ASHRAE Fundamentals of Water System PDF

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Fundamentals of
Water System Design
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A Fundamentals of HVAC&R Series
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Self-Directed Learning Course
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1791 Tullie Circle NE • Atlanta, GA 30329 • www.ashrae.org

ASHRAE Learning Institute
Fundamentals of
Water System Design
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(SI Edition)
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Prepared by
Richard A. Hegberg, P.E.
Hegberg & Associates
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Australian Institute of Refrigeration,
Air Conditioning & Heating, Inc.
SI Conversion sponsored by the

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Air Conditioning & Heating Inc.
Fundamentals of Water System Design SI
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

• Instructions
• Study Objectives for Chapter 1
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• 1.1 Introductory Concepts
• 1.2 Basic System Components
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• 1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems
• 1.4 Load Systems
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
• Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1
Chapter 2
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• Instructions
• 2.1
• 2.2
Basic Considerations
Design Philosophy
• 2.3 Sizing Piping
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• 2.4 Flow Rate Measurement
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings

• Instructions
• 3.1 Pipe Materials
• 3.2 Corrosion
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• 3.3 Valves and Fittings

• 3.4 Backflow-Prevention Devices
• 3.5 Pipe Selection
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of Contents

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Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps

• Instructions
• 4.1 Types of Pumps
• 4.2 Pump Selection
• 4.3 System Design Considerations
• The Next Step
• Summary
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• Bibliography
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Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control

• Instructions
• 5.1 Types of Terminals
• 5.2
• 5.3
• 5.4 Eg
Performance and Control
System Control Characteristics
System Control Configurations
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
• Instructions
• 6.1 Open and Closed Water Systems
• 6.2 Hydronic Accessories
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• 6.3 Sizing Expansion Tanks

• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water System Design

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Chapter 7 Piping System Development

• Instructions
• 7.1 Piping System Design
• 7.2 Direct Return Analysis
• 7.3 Reverse Return Analysis
• 7.4 Primary-Secondary Analysis
• 7.5 Types of Pumps and Valves
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• 7.6 Primary-Secondary Application Study
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• 7.7 Antifreeze Solutions for Low Temperature Applications
• 7.8 Pumping Design Factors
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
Chapter 8
•
•
•
•
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Instructions
Study Objectives for Chapter 8
8.1
8.2
Matching the Pump to the System
Parallel Pumping
• 8.3 Series Pumping
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• 8.4 Standby Pumps
• 8.5 Trimming Pump Impellers
• 8.6 Two-Speed Pumping
• 8.7 Variable Speed Pumping
• 8.8 Source Distribution Pumping
• The Next Step
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• Summary
• Bibliography
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Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of Contents

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Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control

• Instructions
• 9.1 Basic Water Chiller Components
• 9.2 Refrigeration Cycle
• 9.3 Heat Transfer Chiller
• 9.4 Refrigeration Power
• 9.5 Chiller Types and Control
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• 9.6 Chiller Piping Arrangements
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• 9.7 Chiller Energy Performance
• 9.8 Thermal Storage
• Summary
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
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Skill Development Exercises for All Chapters
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Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water System Design

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Chapter 1
Water System Design Concepts
Contents of Chapter 1
• Instructions
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• 1.1 Introductory Concepts
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• 1.2 Basic System Components
• 1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems
• 1.4 Load Systems
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Instructions
Read Chapter 1 and, at the end of the chapter, answer all of the questions.
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After studying the material in this chapter, you should:
• Know what determines the load.

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• Understand the difference between closed and open systems.

• Know the components of a hydronic system.
• Understand heating versus cooling source devices.
• Understand how systems meet part-load conditions.
• Be able to identify temperature and pressure ranges for low, medium and high
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temperature water systems.

• Know what sensible, latent and total heat loads are and how they affect design
water flow.
• Be able to identify examples of heating and cooling load devices.
• Know how load diversity suggests a reduction in total cooling capacity required.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

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1.1 Introductory Concepts
Water system design depends on the designer's ability to evaluate the space loads, occupancy pat-
terns and indoor environment requirements. This chapter examines the actual process of water
system design and provides information on how to evaluate space loads. It also provides strategiesand
formulas for mastering the key requirements for water systems.
Water systems that convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled water
are frequently called hydronic systems. In general, these systems employ centrifugal pumps to
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force water flow from a heating or a cooling source to the conditioned space or load by means of
various piping, pumping, con-
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trol and terminal arrange-
ments.1
Given the design require-

ments, it is the designer’s task
to evaluate the space loads re-
sulting from building con-
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struction, weather distribution,
occupancy patterns, indoor en-
vironment requirements and
other internal loads to deter-
mine the total load (see Fig-
ure 1–1), subject to the local
building codes. The loads in- Figure 1–1. Source-Load
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clude: transmission, solar ra-
diation, infiltration, ventilation
air, people, lights, power, ap-
pliances and materials in and
out.2,3
The historical weather distri-

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bution for the project location

is important, and a means to
control the systems at part-
load conditions to maintain
comfort conditions for the oc-
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cupants must be studied for

proper design. The designer
must weigh the cost of the
source utilities available, and
also the efficiencies of boilers
and chillers or other hydronic
sources to determine the most
efficient system design (see
Figure 1–2. Source–Distribution–Load
Figure 1–2). The system must
Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

1: 3
be able to operate between part-load and full-load conditions. In many cases, the hydronic system
is a support system providing the heating or cooling medium for heat transfer equipment in an air
distribution system. This
course is intended to ac-
quaint the student with the
various hydronic principles
and practices available for
consideration in a project’s
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design concept.
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Figure 1–3 shows the ba-
sic components of a hy-
dronic system that the de-
signer must define for an
HVAC system; namely, a
source of heating or cool-
ing, a distribution system
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and the load components.
There are different classi-
fications of hydronic sys-
tems; the most common
types are summarized be-
low. As you familiarize
yourself with the various TWO-WAY THREE-WAY
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systems, remember that CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE
different factors may come
into play for each. Figure 1–3. Source – Distribution – Part-Load
Water systems may be

closed or open types. The fundamental difference between them is the interface of the water with a
compressible gas (such as air) or an elastic surface (such as a diaphragm). A closed water system is
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defined as one with no more than one point of interface with a compressible gas (air) or surface (see
Figure 1–4). This definition is fundamental to understanding the hydraulic dynamics of these sys-
tems (to be discussed under expansion chambers).
An open system has more than one such interface. For example, a cooling tower has at least two
points of interface: the tower basin and the discharge pipe or nozzles entering the tower.
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In Figure 1–5, the difference between the hydraulics of the systems becomes evident as one ana-
lyzes the two systems. However, one major difference is that certain hydraulic characteristics of
open systems do not occur in closed systems. For example, in a closed system:
• Flow cannot be motivated by static head differences;

• Pumps do not provide static lift; and,
• The entire piping system is always filled with water.
These factors affect the installation and operating costs of the system over its service life.

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Distribution
Pump
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Figure 1–4. Hydronic System Fundamentals (Closed System)
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Closed water systems are classified
by operating temperature. (While
these classifications are defined by
the ASME Boiler Codes and provide
a useful means of categorizing wa-
ter systems, Australasian students
should be aware that boiler systems
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are also classified under Australian
Standards according to construction,
type, pressure rating, output capac-
ity and fuel type.) Closed water sys-
tems are classified as follows:
• Low temperature water
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(LTW) system. This hydronic heat-

ing system operates within the pres-
sure and temperature limits of the
ASME Boiler Code for low-pressure
boilers (see Figure 1-6). The maxi-
mum allowable working pressure for
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low pressure boilers is 1100 kPa, Figure 1–5. Cooling Tower (Open System)
with a maximum temperature of
120°C. The usual maximum work-
ing pressure for LTW boiler systems is 200 kPa, although boilers specifically designed, tested and
stamped for higher pressures are frequently used. Steam-to-water and water-to-water heat exchangers
are also used for heating low temperature water.
• Medium temperature water (MTW) system. This hydronic heating system operates at
temperatures between 120°C and 125°C, with pressures not exceeding 1100 kPa (see Figure 1–7).
The design supply water temperature is approximately 120°C to 150°C, with a pressure rating of
1000 kPa for boilers and equipment.
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Figure 1–6. Low Temperature Water System – Direct or Reverse Return
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Piping Connections for Two or More Boilers in HTW Systems

Pressurized by Steam or Nitrogen Gas
Figure 1–7. Medium or High Temperature Water System

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• High temperature water (HTW) system. This hydronic heating system operates at tem-
peratures over 175°C, with pressures not exceeding 2070 kPa. The maximum design supply water
temperature is about 200°C, with a pressure rating for boilers and equipment of 2070 kPa (see
Figure 1–7). The pressure/temperature rating of each component should be checked for compli-
ance with the system’s design versus the manufacturer’s rating.
• Chilled water (CHW) system. A hydronic cooling system normally operates with a design
supply water temperature of 4°C to 13°C (usually 6°C or 7°C) within a pressure range of 825 kPa.
Figure 1–8 shows a small- to medium-sized system with constant speed pumping employing three-
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way valves to ensure constant flow in the chiller source and balancing valves on each load for flow
measurement and adjustment. Larger systems may employ two-way control valves and different
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chiller piping and pumping arrangements to reduce pumping power.
Antifreeze or brine solutions may be used for applications (process applications) that require tem-
peratures below 4°C or for coil freeze protection. Well or bore water systems can use supply tem-
peratures of 15°C or higher.
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Figure 1–8. Chilled Water System – Direct Return Piping

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• Dual temperature water system. This hydronic combination heating and cooling system
circulates hot and/or chilled water through separate supply and return pipes to common terminal
coils (see Figure 1–9). This system operates within the pressure and temperature limits of LTW
systems, with usual winter design supply water temperatures of about 35°C to 65°C and summer
supply water temperatures of 4°C to 7°C. System design should consider protection to prevent
temperature shock to the chiller or boiler on cycle changeover.

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Eg Figure 1–9. Dual Temperature, Four Pipe Water System
• Condenser water (CW) system. Open water systems are typically used in refrigeration
condenser water systems as once-through or cooling tower systems. (Once-through systems may
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not be legally allowed in Australia and other countries if connected to mains water supply.) Figure
1–10 shows a water cooled condenser using bore or river water. The return is run higher than the
condenser so that the condenser is always full of water. Water flow through the condenser is modu-
lated by a control valve in the supply line. This is usually actuated by condenser head pressure to
maintain a constant condensing temperature with load variations.
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Figure 1–10. Condenser Open Water System (Once Through)

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Figure 1-11a shows a cooling tower application.4 The basic requirements for any cooling tower
pipework are to ensure that the condenser water pump suction is flooded so that it has sufficient net
positive suction head to operate without cavitation and to ensure a positive head on the pump
flanges and seals. The pipework arrangement should also prevent water from draining back to the
cooling tower on pump shutdown; this may cause the sump to overflow, resulting in loss of water
and chemicals to waste. This is often facilitated by using a check valve fitted on the discharge side
of the pump. Figure 1–11b shows two cooling tower applications to protect against low outdoor
temperature conditions. Water flows to the pump from the tower basin, and the level should be
above the top of the pump casing for positive prime, and piping pressure drop should be minimized.
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Eg Figure 1–11a. Condenser Cooling Tower System
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Figure 1–11b. Condenser Cooling Tower System Inside Reservoir or Heated Sump

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1.2 Basic System Components
Figure 1–12 shows the fundamental components of a closed hydronic system. Actual systems
generally have additional components (such as valves, vents, etc.), but these are not essential to the
basic principles underlying the concept of the system. These fundamental components are:
• Source system
• Load system
• Pump system
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• Distribution system
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• Expansion chamber
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Figure 1–12. Hydronic System Fundamental Components
Source. The source is the point where heat is added in a heating system or removed from a cooling
system. Ideally, the amount of energy entering or leaving the source equals the amount entering or
leaving through the load system. Under steady-state conditions, the load energy and source energy
are equal and opposite. In reality, energy conversion and/or transfer is not perfect and the source
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has an efficiency of less than 100%. Each type of source has its own efficiency characteristics as a
function of load. You must consider this source efficiency in the system design process. Any de-
vice that can be used to heat or cool water under controlled conditions can be used as a source
device. Sources typically function in one of two ways:
• By converting chemical, electrical or solar energy to heat, which is then transferred to

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water in the system; or

• By transferring heat from one system to another.
The most common source devices for heating and cooling systems are:
• Heating source devices: Hot water generator or boiler; steam-to-water heat exchanger
(see Figure 1-13); water-to-water heat exchanger (see Figure 1-13); solar collector pan-
els; heat recovery or salvage heat device; exhaust gas heat exchanger; incinerator heat
exchanger; heat pump condenser; and air-to-water heat exchanger.
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• Cooling source devices: Electric compression chiller (see Figure 1-14); thermal absorp-
tion chiller (see Figure 1-14); heat pump evaporator; air-to-water heat exchanger; and
water-to-water heat exchanger.
A typical large chilled water system with multiple chillers, various load controls and compound
pumping is shown in Figure 1–14. This system provides variable flow, constant supply tempera-
ture chilled water, multiple chillers, two-way valve control and the advantage of adding chilled
water storage. One design issue shown is the placement of the common pipe for the chillers. With
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the common pipe located at the opposite end of the chiller production section, the chillers will
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unload from right to left. With the common pipe in the alternate location (between the chilled water
production and the loads), the chillers will load and unload equally in proportion to their capacity
(see Chapter 9 for further discussion).
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Figure 1–13. Steam-to-Water or Water-to-Water Heat Exchanger

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Figure 1–14. Multiple Chiller-Variable Flow Chilled Water System

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The two primary considerations in selecting a source device are the design capacity and the part-
load capability, which when combined define the turndown ratio. The turndown ratio, expressed in
percent of design capacity, is:
⎛ Minimum Capacity ⎞ 1–1

Turndown Ratio = 100 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Design Capacity ⎠
The reciprocal of the turndown ratio is sometimes used. For example, a turndown ratio of 25% may
also be expressed as a turndown ratio of 4.
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The turndown ratio has a significant effect on the successful performance of a system, and lack of
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consideration for this capability of the source system has been responsible for many systems that
do not function properly or do so at the expense of excess energy consumption. The turndown ratio
has a significant impact on the ultimate system design selection because operating efficiencies tend
to decrease as the turndown ratio decreases.
Generally, the larger the boiler or chiller on a single unit basis, the more difficult it is to achieve
acceptable operation efficiencies and, therefore, acceptable costs for the low load portion of its
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seasonal operation. Seasonal operation at less than 50% load can, in the case of heating, be over
50% of its total duty hours; in northern climates, a similar ratio may occur during cooling seasons.
This presents the designer with a dilemma. You must specify a system that meets the maximum
requirements, but in doing that, the system may operate ineffectively for most of its duty season.
One approach to solving this dilemma is by using multiple sources of lower capacity (see Figure
1-14).
Another design consideration is the diversity of the cooling load. Carrier5 states that “diversity of
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cooling load results from the probable non-occurrence of part of the cooling load on a design day.
Diversity factors are applied to the refrigeration capacity in large air-conditioning systems. These
factors vary with location, type and size of the application, and are based entirely on the judgment
of the engineer.”
The diversity factor, as a ratio of actual load/design load, can be applied to people and lighting
loads in large multistory office, hotel or apartment buildings. For example, in an office building,
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the diversity factor for the refrigeration capacity due to people may be from 0.75 to 0.90 and, due to
the lighting, from 0.70 to 0.85. In addition, the design engineer must consider the storage load
factors for heat gain due to lighting and solar gains by glass.
Specific methods of load control for chilled water plants will be discussed later in this course. But,
the following example shows that improved control and reduced operating costs will result if two
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or more chillers of lower capacity are considered rather than a single large unit. Under part-load
operation, the excess capacity is reduced by phasing out units, allowing the remaining units to
operate at greater efficiencies and with lower costs. Consider multiple chillers, in the following
arrangements (see Figures 1-15a and 1–15b):
Two Units Three Units

1 @ 60% load 1 @ 50% load
1 @ 40% load 1 @ 25% load
1 @ 25% load

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Eg Figure 1–15a. Multiple Chiller Example
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Figure 1–15b. Multiple Chiller Example

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Eg Figures 1–16a and 1–16b. Multiple Boiler Examples
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Figure 1–16c. Multiple Boiler Example

1: 15
Design trade-offs. Remember, the improved efficiency comes with an initial installation cost pen-
alty. As the designer, you must work out the acceptable trade-off in initial installation cost that a
customer will accept for reduced operational expenses over the life of the system. This will be
easier to accomplish when backup system requirements are considered in the decision.
System temperatures. As the designer, you must design temperatures and temperature ranges by
considering the performance and economics of the components. For example, for a cooling system
that must maintain 50% RH at 25°C (see Figure 1–17), the dewpoint temperature is 13°C, which
sets the maximum return water temperature near 13°C (15.5°C maximum); the lowest practical
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temperature for refrigeration, considering the freezing point and the economics, is about 4.5°C.
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This temperature spread then sets constraints for a chilled water system.
For a heating system, the maximum hot water temperature (as established by the ASME Low
Pressure Code) is normally 120°C, with low pressure systems operating at about 90°C, and with
space temperature requirements of little over 24°C, the actual operating supply temperatures and
the temperature ranges are set by the design of the load devices. Most economic considerations
relating to the distribution and pumping systems favor the use of the maximum possible tempera-
ture range ∆t.
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Load. The load is the point where heat flows out of or into the system from the space or process; it
is the independent variable to which the remainder of the system must respond. Outward heat flow
characterizes a heating system, and inward heat flow characterizes a cooling system. The quantity
of heating or cooling is calculated by one of the means discussed in the following section.
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Figure 1–17. Psychrometric Chart-Chilled Water Example

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1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems
SENSIBLE HEATING OR COOLING OF AIR
The quantity of heat entering or leaving the airstream (see Figure 1–18) is expressed by:
q = Qa ρa cp ∆t 1–2
where:
q = heat transfer rate, kW

Qa = air flow rate, m3/s
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ρa = density of air, kg/m3
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cp = specific heat of air, kJ/kg⋅°C
∆t = air temperature change, °C
For standard air with density of 1.2 kg/m3 and specific heat of 1.0 kJ/kg⋅°C, this equation becomes:
q = 1.0 kJ/kg⋅°C × 1.2 kg/m3
q = 1.2 Qa ∆t 1–3
EXAMPLE 1-1 Eg
Assume in the system shown in Figure 1–18 that the air upstream of the heating coils is 15°C and
the air temperature leaving the heating coils is 55°C. Given that cp = 1.0 kJ/kg⋅°C, Qa = 2500 L/s
and the density is 1.2 kg/m3, calculate the heat transfer rate of the system:
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q = 1.2 Qa ∆t
= 1.2 m3/s⋅°C
q = (1.2) (2.5 m3/s) (55°C – 15°C)
q = 120 kW
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Figure 1–18. Sensible Heating Example

1: 17
The heat exchanger or coil must then transfer this heat to the water. The quantity of sensible heat
transferred to the heated or cooled medium in a specific heat exchanger is a function of the surface
area, the mean temperature difference between the water and the medium, and the overall heat
transfer coefficient, which is a function of the fluid velocities, properties of the medium, geometry
of the heat transfer surfaces and other factors (see Figure 1–19a). It may be expressed by:
q = UA (LMTD) 1–4a
where:
q = heat transfer rate, W
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U = overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/m2⋅°C
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A = surface area, m2
LMTD = logarithmic mean temperature difference, heated medium to water, °C
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Figure 1–19a. Coil LMTD Example

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EXAMPLE 1-2
In Figure 1–19a, assume that the coil has a U of 850 W/m2⋅°C/row. The upstream temperature is
15°C and the air temperature leaving the coil is 55°C. Water enters the heating coil at 70°C and
leaves at 60°C. The duct size is 1200 mm × 900 mm and the coil has four rows. Find the heat
transfer rate (see also Figure 1-19b):
First, determine the LMTD: 1-4b

∆ t max − ∆ t min ∆t max = 60 – 15 = 45
LMTD =
t
⎛ ∆t ⎞ ∆t min = 70 – 55 = 15
In ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟
⎝ ∆ t min ⎠
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45 − 15
=
⎛ 45 ⎞
In ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 15 ⎠
= 27 . 3 ° C
q =
=
=
Eg
Next, using LMTD, find q:
UA (LMTD)
[850 (W/m2⋅°C)/row] (1.2 m × 0.9 m) (27.3°C) (4 rows)
100 246 W (100.25 kW)
up
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Figure 1–19b. Coil LMTD Example

1: 19
LATENT COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION OF AIR
The quantity of heat removed from the cooled medium (see Figure 1–20) when both sensible
cooling and dehumidification are present is expressed by:
qt = W∆h 1–5
where:
qt = total heat transfer rate, kW
W = mass flow rate of cooled medium, kg/s
t
∆h = enthalpy difference of entering and leaving conditions of cooled medium, kJ/kg
pe
Expressed for a cooling coil, this equation becomes:
qt = Qa ρa ∆h 1–6
where:
Qa = air flow rate, m3/s
ρa = density of air, kg/m3
Eg
For standard air, the density is 1.2 kg/m3 and the formula reduces to:
qt = 1.2 Qa ∆h 1–7
up
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Figure 1–20. Cooling and Dehumidification Coil Example

1: 20
EXAMPLE 1-3
For the system shown in Figure 1–20, determine the heat transfer rate for the sensible cooling/
dehumidification process, assuming entering air is 28°C and enthalpy is 54.5 kJ/kg, and discharge
air is 11°C and saturated at enthalpy of 32 kJ/kg:
qt = 1.2 Qa ∆h
= 1.2 (2.5 m3/s) (54.5 – 32) kJ/kg
= 67.5 kW
t
HEAT TRANSFERRED TO OR FROM WATER
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The quantity of heat transferred to or from the water is a function of the flow rate, the specific heat
and the temperature drop or rise of the water as it passes through the heat exchanger. The heat
transferred to or from the water is expressed by:
qw = m cp ∆t 1–8
where:
Eg
qw = heat transfer rate from water, kW
m = mass flow of water, kg/s
cp = specific heat of water, kJ/kg⋅K (at constant pressure)
∆t = temperature increase or decrease across unit, °C
(Note: temperature difference °C is often expressed in terms of kelvin, K)
up
These equations are also used to express the heat carrying capacity of the piping or distribution
system of any portion of that system. In this regard, the temperature differential ∆t, sometimes
called the temperature range, is established or identified. For any flow rate through the piping, qw is
called the heat carrying capacity.
With water systems, it is common to express the flow rate in litres per second (L/s), in which case
the equation becomes:
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qw = 0.001 ρw cp Qw ∆t 1–9
where:
Qw = water flow rate, L/s

ρw = density of water, kg/m3
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For typical conditions in which density is 1000 kg/m3 and specific heat is 4.19 kJ/kg⋅K, the equa-
tion becomes:
qw = 4.19 Qw ∆t 1–10
The last two equations can be used to express the heat transfer across a single load or source device,
or any quantity of such devices connected across a piping system. In the design or diagnosis of a
system, the load side may be balanced with the source side by these equations.

