people and -Develops rapport with colleagues and
emotions of others demonstrates empathy behavior relationships employees
-Listens actively -Mirrors other's movements and tones -Allows employees to express emotions
-Demonstrates insight about -Demonstrates regard and compassion -Provides emotional support for others
other's feelings, motives, for others
and concerns
Handling -Understands how to -Influences, persuades, and -Demonstrates respect for others -Models emotional intelligence
relationships with develop relationships inspires others -Recognizes and responds appropriately -Builds trust in relationships
others -Appropriate expression and to people's feelings and concerns -Boosts organizational morale
transfer of emotion -Makes personal connections with others -Builds collaboration among people
-Harnesses the willing -Promotes cooperation -Gives praise, recognition, and rewards
participation of others
Conceptual Framework That Is Used to Describe and Classify Emotional Intelligence (Ceery, 1997, p. 100).
133
134 Climbing to Base Camp
Purpose Statement
B y the time the reader gets to the purpose statement, there should b e n o
doubt about w h a t y o u will b e doing in your study. T h e purpose statement,
usually written in a single sentence or paragraph, clearly and succinctly
states the intent of your study—what exactly you're going to find out. It
represents the essence of your study and reflects its parameters. T h e pur
pose statement, according to Creswell (2009), "is the m o s t important state
m e n t in the entire study, and it needs to b e clearly and specifically
presented" (p. 111). T h e purpose is clarified w h e n y o u specify the variables
or concepts under study and indicate whether your study is descriptive in
nature or whether it is a relationship or differences study. In any one study,
y o u m a y find one or m o r e o f these three types o f measurements.
Following are s o m e examples to help y o u differentiate a m o n g them:
In a Descriptive Study
T h e p u r p o s e o f this s t u d y w a s to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h strategies
p r i n c i p a l s u s e d to i m p l e m e n t s h a r e d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g in
selected e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s a n d to d e t e r m i n e h o w effective
t h e y w e r e p e r c e i v e d to b e b y the principal, a teacher, a n d a
p a r e n t at e a c h site. (Walkington, 1 9 9 1 )
in a Relationships Study
in a Differences Study
REMEMBER
Include in each chapter the purpose statement and research questions. Be sure
they appear exactly the same throughout the dissertation. Don't get creative!
It is i m p o r t a n t to realize that p u r p o s e s t a t e m e n t s v a r y a c c o r d i n g to
specialized research designs. A qualitative purpose statement uses
w o r d s d r a w n from that s p e c i a l i z e d line o f i n q u i r y a n d often reflects the
p r o c e d u r e s o f an e m e r g i n g d e s i g n format. S o m e t i m e s qualitative
r e s e a r c h e r s u s e w o r d s s u c h as intent, aim, or objective to d r a w attention
136 Climbing; to Base Camp
Research Questions/Hypotheses
" A q u e s t i o n w e l l stated is a q u e s t i o n half a n s w e r e d . "
• Clear variables/concepts
• O b v i o u s m e a s u r e m e n t type (description, relationship, difference)
• N o how or why q u e s t i o n s
• "Thing words" clarified (success, processes, achievement,
factors, etc.)
• N o q u e s t i o n s that c a n b e a n s w e r e d b y c o u n t i n g or b y a n s w e r i n g
" y e s " or " n o "
EXAMPLE
Purpose Statement
T h e p u r p o s e s o f this s t u d y w e r e to d e s c r i b e t h e c h a n g e s that o c c u r r e d
at three California m i d d l e s c h o o l s w h e r e s c h o o l - l i n k e d services w e r e
delivered a n d to identify the factors that facilitated a n d b a r r i e r s that
i m p e d e d the d e l i v e r y o f services.
Writing the Introduction 137
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. W h a t services w e r e d e l i v e r e d at California m i d d l e s c h o o l s , a n d
h o w did s t u d e n t s a c c e s s t h e s e s e r v i c e s ?
2. W h a t c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d in the r e s o u r c e s o f m o n e y , p e r s o n n e l ,
facilities, t i m e , a n d e n e r g y ?
4. W h a t c h a n g e s in c u r r i c u l a r or e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r areas o c c u r r e d
since the d e l i v e r y o f s c h o o l - l i n k e d s e r v i c e s ?
5. W h a t c h a n g e s in s t u d e n t d i s c i p l i n e or p a r e n t involvement
o c c u r r e d since the d e l i v e r y o f s c h o o l - l i n k e d s e r v i c e s ?
7. W h a t b a r r i e r s i m p e d e d the d e l i v e r y o f s c h o o l - l i n k e d services?
O g d e n (1993) p r o v i d e d s o m e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s to r e m e m b e r a b o u t
w r i t i n g this section. First, she stated, " T h e rationale s h o u l d b e u n d e r
s t a n d a b l e to a n y r e a s o n a b l y e d u c a t e d i n d i v i d u a l , n o t j u s t to p e o p l e in
y o u r field." S e c o n d , she c a u t i o n e d y o u n o t to " o v e r s e l l the c o n t r i b u t i o n
to the field." It will n o t n e c e s s a r i l y solve a n a t i o n a l p r o b l e m . Finally,
she p o i n t e d out that " n o m a t t e r w h i c h w a y the results c o m e out, the
v a l u e o f this s t u d y c o u l d b e d e f e n d e d " ( O g d e n , 1 9 9 3 , p. 8 6 ) .
C r e s w e l l (2009) p r o v i d e d additional insight into w r i t i n g the signif
icance section o f y o u r dissertation. In d e s i g n i n g this section, h e a d v i s e s
i n c l u d i n g the following:
Delimitations
T h i s section clarifies the b o u n d a r i e s o f y o u r study. It is the w a y to indi
cate to the reader h o w y o u n a r r o w e d y o u r s t u d y ' s s c o p e . Y o u control
the d e l i m i t a t i o n s — w h a t will b e i n c l u d e d a n d w h a t will b e left out.
F o l l o w i n g are s o m e typical delimitations:
• T i m e o f the study: F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 8 t h r o u g h A p r i l 2 0 0 9
• L o c a t i o n o f the study: districts in s o u t h e r n California or u r b a n
areas o n l y
• S a m p l e o f the study: p r i n c i p a l s a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
• S e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o f the p r o b l e m
• S e l e c t e d criteria o f the s t u d y
2. T h o s e s u r v e y e d in this s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f female m a n a g e r s in
their first s u p e r v i s o r y position.
3. T h e s t u d y i n c l u d e d o n l y t h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s that m a t c h e d the
selection criteria e s t a b l i s h e d for t h e study. T h e criteria for selec
tion i n c l u d e d . . . .
Assumptions
N o t all s t u d i e s i n c l u d e a s s u m p t i o n s . W h e t h e r or n o t t h e y are i n d i c a t e d
d e p e n d s o n the desires o f y o u r a d v i s o r a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s .
Basically, a s s u m p t i o n s are w h a t y o u take for g r a n t e d relative to y o u r
study. F o l l o w i n g are s o m e e x a m p l e s o f a s s u m p t i o n s :
1. T h e s a m p l e s t u d i e d w a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the total p o p u l a t i o n o f
n u r s e s e m p l o y e d at the St. P a u l ' s M e m o r i a l H o s p i t a l .
2. R e s p o n s e s r e c e i v e d from the p a r t i c i p a t i n g m a n a g e r s a c c u r a t e l y
reflected their p r o f e s s i o n a l o p i n i o n s .
Definition of Terms
T h i s section o f the dissertation p r o v i d e s t h e definition for the t e r m s
u s e d that d o n o t h a v e a c o m m o n l y k n o w n m e a n i n g or that h a v e the
possibility o f b e i n g m i s u n d e r s t o o d . T h e s e t e r m s s h o u l d b e opera
tionally defined—that is, defined a c c o r d i n g to h o w the t e r m s are u s e d
in y o u r study. Y o u c a n c h o o s e to define t h e m in a n y w a y y o u like in
order to clarify w h a t y o u m e a n w h e n y o u u s e that p a r t i c u l a r term.
U n l e s s t h e y are c l e a r l y defined, t h e y c a n b e o p e n to n u m e r o u s inter
pretations. F o r e x a m p l e , the t e r m achievement in e d u c a t i o n c a n refer to
a v a r i e t y o f m e a n i n g s . O n e o p e r a t i o n a l definition m a y b e the level o f
test scores t h r o u g h o u t a s c h o o l , or it c o u l d m e a n skill in p l a y i n g the
p i a n o . It is a p p r o p r i a t e to p a r a p h r a s e or to specifically cite definitions
u s e d from the literature. F o l l o w i n g are s o m e e x a m p l e s o f definition o f
t e r m s u s e d in dissertations:
Empowerment. A p r o c e s s that e n a b l e s p e o p l e to d o w h a t t h e y d o b e s t
a n d for w h i c h t h e y are h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e .
jjj REMEMBER
Define each new term the first time it appears in the study.
Summary
W h e n w r i t i n g y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter, b e sure to
i n c l u d e b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n to all the v a r i a b l e s a n d c o n c e p t s
directly related to y o u r study, the i m p o r t a n c e of y o u r s t u d y to the field,
a n d an explicit d i s c u s s i o n o f y o u r s t u d y ' s c o n c e p t u a l or theoretical
f r a m e w o r k . Write a clear a n d s u c c i n c t p u r p o s e s t a t e m e n t a n d research
q u e s t i o n s that clearly define the p a r a m e t e r s o f y o u r study. It is also
i m p o r t a n t to i n c l u d e a d e l i m i t a t i o n s section that clarifies the s c o p e o f
y o u r s t u d y a n d a definition o f t e r m s section that o p e r a t i o n a l l y defines
the specific t e r m s u s e d in y o u r study. A c o n c l u d i n g s t a t e m e n t delin-
eates the c o n t e n t s o f the s t u d y ' s r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s .
T h e n e x t c h a p t e r g u i d e s y o u t h r o u g h the p r o c e s s o f selecting a n d
describing your study's methodology.
12
the Methodology
Selection Considerations
S t u d e n t s frequently ask, " H o w d o I g o a b o u t selecting a m e t h o d o l
ogy for m y s t u d y ? " T h e a n s w e r isn't s i m p l e ; it is p o s s i b l e to identify
several different methodological approaches for a single topic.
M e t h o d o l o g y selection rests p r i m a r i l y o n the (1) p r o b l e m to b e investi
gated, (2) p u r p o s e o f the study, (3) t h e o r y b a s e , a n d (4) nature o f the
data. Selection m a y also d e p e n d o n y o u r research skills a n d t h o s e o f
y o u r c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s . I r e c o m m e n d that o n e o f y o u r c o m m i t t e e
m e m b e r s p o s s e s s the e x p e r t i s e in t h e m e t h o d o l o g y y o u select. H o w
141
142 Climbing to Base Camp
quasi-experimental research, e x p o s t
Not everything that can be counted
f a c t o / c a u s a l comparative research, and
counts, and not everything that
correlational research.
counts can be counted.
T h e qualitative approach is b a s e d o n
the philosophical orientation called phe- -Albert Einstei
nomenology, w h i c h focuses on people's
experience from their perspective. Inquiry begins with broad, general
questions about the area u n d e r investigation. Researchers seek a holistic
picture—a comprehensive and complete understanding of the p h e n o m e n a
they are studying. T h e y g o into the field to collect data. T h e y m a y m a k e
observations; conduct in-depth, open-ended interviews; or look at written
documents. Rather than n u m b e r s , the data are w o r d s that describe peo-
ple's knowledge, opinions, perceptions, and feelings as well as detailed
descriptions o f people's actions, behaviors, activities, and interpersonal
interactions. Qualitative research m a y also focus o n organizational
processes. In other words, qualitative researchers look at the essential char-
acter or nature of something, not the quantity (how much, h o w many).
This approach is s o m e t i m e s called naturalistic inquiry b e c a u s e the
research is conducted in real-world settings; no attempt is m a d e to manip-
ulate the environment. Researchers are interested in the meanings people
attach to the activities and events in their w o r l d and are open to whatever
emerges. Qualitative research is really an umbrella term that refers to sev-
eral research genres that share certain characteristics. T h e y g o b y different
names, such as case study research, historical research, ethnography,
grounded theory, narrative analysis, action research, and hermeneutics.
2. T h e n a t u r e o f the research p r o b l e m
3. To u n c o v e r a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h a t lies b e h i n d a n y p h e n o m e n o n
a b o u t w h i c h little is yet k n o w n
Qualitative Quantitative
Mixed Methods
Further Reading
Qualitative Research
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Denzin, Ν. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative
research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lightfoot, S. L. (1985). The good high school: Portraits of character and culture. New
York: Basic Books. (An exemplary model for case study research)
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, Μ. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded
sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (2003). Learning in the field: An introduction to qual
itative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Journals
A s s o c i a t i o n for Qualitative R e s e a r c h
• www.aqr.org.au/
F o r u m : Qualitative Social R e s e a r c h
• http: / / qualitative-research.net / f qs
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 147
Q u a l P a g e : R e s o u r c e s for Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h
• www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage
Q U A L - L Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h M a i l i n g List
• www.scu.edu.au/schools/gem/ar/arr/qual.html
Q U A L R S - L Q u a l i t a t i v e R e s e a r c h for the H u m a n S c i e n c e s
• h t t p : / / w w w . l s o f t . c o m / s c r i p t s / w l . e x e ? s l l = q u a l r s - l & h = l i s t s e r v
.uga.edu
NOTE: These lists of resources are not exhaustive and may change over time.
Quantitative Research
Babbie, E. (2001). Survey research methods (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Cox, J., & Cox, K. (2007). Your opinion, please! How to build the best questionnaires
in the field of education (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Fowler, F. J. (2002). Survey research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Gravetter, F. J . , & Wallnau, L. B. (2008). Statistics for the behavioral sciences
(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Marsh, C. (2009). Exploring data: An introduction to data analysis for social scien
tists (2nd ed.). New York: Polity.
Tufte, E. R. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information (2nd ed.).
Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Journals
Statistics.com
• w w w . s t a t i s t i c s . c o m
Electronic Statistics T e x t b o o k
• www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html
148 Climbing to Base Camp
Mixed-Methods Research
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Piano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed meth
ods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gay, L. R., Mills, G., & Peter, A. (2008). Educational research: Competencies for analy
sis and applications (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Neuman, W. L. (2005). Social research methods: Quantitative and qualitative
approaches (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Tashakkori, Α., & Teddlie, C. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of mixed methods in the
social and behavior sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
journals
Introduction
You m a y introduce the methodology chapter several w a y s , depending
o n the style a n d preference of y o u r advisor a n d committee. Generally, there
is an opening paragraph stating the chapter's organization. This is some
times followed with a restatement o f your study's purpose and research
questions. A brief description of the problem might also b e included.
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 149
Research Design
In this section, state the type o f research a n d d e s i g n u s e d in the
s t u d y as w e l l as the rationale for y o u r selection. T h e research design y o u
select is b a s e d o n the p u r p o s e a n d nature o f y o u r study. S o m e alterna-
tive d e s i g n s are historical, descriptive, d e v e l o p m e n t a l , c a s e study, cor-
relational, e x p o s t facto, true e x p e r i m e n t a l , a n d q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l .
Isaac a n d M i c h a e l (1995) p r o v i d e d a n e x c e l l e n t r e s o u r c e to h e l p y o u
understand a n d d e s c r i b e t h e research d e s i g n a p p r o p r i a t e for y o u r
study. F o l l o w i n g is a n e x a m p l e from a d i s s e r t a t i on o f o n e w a y to
describe a descriptive study's methodology:
EXAMPLE
Descriptive research methodology was used to identify the current socialization
processes for beginning elementary principals in the central coast region of
California. This method was selected because it is a means to describe system-
atically, factually, and accurately the characteristics of an existing phenomenon.
(Isaac & Michael, 1981)
In this study the phenomenon includes the assistance and support experi-
ences of beginning principals in learning needed information, determining the
expectations for a given role, and understanding and adjusting to the operating
norms of the school and district.... (Boullion, 1996)
S a m p l i n g is t h e p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i n g a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s
for a s t u d y in s u c h a w a y that t h e i n d i v i d u a l s r e p r e s e n t t h e
l a r g e r g r o u p from w h i c h t h e y w e r e s e l e c t e d . T h e i n d i v i d u a l s
s e l e c t e d c o m p r i s e a s a m p l e a n d t h e l a r g e r g r o u p is referred to
as a p o p u l a t i o n . . . . T h e p o p u l a t i o n is the g r o u p o f interest to
t h e researcher, t h e g r o u p to w h i c h s h e or h e w o u l d l i k e t h e
results o f t h e s t u d y to b e g e n e r a l i z a b l e . (pp. 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 )
REMEMBER
1. The bigger your sample, the more it represents the total population and the
less sampling error is present.
2. Before deciding how many to select for your sample, you must know the
size of your population so that you can reliably draw the appropriate sam-
ple size.
Sampling Procedures
Your s t u d y ' s credibility relies o n the quality o f p r o c e d u r e s y o u u s e d
to select the s a m p l e . T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s s h o u l d b e described in detail
since they d e t e r m i n e the generalizability o f y o u r findings. Y o u r descrip-
tion s h o u l d i n c l u d e the following:
EXAMPLE
The population for this study consisted of forty-six (46) elementary schools in
California implementing one of three national school reform projects.... Purposive
sampling was used to identify schools within the population that met specific criteria.
The criteria for selection included
The rationale for selecting the first criterion was twofold. The ability of individu-
als to accurately recall information regarding the period of time prior to imple-
mentation of their reform project would be difficult after more than two
years... .The second criterion is related to the role of the principal in initiating
any change process Because this research study focused on reform projects
that change the structure and culture of a school, having the same principal who
was also the principal at the time of the initiation phase was necessary to this
study. The third criterion suggests that each principal's willingness to participate
is critical to this study. Since the design of this research involved detailed ques-
tionnaires, participants needed to be willing to take the time necessary to
respond. (Chaffee, 1995)
Instrumentation
T h i s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f all i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d to collect
data—questionnaires, interview schedules, observation forms, and so
on. E a c h i n s t r u m e n t s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d in detail in the m e t h o d o l o g y
section. P r o v i d e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a s relevant:
1. A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t for y o u r p o p u l a t i o n and
setting
3. H o w the i n s t r u m e n t is a d m i n i s t e r e d a n d scored
REMEMBER
HELPFUL HINT
A good idea: When developing items for your instrument, it is critical that
you align the items with your research questions to ensure that all research
variables are adequately covered in your instrument. A good technique is
to create a matrix in which you display your research questions on the left
side and the questionnaire items on the right. The following shows an
alignment matrix.