1: 21
EXAMPLE: HEATING COIL
For a single system similar to that shown in Figure 1–18, assume the heat transfer rate across the
coil is 120 kW and the ∆t of the water supplying the coil is 10°C (water and air at standard condi-
tions). Find the water flow rate required for the system:
q w = 4 . 19 Q w ∆t
Solving for Qw , we get:
t
qw
Qw =
4.19∆t
pe
120 kW
Qw =
4 . 19 kJ ⎞
⎟ (10 K )
⎛
⎜⎜
⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎟⎠
Q w = 2 .88 L/s
Eg
EXAMPLE: COOLING COIL
Assume qt (cooling coil) = 67 kW and ∆t = 7°C:
67 kW
up
Q w =
4 . 19 kJ ⎞
⎟ (7 K )
⎛
⎜⎜
⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎟⎠
Qw = 2.3 L / s
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1: 22
1.4 Load Systems
Load systems are the devices (terminal units) that convey heat from the water for heating or to the
water for cooling of the space or process. Most load systems are basically water-to-air finned coil
heat exchangers or water-to-water heat exchangers. The specific configuration is usually used to
describe the device. Common configurations include:
• Heating load devices: Preheat coils in central air-handling units; heating coils in central
air-handling units (see Figure 1–21); zone or central reheat coils; finned-tube radiation;
baseboard radiation; convectors; unit heaters; fan coil units; water-to-water heat exchang-
t
ers; radiant heating panels; and snow melting panels.
• Cooling load devices: Coils in central units (see Figure 1–21); fan coil units (see Figure
pe
1–22); induction unit coils; radiant cooling panels; and water-to-water heat exchangers.
Eg
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Figure 1–21. Single-Zone Central AHU – Heating and Cooling Coils
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Figure 1–22. Fan Coil Unit

1: 23
The Next Step
In Chapter 2, you will be introduced to piping system design.
Summary
Chapter 1 covered the following topics:
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• What determines the load.
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• The difference between closed and open systems.
• Components of a hydronic system.
• Heating versus cooling source devices.
• How systems need to meet part-load conditions.
• Temperature and pressure ranges for low, medium and high temperature water
systems.
Eg
• Sensible, latent and total heat loads and how they affect design water flow.
• Examples of heating and cooling load devices.
• How load diversity suggests a reduction in total cooling capacity required.
Bibliography
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1. ASHRAE. 1996. ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Chapter 12.
2. Sauer, H., Howell, R. 1994. Principles of Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning. Atlanta,
GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 5.
3. AIRAH. 1994. AIRAH Application Manual–Air-Conditioning Load Estimation and

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Psychrometrics. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Condi-

tioning and Heating Inc.
4. AIRAH. 1995. AIRAH Application Manual–Cooling Towers. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia:

Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and Heating Inc.
G
5. Carrier Corp. 1965. Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. Chapter 3.

1: 24
Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1
Complete these questions by writing your answers on the worksheets at the back of this book.
1-01. Water systems that convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled
water are frequently called ______ .
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1-02. What is the fundamental difference between closed and open types of water systems?
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1-03. A cooling tower has at least two points of interface. What are they?
1-04. What is the maximum working pressure for LTW boiler systems?
Eg
1-05. What is a CHW system? How is it different from a CW system?
1-06. What are the fundamental components of a closed hydronic system?

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1-07. Explain the most common source devices for heating and cooling systems.
1-08. Explain what load means.

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1-09. What factors influence the heating and cooling load requirements?
1-10. Define sensible heat transfer.

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1-11. Name five heating load devices and describe how each is used in system applications.

2: 1
Chapter 2
Piping System Design
• Instructions
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• 2.1 Basic Considerations
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• 2.2 Design Philosophy
• 2.3 Sizing Piping
• 2.4 Flow Rate Measurement
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Instructions
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• Understand Bernoulli’s principle.

• Know the three steps in design of a fluid distribution system.
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• Understand the difference between direct return and reverse return piping, and if they can
be combined.
• Know methods to allow thermal expansion.
• Be able to determine pressure drop in piping.
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• Know the difference between laminar and turbulent flow, and what index quantifies it.
• Understand piping roughness factors.
• Know what governs pressure drop in a piping system.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design

2: 2
2.1 Basic Considerations
The piping system is a key component of the distribution system, and good design practice can
significantly affect the performance and energy efficiency of an HVAC system. This chapter dis-
cusses the key aspect of piping system design, including pipe sizing and system design philosophy.
In the design of any fluid distribution system, you must consider the following three steps:1
• Establishing the piping design philosophy and objectives;
• Sizing the pipes; and
t
• Calculating or determining the pressure drop in the system as a whole or in various sub-
elements or branches.
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To achieve the best energy efficiency, you may need to repeat these steps several times to optimize
the design.
Relationship Between Pressure and Head
Eg
Pressure is generally expressed in newtons per square metre (N/m2) and is known as a pascal (Pa).
The term head is sometimes used to describe static pressures within a hydronic system and is
expressed in metres (m).
The use of metres-head means the value is independent of fluid density. For example, the pressure
at the base of a 4 m column of water at 4°C is about 39 kPa, compared to about 38 kPa for the same
4 m column of water at 80°C. This is due to the reduction in fluid density as the fluid temperature
is raised.
up
Fortunately, one term may be easily converted to the other, provided that the fluid density is known,
using the following relationship:
p = ρgz
where:
p = pressure, pascals, Pa
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ρ = fluid density, kg/m3

g = 9.81 m/s2
z = head, m
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Pressure Drop
From an instructional standpoint, it is important to understand the concept of pressure drop before
discussing design philosophy and sizing. In general, to direct a flow of water through a piping
system, a pressure difference must be created to overcome the friction head due to the piping
length, type of fittings, elevation changes and pressure requirements at the receiving end.
Bernoulli analyzed the flow of water through a piping system and theorized that it must obey the
law of the conservation of energy, where the energy can never be created or destroyed but only
transformed or directed in its flow (see Figure 2–1).2 Many engineering texts on thermodynamics
Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design
2: 3
and fluid mechanics have explained this concept and developed a general energy equation for
analyzing the fluid flow in a process. An energy balance is made equating all of the energy entering
the process to that leaving plus the heat added or subtracted and the work done by or on the fluid per
unit of time. Bernoulli and Euler3 developed this concept into the well-known Bernoulli equation
for the flow of an incompressible liquid with addition of a term for pressure loss ∆p due to flow in
the pipe:
ρV12 ρV22 2–1
ρgZ1 + + p1 = ρgZ2 + + p2 + ∆p
2g 2g
t
pe
where:
Z1, Z2 = metres elevation above/below datum

V1, V2 = velocity, m/s
p1, p2 = pressure, Pa
ρ1, ρ2 = density, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
Eg
∆p = pressure loss in Pa of fluid flowing through pipe
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Figure 2-1. Bernoulli's Theorem

2: 4
Figure 2–2 shows an example of a piping system where two gauge readings are taken, the elevation
is measured, and the pipe size is the same for the entering and leaving conditions.
According to the Bernoulli theorem (Equation 2-1):

ρV 2 V2
ρgZ1 + 1 + p1 = ρgZ2 + 2 + p2 + ∆p
2g 2g
thus,
ρ
∆p = ρg (Z1 − Z 2 ) +
2g
(V
1
2
)
− V22 + 103 ( p1 − p2 )
t
Substituting values into the equation and making sure units are consistent:
pe
V1 = V2
Z1 = 0
∆p = 998.97 × 9.81 (-30) + 0 + 103 (700-500)
= -294 000 + 500 000
= 206 000 Pa = 206 kPa
Eg
So we see a total loss of 206 kPa due to the piping and fitting friction and the elevation head loss
(assuming the same size pipe ID at 1 and 2, V1 = V2). Note that for cold water, 1 m static head
approximates 9.8 kPa pressure.
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Figure 2-2. Bernoulli Piping Example

2: 5
2.2 Design Philosophy
In the direct return system, the length of supply and return piping through the subcircuits is un-
equal. This may cause unbalanced flow rates and requires careful balancing to provide each subcircuit
with design flow. Ideally, the reverse return system provides nearly equal total lengths for all termi-
nal circuits. Will the design provide the most economical geometrical solution through vertical
and/or horizontal distribution?
Figure 2–3 shows a direct return piping system, as compared to a reverse return piping system
t
shown in Figure 2–4. As a designer, you must make several important decisions based on design
philosophy before starting the design process. Will this be a basic plan or a combination of direct
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and reverse systems, as shown in Figure 2–5?
Design philosophy and objectives are most often overlooked by designers. It is in this step that the
why and how of the system are addressed, including other considerations such as:
• Is the system to be constant flow? For example, are three-way valves inserted to handle
part-load conditions by reducing flow through the load, while maintaining nearly con-
Eg
stant flow through the source? Or is the flow through the load heat transfer coils to be
constant while allowing the flow through the source to vary?
• Will the system have intermittent flow, such as on/off control to start/stop a pump for a
zone or a load coil or, if this is a small system, to start/stop the distribution pumping?
• Is variable flow being considered? For example, two-way valves vary the flow in the load
coils that result in variable flow in the source.
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Figure 2-3. Direct Return Piping

2: 6
t
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Eg Figure 2-4. Reverse Return Piping
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Figure 2-5. Direct Return Riser and Reverse Zone Piping

2: 7
• Will the pump speeds be varied with the load? How will the variable system flow affect
the flow through the source? (The variable speed concepts and valve arrangements will
be discussed in later sections.)
• In the pressure distribution of a direct return system (in Figure 2–3), the available pres-
sure drop for a load circuit is greatest near the system pump and decreases the farther
away the load is from the source-pump. Care must be taken by the designer to size and
select the control valves to ensure adequate flow distribution and proper close-off.
• In the pressure distribution of a reverse return system (in Figure 2–4), the pressure drop
t
for a load circuit is uniform (if the load pressure drops are similar), even as the distance is
increased from the source pump. A key reason for the reverse return design is to assist the
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two-way control valve with a more uniform pressure drop. Selection of control valves
must ensure adequate flow and proper close-off, but this is not as critical as the direct
return design.
• The designer should consider balancing valves because the control valve may provide a
larger flow than the design flow, and the balancing device will permit field measurement
and readjustment.
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• Is thermal expansion to be handled through geo-
metrical offset configurations (see Figure 2–6) or
by using mechanical joints (see Figure 2–7)? For
example, steel pipe may increase its length by13.6
mm per 30 m if its temperature increases from 0°C
to 40°C, or by 34 mm from 0°C to 100°C. The
system must be designed to handle thermal expan-
up
sion and contraction of the piping. Failure to prop-
erly design for thermal expansion can result in pip-
ing distortion, noise and possible system failures.
Arrangement of the piping and its suspension from the

building structure must also be given specific attention
by the designer if quiet operation is to be attained. Rigid
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attachment of the pipe to the structural members of a

building, especially at mid-span, provides a direct link
that will transmit objectionable vibration and sound. The
exception would be at preselected points of the piping
that must serve as anchors to control the amount and
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direction of movement due to expansion and contrac- Figure 2-6. Piping Expansion,
tion. The AIRAH Application Manual–Air Conditioning Offset Piping
Water Piping and the 1996 ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC
Systems and Equipment contains recommendations regarding anchor specification and spacing.4,5
These are examples of concerns and questions that should be answered in the early steps of the
design process.

2: 8
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2.3
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Sizing Piping
Figure 2-7. Piping Expansion – Mechanical Joint
Sizing the pipe is not to be confused with pressure drop calculations, although the pressure drop is
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generally used as a primary consideration in the sizing. In most fluid systems, the size of the piping
is established on the basis of the friction loss per running metre of pipe. The fluid velocity is then
used as a limiting selection parameter.
The equation most often used that relates pressure drop, flow rate and pipe size is the Darcy-
Weisbach Equation:
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⎛ L ⎞⎛ ρV ⎞
2
2–2
∆p = f ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
where:
∆p = energy lost through friction, expressed as pressure drop, Pa of fluid flowing

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f = friction factor (0.10 to 0.010)

L = pipe length, m
D = pipe diameter, m
V = fluid average velocity, m/s
ρ = density of fluid, kg/m3
Figure 2–8 shows an experimental arrangement for determining head loss in a pipe.6

2: 9
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Figure 2-8. Experimental Arrangement for Determining Head Loss in a Pipe
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Fluid velocity is calculated from the Continuity Equation:
Q
V= 2–3
A
where:
V
Q
AEg = flow velocity, m/s
= flow rate, m3/s
= cross-sectional area of the pipe, m2
Pipe sizing is covered in the AIRAH Application Manual – Air Conditioning Water Piping and the
1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals.4,7 The general range of pipe friction loss used for design-
ing economical hydronic systems is between 400 and 500 Pa/m. For controlling velocity noise,
AIRAH suggests a velocity limit of 2.5 m/s. A pressure drop limit of 500 Pa/m for pipe size above
up
50 mm size is suggested, but this is subject to the designer’s selection. Maximum water velocity
versus operation hours to minimize erosion may also be considered in the design. After a pipe size
has been selected for a known pipe material, flow rate and friction factor, the Darcy-Weisbach
Equation can be used directly to calculate the head loss, in metres of fluid flowing.
We wish to show you some classical approaches for determining pipe diameter because you need
to know these if you are required to evaluate a pipe sizing program for accuracy.
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In the 1800s, Reynolds showed that fluids can flow through a pipe under two different conditions:
laminar flow and turbulent flow.8 He demonstrated that when dye was injected in a glass pipe with
low water velocities (see Figure 2–9), the stream of dye stayed in layers (laminar flow), up to
Re = 2000. However, as the velocity was increased, the layer of dye wavered and then broke up,
diffusing with the water because of intermingling of the particles or of the water, turbulent flow
G
(Re > 2000).
Reynolds defined the Reynolds number (Re) as:
Re = D V ρ/µ 2–4
where:
D = inside pipe diameter, m
V = average fluid velocity, m/s
ρ = fluid density, kg/m3
µ = dynamic viscosity, Pa⋅s
2: 10
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Figure 2-9. Reynold's Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow Demonstration7
The Reynolds number is a non-dimensional parameter relating pipe diameter, fluid velocity and the
fluid viscous properties. By relating these fluid flow parameters, it enables the development of
charts relating flow conditions and pipe characteristics. These charts present experimental data that
up
can be used in pipe sizing and pipe system design.
Reynolds' study had shown that the friction factor in laminar flow range is equal to:
f = 64 /Re 2–5
Nikuradse9 demonstrated the effect of pipe surface roughness on friction for both the laminar and turbu-
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lent regions (see Figure 2–10) and defined a roughness factor, ε/D. Figure 2–10 can be used to deter-
mine the friction factor when the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness factor ε/D are known.
Moody demonstrated that a transition region appears between Re of 2000 to 10,000, as shown on
his diagram10 (see Figure 2–11). The Moody diagram shows friction factor (f ) from 0.01 to 0.08 as
a function of the relative roughness (ε/D) of the pipe or tubing and the Reynolds number (DVρ/µ).
G
The relative roughness (ε/D) can be determined from another Moody graph (see Figure 2-12) por-
traying pipe diameter, pipe material and relative roughness of pipe.11
The kinematic viscosity (ν) may also be used in the Reynolds formula, since ν = µ /ρ, m2/s. Substi-
tuting the Reynolds number can be written as following:
V 2–6
Re = D
v

2: 11
t
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Eg Figure 2-10. Relation of Reynolds Number, Friction Flow
and Relative Roughness for Similar Pipes
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Figure 2-11. Moody Chart10 Showing Relationship Between

Friction Factors and Reynolds Numbers for Water Flow

2: 12
t
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Figure 2-12. Friction Factors and Relative Roughness for Various Pipes11
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Table 2–1 lists typical values of density and absolute (dynamic) viscosity (µ ) for different fluids.4
The 1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals7 also refers to the Colebrook Equation for determin-
ing the friction factor (f ) in the turbulent flow range:
1 ⎡ ε 18.7 ⎤ 2–7
= 1.74 − 2 log ⎢2 + ⎥
f ⎣⎢ D Re f ⎦⎥

2: 13
Table 2-1. Typical Values of Density

and Absolute Viscosity for Various Fluids4
D ynamic
Te mpe rature , D e ns ity,
Vis cos ity,
°C kg/m3
mPa⋅s
Liquids
Water 10 999.6 1.31
t
Calcium chloride
brine
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5% by wt. 20 1040 1.8
20% by wt. 20 1180 2.0
25% by wt. 15 1160 1.1
Ethylene glycol
Pure 20 1113 20. 5
Eg 10% in water
20% in water
10% in water
20% in water
Automotive diesel oil
Heavy diesel oil

15
15
40
15
10 1 5
1028
1020
1034
833
830
1.40
1.95
2.4
3.2
2 . 9 12
15.0
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Furnace fuel oil 40 972 77.7 6
Petroleum 40 640 0.8
Gasoline, leaded 50 720 0. 8
Gasoline, unleaded 50 730 0. 8
Seawater 15 1030 1.24

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Gas e s
Air (7 kPa) 20 1.28 0 . 0 18
Air (70 kPa) 20 2.02 0.018
Air (700 kPa) 20 9.37 0.018

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Natural gas
20 0.79 0.019
(7 kPa)
Natural gas
20 2.20 0.012
(270 kPa)
Natural gas
20 5.80 0.012
(700 kPa)
O xygen (7 kPa) 20 1.22 0.027
O xygen (700 kPa) 20 8.90 0.02 0

2: 14
The Hazen-Williams Equation is also mentioned as an alternative to the Darcy-Weisbach Equa-

tion:
1.8522
⎡3.35×106 Q⎤
∆p = ρg⎢ 2.63 2–8
⎣ d ×C ⎦
⎥
where:
∆p = pressure loss, kPa
Q = flow rate, L/s
d = internal pipe diameter, mm
t
C = the pipe roughness factor
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Typical values of C are 150 for plastic pipe and copper tubing, 140 for new steel pipe, and down to
100 and below for badly corroded or very rough pipe.
Eg
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Figure 2-13a. Pressure Loss 20°C Water in Medium Steel Pipe13