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 153
Variable A: Planning
Variable C: Visioning
Variable D: Community
Pressure/Support/Apathy
Variable B: Compatibility
Variable C: Complexity
154 Climbing to Base Camp
EXAMPLE
Field Testing
• U n d e r s t a n d a b l e instructions
• Clear wording
• Adequate answers
• Sufficient detail
• R e g i o n a l differences
• Difficult sections
• Irrelevant questions
• Length
• Convenience
F o l l o w i n g is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f h o w a d i s s e r t a t i o n student
obtained feedback from field testing an online s u r v e y instrument. In h i s
dissertation, h e wrote:
The w e b - b a s e d questionnaire w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d to e i g h t e e n
student e m p l o y e e s w h o , after c o m p l e t i n g the questionnaire on-
line, w e r e a s k e d to p r o v i d e f e e d b a c k o n access to a n d n a v i g a t i o n
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 155
S c h u l t z (2008) a s k e d r e s p o n d e n t s to r e s p o n d to t h e s e questions
a b o u t their field test e x p e r i e n c e :
5. P l e a s e share a n y other c o m m e n t s or s u g g e s t i o n s y o u m a y h a v e
that w o u l d h e l p m a k e this s u r v e y m o r e successful, (pp. 2 0 4 - 2 0 7 )
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2
1. Is the interview schedule too long? (If yes, what would you suggest be dropped?)
2. Are the directions and wording clear and unambiguous? (If not, please note
directions or words that are unclear.)
5. Are there additional questions that I should ask? (If yes, which questions would
you suggest?)
As a result of the field test, no substantive changes were made to the interview
schedule. Only minor modifications in wording were needed to make the questions
flow more smoothly during the interviews. (Boullion, 1996)
Response Rate
B e l o w 5 0 % there is n o defense
B e l o w 6 0 % is questionable b u t c o u l d b e O K
2. U s e a professional-looking form.
EXAMPLE
Data collection began in September of 1995 and was completed by October. On
September 9, 1995, surveys (Appendix C) were mailed to the eighteen (18) princi-
pals of the schools in the sample population. Each of the 18 principals received a
telephone call from the researcher on September 9, 1995, to inform them that the
survey was in the mail, and that they would be asked to complete and return it
within one week. A cover letter was included describing the purpose of the research
(Appendix C). Respondents were assured that neither their personal identity nor the
identity of their school would be released in the dissertation.... Principals were
asked to complete and return the survey to the researcher within one week.
Principals who had not responded within two weeks received a follow-up telephone
call from the researcher.... By October 26, 1995, there were a total of sixteen
completed surveys, an 89 percent response rate. (Chaffee, 1996)
158 Climbing to Base Camp
REMEMBER
Since sampling procedures were described in the "Sample and Population" sec-
tion and your measures explained in the "Instrumentation" section, you do not
need to repeat this information in this section.
HELPFUL HINT
A good idea: To help you efficiently deal with organizing data collection, create
a Source of Data Chart. This chart keeps track of each data source in your study
(e.g., who was interviewed, who received questionnaires, and what documents
were analyzed). It also organizes the data sources by your research questions.
See Appendix Β for an example of a Source of Data Chart.
Data Analysis
This section includes an explanation o f h o w y o u a n a l y z e d the data as
well as y o u r rationale for selecting a particular analysis m e t h o d . If y o u r
study is quantitative, report the descriptive or inferential statistical tests
a n d procedures y o u used, h o w they w e r e treated, a n d the level o f statis-
tical significance that g u i d e d y o u r analysis. Since statistical tests m a y
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 159
b e t w e e n students in l o o p e d a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l c l a s s r o o m s o n e a c h
If y o u r s t u d y is qualitative, p r o v i d e a description o f m a t r i c e s u s e d to
display the data a n d identify the c o d i n g p r o c e s s e s u s e d to c o n v e r t the
r a w data into t h e m e s or categories for analysis. Your description s h o u l d
i n c l u d e specific details a b o u t h o w y o u m a n a g e d the large a m o u n t o f
data a s s o c i a t e d w i t h qualitative analysis. I n c l u d e information a b o u t u s e
o f software, sticky notes, i n d e x cards, or other p r o c e s s e s used. T h i s
h e l p s readers u n d e r s t a n d h o w y o u r e d u c e d or t r a n s f o r m e d the data.
E v e r y researcher a p p r o a c h e s the c o d i n g p r o c e s s differently. T h e r e is
n o o n e right w a y to c o d e textual data. O n e excellent g u i d e to h e l p y o u
u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o d i n g p r o c e s s is p r o v i d e d b y Tesch ( 1 9 9 0 ) . He
described, in eight steps, a s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s to a n a l y z e textual data:
2. P i c k o n e d o c u m e n t (e.g., o n e i n t e r v i e w ) — t h e m o s t interesting
one, the shortest, the o n e o n the top o f the pile. G o t h r o u g h it ask
ing yourself, " W h a t is this a b o u t ? " D o n o t think a b o u t the " s u b
s t a n c e " o f the information b u t its u n d e r l y i n g m e a n i n g . Write
t h o u g h t s in the m a r g i n .
6. M a k e a final d e c i s i o n o n t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n for e a c h c a t e g o r y a n d
alphabetize these codes.
7. A s s e m b l e t h e d a t a m a t e r i a l b e l o n g i n g to e a c h c a t e g o r y in o n e
place and perform a preliminary analysis.
8. I f n e c e s s a r y r e c o d e y o u r e x i s t i n g data. (pp. 1 4 2 - 1 4 5 )
EXAMPLE
Step 1: Initial Reading of Transcripts
Next, the responses were sorted and grouped by research question. The researcher read
through all the responses for each research question, highlighting pertinent information,
and developed a master coding list of response categories (see Appendix F). Within each
research question, response categories were counted by frequency.
Using the master coding list developed in Step 2, the researcher coded the full
transcript of each participant, noting when second or third references were made in
a response category. The coding list was then finalized.
The analysis of each response to research questions and analysis of each interview
transcript were conducted. This resulted in themes, patterns, and categories for the
research questions.
The researcher reviewed all the transcripts a final time to ascertain that the findings
and the main themes and patterns were consistent with the data. A comparison of
the literature was made to determine which findings were supported or not
supported by the literature. (Boullion, 1996)
b y W e i t z m a n a n d M i l e s ( 1 9 9 5 ) offers g u i d a n c e in l e a r n i n g t h e v a r i o u s
software programs.
EXAMPLE
Interrater reliability is established through a process in which two or more peo-
ple independently analyze the same qualitative data and then compare the find-
ings. This process of multiple analysis reduces the potential bias of a single
researcher collecting and analyzing the data (Patton, 1990). An expert practi-
tioner in the socialization of elementary principals as well as in content analysis
of qualitative data analyzed six transcripts from the interview data. The
researcher and the expert analyzed the same six transcripts. Both the researcher
and the expert used the research questions as a conceptual framework in ana-
lyzing the data. The researcher found thirteen common themes, patterns, and
categories while the expert found twelve. These findings were the same 92 per-
cent of the time. (Boullion, 1996)
H e r e is a n e x a m p l e o f h o w o n e r e s e a r c h e r r e p o r t e d triangulated
data. S h e v a l i d a t e d i n t e r v i e w i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h a r c h i v a l data.
EXAMPLE
In addition to the responses from the interviews, the case data from archival
records such as board policies, memos, newsletters, and other such documents
were reviewed. These records were reviewed to validate or extend the state-
ments made by the superintendents or the stakeholders in each of the districts.
(Butt, 1993)
T h i s e x a m p l e e x p l a i n s the p r o c e s s o f v a l i d a t i n g c a s e s t u d y findings
b y o b t a i n i n g f e e d b a c k from r e s p o n d e n t s :
162 Climbing to Base Camp
EXAMPLE
To further validate the findings, drafts of each case report were submitted to the
coordinator at each school site. They each reviewed the presentation of data for
their site. There was overwhelming concurrence with the researcher's findings.
Based on the comments from the coordinators, minor corrections were made
regarding the titles of personnel delivering services, the use of funds, and the
responsibilities of staff. There was also clarification of a factor that impeded ser-
vices at one site and an addition to the factors impeding the delivery of services
at another site. (Kinley, 1996)
[ REMEMBER
Whe n explaining how you handled your data, be sure to relate how it was
reported-standardized scores, raw data, percentages, mean, median, and so on.
Also state how it was displayed-matrices, tables, graphs, charts, figures, or nar-
rative text.
Limitations
L i m i t a t i o n s are p a r t i c u l a r features o f y o u r s t u d y t h a t y o u k n o w m a y
n e g a t i v e l y affect the results o r y o u r ability to g e n e r a l i z e . L i m i t a t i o n s are
u s u a l l y areas o v e r w h i c h y o u h a v e n o c o n t r o l . S o m e t y p i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s
are s a m p l e size, m e t h o d o l o g y c o n s t r a i n t s , l e n g t h o f t h e study, a n d
r e s p o n s e rate.
All s t u d i e s h a v e s o m e l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d it is i m p o r t a n t that y o u state
t h e m o p e n l y a n d h o n e s t l y s o that p e o p l e r e a d i n g y o u r d i s s e r t a t i o n c a n
d e t e r m i n e for t h e m s e l v e s the d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s s e r i o u s l y
affect the study. F o l l o w i n g is a n e x a m p l e t h a t d e s c r i b e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s
of s a m p l e size a n d m e t h o d o l o g y :
EXAMPLE 1
The major limitation of the study is the relatively small sample size. Six districts
and twelve schools were selected for the study. The source of information used
to obtain this sample may not be complete. This may affect the generalizability
of the study to other districts.
Another limitation is the use of the observation method. There is a possibility
of observer bias anytime data are obtained from observations. (Walkington, 1991)
Selecting and Describing the Methodology 163
EXAMPLE 2
1. This descriptive study was limited to participants' self-reported perceptions of
their experiences adjusting to college.
3. Since there were only six participants from the campus, the findings may
not be generalized to that campus.
Research Design
Type o f research
R a t i o n a l e for selection
A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s to y o u r s t u d y
How many
W h e r e t h e y are located
R a t i o n a l e for selection
Size o f p o p u l a t i o n or s a m p l e
Criteria for i n c l u s i o n
164 Climbing to Base Camp
Specific type o f s a m p l i n g u s e d
Step-by-step s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s
Instrumentation
Detailed description o f all instruments
Type o f r e s p o n s e categories
A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f instruments to y o u r s t u d y
Information o n validity
Information o n reliability
H o w instruments are a d m i n i s t e r e d a n d s c o r e d
Interrater reliability p r o c e d u r e s
Criteria for j u d g i n g c o m p e t e n c e
H o w a g r e e m e n t s will b e a s s e s s e d
P e r c e n t a g e o f data c h e c k e d for a g r e e m e n t
Statistics u s e d to calculate a g r e e m e n t
Describes test r e s p o n d e n t s
How many
W h e r e located
F e e d b a c k questions
Reactions o f r e s p o n d e n t s
P r o c e d u r e s followed
Revisions m a d e to instruments
R e s p o n s e rate
W h e n data w e r e collected
W h e r e data w e r e collected
P r o c e d u r e s stated in order o f o c c u r r e n c e
Data Analysis
I n c l u d e s h o w data w e r e r e p o r t e d and d i s p l a y e d
E x p l a i n s m e t h o d s u s e d to a n a l y z e data
Limitations
Limitations stated
Summary
Selecting a m e t h o d o l o g y requires u n d e r s t a n d i n g the t w o major research
p a r a d i g m s : qualitative a n d quantitative a p p r o a c h e s . W h i c h o n e y o u
select d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n the p r o b l e m investigated, the p u r p o s e o f
y o u r study, a n d the n a t u r e o f the data. Q u a l i t a t i v e studies g e n e r a t e
words that d e s c r i b e p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n s , b e h a v i o r s , a n d interactions,
w h e r e a s quantitative studies g e n e r a t e n u m b e r s d e r i v e d from question
naires, tests, a n d e x p e r i m e n t s . Often b o t h a p p r o a c h e s are c o m b i n e d in a
single study, resulting in greater b r e a d t h a n d depth.
B y describing y o u r m e t h o d o l o g y clearly a n d precisely, y o u will
m a k e it p o s s i b l e for other researchers to a d e q u a t e l y j u d g e the w o r t h of
y o u r findings a n d replicate y o u r study. Y o u m u s t i n c l u d e detailed
descriptions a b o u t y o u r research design, p o p u l a t i o n a n d s a m p l e , s a m
pling p r o c e d u r e s , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , data collection p r o c e d u r e s , data
analysis, a n d limitations.
Now that y o u c o m p l e t e d y o u r introductory and methodology
chapters, it is t i m e to m e e t w i t h y o u r c o m m i t t e e to discuss a n d critically
a n a l y z e y o u r p r o p o s e d study. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s s o m e g u i d e
lines for h o l d i n g the p r o p o s a l m e e t i n g .
13
Holding the
Proposal Meeting
HELPFUL HINT
Bring a buddy with you to take notes during the meeting. This allows you to
interact freely in the discussion and to concentrate more fully on the recom-
mendations being made by committee members. Even if a buddy is available, I
suggest that you audio record the meeting so there is no doubt in your mind
about what was said. Listening to the tape helps you to understand more clearly
what committee members expect you to do as next steps.
REMEMBER
Even though you previously received reactions on your proposal from committee
members and revised accordingly, expect changes. The interaction of the com-
mittee invokes a synergy that often leads to new ideas and perspectives not pre-
viously considered. Rely on the collective wisdom of your committee to guide
you in this initial phase of your research.
5. Is it O K to p h o n e if y o u h a v e questions or c o n c e r n s ? W h a t times
are m o s t c o n v e n i e n t ?
6. H o w s h o u l d y o u m a n a g e feedback from c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s ? Is
it n e c e s s a r y to discuss suggestions m a d e b y the committee
m e m b e r s w i t h y o u r advisor before incorporating t h e m in the dis-
sertation? W h a t will y o u do if c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s m a k e contra-
dictory r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ?
8. A r e y o u e x p e c t e d to a d h e r e faithfully to y o u r t i m e l i n e for
c o m p l e t i o n or d o y o u h a v e s o m e l e e w a y b a s e d o n e x t e n u a t i n g
circumstances?
Holding the Proposal Meeting 169
Summary
H o l d i n g the p r o p o s a l m e e t i n g represents a vital step in the dissertation
process. A t this m e e t i n g , y o u a n d y o u r c o m m i t t e e discuss y o u r p r o p o s e d
s t u d y relative to its scope, design, instrumentation, a n d significance. You
also agree o n expectations a n d p r o c e d u r e s for the study's duration.
You are n o w r e a d y to m a k e final preparations for the peak. T h i s
i n v o l v e s a n a l y z i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g the results of y o u r study. T h e n e x t
c h a p t e r g u i d e s y o u in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the data a n d h o w to p r e s e n t y o u r
findings.
PART V
Final Preparations
170
14
Analyzing and
Presenting
the Results
171
172 Final Preparations for the Peak
A Quantitative Study
1. Obtain two identical sets of computer printouts. Store one for future ref
erence and reorganize the other by research question. This keeps your
analysis focused. Get a manila folder for each research question.
Then cut up your computer printout and physically place into the
folders all relevant data pertinent to each research question. W h e n
y o u want to consider a particular research question, all the data per
tinent to that question are in one folder. Information that does not
directly address a research question can b e saved in a separate folder.
A Qualitative Study
Analyzing Themes and Patterns
HELPFUL HINT
Be sure to consult your advisor about his or her preferences on the interaction
between the tables and the narrative. Some advisors believe the tables should
stand alone and the narrative should stand alone; that is, the narrative should
state exactly what is in the tables. Others prefer that the narrative highlight what
is in the tables, which means the reader grasps the full meaning only when the
tables are read.
174 Final Preparations for the Peak
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data are u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d in narrative form. Infor
m a t i o n is o r g a n i z e d into t h e m e s , categories, or patterns. Often a c c o m
p a n y i n g the narrative are tables that c o m p l e m e n t a n d simplify large
a m o u n t s o f information.
Q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s is a c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s a n d r e q u i r e s t h o u g h t f u l
j u d g m e n t s a b o u t w h a t is s i g n i f i c a n t a n d m e a n i n g f u l in t h e d a t a .
C o n f e r w i t h y o u r a d v i s o r a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s a b o u t h o w to p r e
sent the rich data that flow from qualitative procedures. In the
Further R e a d i n g section are two excellent b o o k s , M e r r i a m (2001) and
M i l e s a n d H u b e r m a n ( 1 9 9 4 ) , to g u i d e y o u in c o d i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g
qualitative data.
Analyzing and Presenting the Results 175
9 — I
After writing the results from your first research question, first case, first hypothesis,
and so on, send it to your advisor for approval. Obtaining approval of the style and
format at this early stage saves you endless hours of rewriting. Plan on creating five
to six drafts (even if you were class valedictorian). Always, always, always have
someone who is objective read this chapter before sending it to your advisor. Clarity
and precision are essential, and objective readers provide valuable assistance.
9 BHB
Tables are meant to stand alone, that is, to be understandable without reading
the accompanying text. When your tables are complete, ask a critical friend to
describe the tables to you, then consider how close he or she comes to your
intended meaning (Cox, 1996, p. 49).
Concluding Paragraph
Write a paragraph that summarizes all of your key findings and explains
what you discovered. Then direct the reader to the following chapter.