2: 15
Recommended values6,12 of the C factor are: 150 for plastic pipe and copper tubing; 140 for new
steel pipe; 100 for steel pipe after 20 years of use and down to 80 after 30 years, or for badly
corroded or very rough pipe.
The ASHRAE Handbook notes that the Darcy-Weisbach Equation with friction factors from the
Moody chart, or the Colebrook Equation or the Hazen-Williams Equation are fundamental to cal-
culating pressure drop in hot and chilled water piping. Charts calculated from these equations (such
as Figures 2–13a and 2-13b) show flow rates and head loss for medium steel pipe.13 The AIRAH
Application Manual has similar charts for various grades of steel, copper and PVC pipes.4
t
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Eg
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Figure 2-13b. Pressure Loss 82°C Water in Medium Steel Pipe13

2: 16
Tables and charts are avail-

Table 2-2. Friction Loss for Water,
able from many sources. Of-
50 mm Nominal Medium Steel Pipe13
ten, these will be for steel
pipes to ANSI B36 standards, D is charge , V, Pre s s ure
L/s m/s Los s , Pa/m
schedule 20 or 40. These may
differ slightly from pipes that 0.30 0 . 14 5.75 1
comply with Australian stan- 0.40 0 . 18 9.799

dards such as AS1074. 0.50 0.23 14.813
t
Hence, because the value for
0.60 0.27 20.763
friction loss in pipes is de-
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rived by calculation and is a 0.70 0.32 27.623
function of internal pipe di- 0.80 0.36 35.373

ameter, different sources may
0.90 0.4 1 43.996
offer slightly different values.
1. 0 0 0.4 5 53.475
A typical table for 50 mm 1. 2 0 0.5 4 74.95 4
nominal pipe is shown in
Eg
Table 2–2.13 In commercial
installations, the tables sug-
gest adding 15% to the fric-
tion loss to allow for aging.
1. 4 0
1. 6 0
1. 8 0
2.00
2.50
0.6 3
0.7 2
0.81
0.90
1.13
99.720
127.698
158.824
193.046
2 9 1. 8 3 5
3.00 1.35 409.05 4

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3.50 1. 5 8 5 4 4 . 2 10
4.00 1.81 696.89 5
4.50 2.0 3 866.76 6
5.00 2.26 1053.525
5.50 2.48 1256.910

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6.00 2.7 1 1476.687
6.50 2.94 1712.648
7.00 3.16 1964.600
7.50 3.3 9 2232.369

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8.00 3.6 1 2515.794
8.50 3.84 2814.727
9.00 4.0 6 3129.029
9.50 4.2 9 3458.57 0
10 . 0 0 4.5 2 3803.22 9
11.00 4.9 7 4537.449
12.00 5.42 5330.846

2: 17
2.4 Flow Rate Measurement
Taken from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals,14 Table 2–3 lists various means of mea-
suring fluid flow rate. The values for volume or mass flow rate measurement15,16 are often deter-
mined by measuring pressure difference across an orifice, nozzle or venturi tube. These types of
meters have different advantages and disadvantages. For example, the orifice plate is more easily
changed than the complete nozzle or venturi tube assembly. However, the nozzle is often preferred
to the orifice because its discharge coefficient is more precise. The venturi tube is a nozzle followed
by an expanding recovery section to reduce net pressure loss.
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Fluid meters use a wide variety of physical techniques to make flow measurements;15,17,18 those
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more prevalently used are described in the following section. The search for high-accuracy flow
measurement includes the arrangement of appropriate calibration procedures. While these used to
be available only in calibration laboratories, they are now frequently purchased along with flowmeters
so that flow measurements can be efficiently and effectively assured and validated at high levels of
performance. To assure and validate calibration facilities and procedures, realistic traceability should
be established and maintained for the calibration facilities and procedures.
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Direct and Indirect Flow Measurement Methods
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured quite accurately by timing a collected amount of fluid
that is determined gravimetrically or volumetrically. While this method is commonly used for
calibrating other metering devices, it is particularly useful where the flow rate is low or intermittent
and where a high degree of accuracy is required. These systems are generally large and slow, but in
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their simplicity, they can be considered primary devices.
The variable area meter or rotameter is a convenient direct reading flowmeter for liquids and gases.
This is a vertical, tapered tube in which the flow rate is indicated by the position of a float sus-
pended in the upward flow. The position of the float is determined by its buoyancy and the up-
wardly directed fluid drag.
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A velocity traverse (made using a pitot tube or other velocity measuring instrument) measures air
flow rates in the field or calibrates large nozzles. This method can be imprecise at low velocities
and impractical where many test runs are in progress.
G
Venturi, Nozzle and Orifice Flowmeters
Flow in a pipeline can be measured by a venturi meter (see Figure 2–14), flow nozzle (see Figure
2–15) or orifice plate (see Figure 2–16). The Australian Standard 2360, Measurement of Fluid
Flow in Closed Conduits, describes measurement of fluid flow in pipes using the orifice, nozzle
and venturi, and specifies their construction.19 Further reference can also be made to ASME MFC-3M
for fluid flow measurement and ASME Performance Test Code 19.5-72 for orifice, nozzle and
venturi construction.20,15

2: 18
Table 2-3. Volume or Mass Flow Rate Measurement14

Measurement Means Application Range Precision Limitations
Orifice and differential Flow through pipes, Above 1% - 5% Discharge coefficient and
pressure measurement ducts and plenums Re 5000 accuracy influenced by
system for all fluids installation conditions
Nozzle and differential Flow through pipes, Above 0.5% - 2.0% Discharge coefficient and
pressure measurement ducts and plenums Re 5000 accuracy influenced by
system for all fluids installation conditions
t
Venturi tube and Flow through pipes, Above 0.5% - 2.0% Discharge coefficient and
differential pressure ducts and plenums Re 5000 accuracy influenced by
measurement system for all fluids installation conditions
pe
Timing given mass or Liquids or gases; Any 0.1% - 0.5% System is bulky and slow
volumetric flow used to calibrate
other flowmeters
Rotameters Liquids or gases Any 0.5% - 5.0% Should be calibrated for

fluid being metered
Displacement meter Relatively small As high 0.1% - 2.0% Most types require
volumetric flow with as 500 L/s depending calibration with fluid
Eg
Gasometer or volume
displacement
Thomas meter
(temperature rise of
stream due to
high pressure loss
Short-duration tests;
used to calibrate
other flowmeters
Elaborate setup
justified by need
for good accuracy
depending
on type
Total flow
limited by
avail. vol.
of containers
Any
on type
0.5% - 1.0%
1%
being metered
Uniform velocity;
usually used with gases
electrical heating)
up
Element of resistance Used for check Lower limit 1% - 5% Secondary reading
to flow and differential where system has set by depends on accuracy of
pressure measurement calibrated resistance readable calibration
system element pressure drop
Turbine flowmeters Liquids or gases Any 0.25% - 2.0% Uses electronic readout
Instrument for Primarily for Lower limit 2% - 4% Accuracy depends on

measuring velocity installed systems with set by accu- uniformity of flow and
at point in flow no special provision racy of velo- completeness of traverse
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for flow measurement city measure.
Heat input and temper- Check value in Any 1% - 3% —

ature changes with heater or cooler tests
steam and water coil
Laminar flow element Measure liquid or gas 5 mm3/s 1% Fluid must be free of dirt,
and differential pressure volumetric flow rate; - 1 m3/s oil and other impurities
G
measurement system nearly linear relation- that could plug meter or

ship with pressure drop; affect its calibration
simple and easy to use
Magnetohydrodynamic Measures electrically 0.006 - 1% At present state of the art,

flowmeter conductive fluids and 600 L/s conductivity of fluid must
(electromagnetic) slurries; meter does be greater than 5 µS/m
not obstruct flow;
no moving parts
Swirl flowmeter and Measure liquid or Above 1% —

vortex shedding meter gas flow in pipe; Re 104
no moving parts

2: 19
t
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Eg Figure 2-14. Typical Venturi Meter
up
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0.2 < β < 0.5 β > 0.25

r1 = d
r2 = 2/3 d r1 = 1/2 d
L1 = 0.6 d r2 = 2/3 (D-d)
3 mm ≤ t ≤ 13 mm L1 ≤ 0.6 d
3 mm ≤ t2 ≤ 0.15 D 3 mm ≤ t ≤ 13 mm
3 mm ≤ t2 ≤ 0.15 D
Figure 2-15. Dimensions of AS2360 Long Radius Flow Nozzles19

2: 20
t
pe
Eg Figure 2-16. Sharp Edge Orifice With Pressure Tap Locations
up
Assuming an incompressible fluid (liquid or slow-moving gas), uniform velocity profile, friction-
less flow and no gravitational effects, the principle of conservation of mass and energy can be
applied to the venturi and nozzle geometries to give:
2 ρ ( p1 − p2 ) 2–9
w = ρV1 A1 = ρV2 A2 = A2
1− β 4
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where:
w = flow rate, kg/s

V = velocity of stream, m/s
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A = flow area, m2
p = absolute pressure, Pa
β = (D2/D1) for venturi and sharp edge orifice and d/D for flow nozzle
Note: Subscript 1 refers to the entering conditions; subscript 2 refers to the
throat conditions.

2: 21
Because the flow through the meter is not frictionless, a correction factor C is defined to account
for friction losses. If the fluid is at a high temperature, an additional correction factor Fa should be
included to account for thermal expansion of the primary element. Because this amounts to less
than 1% at 260°C, it can usually be omitted. Equation 2–9 then becomes:
2 ρ ( p1 − p2 ) 2–10
w = CA2
1− β 4
The factor C is a function of geometry and Reynolds number. Values of C are given in AS 2360.19
t
The approach factor can be combined with the discharge coefficient, as described later.
pe
Because volume flow rate is a function of mass flow and fluid density (Q = w/ρ), the flow rate
equation can be rewritten to become:
2( p1 − p2 ) 2–11
Q = KA2
ρ
where:
Q
Eg
A2
p1 – p2
= discharge, m3/s
= orifice area, m2
= pressure drop in Pa as obtained by pressure taps
Valves, bends and fittings upstream from the flowmeter can cause errors. Long, straight pipes
should be installed upstream and downstream from the flow devices to ensure fully developed flow
up
for proper measurement. AS 2360 specifies upstream and downstream pipe lengths for measuring
flow of liquids with an orifice plate.19 AS 2360 also gives the piping requirements between various
fittings and valves and the venturi, nozzle and orifice.19
The 1995 ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Applications recommends a minimum of 15 pipe diameters

of straight pipe upstream and 5 diameters downstream for any flow measuring device.21 However,
these distances should be checked against AS 2360 as their values can be greatly affected by fitting
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types and by the ratio of orifice to pipe diameters.

G

2: 22
Variable Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
In permanent installations where high preci-

sion, ruggedness and operational ease are im-
portant, the variable area flowmeter is satis-
factory. It is frequently used to measure liq-
uids or gases in small-diameter pipes. How-
ever, for ducts or pipes over 150 mm diam-
eter, the expense of this meter may not be
t
warranted. In larger systems, the meter can
pe
be placed in a bypass line and used with an
orifice.
The variable area meter (see Figure 2-17)

commonly consists of a float that is free to
move vertically in a transparent tapered tube.
The fluid to be metered enters at the narrow
Eg
bottom end of the tube and moves upward,
passing at some point through the annulus
formed between the float and the inside wall
of the tube. At any particular flow rate, the
float assumes a definite position in the tube;
a calibrated scale on the tube shows the float’s
location and the fluid flow rate.
Figure 2-17. Variable Area Flowmeter
up
Turbine Flowmeters
Turbine flowmeters are volumetric flow rate sensing meters with a magnetic stainless steel turbine
rotor suspended in the flow stream of a nonmagnetic meter body. The fluid stream exerts a force on
the blades of the turbine rotor, setting it in motion and converting the fluid’s linear velocity to an
angular velocity. Design motivation for turbine meters is to have the rotational speed of the turbine
proportional to the average fluid velocity and thus to the volume rate of fluid flow.17,18,22
ro
The rotational speed of the rotor is monitored by an externally mounted pickoff assembly. Mag-
netic and radio frequency are the most commonly used pickoffs. The magnetic pickoff contains a
permanent magnet and coil. As the turbine rotor blades pass through the field produced by the
permanent magnet, a shunting action induces AC voltage in the winding of the coil wrapped around
the magnet. A sine wave with a frequency proportional to the flow rate develops.
G
With the radio frequency pickoff, an oscillator applies a high-frequency carrier signal to a coil in
the pickoff assembly. The rotor blades pass through the field generated by the coil and modulate
the carrier signal by shunting action on the field shape. The carrier signal is modulated at a rate
corresponding to the rotor speed, which is proportional to the flow rate. With both pickoffs, the
frequency of the pulses generated becomes a measure of flow rate, and the total number of pulses
measures total volume.22,23,24
The lubricity of the process fluid and the type and quality of rotor bearings determine whether the
meter is satisfactory for the particular application. When choosing turbine flowmeters for use with
2: 23
fluorocarbon refrigerants, attention must be paid to the type of bearings used in the meter and to the
oil content of the refrigerant. For these applications, sleeve-type rather than standard ball bearings
are recommended. The amount of oil in the refrigerant can severely affect calibration and bearing
life.
In metering liquid fluorocarbon refrigerants, the liquid must not flash to a vapor (cavitate). This
would cause a tremendous increase in flow volume. Flashing results in erroneous measurements
and rotor speeds that can damage the bearings or cause a failure. Flashing can be avoided by main-
taining an adequate backpressure on the downstream side of the meter.25
t
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The Next Step
In Chapter 3, you will learn about pipe materials and fittings.
Summary
Eg
Chapter 2 covered the following topics:
• Bernoulli’s principle.
• The three steps in designing a fluid distribution system.
• The difference between direct and return piping, and if they can be combined.
up
• Methods to allow for thermal expansion.
• How to determine pressure drop and sizing of piping.
• The difference between laminar and turbulent flow, and what index quantifies it.
• Piping roughness factors.
• The factors that govern pressure drop in a piping system.
• Flow rate measurement.
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• Flow measuring device location.
Bibliography
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1. Coad, W. 1985. "Sizing of pipes & ducts." Heating, Piping, Air-Conditioning. Cleveland, OH:
Penton Publishing. July.
2. Bernoulli, D. 1738. Hydrodynamics. New York, NY: Dover Publications (1968).
3. Euler, L. 1750.
4. AIRAH. 1994. AIRAH Application Manual – Air Conditioning Water Piping. Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia: Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating Inc.

2: 24
5. ASHRAE. 1996. "Pipes, tubes and fittings." ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equip-
ment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 40.
6. Streeter, V., Wylie, E. 1985. Fluid Mechanics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
7. ASHRAE. 1997. "Pipe sizing." ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Chapter 33.
8. Reynolds, O. 1883. "Exp. inv. motion of water." Trans. R. Soc. London.
t
9. Nikuradse, J. 1933. Strommung Gesetze in rouhen Rohren.
pe
10. Moody, L. 1944. "Friction factors for pipe flow." ASME Transactions. Vol. 66, No. 8, Nov.
11. Hydraulic Institute. 1990. Engineering Data Book, 2nd ed. Cleveland, OH.
12. Karassik, et al. 1986. Pump Handbook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. p. 8–37.
13. Standards Australia. 1989. AS 1074, Steel Tubes and Tubulars for Ordinary Service. Homebush,
NSW, Australia.
Eg
14. ASHRAE. 1997. "Measurements and instruments." ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals. At-
lanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 14.
15. ASME. 1972. "Application of fluid meters." ASME Performance Test Code PTC 19.5-72. New
York, NY: ASME.
16. Benedict, R. 1984. Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure and Flow Measurements. New
York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
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17. Miller, R. 1983. Measurement Engineering Handbook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
18. DeCarlo, J. 1984. Fundamentals of Flow Measurement. Research Triangle Park, NC: Instru-
mentation Society of America.
19. Standards Australia. 1993. AS 2360, Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits. Homebush,
ro
NSW, Australia.
20. ASME. 1989. Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes Using Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi, MFC-
3M-1985. New York, NY: ASME.
21. ASHRAE. 1995. "Testing, adjusting and balancing." ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Applications.
Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 34.
G
22. Mattingly, G. 1992. "The characterization of a piston displacement-type flowmeter calibration

facility and the calibration and use of pulsed output type flowmeters." Journal of Research of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST.
23. Woodring, E. 1969. "Magnetic turbine flowmeters." Instruments and Control Systems. 6:133.
24. Shafer, M. 1961. "Performance characteristics of turbine flowmeters." Proceedings of the Win-
ter Annual Meeting. New York, NY: ASME.
25. Liptak, B., ed. 1972. Instrument Engineers Handbook. Philadelphia, PA: Chilton Book Co.
2: 25
2-01. What causes unequal flow rates in direct return piping arrangements?
2-02. What is the most often used equation that relates to pressure drop?
t
pe
2-03. Fluids can flow through a pipe under two different conditions. Name them. Explain the
differences between these flow conditions.
2-04. Explain friction factor.
Eg
2-05. In commercial installations, it is suggested that ___% should be added to the friction loss to
allow for aging.
2-06. What is the Bernoulli principle?

up
2-07. What factors determine pressure drop in piping?
2-08. What methods allow thermal expansion?

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2-09. What is the ASHRAE-recommended minimum distance upstream and downstream for a
water flow measuring device (in pipe diameters)?
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up
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t
3: 1
Chapter 3
Pipe Materials and Fittings
• Instructions
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• 3.1 Pipe Materials
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• 3.2 Corrosion
• 3.3 Valves and Fittings
• 3.4 Backflow-Prevention Devices
• 3.5 Pipe Selection
• The Next Step
• Summary
Eg
• Bibliography
Instructions
up
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• List the different types of pipe used in HVAC water system applications, and describe
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the characteristics of each.