176 Final Preparations for the Peak
Further Reading
Cox, J. (1996). Your opinion, please! How to build the best questionnaires in the field
of education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego,
CA: EdITS/Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
Merriam, S. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, Μ. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded
sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Summary
This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d s o m e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for a n a l y z i n g a n d pre
senting the results of y o u r study. G e n e r a l guidelines w e r e p r e s e n t e d for
reading computer printouts, writing the opening paragraph, and
d e s i g n i n g a n d presenting tables w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g narrative. T h e
chapter c o n c l u d e d w i t h s o m e questions to a s k y o u r s e l f a b o u t present
ing findings a n d technical references.
T h e n e x t c h a p t e r guides y o u t h r o u g h the process o f s u m m a r i z i n g
a n d discussing the results.
15
Summarizing and
Y o u are n o w ready for the final ascent o n the dissertation journey. It's
time to write the last chapter a n d explain to y o u r readers w h a t y o u r
findings m e a n . T h e chapter usually b e g i n s w i t h a brief s u m m a r y of the
entire study a n d then presents c o n c l u s i o n s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a b o u t
the topic. Since this chapter is written at the very end of the dissertation
process, students often h a v e little e n e r g y left to p r o v i d e thoughtful, c o m
prehensive interpretations o f their findings. It often s e e m s rather anticli
mactic, yet in m a n y w a y s , it is the dissertation's k e y chapter. It provides
a n s w e r s to the p r o b l e m stated in C h a p t e r 1, plus readers typically turn
first to this chapter for a c o m p l e t e picture o f the research. In other w o r d s ,
it is the b o t t o m line.
Reflect on Findings
O n e w a y to get y o u r s e c o n d w i n d to w r i t e this c h a p t e r is to take t i m e to
reflect o n the results a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f y o u r study. D o n ' t rush this
m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h a s e . F o r the reader, this is the m o s t interesting aspect
of y o u r dissertation. S p e n d a few d a y s a w a y from y o u r research to put
it in p e r s p e c t i v e a n d g a i n d e e p e r insights.
177
178 Final Preparations for the Peak
T h i s is t h e p o i n t in t h e p r o c e s s w h e r e y o u shift from b e i n g a n
objective r e p o r t e r to b e c o m i n g a n i n f o r m e d a u t h o r i t y a n d c o m m e n t a -
tor. N o o n e s h o u l d b e c l o s e r to t h e focus o f the study, its p r o g r e s s , a n d
its data t h a n y o u . Y o u n o w h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to tell o t h e r s a b o u t
w h a t y o u r findings m e a n a n d to i n t e g r a t e y o u r findings w i t h c u r r e n t
theory, r e s e a r c h , a n d p r a c t i c e . C o n s i d e r a b l e t h o u g h t and diligent
reflection are r e q u i r e d w h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g r e s e a r c h results.
HELPFUL HINT
One way to reflect on your study prior to writing this chapter is to imagine
giving a five-minute speech to a group of your peers or to a professional
organization. In a few sentences, summarize what your study means. What three
main conclusions would you share with the group?
Chapter Organization
This chapter will vary depending on your research methodology, your find-
ings, and the preferences of your study advisor. There is n o "right" w a y to
organize this chapter. Consider discussing your study's meaning using cre-
ative alternatives that add interest for the reader. S o m e students generate
interest through scenarios, letters, dialogues, stories, and profiles. A tradi-
tional Chapter 5 usually includes any combination o f the following elements:
• Introduction
• S u m m a r y o f the s t u d y
ο O v e r v i e w o f the p r o b l e m
ο P u r p o s e s t a t e m e n t a n d research questions
ο Review of the methodology
ο Major findings
• F i n d i n g s related to the literature
• Surprises
• Conclusions
ο Implications for action
ο R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for further research
ο Concluding remarks
Introduction
Write a brief introductory paragraph that focuses the reader o n the
chapter's organization a n d content. H e r e is an e x a m p l e of w h a t y o u
might write:
Summarizing and Discussing the Results 179
Surprises
Surprises are the unanticipated o u t c o m e s o f y o u r study. W h a t u n c o n
trolled variables m a y h a v e influenced the results? Surprises c o u l d o c c u r
w i t h i n y o u r s a m p l e , w i t h the instrumentation used, in responses from
participants, in test results, a n d so on. P r o v i d e the reader w i t h y o u r
analysis o f the u n u s u a l p r o b l e m s or surprising o u t c o m e s . You m a y
c h o o s e to include this information in v a r i o u s sections or create a separate
section to discuss these findings.
180 Final Preparations for the Peak
Conclusions
Webster defines a conclusion as "reasoned j u d g m e n t . . . inference based
on evidence . . . final summation." This is your chance to have the last word
on the subject. Writing conclusions well relies on your ability to b e a critical
and creative thinker—to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information.
Drawing conclusions from findings pushes you to consider broader issues,
make n e w connections, and expand on the significance of your findings.
You are granted considerable leeway to express your o w n voice—to be flam-
boyant in stating your opinions about your findings. However, you are
required to make plausible explanations, speculate, and draw conclusions
warranted b y your findings. Your conclusions cannot b e subjective opinions.
Both your problem statement and y o u r literature review w e r e orga-
nized to lead the reader from a b r o a d general v i e w of the topic area to spe-
cific issues that b e c a m e the focal point of y o u r study. In this section, y o u
can reverse that approach and lead the reader from the particular findings
of your study toward generalized interpretations o f those findings.
HELPFUL HINT
REMEMBER
2. Don't confuse results and conclusions. Results are "just the facts," whereas
conclusions represent a higher level of abstraction-going beyond mere facts
to higher levels of interpretation, analysis, and synthesis of results. So don't
just restate the research findings.
4. Don't add anything in this section not previously presented in the results
chapter.
Concluding Remarks
I n c l u d e a w r a p - u p s t a t e m e n t that pulls together y o u r c o m m e n t s a n d
highlights the m a i n points o f the chapter. It is also appropriate to
include s o m e p e r s o n a l insights, beliefs, or inspirations d e r i v e d from
c o n d u c t i n g y o u r study.
(Continued)
7. Are generalizations confined to the population from which the sample was
drawn?
8. Are implications for action made that are not justified by the data?
Summary
C h a p t e r 5 of y o u r dissertation s u m m a r i z e s the entire dissertation a n d
interprets the findings. R e a d e r s frequently turn to this chapter first to
obtain a c o m p l e t e picture o f the research. F o r that reason, suggestions
o n the content a n d organization o f this final chapter w e r e offered a n d a
list o f questions to h e l p y o u reflect o n w h a t to i n c l u d e w a s p r o v i d e d .
N o w for the final ascent! Y o u n o w h a v e the o p p o r t u n i t y to defend
y o u r study. T h e n e x t chapter offers guidelines a b o u t the oral defense
meeting.
PART VI
and Beyond
—Tote Y a m a d a
Live your life each day as you would climb a mountain. An occa
sional glance toward the summit keeps the goal in mind.... Climb
slowly, steadily, enjoying each passing moment, and the view from
the summit will serve as a fitting climax for the journey.
— H a r o l d V. M e l c h e r t
183
16
D-Day
— M a r k Twain
o n e institution to another, b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e y i n c l u d e y o u r a d v i s o r a n d
other c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s , an outside reader representing the dean, and
other interested a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s a n d friends.
You s h o u l d s c h e d u l e y o u r oral defense o n l y w h e n y o u , y o u r advi
sor, a n d the c o m m i t t e e are satisfied that y o u r w o r k is substantially c o m
plete a n d reflects the standards o f high-quality research. R e m e m b e r , n o t
o n l y y o u r reputation is o n the line b u t also that o f y o u r advisor, w h o has
b e e n the principal g u i d e a n d e v a l u a t o r o f y o u r w o r k . It is i m p o r t a n t that
y o u present to c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s the b e s t p o s s i b l e final draft o f y o u r
dissertation—free o f g r a m m a t i c a l a n d t y p o g r a p h i c a l errors. A l l o w at
least t w o w e e k s for c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s to r e v i e w the final c o p y o f y o u r
dissertation.
In collaboration w i t h y o u r c o m m i t t e e , a r r a n g e for the date, time,
and p l a c e o f the defense. T h e defense date s h o u l d a l l o w sufficient t i m e
(three w e e k s m i n i m u m ) for the required p r o c e d u r e s a n d approvals.
A Defense Scenario
W h a t d o e s a n oral defense l o o k like? A l t h o u g h the format a n d roles m a y
v a r y from institution to institution a n d from advisor to advisor, m o s t
follow c o m m o n p r o c e d u r e s . H e r e is a scenario that represents a typical
oral defense.
4. Y o u a r e a s k e d to p r o v i d e a b r i e f o v e r v i e w o f y o u r s t u d y — n o t
m o r e t h a n 5 to 15 m i n u t e s . T h e o v e r v i e w s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e
following:
a. T h e p u r p o s e o f y o u r s t u d y a n d the research q u e s t i o n s
b . W h a t literature y o u found particularly helpful
c. T h e m e t h o d o l o g y u s e d (Include the p o p u l a t i o n a n d s a m p l e ,
y o u r i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d y o u r p r o c e s s for data collection a n d
analysis. A l s o i n c l u d e the rationale for selecting y o u r s a m p l e
a n d m e t h o d o f analysis.)