• List the pipe joining methods commonly encountered in HVAC water systems, and
describe the characteristics of each.
• List common factors that support or promote corrosion, the five methods of corrosion
control, and the two corrosion environments of particular concern to the HVAC piping
G
system designer.
• Describe the function, selection and installation of backflow-prevention devices.
• Solve a basic pipe selection problem.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings

3: 2
3.1 Pipe Materials
This section covers pipe materials commonly used for heating, air-conditioning and refrigerating
systems. When selecting and applying pipe, relevant standards, applicable local codes, state or
national codes, and voluntary industry standards must be followed.
Standards Australia issues codes and standards for piping systems and components. Parallel federal
specifications also have been developed by government agencies for many public works projects.
t
Metal Pipe
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Steel Pipe. Steel pipe is manufactured by several processes. Seamless pipe, made by piercing or
extruding, has no longitudinal seam. Other manufacturing methods roll skelp into a cylinder and
weld a longitudinal seam. A continuous-weld (CW) furnace-butt-welding process forces and joins
the edges together at high temperature. An electric current welds the seam of electric resistance
welded (ERW) pipe.
Eg
AS-1074 specifies the dimensional standard for steel pipe.1 Nominal pipe sizes (DN) are used,
which do not match the internal or external diameters. Steel pipe is manufactured with wall thick-
nesses identified by weight. Table 3–1 lists dimensions of steel tubes and Table 3-2 lists properties
of steel pipes.
Joints in steel pipe are made by welding or using threaded, flanged, grooved or welded outlet
fittings. Unreinforced welded-in-branch connections weaken a main pipeline, and added reinforce-
ment is necessary, unless the excess wall thicknesses of both mains and branches are sufficient to
up
sustain the pressure. Such reinforcement is seldom needed in HVAC applications because: stan-
dard weight pipe at the pressures encountered requires no reinforcement; full-size branch connec-
tions are not recommended; and fittings such as tees and reinforced outlet fittings provide inherent
reinforcement.
Table 3-1. Dimensions of Steel Tubes1

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Light Medium Heavy

Nominal Outside dia., Thickness, Outside dia., Thickness, Outside dia., Thickness,
size (DN) mm (ave) mm mm (ave) mm mm (ave) mm
8 13.4 1.8 13.6 2.3 13.6 2.9
10 16.9 1.8 17.1 2.3 17.1 2.9
15 21.2 2 21.4 2.6 21.4 3.2
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20 26.65 2.3 26.9 2.6 26.9 3.2

25 33.5 2.6 33.8 3.2 33.8 4
32 42.2 2.6 42.5 3.2 42.5 4
40 48.1 2.9 48.4 3.2 48.4 4
50 59.9 2.9 60.3 3.6 60.3 4.5
65 75.6 3.2 76 3.6 76 4.5
80 88.3 3.2 88.8 4 88.8 5
100 113.45 3.6 114.1 4.5 114.1 5.4
125 139.65 5 139.65 5.4
150 165.1 5 165.1 5.4
Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings Fundamentals of Water System Design

3: 3
Table 3-2. Steel Pipe Data1
Light
N o min al Diameter mm Wall Surface Area - m2/m Cross-sectional Area m2 Mass kg/m Combined
S iz e Thickness
Mass kg/m
t
DN Outside (a) Inside mm Outside Inside Metal Flow Area Pipe Water (b)
8 13.4 9.8 1. 8 0.042 0.031 0 . 0 0 0 0 66 0 . 0 0 0 0 75 0 . 52 0 . 08 0 . 60
10 16 . 9 13.3 1.8 0.053 0 . 0 42 0.000085 0.000139 0.68 0 . 14 0.82
pe
15 21.2 17.2 2 .0 0 . 0 67 0 . 0 54 0.000121 0 . 0 0 0 2 32 0 . 96 0 . 23 1.19
20 2 6 .5 22.1 2 .3 0 . 0 84 0 . 0 69 0.000176 0.000382 1. 4 0 0.38 1.78
25 3 3 .5 2 8 .3 2.6 0.105 0.089 0.000252 0 . 0 0 0 6 29 2 . 00 0 . 63 2 . 63
32 42.2 37.0 2.6 0.133 0.116 0 . 0 0 0 3 23 0.001075 2.57 1. 0 7 3.64
40 48.1 42.3 2 .9 0.151 0.133 0 . 0 0 0 4 12 0.001405 3.27 1.4 4.67
50 5 9 .9 54.1 2 .9 0.188 0.170 0 . 0 0 0 5 19 0.002299 4.12 2 . 29 6.41
65 75.6 69.2 3.2 0 . 2 38 0 . 2 17 0 . 0 0 0 7 28 0.003761 5.77 3 . 75 9 . 53
80 8 8 .3 81.9 3 .2 0 . 2 77 0 . 2 57 0.000856 0 . 0 0 5 2 68 6 . 78 5 . 26 12.04
10 0 113.5 10 6 . 3 3.6 0 . 3 56 0 . 3 34 0.001242 0.008866 9 . 85 8 . 85 18.7
Medium
S iz e
DN
8
10
15
20
Eg
N o min al Diameter mm
Outside (a)
13.6
17 . 1
21.4
2 6 .9
Inside
9 .0
12.5
16 . 2
21.7
Wall
Thickness
mm
2 .3
2 .3
2 .6
2 .6
Surface Area - m2/m
Outside
0 . 0 43
0 . 0 54
0 . 0 67
0 . 0 85
Inside
0 . 0 28
0 . 0 39
0.051
0 . 0 68
Cross-sectional Area m2
Metal
0.000082
0.000107
0.000154
0.000198
Flow Area
0 . 0 0 0 0 64
0.000123
0.000206
0.000370
Pipe
0.85
Mass kg/m
0 . 65
1. 2 2
1. 5 7
Water (b)
0 . 06
0 . 12
0 . 21
0.37
Combined
Mass kg/m
0.71
0.97
1.42
1.94
25 3 3 .8 2 7 .4 3.2 0.106 0.086 0.000308 0 . 0 0 0 5 90 2 . 44 0 . 59 3 . 03
up
32 42.5 3 6 .1 3 .2 0.134 0.113 0 . 0 0 0 3 95 0.001024 3.13 1. 0 2 4 . 15
40 4 8 .4 4 2 .0 3 .2 0.152 0.132 0 . 0 0 0 4 54 0.001385 3.60 1. 3 8 4 . 99
50 6 0 .3 53.1 3 .6 0.189 0.167 0.000641 0.002215 5.09 2.21 7 . 30
65 76.0 68.8 3.6 0 . 2 39 0 . 2 16 0 . 0 0 0 8 19 0.003718 6.49 3.71 10.20
80 8 8 .8 8 0 .8 4 .0 0.279 0 . 2 54 0.001066 0.005128 8.45 5 . 12 13.57
10 0 114.1 105.1 4.5 0.358 0 . 3 30 0.001549 0.008676 12 . 2 9 8 . 66 20.95
12 5 139.7 12 9 . 7 5.0 0 . 4 39 0 . 4 07 0.002115 0.013202 16.77 13.18 2 9 . 95
150 16 5 . 1 15 5 . 1 5 .0 0 . 5 19 0.487 0.002515 0.018894 19.94 18.86 38.80
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H eavy
S iz e Thickness
Mass kg/m
8 13.6 7.8 2.9 0 . 0 43 0 . 0 25 0.000097 0 . 0 0 0 0 48 0 . 77 0 . 05 0 . 82
10 17 . 1 11.3 2 .9 0 . 0 54 0 . 0 35 0.000129 0.000100 1.03 0.10 1.13
15 21.4 15 . 0 3 .2 0 . 0 67 0 . 0 47 0.000183 0.000177 1. 4 5 0.18 1.63
G
20 2 6 .9 2 0 .5 3.2 0 . 0 85 0 . 0 64 0.000238 0 . 0 0 0 3 30 1. 8 9 0.33 2 . 22

25 3 3 .8 2 5 .8 4 .0 0.106 0 . 0 81 0 . 0 0 0 3 74 0 . 0 0 0 5 23 2 . 97 0 . 52 3 . 49
32 42.5 34.5 4 .0 0.134 0.108 0 . 0 0 0 4 84 0 . 0 0 0 9 35 3 . 84 0 . 93 4.77
40 4 8 .4 4 0 .4 4.0 0.152 0.127 0 . 0 0 0 5 58 0.001282 4 . 42 1.28 5.70
50 6 0 .3 51.3 4.5 0.189 0.161 0.000789 0 . 0 0 2 0 67 6 . 26 2 . 06 8 . 32
65 76.0 67.0 4 .5 0.239 0 . 2 10 0.001011 0 . 0 0 3 5 26 8 . 02 3 . 52 11.54
80 8 8 .8 78.8 5 .0 0 . 2 79 0 . 2 48 0.001316 0 . 0 0 4 8 77 10.44 4.87 15.31
10 0 114.1 103.3 5.4 0 . 3 58 0 . 3 25 0.001844 0 . 0 0 8 3 81 14.62 8 . 37 22.99
12 5 13 9 . 7 12 8 . 9 5.4 0 . 4 39 0 . 4 05 0.002277 0.013039 18.06 13.02 31.08
15 0 165.1 15 4 . 3 5.4 0 . 5 19 0.485 0.002709 0.018699 21.48 18.67 4 0 . 15
Note :
(a) Outside pipe diameters are calculated as a mean of the minimum and maximum values as specified in AS 1074
(b) Mass of water values assume a fluid temperature of 20C. Values should be recalculated for other temperatures.

3: 4
Copper Tube. Because of their inherent corrosion resistance and ease of installation, copper and
copper alloys are often used in heating, air-conditioning, refrigeration and water supply installa-
tions. There are four principal classes of copper tube; AS-1432 includes types A, B, C and D.2
AS-1571 specifies tube for refrigeration service.3
Types A, B, C and D designate descending wall thicknesses for copper tube. All types have the
same outside diameter for corresponding sizes. Table 3-3 lists properties of copper tube. Copper
tube is specified by nominal diameter (DN) which may differ from the actual diameter. Types A, B
and C may be hard drawn or annealed (soft) temper.
t
Copper tubing is joined with soldered or brazed wrought or cast copper capillary socket-end fit-
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tings. Table 3–4 lists the pressure-temperature ratings of brazed joints. Small copper tube is also
joined by flare or compression fittings.
Hard-drawn tubing has a higher allowable stress value than annealed, but if hard tubing is joined by
soldering or brazing, the annealed allowable stress value should be used. Brass pipe and copper
pipe are also made in steel pipe thicknesses for threading. High cost has eliminated these materials
from the market, except for special applications.
Eg
The heating and air-conditioning industry generally uses Type B tubing, which has higher internal
working pressure ratings than the solder joints used at fittings. Type A may be used with brazed
joints for higher pressure-temperature requirements or for direct burial. Type D should be used with
care where exposed to potential external damage.
Copper and brass should not be used in ammonia refrigerating systems. The Special Systems sec-
tion in this chapter covers other limitations on refrigerant piping.
Ductile Iron and Cast Iron Pipe. Ductile iron pipe is used for city water mains and waste drainage
up
piping per AS-2280.4 These pipes use bell and spigot joints, or mechanical or flanged joints. Cast
iron is not used for pressure piping and has been replaced by ductile iron pipe.
Table 3-4. Safe Working Pressures for Copper Pipes2

Nominal Pressure (kPa)
Size Type A Type B Type C Type D
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(DN) Pw Pt Pw Pt Pw Pt Pw Pt
6 11990 17980 8710 13070
8 9320 13970 6820 10240
10 8670 13000 7630 11440 5610 8420
15 6330 9490 5590 8380 4140 6210
18 6040 9060 4980 7480 4410 6610
20 5860 8790 4110 6170 3640 5460
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25 5040 7560 3680 5520 2700 4050

32 3980 5970 2920 4370 2150 3220
40 3290 4940 2420 3620 1780 2670
50 2240 3670 1800 2700 1330 1990
65 1940 2910 1430 2150 1060 1590
80 2020 3030 1610 2420 1190 1780
90 1720 2590 1380 2070 1020 1530
100 1500 2260 1200 1800 890 1330
125 1200 1800 960 1440 830 1240
150 1300 1950 1000 1500 800 1200
200 910 1370 720 1090

3: 5
Table 3-3. Copper Pipe Data2

Type A
S iz e Thickness
Mass kg/m
6 6 . 31 4.49 0 . 91 0 . 0 20 0 . 0 14 0 . 0 0 0 0 15 0.000016 0.14 0.02 0 . 15
8 7.9 0 6.08 0.91 0 . 0 25 0 . 0 19 0 . 0 0 0 0 20 0 . 0 0 0 0 29 0 . 18 0.03 0.21
10 9.48 7.44 1. 0 2 0 . 0 30 0 . 0 23 0.000027 0 . 0 0 0 0 43 0 . 24 0 . 04 0 . 29
15 12.66 10.22 1. 2 2 0 . 0 40 0 . 0 32 0.000044 0 . 0 0 0 0 82 0 . 39 0 . 08 0 . 47
18 15.84 13.40 1.22 0 . 0 50 0 . 0 42 0.000056 0.000141 0 . 50 0 . 14 0.64
20 19.01 16.17 1.42 0 . 0 60 0.051 0 . 0 0 0 0 78 0 . 0 0 0 2 05 0 . 70 0 . 20 0.91
25 23.35 2 2 . 09 1. 6 3 0 . 0 80 0 . 0 69 0.000121 0 . 0 0 0 3 83 1. 0 9 0.38 1.47
t
32 31.70 28.44 1. 6 3 0.100 0.089 0.000154 0.000635 1. 3 8 0.63 2.01
40 3 8 . 05 3 4 . 79 1. 6 3 0.120 0.109 0.000186 0 . 0 0 0 9 51 1.67 0.95 2 . 62
50 50.74 47.48 1. 6 3 0.159 0.149 0.000251 0.001770 2.25 1. 7 7 4 . 02
pe
65 63.43 6 0 . 17 1. 6 3 0.199 0.189 0 . 0 0 0 3 16 0.002843 2 . 83 2 . 84 5 . 67
80 76.11 72.05 2 . 03 0.239 0 . 2 26 0.000472 0 . 0 0 4 0 77 4.23 4 . 07 8 .3
90 88.80 8 4 . 74 2.03 0.279 0 . 2 66 0.000553 0 . 0 0 5 6 40 4.95 5.63 10.58
10 0 101.48 97.42 2.03 0.319 0.306 0.000634 0 . 0 0 7 4 53 5 . 68 7.44 13.12
12 5 126.88 12 2 . 8 2 2.03 0.399 0 . 3 86 0.000796 0.011847 7 . 13 11.83 18.95
15 0 152.25 14 6 . 9 7 2.64 0.478 0 . 4 62 0.001241 0.016965 11.11 16 . 9 3 28.04
200 203.00 198.16 2 . 64 0.638 0 . 6 23 0.001526 0.030840 13.65 30.78 44.44
Type B
N o min al Diameter mm Wall Surface Area - m2/m Cross-sectional Area m2 Mass kg/m
Eg S iz e
DN
6
8
10
15
18
20
25
32
40
Outside (a)
6 . 31
7.9
9.48
12.66
15.84
19.01
25.35
31.7
3 8 . 05
Inside
4 . 89
6 . 48
7.66
10.84
13.80
16.97
22.91
2 9 . 26
35.61
Thickness
mm
0.7 1
0.71
0 . 91
0.91
1.02
1.02
1.22
1.22
1.22
Outside
0 . 0 20
0 . 0 25
0 . 0 30
0 . 0 40
0 . 0 50
0 . 0 60
0 . 0 80
0.100
0.120
Inside
0 . 0 15
0 . 0 20
0 . 0 24
0 . 0 34
0 . 0 43
0 . 0 53
0 . 0 72
0.092
0.112
Metal
0 . 0 0 0 0 12
0.000016
0.000025
0.000034
0.000047
0.000058
0.000092
0.000117
0.000141
Flow Area
0.000019
0.000033
0 . 0 0 0 0 46
0 . 0 0 0 0 92
0.000150
0 . 0 0 0 2 26
0 . 0 0 0 4 12
0.000672
0 . 0 0 0 9 96
Pipe
0.11
0 . 14
0 . 22
0 . 30
0.43
0 . 52
0.83
1. 0 5
1. 2 6
Water (b)
0.02
0.03
0 . 05
0 . 09
0 . 15
0 . 23
0.41
0.67
0.99
Combined
Mass kg/m
0 . 13
0 . 18
0 . 27
0 . 39
0.57
0 . 74
1.24
1.72
2 . 26
50 50.74 48.30 1. 2 2 0.159 0.152 0.000190 0.001832 1. 7 0 1. 8 3 3.53
up
65 63.43 6 0 . 99 1. 2 2 0.199 0.192 0 . 0 0 0 2 32 0.002921 2.13 2.92 5 . 05
80 76.11 72.85 1. 6 3 0 . 2 39 0 . 2 29 0.00038 1 0.004168 3 . 41 4 . 16 7.57
90 88.80 8 5 . 54 1. 6 3 0 . 2 79 0 . 2 69 0.000446 0 . 0 0 5 7 47 4.00 5.74 9 . 73
10 0 101.48 98.22 1. 6 3 0 . 3 19 0.309 0.000511 0.007576 4.58 7 . 56 12.14
12 5 126.88 12 3 . 6 2 1.63 0 . 3 99 0 . 3 88 0 . 0 0 0 6 41 0.012001 5 . 74 11.98 17.72
15 0 152.25 148.19 2 . 03 0.478 0 . 4 66 0.000958 0.017248 8.57 17.22 25.79
200 203.00 198.94 2.03 0.638 0 . 6 25 0.001282 0.031084 11.47 31.03 4 2 . 50
Type C
S iz e Thickness
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Mass kg/m
10 9.48 8 . 06 0.71 0 . 0 30 0 . 0 25 0.000020 0.000051 0.18 0.05 0 . 23
15 12.66 11.24 0.71 0 . 0 40 0 . 0 35 0.000027 0 . 0 0 0 0 99 0 . 24 0 . 10 0.34
18 15.84 14.02 0.91 0 . 0 50 0 . 0 44 0.000043 0.000154 0.38 0 . 15 0.54
20 19.01 17.19 0 . 91 0 . 0 60 0 . 0 54 0.000052 0 . 0 0 0 2 32 0 . 46 0 . 23 0 . 69
25 25.35 2 3 . 53 0 . 91 0 . 0 80 0 . 0 74 0.000070 0 . 0 0 0 4 35 0 . 63 0 . 43 1.06
Type D
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S iz e Thickness
Mass kg/m
32 31.70 29.88 0.9 1 0.100 0.094 0.000088 0.000701 0.79 0 . 70 1.49
40 3 8 . 05 3 6 . 23 0 . 91 0.120 0.114 0.000106 0.001031 0 . 95 1. 0 3 1.98
50 50.74 48.92 0.91 0.159 0.154 0.000142 0.001879 1. 2 7 1. 8 8 3.15
65 63.43 61.61 0 . 91 0.199 0.194 0.000179 0 . 0 0 2 9 81 1.6 2 . 98 4.57
80 76.11 73.67 1. 2 2 0 . 2 39 0.231 0 . 0 0 0 2 87 0 . 0 0 4 2 63 2 . 57 4.25 6.82
90 88.80 8 6 . 36 1. 2 2 0 . 2 79 0.271 0 . 0 0 0 3 36 0 . 0 0 5 8 58 3 . 00 5 . 85 8 . 85
10 0 101.48 99.04 1.22 0 . 3 19 0.311 0 . 0 0 0 3 84 0 . 0 0 7 7 03 3 . 44 7.69 11.13
12 5 126.88 124.04 1.42 0 . 3 99 0 . 3 90 0.000560 0.012083 5 . 01 12.06 17.07
15 0 15 2 . 2 5 148.99 1. 6 3 0 . 4 78 0 . 4 68 0 . 0 0 0 7 71 0.017434 6.90 17.40 2 4 . 31
Note :
(a) Outside pipe diameters are calculated as a mean of the minimum and maximum values as specified in AS 1432.
(b) Mass of water values assume a fluid temperature of 20C. Values should be recalculated for other temperatures.

3: 6
Joining Methods for Metal Pipe
Threading. Threading is the most commonly used method for joining small diameter steel or brass
pipe, as shown in AS-1074.1 Pipe with a wall thickness less than standard weight should not be
threaded. AS-1677 limits the threading for various refrigerants and pipe sizes.5
Soldering and Brazing. Copper tube is usually joined by soldering or brazing socket end-fittings.
Brazing materials melt at temperatures over 550°C and produce a stronger joint than solder. Health
concerns have caused many jurisdictions to ban solders containing lead or antimony for joining
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pipe in potable water systems. In particular, lead-based solders must not be used for potable water
systems.
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Flared and Compression Joints. Flared and compression fittings can be used to join copper, steel,
stainless steel and aluminum tubing. Properly rated fittings can keep the joints as strong as the tube.
Flanges. Flanges can be used for large pipes and all piping materials. They are commonly used to
connect to equipment, valves and wherever it may be necessary to open the joint to permit service
or replacement of components. For steel pipe, flanges are available in pressure ratings to about 17
Eg
MPa. For welded pipe, weld neck, slip-on or socket weld connections are available. Thread-on
flanges are available for threaded pipe.
Flanges are generally flat faced or raised face. Flat-faced flanges with full-faced gaskets are most
often used with cast iron and materials that cannot take high bending loads. Raised-face flanges
with ring gaskets are preferred with steel pipe because they facilitate increasing the sealing pres-
sure on the gasket to help prevent leaks. Other facings (such as O-rings and ring joints) are avail-
able for special applications.
up
All flat-faced, raised-face and lap-joint flanges require a gasket between the mating flange sur-
faces. Gaskets are made from rubber, synthetic elastomers, cork, fiber, plastic, Teflon, metal and a
combination of these materials. The gasket must be compatible with the flowing media and the
temperatures at which the system is operating.
Welding. Welding steel pipe joints over 50 mm in diameter offers the following advantages:
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• Welded joints do not age, dry out or deteriorate as do gasketed joints.

• Welded joints can accommodate greater vibration and water hammer, and higher tem-
peratures and pressures than other joints.
• For critical service, welded pipe joints can be tested by any of several nondestructive
examination (NDE) methods (such as by radiography or ultrasound).
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• Welded joints provide maximum long-term reliability.
The applicable section of the AS/NZS-1200 provides rules for welding.6 This standard requires that
all welders and welding procedure specifications (WPS) be qualified. Separate WPS are needed for
different welding methods and materials. The qualifying tests and the variables requiring separate
procedure specifications are set forth in the standard. The manufacturer, fabricator or contractor is
responsible for the welding procedure and welders.

3: 7
The following welding processes are often used in the HVAC industry:
• SMAW — Shielded Metal Arc Welding (stick welding). The molten weld metal is
shielded by the vaporization of the electrode coating.
• GMAW — Gas Metal Arc Welding, also called MIG. The electrode is a continuously
fed wire, which is shielded by argon or carbon dioxide gas from the welding gun nozzle.
• GTAW — Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, also called TIG or Heliarc. This process uses a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode surrounded by a shielding gas. The weld material
may be provided from a separate noncoated rod.
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Reinforced Outlet Fittings. Reinforced outlet fittings are used to make branch and takeoff connec-
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tions and are designed to permit welding directly to pipe without supplemental reinforcing. Fittings
are available with threaded, socket or butt-weld outlets.
Other Joints. Grooved joint systems require that a shallow groove be cut or rolled into the pipe end.
These joints can be used with steel, cast iron, ductile iron and plastic pipes. A segmented clamp
engages the grooves, and the seal is provided by a special gasket designed so that internal pressure
tightens the seal. Some clamps are designed with clearance between tongue and groove to accom-
Eg
modate misalignment and thermal movements, while others are designed to limit movement and
provide a rigid system. Manufacturers’ data gives temperature and pressure limitations.
Another form of mechanical joint consists of a sleeve slightly larger than the outside diameter of
the pipe. The pipe ends are inserted into the sleeve, and gaskets are packed into the annular space
between the pipe and coupling and held in place by retainer rings. This type of joint can accept
some axial misalignment, but it must be anchored or otherwise restrained to prevent axial pullout or
lateral movement. Manufacturers provide pressure-temperature data.
up
Ductile iron pipe may be furnished with a bell-spigot end adapted for caulked, gasket and retainer
ring, mechanical or flanged joints. This joint is also not restrained.
Threaded Unions. Unions allow disassembly of threaded pipe systems. Unions are three-part fit-
tings with a mating machined seat on the two parts that thread onto the pipe ends. A threaded
locking ring holds the two ends tightly together. A union also allows threaded pipe to be turned at
the last joint connecting two pieces of equipment. Companion flanges (a pair) for small pipe serve
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the same purpose.
Special Systems
Certain piping systems are governed by separate codes or standards, which are summarized below.
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Generally, any failure of the piping in these systems is dangerous to the public, so local areas have
adopted laws enforcing the codes.
• Boiler piping — AS/NZS-1200 and AS-1271 specify piping and required stop valves
on boilers.6,7 The field or shop work must also be inspected by authorized inspectors.
• Refrigeration piping — AS-1677 covers the requirements for refrigerant piping.5
• Plumbing systems — AS-3500 covers these systems.8
• Sprinkler systems — AS-2118 covers these systems.9
• Fuel gas — AS-1697 and AS-2018 prescribe fuel gas piping requirements.10,11

3: 8
Plastic Pipe
Plastic pipe is gaining wider usage in HVAC and plumbing systems where local building codes
permit. Plastic is usually lighter in weight than metal, generally inexpensive and corrosion-resis-
tant. It also has a higher C factor (see Chapter 2, Equation 2–9), requiring lower pumping power
and allowing smaller pipe sizes. The disadvantages of plastic pipe include the rapid loss of strength
at temperatures above ambient and the high coefficient of linear expansion. The modulus of elastic-
ity of plastics is low, resulting in short support span distances. Some jurisdictions do not allow
certain plastics in buildings because of toxic products emitted under fire conditions.
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Plastic piping materials fall into two main categories: thermoplastic and thermoset. Thermoplastics
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melt and are formed by extruding or molding. They are usually used without reinforcing filaments.
Thermosets are cured and cannot be reformed. They are normally used with glass fiber reinforcing
filaments. Plastic piping materials include:
• PVC — polyvinyl chloride
• CPVC — chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
• PB — polybutylene
Eg
• PE — polyethylene
• PP — polypropylene
• ABS — acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
• PVDF — polyvinylidene fluoride
Thermosetting piping systems used in the HVAC industry are referred to as reinforced thermoset-
ting resin (RTR) and fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP). RTR and FRP are interchangeable and
refer to pipes and fittings commonly made of fiberglass reinforced epoxy resin, fiberglass rein-
up
forced vinyl ester, and fiberglass reinforced polyester.
Because pipes and fittings made from epoxy resin are generally stronger and operate at higher
temperatures than those made from polyester or vinyl ester resins, they are more likely to be used in
HVAC applications.
Allowable Stresses. Both thermoplastics and thermosets have allowable stresses derived from test
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procedures as described in AS/NZS-1477 and AS-3571.12,13
The allowable stress, which is called the long-term hydrostatic pressure test, is obtained by meth-
ods described in these standards. The values allowed by AS/NZS-1477 are 23.6 MPa (at 20°C) for
pipes up to 150 mm, and 26 MPa (at 20°C) for pipes of 175 mm and above.12
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Table 3-5 shows the properties for PVC pipe.
As there are many formulations of the polymers used for piping materials and different joining
methods for each system, manufacturers’ recommendations should be observed. Most catalogs
give the pressure ratings for pipe and fittings at various temperatures up to the maximum the mate-
rial will withstand.
Plastic Material Selection. The selection of a plastic for a specific purpose requires careful atten-
tion. All are suitable for cold water. However, plastic pipe should not be used for compressed gases
or compressed air if the pipe is made of a material subject to brittle failure. For other liquids and
chemicals, refer to charts provided by plastic pipe manufacturers and distributors.
3: 9
Table 3-5. Properties of Plastic Pipe Materials12
Outside diameter (mm) Wall thickness(mm)

Nominal
Siz e Mean outside Class 4.5 Class 6 Class 9 Class 12 Class 15 Class 18
Maximum
diameter 0.45 MPa 0.6 MPa 0.9 MPa 1.2 MPa 1.5 MPa 1.8 MPa
DN out of
Dm min. Dm min. roundness Tmin. Tmax. Tmin. Tmax. Tmin. Tmax. Tmin. Tmax. Tmin. Tmax. Tmin. Tmax.
10 17 . 0 17 . 3 0.5 - - - - - - - - - - 1. 4 1.7
15 21.2 21.5 0.5 - - - - - - - - 1.4 1.7 1. 6 2 .0
20 26.6 26.9 0 .5 - - - - - - 1. 4 1. 7 1.7 2.1 2 .0 2.4
25 33.4 33.7 0 .5 - - - - 1.4 1.7 1. 7 2.1 2.1 2 .5 2.5 3.0
t
32 42.1 4 2 .4 0.5 - - - - 1.7 2.1 2 .2 2.6 2.7 3.2 3.2 3.7
40 4 8 .1 4 8 .4 0.5 - - 1.4 1. 7 1.9 2 .3 2.5 3.0 3. 1 3 .6 3.6 4 .2
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50 60.2 60.5 0 .6 - - 1.6 2 .0 2.4 2.8 3 .1 3 .6 3.8 4 .4 4.6 5 .3
65 7 5 .2 75.5 0.7 1.5 1. 9 2 .0 2.4 3.0 3.5 3.9 4 .5 4.8 5 .5 5.7 6.5
80 88.7 8 9 .1 0.9 1.8 2 .2 2.4 2.8 3.5 4.1 4 .6 5 .3 5.7 6.5 6.7 7 .6
10 0 114.1 114.5 1.2 2 .3 2.7 3.0 3.5 4 .5 5 .2 5.9 6.7 7 .3 8. 2 8.6 9.7
12 5 14 0 . 0 14 0 . 4 1.4 2 .8 3.3 3.7 4 .3 5 .5 6.3 7 .2 8.1 8 .9 10 . 0 10 . 6 11.9
15 0 16 0 . 0 16 0 . 5 1.6 3 .2 3.7 4 .2 4.8 6. 3 7.1 8.3 9.3 10 . 2 11.4 12 . 1 13.5
17 5 2 0 0 .0 200.5 2.0 3.6 4 .2 4.8 5 .4 7.1 8.0 9.3 10 . 4 11.5 12 . 8 13 . 6 15.2
200 225.0 225.6 2.2 4 .0 4.6 5. 4 6. 1 7.9 8 .9 10 . 5 11.7 12 . 9 14 . 4 15 . 3 17.1
225 250.0 250.7 2.5 4 .5 5.1 6 .0 6.7 8.8 9.9 11.6 13 . 0 14 . 4 16 . 0 17 . 0 19.0
250 280.0 280.8 2.8 5.0 5.7 6.7 7 .5 9 .9 11.1 13 . 0 14 . 5 16 . 1 17 . 9 19 . 1 21.2
300 315.0 315.9 3.1 5 .7 6.4 7 .5 8 .5 11.1 12 . 4 14 . 7 16.3 18 . 1 2 0 .1 21.5 23. 8
350
375
400
450
500
575
Eg355.0
400. 0
450.0
5 0 0 .0
560.0
630.0
356.0
401.0
451.0
501.0
561.0
631.0
3.6
4 .0
4 .5
5. 0
5 .6
6 .3
6.4
7.2
8.1
9.0
10 . 1
11.3
7 .2
8.1
9.1
10 . 1
11.3
12 . 6
8 .5
9 .5
10 . 7
11.9
13 . 3
15 . 0
9.5
10 . 7
12 . 0
13 . 3
14 . 9
16 . 7
12.5
14 . 1
15 . 9
17.6
19.8
2 2 .2
14 . 0
15 . 7
17 . 7
19 . 6
21.9
24.7
16 . 5
18 . 6
2 0 .9
2 3 .3
2 6 .0
29.3
Note : Working pressures quoted in the table are maximum working pressures for PVC pipes to Australian Standard AS 1477 at 20C.
18.4
2 0 .7
23.2
25.8
28.9
32.4
2 0 .4
23.0
25.9
28.7
32.2
36.2
22.6
25.5
28.6
31.8
35.6
4 0 .0
24.2
27.3
30.7
34.1
38.2
43.0
26.8
30.2
34.0
3 7 .7
4 2 .2
47.5
up
Table 3-6 lists some applications that are pertinent to the HVAC industry. Descriptions follow:
• PVC — PVC has the best overall range of properties at the lowest cost; it is the most
widely used plastic. It is joined by solvent cementing, threading or flanging. Gasketed
push-on joints are also used for larger sizes.
• CPVC — CPVC has the same properties as PVC but can withstand higher tempera-
tures before losing strength. It is joined by the same methods as PVC.
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• PB — A lightweight, flexible material, PB can be used up to 99°C. Check local build-

ing codes for using PB in hot and cold plumbing water piping. It is joined by heat fusion
or mechanical means, can be bent to a 10-diameter radius, and is provided in coils.
• LDPE — Low density PE is a flexible, lightweight tubing with good low-temperature
properties. It is used in the food and beverage industry and for instrument tubing. It is
G
joined by mechanical means (compression fittings or push-on connectors and clamps).

• HDPE — A tough weather-resistant material, high density PE is used for large pipe-
lines in the gas industry. Fabricated fittings are available. It is joined by heat fusion for
large sizes, and flare, compression or insert fittings can be used on small sizes.
• PP — A lightweight plastic, PP is used for chemical waste lines and pressure applica-
tions, as it is inert to a wide range of chemicals. A wide variety of drainage fittings are
available. For pressure uses, regular fittings are made. It is joined by heat fusion.
• ABS — ABS is a high-strength, impact- and weather-resistant material. Certain for-
mulations can be used for compressed air, and ABS is also used in the food and bever-

3: 10
Table 3-6. Manufacturers' Recommendations for Plastic Materials14

Plastic Materialsa,b
PVC CPVC PB HDPE PP ABS PVDF FTRP
Cold water service R R R R R R R R
Hot (60°C) water N R R R R R R R
Potable water service R R R R R R R R
Drain, waste and vent R R N — R R — —
Demineralized water R R — — R R R —
Deionized water R R — — R R R R
Salt water R R R R R R — R
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Heating (95°C) water N N N N N N — R
Natural gas N N N R N N — —
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Compressed air N N — R N R — —
Sunlight and weather resistance N N N R — R R R
Underground service R R R R R R — R
Food handling R R — — R R R R
R = Recommended N = Not recommended
— = Insufficient information
a Before selecting a material, check the availability of a suitable range of sizes and fittings and of a satisfactory joining method. Also have the
manufacturer verify the best material for the purpose intended.
b Local building codes should be consulted for compliance of the materials listed.
Eg
age industry. A wide range of fittings are available. It is joined by solvent cementing,
threading or flanging.
• PVDF — Widely used for ultra-pure water systems and in the pharmaceutical indus-
try, PVDF has a wide temperature range. This material is over 20 times more expensive
than PVC. It is joined by heat fusion, and fittings are made for this purpose. For smaller
sizes, mechanical joints can be used.
up
In general, local building codes should be consulted for material compliance for any HVAC, water
supply, gas supply or compressed air applications.
3.2 Corrosion
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For the purposes of this section, corrosion may be defined as the destruction of a metal or alloy by
chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. Usually this is an electrochemical reac-
tion similar to the one that occurs in a dry cell battery. While a complete discussion of the theory
and mechanism of corrosion is far outside the scope of this course, some basic principles should be
kept in mind when designing a piping system.
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Factors that support or promote corrosion include:

• Oxygen
• Solutes (soluble chemical salts that combine with moisture to form electrolytes)
• Moisture (combines with oxygen and solutes to form electrolytes)
• Dissimilar metals (such as brass and steel) in electrical contact
• Stresses in metals
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Velocity (for example, velocity of water flowing in a pipe)
3: 11
Corrosion control methods include:

• Materials selection — Constructing HVAC systems of highly corrosion-resistant mate-
rial is often not possible because of economic and physical limitations.
• Cathodic protection — Cathodic protection causes an electrochemical reaction to occur
somewhere other than on the protected metal. Two types of cathodic protection are
encountered: sacrificial and impressed current. With sacrificial cathodic protection, the
metal to be protected (the cathode) is electrically connected to a sacrificial anode, which
corrodes instead of the protected metal. Impressed current cathodic protection uses an
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external voltage source to effect the required protection.
• Protective coatings — Protective coatings work either as: a barrier, preventing the metal
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to be protected from coming into contact with an electrolyte; sacrificially (as in galva-
nized pipe, where the zinc coating protects the steel pipe); or a combination of both
barrier and sacrificial coating.
• Environmental treatment — Inhibitors that retard the corrosion reaction may be added to
water systems, or the water may be mechanically deaerated to remove oxygen.
• Design — Equipment design modifications such as eliminating crevices where moisture
Eg
can accumulate, and providing weepholes to allow moisture to drain may be used to
reduce the likelihood of corrosion.
Corrosion environments of particular concern to the piping system designer include:
• Underground corrosion — Corrosion on buried pipes must always be anticipated. A

corrosion survey to determine the specific conditions in which the piping will be placed
should be conducted so that informed decisions about corrosion control measures may
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be made. Underground factors to consider include: types of soils, bacterial activity and
thermal insulation.
• Waterside corrosion and deposits — The most common water problems include: corro-
sion, scale formation, biological growths and suspended solid matter.
Control of waterside corrosion and deposits is effected using water treatment with corrosion-inhib-
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iting chemicals and mechanical treatment (filtering and mechanical deaeration).
The 1995 ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Applications contains a more complete discussion of corro-
sion, corrosion control, protective measures and water treatment.15
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3: 12
3.3 Valves and Fittings
The AIRAH Application Manual–Air Conditioning Water Piping and the 1997 ASHRAE Hand-
book–Fundamentals point out that valves and fittings cause pressure drops greater than those caused
by the pipe alone.16,17 For a pressure drop (∆p) in pascals (Pa), use:
V 2ρ 3–1
∆p= K
2
t
where:
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∆p = pressure drop, Pa
K = resistance coefficient for valve or fitting (see Table 3–7a)
V = fluid velocity, m/s
To use Equation 3-1, values for K are tabulated for a range of typical valves and fittings.
Eg
Table 3–7a shows K values for typical fittings and valves. Table 3–7b shows the approximate
range of variations for the K values determined by the Hydraulic Institute. The Hydraulic Institute
Engineering Data Book lists typical K values for valves, fittings, increasers, diffusers and reducers
(see Figures 3–1, 3–2, 3–3 and 3–4).18
up
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3: 13
Table 3-7a. K Factors: Screwed Pipe Fittings and Flanged Welded Pipe Fittings17
Screwed Pipe Fittings
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Flanged Welded Pipe Fittings
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Table 3-7b. Approximate Range of Variation for K Factors17

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3: 14
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Figure 3-1. Resistance Coefficient for Valves and Fittings18

3: 15
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Figure 3-2. Resistance Coefficients for Valves and Fittings18

3: 16
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Figure 3-3. Resistance Coefficients for Increasers and Diffusers18
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Figure 3-4. Resistance Coefficients for Reducers18

3: 17
3.4 Backflow-Prevention Devices
As discussed in the 1996 ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment, backflow-preven-

tion devices prevent reverse flow of the city supply in a water system.19 A vacuum breaker prevents
back-siphonage in a nonpressure system, while a backflow preventer prevents backflow in a pres-
surized system (see Figure 3–5). Backflow prevention is also covered by AS-2845.20
Selection of Devices
Vacuum breakers and backflow preventers should be selected on the basis of the local plumbing
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codes, the water supply impurities involved and the type of cross-connection. Impurities are classi-
fied as: contaminants, which could create a health hazard if introduced into potable water; and
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pollutants, which could create an objectionable condition but not a health hazard.
Cross-connections are classified as nonpressure or pressure connections. In a nonpressure cross-

connection, a potable water pipe connects or extends below the overflow or rim of a receptacle at
atmospheric pressure. When this type of connection is not protected by a minimum air gap, it
should be protected by an appropriate vacuum breaker or an appropriate backflow preventer.
Eg
In a pressure cross-connection, a potable water pipe is connected to a closed vessel or a piping
system that is above atmospheric pressure and contains a nonpotable fluid. This connection should
be protected by an appropriate backflow preventer only. Note that a pressure vacuum breaker should
not be used alone with a pressure-type cross-connection.
Vacuum breakers should be corrosion-resistant. Backflow preventers (including accessories, com-

ponents and fittings 50 mm and smaller) should be made of bronze with threaded connections.
Sizes larger than 50 mm should be made of bronze, galvanized iron or fused epoxy-coated iron
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inside and out, with flanged connections. All backflow-prevention devices should meet applicable
Australian Standards and the required local authorities.
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Figure 3-5. Backflow-Prevention Device19

3: 18
Installation of Devices
Vacuum breakers and backflow preventers equipped with atmospheric vents, or with relief open-
ings, should be installed and located to prevent any vent or relief opening from being submerged.
They should be installed in the position recommended by the manufacturer.
Backflow preventers may be double check valve (DCV) or reduced pressure zone (RPZ) types.
Refer to manufacturers’ information for specific application recommendations and code compli-
ance.
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3.5 Pipe Selection
The following example demonstrates how sizing and selection are accomplished using the engi-
neering data information in Chapters 2 and 3.
Problem
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Determine the pipe sizing and total pressure drop (∆p) for the piping zone A–B of the system shown
in Figure 3–6. You are given that the system consists of:
• 1 heating coil rated at 2.5 L/s and 10 kPa drop
• 1 gate valve — 50 mm medium steel pipe
• 1 control valve — 40 mm rated at 2.5 L/s at 25 kPa ∆p
• 1 balance valve — 50 mm rated at 2.6 L/s at 7 kPa ∆p
• 2 tees (branch flow)
up
• 4 elbows
• Total pipe length = 100 m (screwed pipe)
• Assume water temperature at 82°C and density of 972 kg/m3.
Solution
1. Recalling the guideline of selecting pipe for a friction loss of < 500 Pa/m, consult Figure 2–13b.
For 2.5 L/s, a 50 mm pipe has a pressure drop of 250 Pa/m. Checking 40 mm pipe, the pressure drop
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is 800 Pa/m; 65 mm pipe has a pressure drop of 67 Pa/m. Therefore, the pipe size of 50 mm is
selected as meeting the friction loss requirements and economics.
2. Determine the pressure loss due to the 100 m of 50 mm piping:
∆p = 100 m × 250 Pa/m =25 kPa

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adding in the effect of aging:
∆p = 1.15 × 25 kPa = 28.8 kPa
From Table 2-2, the value of velocity = 1.13 m/s
⎛ V 2 ⎞ 972 ⎛ 1.132 ⎞
∆p = ρ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 620 Pa = 0.62 kPa
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1000 ⎝ 2 ⎠

3: 19
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Eg Figure 3-6. Pipe Loop Sizing Example
3. Calculate the pressure drop (∆p) for the gate valve. Looking at Table 3–7a, K for a 50 mm gate
up
valve is 0.17:
∆p = K(V2/2)ρ = (0.17)(0.638)(972) = 105.4 Pa = 0.105 kPa
4. Determine the pressure drop due to the 90° regular pattern elbows
∆p = (4 elbows) × K (V2/2)ρ
we know:
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K = 1 (from Table 3–7a)