186 Final Ascent and View From the Top and Beyond
^ REMEMBER ^^^^^^^J
You may not officially use that title in your professional life, be monetarily
rewarded, or have new cards printed until you have completely finalized the dis-
sertation process and the doctorate is posted by the registrar.
REMEMBER
Summary
T h e oral defense o f y o u r dissertation represents the c u l m i n a t i o n o f y o u r
doctoral journey. It provides the opportunity to s p e a k publicly about
y o u r research a n d to defend it. This chapter p r o v i d e d an o v e r v i e w of the
process a n d s o m e helpful hints for prior to, during, a n d after the oral
defense. It can b e an exhilarating e x p e r i e n c e for y o u , y o u r c o m m i t t e e ,
friends, a n d family. N o w prepare for c o m m e n c e m e n t — t h a t special time
w h e n y o u stand o n top o f the m o u n t a i n .
L i k e all m o u n t a i n c l i m b s , h o w e v e r , y o u m u s t eventually d e s c e n d .
T h e n e x t chapter discusses the l e t - d o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d w a y s y o u can
m e n t o r others as t h e y a t t e m p t the s a m e journey. T h i s final chapter, titled
" T h e N e x t P e a k , " h e l p s y o u think a b o u t w a y s to d i s s e m i n a t e y o u r
s t u d y ' s findings to the k n o w l e d g e b a s e in y o u r field.
17
The Next Peak
—Mario Fernandez
The Descent
A s all climbers m u s t eventually d e s c e n d the m o u n t a i n and return to the
valley floor, so too m u s t dissertation writers return to n o r m a l life activi
ties and reflect o n future professional opportunities. E x p e r i e n c e d m o u n
taineers k n o w that the descent can b e difficult and rife w i t h dangers.
Doctoral students often report m i x e d feelings about c o m p l e t i ng their
192
The Next Peak 193
Letting Down
T h i s e m o t i o n a l l e t d o w n is quite n o r m a l g i v e n the t r e m e n d o u s pressure
a n d stress o f trying to j u g g l e o n e ' s p e r s o n a l a n d professional lives for
several years. T h e dissertation is a n o v e r p o w e r i n g p r e s e n c e that con
s u m e s all y o u r attention. E v e n t h o u g h there is a s e n s e o f relief in h a v i n g
it over, for m o s t there is also a s e n s e o f loss. M a k i n g the transition to a
n o r m a l life m a y take a w h i l e as y o u deal w i t h the m y r i a d feelings asso
ciated w i t h starting anew.
After the dissertation, y o u h a v e all these " e x t r a h o u r s . " Take s o m e
t i m e to regain y o u r e n e r g y a n d i n d u l g e y o u r s e l f in p l e a s u r a b l e p a s t i m e s
so often sacrificed—hobbies, m y s t e r y b o o k s , m o v i e s , v a c a t i o n s , regular
w o r k o u t s , a n d so on. Certainly, it is a g o o d idea to r e a c q u a i n t y o u r s e l f
w i t h family a n d friends w h o w e r e p r o b a b l y quite n e g l e c t e d d u r i n g y o u r
h o u r s o f isolated study.
N o t o n l y is it desirable to r e b a l a n c e y o u r p e r s o n a l life, b u t refocus
ing y o u r professional a g e n d a k e e p s y o u r career m o v i n g a h e a d . After all,
y o u p r o b a b l y d e c i d e d to e a r n the d o c t o r a t e to a d v a n c e y o u r career
goals. Y o u ' v e invested several y e a r s a n d t h o u s a n d s o f dollars to b e
called "doctor." H o w unfortunate if the scholarly w o r k y o u p r o d u c e d
gathers d u s t o n a shelf, s o o n to b e forgotten e x c e p t for b y those few
future researchers w h o m i g h t s t u m b l e across it. Your research s t u d y
a d d e d a n e w p i e c e to the a c a d e m i c p u z z l e in y o u r field a n d offers an
o p p o r t u n i t y for others to learn from y o u r research.
Mount Analogue
A l o n g the dissertation journey, y o u g a i n e d n e w k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s
d o m , h o n e d s o m e v a l u a b l e skills, g a i n e d c o n f i d e n c e in y o u r abilities as
a writer a n d scholar, a n d m a d e lasting friendships. H o w e v e r ,
Helping others
In 1 9 2 4 , a F r e n c h poet, R e n e D a u m a l , w r o t e an allegorical n o v e l titled
Mount Analogue. T h e m o u n t a i n s y m b o l i z e s a spiritual v o y a g e o f discov-
ery m u c h like Pilgrim's Progress. A s the adventurers in the story a s c e n d
the m o u n t a i n , t h e y discover strange, n e a r l y invisible crystals called
paradama, w h i c h are s y m b o l i c of rare a n d difficult truths found a l o n g the
spiritual path. D a u m a l died before c o m p l e t i n g the n o v e l b u t left these
w o r d s about o n e o f the b a s i c l a w s o f M o u n t A n a l o g u e : "To reach the
s u m m i t , o n e m u s t p r o c e e d from e n c a m p m e n t to e n c a m p m e n t . B u t
before setting o u t for the n e x t refuge, o n e m u s t prepare those c o m i n g
after to o c c u p y the p l a c e o n e is leaving.
To know the road ahead, ask those O n l y after h a v i n g p r e p a r e d t h e m , c a n
coming back. o n e g o o n u p " ( D a u m a l , 1986, p. 1 0 4 ) .
, Y o u will h a v e m a n y m o r e p e a k s to
-Chinese proverb ,. , . , . ,., T
c l i m b in y o u r career a n d m y o u r life . In
this p a r a b l e o f M o u n t A n a l o g u e ,
D a u m a l (1924) exhorts us n o t to forget t h o s e w h o follow in o u r foot-
steps. H e r e are s o m e w a y s in w h i c h y o u can m e n t o r others as they
attempt their j o u r n e y to the top.
Mentoring
There is n o greater gift to those w h o follow in y o u r footsteps than b e i n g
available to lend a h e l p i n g h a n d as they attempt the dissertation journey.
O n e w a y is to act as an on-the-job c o a c h for doctoral students w h o w o r k
in y o u r place of e m p l o y m e n t . Frequently, there are opportunities to help
t h e m apply course w o r k to real situations, provide straight-scoop infor-
m a t i o n about the challenges o f dissertating, a n d offer e n c o u r a g e m e n t
and support w h e n they falter along the path.
k n o w l e d g e . R e m e m b e r , y o u a r e n o w a n e x p e r t , an a u t h o r i t y o n y o u r
subject, a n d e x p e c t e d to m a k e w i s e j u d g m e n t s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
in y o u r s p e c i a l area.
It is n a t u r a l to w a n t to a v o i d e v e n l o o k i n g at y o u r dissertation after
w o r k i n g o n it so h a r d a n d s o long. H o w e v e r , letting it sit o n the shelf for
a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e risks n e v e r taking it to the n e x t step o f sharing
y o u r results w i t h a w i d e r a u d i e n c e . It also k e e p s y o u from taking full
a d v a n t a g e o f the professional opportunities it affords y o u . I n s t e a d o f
i g n o r i n g it permanently, t a k e the t i m e that y o u d e v o t e d e a c h w e e k to
w r i t i n g the dissertation a n d w o r k o n w a y s to d i s s e m i n a t e y o u r research
a n d e x t e n d y o u r professional n e t w o r k . P r e s e n t i n g y o u r research, creat
i n g p r o d u c t s , a n d p u b l i s h i n g are w a y s to d i s s e m i n a t e y o u r findings.
Unfortunately, v e r y few dissertations e n d u p b e i n g p u b l i s h e d . In m y
e x p e r i e n c e , s t u d e n t s are just plain w o r n o u t from their y e a r s o f doctoral
s t u d y — c o m p l e t i n g c o u r s e w o r k a n d w r i t i n g the dissertation. T h e y often
feel as if t h e y n e g l e c t e d their family a n d t h e m s e l v e s too l o n g a n d w a n t
to get o n w i t h their lives. Very few take the time to d o the m a j o r rewrites
necessary to turn their dissertation into a publishing format.
N o n e t h e l e s s , p r e s e n t i n g or p u b l i s h i n g y o u r results to a w i d e r a u d i e n c e
t h a n y o u r c o m m i t t e e is o n e o f the b e s t w a y s to contribute k n o w l e d g e to
y o u r field a n d a d v a n c e y o u r professional life.
1. W h a t y o u learned: 2 m i n u t e s (a v e r y general s t a t e m e n t as an
introduction)
2. Your m e t h o d o l o g y : 3 m i n u t e s
196 Final Ascent and View From the Top and Beyond
3. A detailed s u m m a r y o f y o u r results: 5 m i n u t e s
Poster Sessions
Poster sessions advertise y o u r research—usually at a conference or
seminar. A poster is a visual l a y o u t that depicts y o u r research study.
Posters s h o u l d b e informative a n d artistic, a c o m b i n a t i o n o f text a n d
graphics such as tables a n d graphs for a visually p l e a s i n g display. Your
poster s h o u l d contain o n l y the crucial points o f y o u r research, such as
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion and conclusions
• Future directions
• A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s a n d references
Online
a c q u i s i t i o n a n d s p e e d i n g d e l i v e r y to t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d " (http://www
.dissertation.com).