∆p = (4) × (1.0)(0.638)(972) = 2480 Pa = 2.48 kPa
5. Similarly, the pressure drop for the tee joints is:

∆p = (2 tee joints) × K (V2/2)ρ
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K = 1.4 (from Table 3-7a, 50 mm tee branch)

∆p = (2) × (1.4)(0.638)(972) = 1763 Pa = 1.763 kPa
6. The total pressure drop is the sum of all component contributions:

Total ∆p = coil + pipe + balance valve + control valve + gate valve + tee branches
+ elbows
= 10 kPa + 28.8 + 7 + 25 + 0.105 + 1.763 + 2.48
Total ∆p = 75.15 kPa

3: 20
Typical System Characteristic
A graph of the system pressure required to provide flow at a design flow rate of 60 kPa and 6 L/s,
with no static pressure due to elevation, is shown in Figure 3–7. Calculation of system pressure at
less than design flow shows that a parabolic-shaped curve relates flow and pressure drop gradually
approaching 0% flow at 0% head. Referring to the Darcy-Weisbach Equation, we see that the
pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity or the total flow:
∆p ~ V 2 ~ Q2
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therefore, the general parabolic shape. From the Hazen-Williams Equation (see Chapter 2, Equa-
pe
tion 2–9), we see the exponent of 1.85, which is very close to the 2.0 exponent.
With the system filled with an initial pressure, say 40 kPa, then the system design flow of 6 L/s will
be shown at 60 kPa + 40 kPa = 100 kPa, as shown in the system characteristic curve (see Figure
3-8). As flow is reduced to 0%, the pressure approaches the initial pressure of 40 kPa.
If a system employs two-way valves and the load requires part-load conditions, then the room
thermostats will partly close the control valves. This reduces the total flow through the system and
Eg
the characteristic curve changes (see Figure 3–9) because a higher pressure drop at a reduced flow
results. In the next chapter, we will see this relationship affect on the centrifugal pump curve.
up
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Figure 3-7. System Characteristic Curve

3: 21
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EgFigure 3-8. System Characteristic Curve With 40 kPa Static Pressure
up
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Figure 3-9. System Characteristic Curve Showing Shift From Valve Closing

3: 22
The Next Step
In the next chapter, you will learn about centrifugal pumps.
Summary
In this chapter, we covered:
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• The Australian organization that issues codes and standards for piping systems and
components.
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• The different types of pipe used in HVAC water system applications, and the character-
istics of each.
• The pipe joining methods commonly encountered in HVAC water systems, and the
characteristics of each.
• Common factors that support or promote corrosion, the five methods of corrosion con-
trol, and the two corrosion environments of particular concern to the HVAC piping
Eg
system designer.
• The function, selection and installation of backflow prevention devices.
• How to solve a basic pipe selection problem.
Bibliography
up
1. Standards Australia. 1989. AS-1074, Steel Tubes and Tubulars for Ordinary Service Steel Pipe
for Light, Medium and Heavy Grades. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
2. Standards Australia. 1996. AS-1432, Copper Tube for Plumbing, Gasfitting and Drainage Appli-
cations. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
3. Standards Australia. 1989. AS-1571, Copper Seamless Tubes for Air Conditioning and Refrig-
ro
eration Service. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
4. Standards Australia. 1995. AS-2280, Ductile Iron Pressure Pipe and Fittings. Homebush, NSW,
Australia.
5. Standards Australia. 1986. AS-1677, Refrigerating Systems. Homebush, NSW, Australia.

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6. Standards Australia. 1994. AS/NZS-1200, SAA Boiler Code–Pressure Equipment. Homebush,

NSW, Australia.
7. Standards Australia. 1994. AS-1271, Valves, Water Gauges and Other Fittings for Boilers and
Unfired Pressure Vessels. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
8. Standards Australia. 1995. AS-3500, Plumbing and Drainage Code. Homebush, NSW, Austra-
lia.

3: 23
9. Standards Australia. 1995. AS-2118, Code for Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems. Homebush,
NSW, Australia.
10. Standards Australia. 1981. AS-1697, Gas Pipeline Code. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
11. Standards Australia. 1981. AS-2018, Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Code. Homebush, NSW, Aus-
tralia.
12. Standards Australia. 1996. AS/NZS-1477, PVC Pipes and Fittings for Pressure Applications.
Homebush, NSW, Australia.
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13. Standards Australia. 1989. AS-3571, Glass Filament Reinforced Thermosetting Plastic (GRP)
pe
Pipes. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
14. ASHRAE. 1996. “Pipes, tubes and fittings.” ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equip-
ment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 40.
15. ASHRAE. 1995. “Corrosion control and water treatment.” ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Appli-
cations. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 44.
Eg
16. AIRAH. 1994. AIRAH Application Manual–Air Conditioning Water Piping. Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia: AIRAH.
17. ASHRAE. 1997. “Pipe sizing.” ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Chapter 33.
18. Hydraulic Institute. 1990. Engineering Data Book. Cleveland, OH: Hydraulic Institute.
up
19. ASHRAE. 1996. “Valves.” ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA:
ASHRAE. Chapter 41.
20. Standards Australia. 1995. AS-2845, Water Supply Backflow Prevention Devices. Homebush,
NSW, Australia.
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3: 24
3-01. What is the safe working pressure (per AS-1432 to 50°C) for each of the following copper
pipe diameters:
Nominal Size Working Pressure
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and Pipe OD Type (kPa)
200 mm, D=203 B
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80 mm, D=76.11 B
100 mm, D=101.48 A
25 mm, D=25.35 B
3-02. List three joining methods used with copper tubing.
Eg
3-03. List five methods of joining metal pipe.
3-04. Name and briefly describe the two main categories of plastic piping materials, and list at
least three of each type of plastic pipe.
up
3-05. List the AS/NZS-1477 long-term hydrostatic pressure test, allowed values (MPa @ 20°C)
for each of the following plastic pipe sizes:
AS/NZS-1477 Hydrostatic
PVC Pipe Sizes Test Pressure (MPa @ 20°C)
Up to 150 mm
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175 mm and above
3-06. List the five methods of corrosion control.

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3-07. List the k values for each of the following screwed pipe fittings:
Nominal
Pipe Dia.
(mm) Fitting Type k value
32 90° ell long
15 Globe valve
80 Tee branch

3: 25
3-08. What is the function of a backflow-prevention device?
3-09. Determine the pipe sizing and total pressure drop for the piping system shown below. You
are given that the system consists of:
• 1 heating coil rated at 2.2 L/s and 10 kPa pressure drop

• 1 gate valve — 50 mm
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• 1 control valve — 50 mm rated at 2.2 L/s at 27.5 kPa pressure drop
• 1 balance valve — 50 mm rated at 2.5 L/s at 7 kPa pressure drop
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• 2 tee branches
• 4 elbows
• Total pipe length = 60 m (medium screwed pipe)
• Assume water temperature of 82°C and density of 972 kg/m3
Eg
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up
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4: 1
Chapter 4
Centrifugal Pumps
• Instructions
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• 4.1 Types of Pumps
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• 4.2 Pump Selection
• 4.3 System Design Considerations
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Instructions
up
• Understand how a centrifugal pump changes the flow and pressure of a hydronic sys-
tem.
• Be able to name six types of centrifugal pumps and where they are used.
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• Know how the pressure-capacity curve of a centrifugal pump is determined.

• Understand the difference between “family” and individual pump curves.
• Know what characteristics can be learned from a manufacturer’s pump curve.
• Be able to determine power for a centrifugal pump.
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• Know what pump efficiency is.

• Understand the radial thrust of a centrifugal pump.
• Understand pump affinity laws and how to apply them.
• Know what NPS and NPSR are.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps

4: 2
4.1 Types of Pumps
This chapter deals with pumps — the types of pumps available for water systems, the factors that
must be considered in pump selection, and how to integrate pumps into a system to achieve maxi-
mum energy efficiency.
Some have said that the pump is next to humanity’s most important inventions of the wedge, the
lever and the wheel. Many types of pumps have been developed, but the centrifugal pump is prob-
ably the most widely used and is typically employed in a variety of HVAC applications. Basically,
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centrifugal pumps circulate hot water in heating systems and chilled water for cooling systems to
satisfy a predetermined rate of flow between the boiler or chiller and their respective space condi-
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tioning terminal units to satisfy the load. This is illustrated for chilled water by the system shown in
Figure 4–1.
Other pump applications on hydronic systems include condenser water circuits to cooling towers
(shown in Figure 4–2) and water source heat pumps. When a cooling tower rejects heat for a
chilled water plant, the condenser water pumps are selected on the basis of the flow rate required by
the load, the selected refrigeration equipment and the physical location of the tower relative to the
Eg
pump and condenser. Figure 4–2 shows a typical example of flow rates and load temperature
differences for a chiller’s evaporator and condensing loops.
Boiler feed and condensate return pumps are required with boiler feeds and condensate returns
when a steam boiler is included in the system (see Figure 4–3). Boiler manufacturers recommend
specific pumping requirements.
Operation. In centrifugal pumps, an electric motor or other power source transmits its output torque
up
into the impeller’s rotation via a coupling to the pump shaft. Impeller rotation adds energy to the
liquid after it enters the eye of the impeller (see Figure 4–4).
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Figure 4-1. Chilled Water Pumping System
Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps Fundamentals of Water System Design

4: 3
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Eg Figure 4-2. Typical Cooling Tower Pumping System
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Figure 4-3. Boiler Feed and Condensate Return Pumping

4: 4
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Eg Figure 4-4. Centrifugal Pump, Impeller and Volute
up
The fluid is then acted upon by the outward centrifugal force and the rotational or tip speed force,
as shown in the vector diagram (see Figure 4–5). These two forces result in a pressure energy
increase due to the velocity increase of the fluid.
The water passage flow area is increased due to the design of the volute and the diameter of the
impeller (see Figure 4–6). The pump casing or volute collects the liquid as it leaves the impeller
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blades by the centrifugal force and guides it out the volute throat into the discharge nozzle.
The pressure energy added by the pump in the system:

• Overcomes the resistance friction caused by the flow through the heating and air-condi-
tioning equipment, such as the piping, valves, coils, chillers or boilers.
• Raises the water in open systems to higher elevations (such as to the top of a cooling
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tower above the tower basin water level) and overcomes the resistance through the
piping and the tower spray-heads.
Various types of centrifugal pumps are available, and selection depends on the application, total
pressure (kPa), capacity (L/s), pressure-capacity characteristics, piping arrangement and require-
ments, as illustrated on the next several pages.1
Circulator Pump (see Figure 4–7): Motor mounted, inline pump with close coupled shaft connec-
tion requiring overall compact size; vertical suction and discharge piping; usually found in small
residential systems, domestic water or terminal recirculation applications.
4: 5
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Eg Figure 4-5. Impeller Action on Fluid
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Figure 4-7. Circulator Pump

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Figure 4-6. Flow Pattern of

Impeller/Volute Action

4: 6
Close-Coupled End Suction

Pump (see Figure 4–8): Motor
mounted pumps; overhung im-
peller; close coupled pump shaft
connections; single stage; foot
mounting (motor) or pump cas-
ing mounting; compact size;
horizontal suction and vertical
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discharge piping.
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Frame-Mounted End Suction
Pump (see Figure 4–9): Motor
and pump mounted to common
base; overhung impeller; sepa-
Figure 4-8. Close-Coupled End Suction Pump
rately coupled; single stage;
frame mounted on baseplate;
horizontal suction and vertical discharge piping, or in special cases, centerline-mounted pump on
Eg
vertical baseplate with vertical suction and horizontal discharge piping.
Base Mounted Horizontal Split Case Pump (see Figure 4–10): Motor and pump mounted to com-
mon base with impeller between bearings; separately coupled; available with single and multistage
impellers; horizontal suction and discharge piping; or in some applications vertical split case with
vertical suction and horizontal discharge piping. Split case construction enables disassembly of
casing to service pump bearings and impeller without disturbing the piping.
up
Vertical Inline Pump (see Figure 4–11): Overhung impeller, close or separately coupled; single
stage, inline (horizontal suction and discharge piping) with flexible or rigid pump shaft coupling.
Piping supports pump, and requires pipe supports or hangers.
Vertical Turbine Single or Multistage Pump (see Figure 4–12): Large capacity for well or wet
sump type applications; available in variety of motor arrangements — submersible, barrel or can or
axial flow types; vertical submerged suction and horizontal discharge; barrel type has horizontal
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suction and discharge pipes; barrel casing is below level of floor.

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Figure 4-9. Frame-Mounted End Suction Pump

4: 7
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Figure 4-10. Base-Mounted Horizontal Split Case Pump
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Figure 4-11. Vertical Inline Pump
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Pump Nomenclature
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The Hydraulic Institute2 has

published a list of terms of parts
and pump components. Where
possible, these terms and those
in the 1996 ASHRAE Hand-
book–HVAC Systems and
Figure 4-12. Vertical Turbine Pump,
Equipment1 will be used. Wet Sump Arrangement

4: 8
4.2 Pump Selection
Variable Speed Pumps. Advancements in modern electronics technology have significantly re-
duced the costs of high power motor speed control circuitry. Variable speed pumps are available
for a wide range of pumping applications where variable flow control is indicated for reasons of
performance and energy efficiency.
Centrifugal Pump Characteristics. The characteristic of a centrifugal pump's output pressure ver-
sus flow is shown as a unique total pressure-capacity curve by the manufacturer (see Figure 4-13)
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at a stated rotating speed (rps). The
pressure-capacity curve of a pump
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model is determined by the pump
manufacturer based on a set of stan-
dard tests.2 Typically, the discharge
pressure (kPa) decreases as the pump
capacity or flow (L/s) increases, as
shown.
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The pump characteristic may be fur-
ther described as having a flat or a
steep characteristic;3 also as a normal
rising curve, a drooping curve and a
steeply rising curve4 (see Figure
4-14). Flat characteristic pumps are
applied on closed piping systems
up
with modulating control valves. Figure 4-13. Total Pressure-Capacity Curve
Steep characteristic pumps are usu-
ally applied on open piping systems (cooling towers), where high pressure and constant flow are
usually desired.
The capacity of a centrifugal pump varies directly as the rotating speed. Manufacturers may com-
bine all the curves for a particular pump volute model for a given speed (rps) and various impeller
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diameter sizes in a family of performance curves or envelope (see Figure 4–15). Once the family
characteristic is determined, the individual pump curve (see Figure 4–16) must be carefully studied
for its required performance characteristics. The pump manufacturer shows pressure-capacity curves
for various impeller sizes (120 mm to 180 mm diameter shown). A sloping line shows the motor
power required for various pump operating points. The pump efficiency (Equation 4–4) is shown
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for various operating points along the pressure-capacity curve.
In Chapter 3, we saw how a system pressure characteristic curve was developed by sizing the
pressure drop through the piping, components and fittings to meet a design flow. Now the pump is
selected to provide this flow and pump-pressure to meet the design conditions.
The pump-capacity curve and the system curve are plotted on the same graph, as shown in Figure
4–17. The intersection of these two curves is the system operating point.

4: 9
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Eg Figure 4-14. Flat Versus Steep Pump Curves
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Figure 4-15. Characteristic Curves for Pump Models at Given Speed

4: 10
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Eg Figure 4-16. Selected Pump Pressure-Capacity Curve
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Figure 4-17. System Curve and Pump Pressure-Capacity Curve

4: 11
Pump Power
The theoretical power to circulate water is the water power, and is shown as:
Pw =
(kg liquid pumped/sec )(pressure increase in Pa ) = m ⋅ ∆p 4–1
liquid density in kg/m 3
ρ
Because water has a density of 1,000 kg/m3 at 4°C (standard), the formula is:
Pw (watts) = Flow (L/s ) × Pressure (kPa )

4–2
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Figure 4–18 compares the increase of Pw as the pump increases flow.
At other water temperatures or fluids, the formula is corrected for density as:
Pw =
(
Flow (L/s ) × Pressure (kPa ) × Density kg/m3 ) 4–3
1,000
Eg
Pump Input Power. The pump input power (kW) required to operate the pump is determined by the
manufacturer’s test of an actual pump running under standard conditions to produce the required
flow (L/s) and pressure (kPa). The pump manufacturer furnishes the required kW on the pump
curve above the pump-pressure capacity curve (see Figure 4–16).
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Figure 4-18. Increase of Pumping Power Required with Pump Flow

4: 12
Pump Efficiency. The pump efficiency is determined by the manufacturer’s test by comparing the
theoretical output power (water power) to the input power:
Output P 4–4
Efficiency = = w × 100 = %
Input Pinput
Figure 4–19 shows the plotted pump efficiency, as determined by actual test, for each impeller’s
operating point. Note how the pump efficiency increases, with increasing flow, until the best oper-
ating efficiency point (BEP) is reached and then decreases as flow increases further.
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The pump manufacturer will plot the efficiencies for a given pump volute and impeller size, as
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shown in Figure 4–20. Note the increase in pump efficiency until it reaches the maximum effi-
ciency and then decreases. It is at this best efficiency point (BEP) of pump operation that the exit
angle of the water, as it leaves the impeller, closely coincides with the angle of the “cut water” or
“tongue” in the body casing (see Figure 4–4). The manufacturer plots the efficiencies for a given
pump volute and various sized impellers based on tests and furnishes the pump curve with a family
of these plotted efficiencies (Figure 4-20). The so-called “eye” of these curves is the BEP and is
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considered by many designers as an important factor in matching the pump selection to the system
head curve. Ideally, the pump’s best efficiency points should be in the middle of the pump head
curve operating range.
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Figure 4-19. Pump Efficiency

4: 13
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Figure 4-20. Pump Efficiency Curves
The optimum selection area or region to use when selecting a centrifugal pump is displayed in
Figure 4–21.5 The areas bounded by lines AB to AC represent operating points that lie within the
preferred selection range, but this area does not always contain the needed points, as an infinite
number of pump sizes are not economical to produce and selection limits of 66% to 115% of flow
at the BEP are suggested. The satisfactory selection range is that portion of a pump's performance
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curve where the combined effect of circulatory flow, turbulence and friction losses due to the liquid
being handled are at a minimum. Pump selections to the left of BEP are recommended where
possible, as overstated data for pipe friction and other system equipment tends toward lower actual
system pressures, causing overpumping and possible operation in the turbulent region of the pump.
Pump manufacturers usually publish catalog pump performance data in the form shown in Figure
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4–22; in this particular case, a pump having 65 mm discharge and 100 mm suction connections and
operating at 24 rps. The performance curve illustrated is referred to as a flat curve type in that the
pressure at shutoff is approximately 25% higher than the pressure at the best efficiency point. The
curves include other performance values based on trimmed impeller diameters from 266 mm to 226
mm, which is the minimum available diameter. The input power lines are shown for various impel-
ler sizes to indicate what motor ratings would be required. (We will discuss the NPS values in an
upcoming section). Note, as the impeller diameter is reduced, the overall efficiency suffers because
of increased recirculation around the body casing due to the additional radial clearance between the
impeller OD and the “cut water” in the pump body (see Figure 4–4).
4: 14
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Figure 4-21. Recommended Centrifugal Pump's Selection Regions
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Figure 4-22. Pump Performance Data

4: 15
The particular pump curve shown has a wide impeller that is well suited for use on hot water or
chilled water systems in that the input power lines are such that an oversized motor does not have
to be used to protect from overload should the system pressure be less than calculated. In this case,
the 5 kW motor will be adequate. Also in Figure 4–22, note that at the BEP, the capacity is 14 L/s
and, with the discharge flange of 65 mm, this results in a velocity of 4.2 m/s (V = Q/A) and, with its
100 mm suction flange, a 1.8 m/s velocity on the input side (which equivalent to a 270 Pa/m drop
for 100 mm pipe). If the pump is located in a central power plant, this potential velocity noise may
be acceptable. However, if these mains were in a building where the operating sound level might be
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critical, then the next larger size (125 mm pipe) would reduce the velocity to 1.1 m/s and would be
a more satisfactory selection. In some cases, manufacturers have designed both narrow and wide
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(thickness) impellers to be interchangeable within the same body volute to provide both steep or
flat performance curves and extend the application range of the basic pump model.
Radial Thrust. In a single-volute centrifugal pump, uniform or near-uniform pressures act on the
impeller at design capacity (see Figure 4–23), which coincides with the best efficiency point.6 But
at other capacities, the pressures around the impeller are not even and there is a resultant radial
reaction. Figure 4–24 shows a typical change in radial thrust with changes in the pumping rate.
Eg
Specifically, radial thrust decreases from shutoff to the design capacity (if chosen at BEP) and then
increases with overcapacity. With overcapacity, the reaction is roughly in the opposite direction
than that with partial capacity. Note that the force is greatest at shutoff. The radial forces resulting
from extreme low-flow operation can cause severe impeller shaft deflection and ultimately shaft
breakage, with the danger becoming more severe with large head pumps. Later, we will discuss this
concern with variable speed operation.
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Figure 4-23. Pressures on Impeller Causing Radial Thrust