Bolker, J. (1998). Writing your dissertation in fifteen minutes a day. New York:
Henry Holt. (See chapter "Life After the Dissertation.")
Klausmeier, H. (2001). Research writing in education and psychology—From plan
ning to publication. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Creating Products
Chapter 5 of dissertations usually contains a section titled
" I m p l i c a t i o n s for A c t i o n , " in w h i c h the a u t h o r m a k e s c o n c r e t e s u g g e s
tions to p r a c t i t i o n e r s in the field that are directly related to the s t u d y ' s
198 Final Ascent and View From the Top and Beyond
Summary
C o m m e n c e m e n t is the j o y o u s celebration o f h i g h a c h i e v e m e n t — a
mountain-top e x p e r i e n c e . H o w e v e r , all c l i m b e r s m u s t eventually
d e s c e n d a n d return to n o r m a l life. S o m e e x p e r i e n c e an e m o t i o n a l let
d o w n w i t h feelings o f loss—quite n o r m a l following s u c h a long, ardu
ous journey. T h i s is the t i m e to regain energy, indulge in pleasurable
p a s t i m e s , a n d think a h e a d . Your n e x t p e a k represents the o p p o r t u n i t y to
contribute to others as a m e n t o r a n d contribute further to the k n o w l
e d g e b a s e in y o u r field. S o m e s u g g e s t i o n s w e r e offered in this chapter,
such as (1) presenting y o u r research at conferences as a presenter or in
a poster session; (2) s p e a k i n g about y o u r research to v a r i o u s organiza
tions; (3) p u b l i s h i n g y o u r research online, in j o u r n a l s , or in a b o o k ; a n d
(4) creating products as follow-up to research r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .
Parting Thoughts
I hope you found the suggestions and approaches offered in this book
useful and valuable on your journey to complete the dissertation. I
also hope your journey is an enjoyable one and results in one of the most
rewarding personal experiences of your life. I leave you with two simple
but powerful thoughts.
Be positive! A positive mental attitude, more than any other factor,
will determine whether you complete your dissertation or not. View
obstacles as plateaus on the way to the summit and find ways to surmount
them. Persistence and determination
are what it takes to finish. Don't give Success is never the result of
up no matter how much it starts to spontaneous combustion. You must
hurt—just shift gears and keep going. set yourself on fire.
Nothing great comes without a price. -Arnold Glasow
Get it done! Don't wait for inspira-
tion. Develop a sense of urgency about
completing your dissertation. No matter how brilliant or talented you
are, if you don't have a sense of urgency, develop it now. Tomorrow is
not a day of the week.
Good luck and God bless!
199
200
Appendix Α: Sample Dissertation Timeline—Gantt Chart
J A S 0 Ν D J F Μ A Μ J J A S Ο Ν D J F Μ A Μ J J A S
Admission to Candidacy •
Select Advisor
Committee Approval
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Write Chapter 4
Write Chapter 5
Oral Defense
Final Typing
Manuscript Review
8. Student demographics X X AD
9. Staffing X X AD
(Continued)
201
202 The Dissertation Journey
(Continued)
14. Facilities X X AV
INT = Interview
OB = Observation
S O U R C E = S o u r c e o f data
C = C e n t r a l / d i s t r i c t / c o u n t y office p e r s o n
A = A d m i n i s t r a t o r / c o u n s e l o r / p u b l i c relations p e r s o n
Τ = Teacher
S = Student
Ρ = Parent
Η = A r t s area c h a i r p e r s o n
SAMPLE LETTER
Barbara Smith
5 6 9 3 M a y f l o w e r Dr.
M i s s i o n Viejo, C A 9 4 7 3 2
A p r i l 15, 2 0 0 4
Dear Principal/Teacher:
203
204 The Dissertation Journey
in a n organization. N o r m s c a n b e p r o d u c t i v e or n o n p r o d u c t i v e regard
ing the goals o f the organization.
Sincerely,
L y n n Bogart, Principal
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE
Croup Behaviors and Restructuring Questionnaire
Part 1
Please a n s w e r the following q u e s t i o n s relative to the b e h a v i o r s a c c e p t e d
b y the staff as "the w a y things h a p p e n a r o u n d h e r e . "
Directions
To w h a t degree d o e s e a c h o f the n o r m s b e l o w o p e r a t e in y o u r
school?
P l e a s e r e s p o n d a c c o r d i n g to the following scale:
1. Staff m e m b e r s m a k e s u g g e s t i o n s in m e e t i n g s .
8. S c h o o l w i d e decisions are m a d e b y c o n s e n s u s .
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
the staff.
3 5 . Staff m e m b e r s c o m p l a i n a b o u t c h a n g e s g o i n g o n in the
school.
3 6 . Staff m e m b e r s are i n v o l v e d in s o l v i n g c u r r i c u l u m and
instructional p r o b l e m s .
4 3 . T e a c h e r s m a k e collective agreements to p a r t i c i p a t e in
programs.
4 4 . Parents o p e n l y q u e s t i o n s c h o o l w i d e practices.
Part 2
1. M a n y schools in California are i n v o l v e d in s o m e form o f s c h o o l
reform or restructuring, w h i l e several h a v e c h o s e n n o t to b e
208 The Dissertation Journey
1 2 3 4 5 6
2. If participating in restructuring, h o w m a n y y e a r s h a s y o u r s c h o o l
been involved? year(s)
Part 3
Directions
1 2 3 4 5 6
_ 3. S u p p o r t for the c h a n g e p r o c e s s
_ 4. S u p p o r t for c o n t i n u o u s i m p r o v e m e n t
7. E m p h a s i s o n real-life p e r f o r m a n c e a s s e s s m e n t s o f s t u d e n t
learning
Thank you very much for your time in responding to this questionnaire.
P l e a s e p u t y o u r c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e in the w h i t e e n v e l o p e attached
to the form. Seal the w h i t e e n v e l o p e a n d p l a c e it in the large b r o w n col
lection e n v e l o p e . To protect the confidentiality o f y o u r r e s p o n s e s , the
w h i t e e n v e l o p e s will b e o p e n e d o n l y b y the researcher.
210
N u m b e r a n d P e r c e n t a g e o f Teachers a n d P r i n c i p a l s R e p o r t i n g the P r e s e n c e o f R i s k - T a k i n g N o r m s A c c o r d i n g to T h r e e
Categories of School Restructuring
or programs.
15. Staff members Τ 1.9 27.1 42 60.0 9 1.9 59 45.01 68 51.9 4 3.1 57 59.3 39 40.7 0 0
describe to others an Ρ 4 40.0 5 50.0 1 10.0 6 35.3 8 47.1 3 17.6 7 58.4 5 41.6 0 0
attempt to try
something new.
19. Teachers suggest that τ 21 30.0 38 54.3 11 15.7 50 38.2 69 52.7 12 9.2 44 45.9 42 54.1 0 0
others "try this." Ρ 2 20.0 7 70.0 1 10.0 8 47.1 9 52.9 0 0 3 25.0 8 66.7 1 8.3
23. The staff accepts τ 21 30.0 38 54.3 11 15.8 65 49.6 60 45.8 6 4.6 72 75 24 25.1 0 0
SOURCE: Bogart, L., Identification of Behavioral Norms in Restructuring and Traditional Schools, doctoral dissertation, University of La Verne, 1995. Reprinted with permission.
Appendix Ε
Chapter 1
Statement of the Problem
1. Is the b a c k g r o u n d o f the p r o b l e m clearly p r e s e n t e d ?
5. Is there a n e e d to k n o w ?
211
212 The Dissertation Journey
Purpose Statement
15. Is the p u r p o s e o f the s t u d y stated clearly a n d succinctly?
Research Questions
17. A r e the research questions w e l l stated?
ο Clear variables
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
23. Is the review o f the literature c o m p r e h e n s i v e ? (i.e., D o e s it c o v e r
the major points o f the topic?)
Appendix Ε 213
32. D o the direct quotations detract from the readability o f the chapter?
Chapter 3
Methodology
Kind of Research
34. Is the k i n d o f research a n d research d e s i g n d e s c r i b e d fully? (case
study, descriptive, e x p e r i m e n t a l , etc.)
40. Was the kind o f sampling used described adequately? (simple ran
d o m , stratified random, cluster sampling, purposive sampling, etc.)
Instrumentation
45. Is a rationale g i v e n for the selection o f the instruments u s e d ?
ο C o m p u t e r support?
Data Analysis
5 9 . W e r e the statistics a p p r o p r i a t e for the s t u d y ?
64. A r e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l w e a k n e s s e s o f the s t u d y d i s c u s s e d ?
Chapter 4
Findings
65. A r e the findings p r e s e n t e d clearly?
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Summary
73. Is there a brief s u m m a r y o f the p r o b l e m , the m e t h o d o l o g y , a n d
the findings?