4: 16
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Figure 4-24. Change in Radial Thrust Versus Pumping Rate
Net Positive Suction (NPS). Particular attention must be given to the condition (pressure and tem-
perature) of the water as it enters the suction of a pump, especially condenser-tower applications,
steam condensate return and steam boiler feed systems. If the absolute pressure on the liquid at the
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suction nozzle approaches the vapor pressure of the liquid, vapor pockets will form in the impeller
passages. This condition will interfere with pump performance. The collapse of the vapor pockets
(cavitation) will be noisy and destructive to the pump impeller. If a cavitating pump is not cor-
rected, it will cause permanent damage and eventually failure of the pump. The amount of pressure
in excess of the vapor pressure required to prevent the formation of vapor pockets is the Net Posi-
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tive Suction Required (NPSR). NPSR is a characteristic of a given pump and varies with pump
speed and flow. It is determined by the manufacturer testing individual pumps and providing this
data on the pump performance curve (see Figure 4–25, upper curve).
Net Positive Suction Available (NPSA). Particular attention must be given to NPSR when a pump
is operating with hot liquids or applied to a circuit having a suction lift such as a cooling tower. The
vapor pressure increases with water temperature and reduces the Net Positive Suction Available
(NPSA). Each pump has its own NPSR (as shown on its curve), while the installation has its own
NPSA, which is the total useful energy above the vapor pressure at the pump suction connection.
Note that the NPSA is also affected by the location of the expansion tank in closed systems.
4: 17
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Eg Figure 4-25. Selected Pump Curve Showing NPSR
up
To determine NPSA in a proposed design, use this formula (per Figure 4–26):
NPSA = p p + p z − p vpa − p f 4–5
where:
pp = absolute pressure on surface of liquid where pump takes suction, Pa
pz = static pressure of the liquid above centerline of pump; pz is minus if
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liquid level is below pump centerline, Pa

pvpa = absolute vapor pressure at pumping temperature, Pa
pf = friction losses in suction piping, Pa
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To determine NPSA in an existing installation (see Figure 4-27), use this formula:
⎛V 2ρ ⎞ 4–6
NPSA = p a + p s + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ - p vpa
⎝ 2 ⎠
where:
pa = atmospheric pressure for elevation of installation, Pa
ps = pressure at suction flange corrected to centerline of pump; ps is negative if
below atmospheric pressure, Pa
V2ρ/2 = velocity pressure at point of measurement ps , Pa
4: 18
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Figure 4-26. NPSA in a Proposed Installation
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Figure 4-27. NPSA in an Existing Installation

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If the NPSA is less than the pump’s NPSR, cavitation, noise, inadequate pumping and mechanical
problems will result. Thus, for a trouble-free design, the NPSA must always be greater than the
pump’s required NPSR. NPSR is normally not a factor with hot and chilled water pumps where
sufficient system fill pressure is exerted on the pump suction. See Figure 4–28 for an example of a
factory NPSR test setup.7

4: 19
t
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Eg Figure 4-28. Factory Test Setup to Determine Pump's NPSR
up
Pump Selection Process
Every pump selection includes the following sequence of steps (see Figure 4-29):
1. Determine the load to be pumped (heating or cooling) in kW.
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2. Determine the design ∆t across the waterside of the load heat transfer coil or device.
For example, 10°C drop for heating or 7°C rise for cooling. Calculate the required flow
rate (L/s) for each load.
3. Total the load flows to determine the total flow in L/s.
4. Study the piping design to determine the most resistant circuit path in kPa (from pump
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discharge through distribution main, zone riser or runouts, terminal piping, load coil,
fittings, valves and return to pump suction). For primary-secondary systems, select the
primary distribution pump for most resistant path up to and from the common or bridge
and return. For the secondary pump, select the most resistant path within the secondary
distribution and terminal piping.
5. Determine the method of mechanically mounting and supporting the pump on a pad in
the equipment room, inline in the piping or within a well or wet sump below floor level.
6. With the system total pressure (in kPa drop) and capacity (in L/s) determined, select a
pump from the manufacturer's family curves, and the mounting required.

4: 20
t
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Eg
up
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Figure 4-29. Pump Selection Process
7. Refer to the manufacturer's individual pump performance curve sheet showing pump
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efficiency, impeller diameter size, input power and NPSR. Select a flat curve pump for
closed-systems with control valves (to minimize variation in pressure for a reduced
load) and a steep curve pump for open-systems or constant flow systems without con-
trol valves. Select most efficient percent-pump operation to satisfy the pressure and
capacity L/s; for constant speed pumping, with two-way valves, consider the variation
in total flow, from design to minimum capacity and select highest pump efficiency to lie
between this range (for example, 50% to 100% capacity). Select the motor power to be
greater than the pump power and motor efficiency over the range of operation. Check
for overflow capacity when staging multiple pumps.

4: 21
4.3 System Design Considerations
Similarity Relationships — The Affinity Laws
Any machine that imparts velocity and converts velocity to pressure can be categorized by a set of
relationships that apply to any dynamic conditions. These relationships are referred to as the Affin-
ity Laws.8 They can be described as similarity processes, which follow general rules within certain
limits and should always relate to a known system's pressure curve.
The Affinity Laws state that:
t
• Capacity varies as the rotating speed; the peripheral velocity of the impeller.
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• Pressure varies as the square of the rotating speed.
• Pump power (kW) varies as the cube of the rotating speed.
The Affinity Laws apply to centrifugal gas compressors as well as to centrifugal pumps, but are
most distinctly useful for estimating pump performance at different rotating speeds, or impeller
diameters starting with pumps with known characteristics.
Eg
Two basic variations can be analyzed by these relationships (see Figure 4-30):
• By changing speed and maintaining constant impeller diameter, pump efficiency will
remain the same, but pressure, capacity and power will vary according to the laws.
• By changing impeller diameter and maintaining constant speed, the efficiency will not
change; except for a diffuser-type pump where the efficiency will change if the impeller
size is reduced more than 5%. (Note the change in efficiency will occur if the impeller
size is reduced sufficiently to affect the clearances between the casing and the periphery
up
of the impeller.)8
It is important to keep in mind that the use of the Affinity Laws assumes that the system pressure
curve is known and it behaves like a parabola where the pressure varies as the square of the flow
(p~Q2). The pump-pressure curve is determined by the manufacturer’s test. The operating point is
the intersection of the total system curve and the pump-pressure curve. As the Affinity Laws are
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used to calculate a new condition due to flow or pressure change (such as a reduced pump speed or
impeller diameter), this new condition must follow the same system curve. An exception to this
would be a change in total flow due to the control valves reducing the system flow at constant pump
speed. In this case, the intersection of the system curve must follow the pump pressure curve to the
reduced flow condition and then a new system pressure curve is developed through this point.
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Another caution on using the Affinity Laws is to take into account the system static pressure that is
in addition to the system pressure.

4: 22
Speed Change Impeller Diameter Change
⎛N ⎞ ⎛D ⎞
Flow: Q2 = Q1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ Q 2 = Q1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 4–7
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠
t
2 2
⎛N ⎞ ⎛D ⎞
pe
Pressure: p2 = p1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ p2 = p1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 4–8
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠
3 3
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ D2 ⎞
Power: P 2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4–9
⎝ N 1 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠
Eg Figure 4-30. Pump Affinity Laws
Example
up
The pump is rated at 15 L/s at 200 kPa with a 24 rps electric motor. What is the flow and pressure
if used with an 16 rps motor? Assume no system static pressure.
Flow:
⎛ N ⎞ 16 ⎞
Q 2 = Q 1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 15 ⎛⎜ ⎟ = 10 L/s
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎠
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Pressure: 2 2
⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 16 ⎞
p2 = p1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 200⎜ ⎟ = 88.9 kPa
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎠
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where:
N = pump rotational speed
Q = volume flow rate of fluid
p = pump pressure
P = pump power

4: 23
The Next Step
In the next chapter, you will examine terminal unit performance and control.
Summary
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• How a centrifugal pump changes the flow and pressure of a hydronic system.
• Six types of centrifugal pumps and where they are used.
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• How the pressure-capacity curve of a centrifugal pump is determined.
• The difference between family and individual pump curves.
• The characteristics that can be learned from a manufacturer's pump curve.
• How to determine power for a centrifugal pump.
• Pump efficiency.
Eg
• The radial thrust of a centrifugal pump.
• Pump affinity laws and how to apply them.
• NPS and NPSR.
Bibliography
up
1. ASHRAE. 1996. "Centrifugal pumps." Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA:
ASHRAE. Chapter 38.
2. Hydraulic Institute. 1994. Standards for Centrifugal, Rotary and Reciprocal Pumps. Parsippany,
NJ: Hydraulic Institute.
3. ITT Bell & Gossett. 1968. Pump and System Curve Selection and Application for Centrifugal
Pumps, TEH-375. Morton Grove, IL: ITT Bell & Gossett.
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4. Garay, P. 1990. Pump Application Desk Book. Lilburn, GA: Fairmont Press. Chapter 8.
5. Stethem, W. 1988. "Application of constant speed pumps to variable volume systems. ASHRAE
Transactions. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. OT-88-09-3.
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4: 24
4-01. List three factors that influence the type of pump selected for a particular application.
4-02. Label the components of the centrifugal pump shown below. Describe the function of each
t
component.
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Eg
4-03. The suction flange gauge of a pump reads 70 kPa. If the temperature of water being pumped
is 95°C and the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa, what is the available NPS? At what
up
temperature will the pump cavitate? (Water at 95°C vaporizes at 84.6 kPa abs, per the 1997
Handbook–Fundamentals, Table 3, p. 6.7)
4-04. What is the net positive suction pressure on the inlet to a 1.5 kW pump rated at 9 L/s at 100
kPa for a cooling tower application (see diagram below)? The centerline of a pump inlet is
to be 750 mm below the tower sump water surface; assume tower water at 40°C and piping
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equivalent to 20 m of 50 mm pipe on pump suction. Assume atmospheric pressure is 101.325

kPa abs; assume friction pressure in 50 mm pipe is 62.6 kPa (according to Table 2-2, 9 L/s
flow in 50 mm pipe yields 3129 Pa/m of pipe: 20 × 3.129 = 62.6 kPa) and vapor pressure of
water at 40°C is 7.383 kPa abs (per Table 3, above). Pump curve shows 30 kPa NPSR.
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4: 25
4-05. What is radial thrust?
4-06. Explain what pump cavitation is and how it can be avoided.
4-07. Write the NPSA formula for a proposed design, and explain what each variable represents.
t
4-08. Write the pump affinity laws and explain how they are applied:
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Speed Change Diameter Change
Flow:
Pressure:
Power:
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4-09. Explain how to determine the input power for a centrifugal pump.
4-10. How does the capacity of a centrifugal pump change?

up
4-11. Name six types of centrifugal pumps and their mounting arrangements.
4-12. A pump is rated at 15 L/s at 200 kPa of pressure. What are the flow and pressure if the
impeller size is changed to 85% of its original diameter? Assume there is no static pressure.
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G

G
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up
Eg
pe
t
5: 1
Chapter 5
Terminal Unit Performance and Control
• Instructions
t
• 5.1 Types of Terminals
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• 5.2 Performance and Control
• 5.3 System Control Characteristics
• 5.4 System Control Configurations
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
Instructions
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up
• Know what variables are involved with terminal control.

• Understand what mechanical components are suggested at a terminal.
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• Know how a terminal control valve is selected.

• Understand the four types of terminal control methods.
• Know what emission characteristics of heating versus cooling terminals are.
• Know what types of control valve characteristics are available and what works best with
G
a hydronic coil.
• Understand valve authority, rangeability and selection.
• Know the advantages and disadvantages of two-way and three-way valves.
• Understand the principles of primary-secondary pumping systems and different methods
to control.
• Know what types of control methods vary air flow through a terminal.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control
5: 2
5.1 Types of Terminals
In Chapter 1, it was shown that boilers, chillers, heat exchangers, cooling towers and heat pumps
are typical heating or cooling sources. These devices are the source of the heating or cooling energy
distributed by the air and water systems to control the heating or cooling loads. The loads are
conditioned by a system of devices called terminals or units that are designed to transfer the load
from the space to the heating or cooling water sources.
Typical examples of load terminals are:
t
• Air handling units with any of the following: preheat coils, heating coils, cooling coils or
zone coils
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• Variable volume air units
• Fan-coil units
• Induction-coil units
• Radiant panels
• Baseboard or convector radiation
• Heat exchangers
• Water loop heat pumps
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• Unit ventilators
• Unit heaters
• Water supply systems to terminals
Water Supply Systems to Terminals
Water supply systems to terminals are categorized as two-pipe, three-pipe or four-pipe (as shown
up
in Chapter 1), are similar in function and include capabilities to support year-round air conditioning
but require careful design analysis to apply properly.
The name is derived from the water distribution design: two-pipe systems have one supply and one
return pipe for either chilled or hot water supply. The two-pipe system is limited during changeover
season, because hot water can be returned to the chiller or chilled water can be returned to the
boiler, causing damage to the source equipment (see Figure 5-1).
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The three-pipe system has a chilled water supply pipe, a hot water supply pipe and a common
return pipe. The return pipe has a mixture of chilled and hot water during changeover operation,
which can cause excessive energy waste and can only be used with careful control design to pre-
vent damage to the cooling or heating sources.
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The four-pipe system has two supply pipes (hot and chilled water) and two return pipes to the
respective source, and reduces the chance of damage to the source (see Figure 5-2).
Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control Fundamentals of Water System Design
5: 3
t
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Eg Figure 5-1. Two-Pipe Source-Load Concept
up
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Figure 5-2. Four-Pipe Dual Temperature Water System
5: 4
5.2 Performance and Control
A terminal unit can be considered a general description for any heat transfer device, from a simple
piece of hydronic radiation equipment up to large heating or cooling coils in an air handler unit that
delivers sensible heating or cooling to the load.
Load control of terminal units and the relationship to proper distribution of flows is an important
consideration in hydronic system design. The designer must determine what system method will be
used and its control impact on both the thermal and hydraulic characteristics. As illustrated in
t
Figure 5–3, terminal control methods include controlling:
• Water flow
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• Water temperature
• Air flow
• Air temperature
The basic principles of HVAC systems' control are similar regardless of the control method. Every
system uses a feedback control loop where a sensor compares actual conditions to the set condi-
Eg
tions. Based on the results of this comparison, the system is instructed to deliver more heating or
cooling as required to make the actual conditions match the set conditions. This is an extreme
simplification, but presents the founding principles on which all control systems are based.
up
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Figure 5-3. Airside and Waterside Flow and Temperature Conditions
5: 5
Controlling Water Flow
A common method of controlling load in a typical HVAC loop is varying the water flow in a load
coil by thermostatic positioning of a two-way control valve (see Figure 5–4). Similarly, modern
DDC systems use solid state sensors to measure temperature and digitally control valve position-
ing. Either method controls the coil’s thermal output by controlling the quantity of water flow in
response to the sensed thermal load requirements.
Types of valves. Control of water flow through the coil is typically accomplished using either two-
t
way valves or three-way valves. Two-way valves are available in single-seat or double-seat bodies
(see Figure 5–5). Single seat bodies are most common but require adequate actuator size to over-
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come water system differential pressures. The double seat style reduces the actuator force required
due to the pressure counterbalance of the forces in the two seat area design.
Three-way valves, available as a mixing or a diverting pattern, are sometimes considered where
continuous system flow is desired (see Figure 5–6). However, this will have increased energy
impacts on the system in pumping power and chiller load. Another application is where flow diver-
sion is required, such as condenser flow to or bypassing a cooling tower. Three-way control valves
Eg
used in this manner throttle the flow through the coil from 100% down to minimum and increase
flow in the bypass from minimum up to 100%.
The three-way valve method (see Figure 5–7) permits the supply water to bypass the coil when the
thermostat is satisfied, providing continuous flow in the supply-return mains and the source.
up
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Figure 5-4. Terminal Control With Thermostat and Two-Way Valve
5: 6
t
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Figure 5-5. Two-Way Control Valve Body - Single and Double Seat
up
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Figure 5-6. Three-Way Control Valves - Mixing and Diverting Types
5: 7
t
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Eg Figure 5-7. Terminal Control With Thermostat and
Three-Way Mixing Valve Heating Application
up
A balancing valve is provided in the bypass to set a pressure drop equal to the terminal drop when
on full bypass. The port controlling the flow through the terminal should be chosen with an equal
percentage characteristic and the bypass port selected with a complimentary linear characteristic to
maintain nearly constant total flow.
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Hydronic Accessories
In addition to proper sizing of the control valve, the hydronic accessories (shown in Figures 5-2
and 5–7) need to be evaluated for good system operation and future servicing. These accessories
include:
• A service valve (gate or ball valve) which is used to isolate the terminal unit, control valve
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and strainer for servicing without shutting down the system or draining mains.
• A strainer which is used to reduce foreign material from clogging flow in the terminal unit
or the control valve.
• A balancing valve which is used to proportionally balance the terminal flow in the test and
balance portion of the project commissioning. It can be closed for terminal servicing. The balanc-
ing valve permits measuring terminal flow by reading ∆p kPa across its test ports and using the
flow formula. The balancing valve is chosen for a minimum pressure drop (3 to 15 kPa) in wide
open position at the design flow using the flow formula.
5: 8
Determining flow rate. The maximum flow is determined by the proper sizing of the control port
based on design (flow rate), pressure drop evaluation of the piping system and the selected control
valve capacity index. The valve capacity index (Kv ) is the flow capacity in cubic meters per hour of
the valve at 15°C under a pressure difference of 100 kPa. It is sometimes called the flow coeffi-
cient. The water flow formula is:1
K
Q = v ∆p 5– 1
36
where:
t
Q = design flow rate, L/s
Kv = valve flow coefficient (L/s at 1 kPa drop)
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∆p = design pressure drop, kPa
Note that the control valve size is not necessarily the same as the pipe size, but is based on the
control valve Kv and may be one or two sizes smaller than pipe size.
The Kv is based on the control manufacturer’s valve test data. This Kv rating may vary when com-
paring different manufacturers’ valve sizes. Note that many valves are rated using the U.S. Cv flow
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coefficient. To convert this value to Kv, use: Kv = 0.865 Cv.
5.3 System Control Characteristics
On the coil side, the energy emission from a hydronic coil has a nonlinear characteristic with
respect to flow. Figure 5-8 illustrates this relationship for a heating coil with a 10°C water tempera-
ture drop.2 The non-linearity can be improved by using a coil design with a higher water design
up
drop (such as the 30°C shown in
Figure 5-8) or by specifying a
control valve with an equal per-
centage characteristic. Referring
to the 10°C design drop curve,
note as the flow is reduced from
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full flow to 50%, the kW emis-

sion reduces to 90%; and reduc-
ing the flow to 10%, the coil out-
put is 50%. To control flow from
10% to nearly 0% flow, the con-
trol valve’s throttling plug should
G
be provided with an equal per-

centage characteristic and a suit-
able rangeability.
Figure 5-8. Hot Water Coil Emission
5: 9
A similar characteristic for a

chilled water coil is shown in Fig-
ure 5–9.3 Note that the flow must
be above 40% to begin moisture
removal (latent heat).
The typical control valve charac-

teristics available (for example,
quick-opening, linear and equal
t
percentage) are shown in Figure
pe
5–10, at a constant pressure drop.4
The valve characteristic is deter-
mined by the design or shape of
the valve plug related to its travel
in the valve port.
Figure 5–11 shows the combina-