216 The Dissertation Journey
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221
Index
Abascal, J. R., 3
Beile, P., 85
Abstracts, 23
Bias:
Academic honesty, 43
bias-free writing, 40-41
Acknowledgment page, 24
Bibliographies, 2 5 - 2 6
Advisors, 27, 2 9 , 5 3
Blogs, 78, 79-80
appointment of advisors, 60
Bogart, L., 2 0 9 , 2 1 0
Standards, 32
Codes of ethics, 3 1 - 3 2
Anonymity, 35
Colomb, G. G., 3 9 , 4 0 , 1 1 9
Anxieties, 15-16
Commitment, 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 1 2 , 1 9 9
Appendixes, 26
Committee approval page, 23
Applied degrees, 1 8 , 1 9
Committee members, 2 7 , 2 9
Archival research, 3 4 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 3
care/maintenance guidelines and, 56-59
Ask.com, 78
feedback from, 57, 58
Attitude, 3-4, 7 , 1 5 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 9 9
regular contact with, 58-59
Audit trail, 38
responsibilities of, 55
Author-subtopic matrix, 98
selection of, 55-56
222
Index 223
Conclusions chapter, 2 5 , 1 7 7
Deliminations of studies, 138-139, 212
Conferencing software, 81
technical assistance and, 61
Connotea software, 97
writing assistance and, 61
Contingency enforcement, 65
defense; Proposal meeting; Support
Controlled vocabulary, 89
groups
Copyright infringement, 43
Dissertation timelines, 66, 69, 200
Copyright page, 23
Dissertation.com, 196-197
Couper, M., 81
research-oriented vs. applied degrees, 18-19
Courage, 15-16
See also Post-graduation activities
Cox, J., 1 4 7 , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6
Doldrums, 10-11
138,144,148
Emotions:
Data analysis/interpretation,
dissertation journey and, 10
38, 8 2 , 1 5 8 - 1 6 2 , 215
EndNote software, 97
anonymity and, 35
Ethics. See Codes of ethics; Human subjects
gatekeepers and, 37
recording of data, 3 7 - 3 8
Fears, 15-16
Fink, Α., 89
data collection function and, 81-82
Firewall software, 84
Deep Web searches, 78
First drafts, 7 , 1 2 , 1 1 2
dissertation process and, 7 6 - 8 2 , 2 2 2
Fitzpatrick, J., 71
dissertation purchase site, 98
Flores, T., 14
dissertation support group strategies, 64
Gall, M. D., 99
Google Blog Search, 80
Gatekeeper role, 37
professional consultants, 61-62
Gay, L. R., 1 4 5 , 1 4 8 , 1 4 9
published dissertations, 196-197
Geery, L„ 132,133
qualitative research and, 146-147
Generalizability, 3 9 , 1 6 2
quantitative research and, 147
Genesys software, 81
research ethics, 3 2 , 4 3
Glatthorn, Α. Α., 1 7 3 , 1 9 5
scholarly writing resources, 120-121
Google Scholar, 78
specialty search engines, 78
Google searches, 78
virtual libraries, 78
Graduation, 1 9 2 , 1 9 8
Web 2.0 and, 79
activities
See also Library resources; Literature review;
Hart, C , 85
delimitations section, 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 , 2 1 2
Hibbs, S., 7
existing research, study fit and, 126-127
High achievement, 14
funnel-shaped form and, 1 2 3 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 (figures)
Huberman, A. M., 3 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 6
line of logic and, 125
Hypotheses, 136-137
purpose statement, 1 3 4 - 1 3 6 , 2 1 2
research questions/hypotheses, 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 , 2 1 2
Illustrations, 24
terminology, definition of, 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 , 2 1 2
Individual rights, 31
Instrumentation, 1 5 1 - 1 5 7 , 1 6 4 , 2 1 4
Library resources:
Internet resources, 76
electronic search capability, 82
codes of ethics, 32
literature review process and, 88
Index 225
virtual libraries, 78
MacSpeech Dictate, 81
author-subtopic matrix, 98
Melendrez, D., 201
classification of materials, 96
Methodology selection/description chapter, 25,141
phases of, 86
interrater reliability and, 152
plagiarism and, 9 9 , 1 0 8
introduction of methodology, 148
preparation for, 88
logical positivism and, 142
primary sources, 9 6 , 1 0 8 - 1 0 9
mixed methods research,
purchasing dissertations, 98
participant letter sample, 203-204
purpose of, 8 6 - 8 7
phenomenology and, 143
question formulation, 89
population/sample section, 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 ,
scope of, 8 7 - 8 8
qualitative research, 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 , 1 4 4 (figure),
and, 89
Michael, W. B., 1 4 9 , 1 7 6
truncation symbols, 91
Mills, G., 148
97-98, 97 (figure)
Mixed methods research, 1 4 4 - 1 4 6 , 1 4 5 (figure)
wikis and, 80
Narrative hooks, 128
Literature review
Negative mental attitude, 3 , 1 5
Logic, 125
Neuman, W. L., 148
Nietzsche, R, 13
Planning. See Oral defense;
0 Dochartaigh, N„ 79
Piano Clark, V. L., 148
O'Conner, R, 120
Populations, 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 , 2 1 3 - 2 1 4
Ogden, E., 4 9 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 8
Positive mental attitude, 1 5 , 1 9 9
Oliver, P., 38
Post-graduation activities, 192
Organization/planning, 67
literature sources and, 126-127
9 6 - 9 8 , 9 7 (figure)
See also Introduction chapter
workspace, 67-68
Product development, 197-198
Outliers, 39
candidate preparation for, 167
Palm OS, 80
during-meeting activities, 167-169
Paraphrasing, 4 0 , 1 1 9
expectations/procedures, agreement on, 168
Parkinson's Law, 9 - 1 0
final draft, distribution of, 167
Pascarelli, E., 84
purpose/procedures of, 167
Patton, M. Q., 1 4 4 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 6
scheduling meetings, 166-167
Peak experience, 3
Proposals for dissertations, 27-28
Peer debriefing, 38
Proquest Dissertation Express, 98
Perfectionism, 12
Prospectus for dissertation, 27
Perseverance, 1 4 , 1 1 2 , 1 9 9
Protection from harm, 29, 32
Phenomenology, 143
Purpose statement, 134
Index 227
anonymity and, 35
Qualifiers, 115,180
archival research and, 34
Qualitative methodology, 2 1 - 2 2 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 , 1 4 4
bias and, 3 8 , 4 0 , 41
(figure)
codes of ethics, 32
ethnography, 143
generalizability and, 39
Quantitative methodology, 2 1 , 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 ,
resources for, 4 3 - 4 4
1 3 1 - 1 3 4 , 1 3 3 (figure)
voluntary participation in
Quitting, 14
planning for writing, 174
presentation of findings, 1 7 4 - 1 7 6 , 1 7 6
172-173
Rallis, S. F., 3 1 , 1 4 6
quantitative study, computer printout
2 5 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 1 , 216
resources for, 176
Reference section, 25
understanding data and, 172-173
RefWorks database, 97
Results reporting, 3 9 , 4 0 - 4 1
Relationships studies, 1 3 4 , 1 3 5
Resumes, 23
Relaxation response, 15
Reviews. See Literature review chapter
Reliability, 151,152
Rewards:
Replication studies, 5 1 - 5 2
successful effort and, 72
Roig, M , 39
word processing professional, 61
Rossman, G. B., 3 1 , 1 4 6
writing assistance, 61
Scanner technology, 80
Staindack, W., 142
Schuller, R. H., 3
validation strategies and, 38
Schultz, B„ 3 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 3
See also Internet resources; Literature review
SearchEngineGuide.com, 78
Style manuals, 105
Secrist, J., 71
Synthesis writing
Self-discipline, 9
Summary tables, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 1 0 6
Self-doubt, 16
Support groups, 10-11, 63
Self-motivation, 2-4, 8
conferencing software and, 81
rewarding effort, 72
virtual support groups, 66
saying no, 71
See also Dissertation team
management
Swartz, E., 38
Sotero software, 97
Synthesis writing, 99-101
Specialized consultants, 60
literature map, construction of, 102
sources for, 6 1 - 6 2
literature synthesis, techniques for, 101-102
technical assistance, 61
style manuals and, 105
Index 229
Table of contents, 2 3 - 2 4
U.S. Copyright Office, 23
Tables, 2 4 , 1 7 3 - 1 7 4 , 1 7 5 , 210
Utilitarianism principle, 31
Taylor, B. J., 43
Validation strategies, 3 8 , 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 , 214
Technical consultants, 61
Virtual libraries, 78
Technology, 76
Virtual support groups, 66
conferencing software, 81
Vitas, 23
firewall software, 84
Walkington, Β. Α., 1 5 5 , 1 6 2
instructional technology
Wallnau, L. Β., 147
centers and, 82
Web 2.0, 79
scanners, 80
White, Ε. B., 114,116
Teddlie, C , 148
Windows Speech Recognition, 81
Terminology:
Work-life balance. See Balance in life
resources for, 89
World Wide Web. See
Worry, 15-16
Conceptual/theoretical framework
Wright, D. J., 71
Thesauri, 89
Wright, Κ. B., 81
and,57-58
Writing consultants, 61
making time, 68
manuals; Synthesis writing; Writing
scheduling, 68-69
techniques
timeline monitoring
Writing techniques:
function, 65, 66
advice on writing process, 107-109
approaches to, 4 6 - 4 7
Yahoo! Search, 78
originality/significance and, 49
Education (NSSE), 49
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