Figure 5-9. Chilled Water Coil Emission
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tion of the equal percentage valve
curve with the water coil emis-
sion curve to result in a nearly lin-
ear coil output versus valve posi-
tion (at constant pressure drop).5
up
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Figure 5-10. Control Valve Flow Characteristics
5: 10
t
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Figure 5-11. Combination of Equal Percentage Valve
and Coil Emission - Percentage Output
Versus Valve Stem Position Percentage
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Valve Rangeability and Valve Authority
Valve rangeability is the ratio of the minimum controllable flow of the valve to the maximum flow
at a constant differential pressure:
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Maximum Flow
Valve Rangeability =
Minimum Flow
Typical rangeability of commercial control valves is 15:1 to 50:1 and, for industrial control valves,
it is 30:1 to 100:1, depending on the manufacturer’s specification.
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A valve with 15:1 rangeability is capable of 6.7% minimum flow:
100
= 6.7%
15
This results in a 40% minimum heat emission, assuming a constant differential pressure. With the
proper valve rangeability, it is realistic for the control valve to control the energy emission from
100% down to a 30% to 40% output.
5: 11
Valve authority of the control valve in a circuit is the ratio of the valve pressure drop to the loop
pressure drop:
Pressure Drop Valve
Valve Authority = ×100 %
Pressure Drop System
As an example in a system, where the valve drop is 30 kPa and the system drop is 80 kPa, the valve
authority can be calculated to be 37.5%:
t
30 kPa
Valve Authority = × 100% = 37.5%
80 kPa
pe
From a design standpoint, it’s very important to select a control valve pressure drop at least 25% to
50% of the system loop pressure drop to provide as high a valve authority as feasible to maintain
the equal percentage curve shape.
Figure 5–12 displays the distortion effect of low control valve authority due to low pressure drop
and how it can be improved by selecting a higher pressure drop with an equal percentage control
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valve characteristic.5
up
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Figure 5-12. Distortion of Equal Percentage

Characteristic Versus Valve Authority
5: 12
Two-Position Control
In a terminal control application (see Figure 5-4), if the control is two-position action (see Figure
5–13)6, then the valve is either open or closed, and the coil discharge temperature is abruptly changed
(on/off). This cycling of discharge temperature can be uncomfortable to occupants.
Proportional and Proportional-Integral Control
Where people occupy the load-space, a proportional control (see Figure 5–14)7 is usually recom-
mended to gradually adjust the flow in the load coil in proportion to the space temperature differ-
t
ence above or below the desired room setpoint. A gradual change of water flow in the coil reduces
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the extreme change in the coil discharge temperature and is more comfortable to the occupants.
The proportional-integral (PI) control is illustrated in Figure 5–15. Depending on the load condi-
tions, the space temperature will experience an offset above or below the desired temperature setpoint.
The purpose of the integral action added to a proportional controller is to reduce this offset to a
minimum. This will keep the actual temperature closer to the setpoint to improve occupant comfort
and reduce energy consumption by reducing the cycling of the space temperature.
Eg
up
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Figure 5-13. Two-Position Control
5: 13
t
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Eg Figure 5-14. Proportional Control
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Figure 5-15. Proportional Plus Integral (PI) Control
5: 14
5.4 System Control Configurations
Controlling water temperature in a primary-secondary pumping arrangement with a two-way valve

is another approach to improving valve coil control, as shown in Figure 5–16.8 This permits con-
stant flow at all times at a variable temperature in the coil circuit, at the design velocity, to maxi-
mize coil heat transfer. Properly applied, the secondary pump operates independently from the
primary pump, and reduces the pressure drop on the primary or distribution pumping.
The key is to provide a pipe common to both the primary and secondary circuits with no pressure
t
drop. This common-pipe is usually located in a bridge between the supply and return mains of the
primary. The common pipe is selected with “no-pressure drop” to either the secondary or primary
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circuits.
As the temperature controller calls for an increase in cooling, the two-way valve opens, permitting
primary water to mix into the secondary and an equal amount of secondary return water is dis-
placed into the return main. When V-1 is full open, chilled water flows from supply main (a) into
the bridge and into the secondary at (b), through the load and returns to the bridge at (c), where it
flows through V-1 to the return main. As valve V-1 is throttled by the zone thermostat, less chilled
Eg
water is supplied to the bridge at (b) and the secondary pump draws the balance of flow from the
common from (c) to (b), thereby causing a mixing action. When the zone thermostat is completely
satisfied, valve V-1 is closed and all the secondary flow is recirculated from (c) to (b).
A balancing valve is provided in the bridge return after the control valve. This valve is set propor-
tionally for the design flow in the testing and balancing of the system. Note that the control valve is
the major resistance in the bridge circuit and should be selected for at least 50% of the secondary
loop pressure drop. The secondary pump is selected for the coil design flow and the pressure drop
up
of the coil and the secondary loop.
A balancing valve may also be installed in the secondary circuit for testing and setting this flow.
The secondary circuit can be limited to a unique coil (as shown), or it can supply a zone or riser in
a large system.
In a large zone, the zone water (secondary) temperature can be controlled independently from the
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primary by locating its sensor in the secondary return or it can be a combination of zone supply and
return temperatures to control differential temperature. The secondary circuit’s flow may be set so
that a higher differential temperature can provide different design conditions.
It is important that the common piping be correctly installed so that improper mixing does not
occur. This is especially true on chilled water systems where the available capacity may be limited.
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5: 15
t
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up
Figure 5-16. Primary-Secondary Pumping Arrangement
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5: 16
Variations to the primary-secondary system include:
• Adding a check valve to

the common to prevent the possi-
bility of short-circuit flow in the
common as shown in Figure 5-17.
When the check valve closes, this
will cause the primary pump to go
into series with the secondary
t
pump, causing an overflow in the
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secondary and a possible waste of
primary pumping power.
• Placing a control valve in
the common controlled by the zone
thermostat or secondary water sup-
ply or return as shown in Figure
5-18.9 A differential pressure sen-
Eg
sor controller senses a small flow
across the valve in the common and
positions the secondary zone valve
in the bridge return. (This is a pro-
prietary design and may require
patent licensing or purchasing from
Figure 5-17. Primary-Secondary
With Check Valve in Common
a single source.) Placing a valve in

up
the common adds resistance and
forces the primary pump in series
with the secondary pump; this may
waste primary pump pressure in the
secondary circuit and possibly
cause overflow of the secondary.
• Another variation to the
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primary-secondary method may

include temperature sensors in the
supply and secondary piping, as
shown in Figure 5–19. This permits
the common to behave in its nor-
G
mal fashion. Ideally, the chilled

water supply is drawn into the sec-
ondary by the action of the zone
thermostat positioning valve V-1.
As valve V-1 is throttled by the
zone thermostat, less chilled water Figure 5-18. Primary-Secondary With
is supplied to the bridge at (b) and Valve in Common and Differential
the secondary pump draws the bal- Pressure Transmitter Monitoring Flow
ance of flow from the common
5: 17
from (c) to (b), thereby causing

a mixing action. When the zone
thermostat is completely satis-
fied, valve V-1 is closed and all
the secondary flow is recircu-
lated from (c) to (b). The purpose
of sensors T-l and T-2 is to mini-
mize bridge flow from (b) to (c)
t
for large flow situations by main-
taining (T-1) – (T-2) < 1°C by
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overriding valve V-1. Optional
sensors T-4 and T-3 are only re-
quired for large zones where the
secondary pump is supplying a
number of terminals to maintain
a low limit to open and override
V-1 if (T-4) > (T-3) = 1°C. The
Eg
monitoring of the zone room sen-
sor and the zone water tempera-
tures can be accomplished by a
DDC cabinet or a dedicated mi-
croprocessor controller.
• Another form of termi-
Figure 5-19.Primary-Secondary
With Temperature Sensors in Bridge
nal control is with a face-bypass

up
damper (see Figure 5–20). The
air flow can be throttled to meet
load conditions by mixing termi-
nal coil discharge air flow at the
terminal coil and bypass air flow
to maintain constant air flow.
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The control valve is sequenced

to open before the face damper
is opened. On an outside air ap-
plication, a low-temperature de-
tection thermostat is located on
G
the leaving air side of the coil or

it may be inserted in the return
pipe from the coil. Another con-
cept is to open the coil valve
when the outside air drops below
5°C. The face-bypass principle
can be used on the preheat coils
Figure 5-20. Terminal With Face-Bypass Control
of air handling units to reduce the
possibility of coil freeze-up.
5: 18
• Another application on a cooling coil is to mix the air flow through the coil face with
bypass air from the return air duct in an HVAC supply unit (see Figure 5–21). The bypass air is
preconditioned return air to reduce additional moisture load from outside air/mixed air at partial
loads.
t
pe
Eg
Figure 5-21. Terminal With Face-Bypass Control and Conditioned Bypass Air
• Varying the supply wa-

ter temperature to a heating coil
up
for part-load conditions is shown
in Figure 5–22. Note that for a
given entering air temperature, a
flow of 6 L/s at 115°C delivers
58.5 kW; at 93°C supply, the same
flow delivers 46 kW; and at 70°C,
ro
the same flow’s output is 34 kW.

Taking the same coil and varying
the flow from 6 L/s down to 0.5
L/s shows the typical emission
characteristic discussed before.
G
With the 93°C water supply, a

flow of 0.5 L/s delivers 34 kW.
Figure 5-22. Heating Coil Output

Versus Temperature or Flow Change
5: 19
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will discuss expansion tanks and air elimination.
Summary
t
• The variables involved with terminal control.
• What mechanical components are suggested at a terminal.
pe
• How a terminal control valve is selected.
• The three types of terminal control action.
• The emission characteristics of heating versus cooling terminals.
• The types of control valve characteristics available, and what works best with a hydronic
coil.
• Valve authority, rangeability and selection.
• The advantages and disadvantages of two-way and three-way valves.
Eg
• The principles of primary-secondary pumping systems and different methods of control.
• What types of control method vary the flow of air through a terminal.
Bibliography
1. ASHRAE. 1996. "Hydronic heating and cooling system design." Handbook–HVAC Systems and
up
Equipment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 12, p. 12.5.
3. ASHRAE. 1995. "Testing, adjusting and balancing." Handbook–HVAC Applications. Atlanta,
GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 34, p. 34.8.
4. ASHRAE. 1996. "Valves." Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
ro
Chapter 41, p. 41.7.

5. ASHRAE. 1996. "Valves." Handbook–HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.
Chapter 41, p. 41.8.
6. Landis & Gyr. Fundamentals of Control. L&G Appl. Bul.
G
7. ASHRAE. 1995. "Automatic control." Handbook–HVAC Applications. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Chapter 42, pp. 42.2-42.3.
9. Mannion, G. 1988. "High temperature rise piping design for variable volume systems: Key to
chiller energy management." ASHRAE Transactions. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Vol. 94, Pt. II.
5: 20
5-01. A typical fan coil terminal requires 0.25 L/s. What valve Kv should be selected if a control
valve is specified for a 30 kPa drop?
t
5-02. What piping components should be specified at the terminal?
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5-03. What type of control action should be considered to reduce discharge temperature cycle?
Eg
5-04. A control valve is to be selected for a 3 L/s terminal coil; coil drop is 55 kPa. Select the
correct size of control valve if the valve is specified for 50% of the coil drop, and the typical
valve sizes and Kv (Kv is in parentheses) available are:
• 15 mm (2.2); 20 mm (5); 25 mm (8.7)

up
• 32 mm (14); 40 mm (18); 50 mm (26)
5-05. What control valve flow characteristic should be specified for proportional control of a hot
water heating control?
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5-06. An on-off thermostat controls a cabinet heater in a hallway. What valve flow characteristic
should be specified?
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5-07. A three-way valve is to be applied to a refrigeration condenser and cooling tower to main-
tain a 35°C condensing temperature. What type of three-way valve arrangement should be
applied?
5: 21
5-08. It is desirable to control flow in a chilled water coil down to a minimum of 5% of design
flow before close-off. In addition to proper valve sizing for design flow capacity and pro-
portional control, what else should be specified?
5-09. What should be specified in the bypass circuit of a three-way valve?
t
pe
5-10. What type of control method varies air flow through a terminal coil?
5-11. Explain the difference between primary and secondary pumping systems.
Eg
5-12. Define valve authority, rangeability and selection.
up
5-13. How is terminal control valve size selected?
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5-14. What are the three types of terminal control action?

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G
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up
Eg
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t
6: 1
Chapter 6
Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
• Instructions
t
• 6.1 Open and Closed Water Systems
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• 6.2 Hydronic Accessories
• 6.3 Sizing Expansion Tanks
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
Instructions
Eg
up
• Understand the differences between open and closed systems.

• Understand where air comes from in a hydronic system.
• Know what maintains minimum and maximum pressures in a closed hydronic system and
ro
how they can be set.

• Know the types of compression tanks and where they are located in a hydronic system.
• Understand what solubility of air is in a hydronic system and what factors determine its
increase.
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• Know what factors are needed to size and select a compression tank.
• Know where the point of no-pressure change is.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
6: 2
6.1 Open and Closed Water Systems
The fundamental difference between a closed and an open water system is the interface of the water
with a compressible gas (such as air) or an elastic surface (such as a diaphragm). A closed water
system has only one point of interface with a compressible gas or surface. An open system (such as
a cooling tower system) has at least two points of interface with the air. In a cooling tower, these
points of interface are the surface of the tower basin water and the discharge pipe or nozzles enter-
ing the tower. Both open and closed systems demand different design considerations.
t
A Typical Open System
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An open system is shown in Figure 6–1, illustrating a water-cooled refrigeration condenser em-
ploying a cooling tower to provide atmospheric cooling of the condenser water. A float-type valve
is used in the tower sump to provide makeup water to maintain a predetermined water level. In
addition, water treating and screening equipment are provided to maintain proper water flow con-
ditions. Local building codes should be checked to ensure compliance of the system design with
local requirements.
Eg
up
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Figure 6-1. Open Hydronic System, Cooling Tower Side
Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination Fundamentals of Water System Design
6: 3
A Typical Closed System
A typical hydronic heating or cooling system as shown in Figure 6–2 is fundamentally a closed
system. In addition to the source of heating or cooling, the distribution pumping and the piping
arrangement, it must include means of system pressure control.
In closed systems, the objectives of system pressure control are to:
• Limit the pressure of all system equipment to its allowable working pressure.
• Maintain minimum pressure for all normal operating temperatures, to vent air, and to
t
prevent cavitation of the pump suction and boiling of system water.
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• Accomplish these objectives with a minimum addition of new water. Air is often admitted
into closed hydronic heating or cooling systems as makeup water is introduced. The makeup
water may be at a different temperature than the system water and subject to expansion or
contraction as it is heated or cooled.
Eg
up
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Figure 6-2. Closed Hydronic System
6: 4
6.2 Hydronic Accessories
System pressure control is effected using:

• A pressure relief valve.
• An automatic pressure reducing fill valve.
• An expansion tank.
• Manual or automatic air-venting equipment.
Pressure Relief Valve. The pressure relief valve is selected to limit the maximum operating pres-
t
sure to prevent danger to occupants, operating personnel and equipment. Relief valve size and
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capacity are usually recommended by the boiler manufacturer.
Automatic Pressure Reducing Fill Valve. The automatic pressure reducing fill valve limits the
minimum system pressure to maintain adequate static to the highest elevation.
Expansion Tank. An expansion tank is a partially filled tank, operating at or above atmospheric
pressure, located in a water system to accommodate the volume expansion and contraction of water
(see Figure 6–3).
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up
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Figure 6-3. Expansion Tank Types

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Expansion tanks are of three basic configurations:

• An open-tank (tank open to atmosphere).
• A closed tank that contains a captured volume of compressed air with an air-water inter-
face (sometimes called a plain steel tank).
• A diaphragm tank, in which a flexible membrane is located between the air and the water.
In the open tank and the closed tank, air can enter the water through the interface and can
affect system performance over long periods of time.
6: 5
As defined, a closed system should have only one expansion tank. The presence of more than one
tank can cause the closed system to behave in unexpected ways, and can cause damage from water
hammer or shock waves.
An expansion tank is required to serve thermal and hydraulic functions:
• In its thermal function, the expansion tank provides a space into which the non-compress-
ible liquid can expand or contract as the liquid undergoes volumetric changes due to
temperature. For example, at 50°C, 1 kg of water occupies1 0.10001×10-2 m3 and, at 120°C,
t
it occupies 0.1044×10-2 m3. Figure 6–4 shows a graph of expansion of water above 4.4°C.2
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Eg
up
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Figure 6-4. Expansion of Water Above 4.4°C
6: 6
• As a hydraulic device, the expansion tank serves as the reference pressure point in the
system, which is analogous to a ground in an electrical system. Where the tank connects
to the piping, the pressure equals the pressure of the air in the tank plus or minus any fluid
pressure due to the elevation difference between the tank liquid surface and the pipe (see
Figure 6–5).
t
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Eg Figure 6-5. Tank Pressure Related to System Pressure
up
Air Elimination
Excessive amounts of undissolved air in a piping system due to improper venting or removal can
make the system operate poorly. It has been shown that air will separate from water at low veloci-
ties, and it is recommended that a minimum velocity3 of greater than 0.5 m/s be used to reduce this
risk. Figure 6–6 shows the installation of automatic or manual air vents in the system zones or coils
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for small pipe sizes. It is suggested to place the vent on the leaving side of a coil or radiator and
ahead of the control valve (on the return) to enable constant pressure on the vent.
Figure 6–7 shows the connection of a compression tank at the high point of a small boiler and
diptube in the discharge connection to divert air to the tank and permit supply water with a mini-
mum amount of entrained air. Some applications may insert the diptube in an oversized tee outside
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the boiler. A variety of designs are available to mechanically separate the air from the water.
6: 7
Manual or
Automatic
Air Vent
Service Valve
t
4 Pipe-Diameters Long
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From
Terminal
Coil
Eg To Return Main
Figure 6-6. Manual or Automatic Air Vent

up
System
To Expansion Supply
Tank
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Boiler
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Figure 6-7. Smaller Boiler System Using Diptube and Tank Connection
6: 8
Air Separation
On the larger supply or return mains, a dynamic air separator (see Figure 6–8) is employed to allow
the air to separate centrifugally from the water. The lighter weight air mixture is collected by a
perforated collector tube in the center and flows up to the closed compression tank, displacing
water downward (see Figure 6–9). Some versions combine a strainer and blowdown connection in
the lower flange.
On chiller applications, the air separator, expansion tank and distribution pump may be located on
t
the return main, pumping into the chiller. The warmer return water releases air more readily than
the chilled water.
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The air separator is also used with a diaphragm tank and large capacity automatic air vent, as shown
in Figure 6–10. The air vent should be chosen with adequate capacity, because the diaphragm tank
stores the expanding water volume but not the released air.
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up
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Figure 6-8. Air Separator
6: 9
Return Supply
Main Main
t
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Boiler
Figure 6-9. Compression Tank Piping With Air Separator
Eg High
Capacity
Air Vent
Relief Fill-PRV Service
Valve Valve Valve
City Water
up
Air
Flow Gauge Vent Distribution
Pump
Air
Separator
Supply
To
System
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Floor-Mounted
G
Diaphragm Tank
Figure 6-10. Diaphragm Tank Piping With Air Separator
6: 10
Figure 6–11 shows the accessories that are important to system operation:
• Relief valve protects for maximum system pressure.
• Pressure reducing valve (PRV) is set to provide minimum system pressure.
• Service valve permits maintenance.
• A manual three-way hand valve permits draining excess water from the expansion tank to
provide proper air "cushion" in the tank. When the cushion is lost, the system does not
permit expansion and the relief valve will open, dumping water down the drain. The PRV
fill valve may add water and system pressure may cycle, causing fill-dump-fill, etc.
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• A glass sight gauge may be added to the expansion tank to indicate water level and air
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cushion.
• Air separator should have a blowdown valve to drain collected sediment to the sewer.
Other considerations related to the tank connection are (refer to Figure 6–3):
• A tank open to the atmosphere must be located above the highest point in the system.
• A tank with an air/water interface is generally used with an air control system that con-
tinually reverts air into the tank and should be located in a place where air can best be
Eg
released.
• Within reason, the lower the pressure in a tank, the smaller the tank (as will be seen in the
tank size calculations); thus in a vertical system, the higher the tank is placed, the smaller
it can be.
• In primary-secondary or compound pumping systems, the tank should only be at one
location, preferably on the suction side of the source pump (see Figure 6-12).
up
Pressure
Conventional Reducing
Expansion Tank Valve
Relief Service
Valve Valve
3-Way (N.O.)
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Hand City Water

(N.C.)
Valve
Hose
Fitting
Tank
Drain Supply To System
Flow
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Low
Dip Tube Velocity
Area
Air Separator
Figure 6-11. Compression Tank Piping With Air Separator
6: 11
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Alternate
Pump & Tank
6.3
Eg Location
Figure 6-12. Expansion Tank Location, Primary-Secondary System
Sizing Expansion Tanks
With a single tank on a system, and assuming isothermal conditions for the air, the air pressure
up
changes as a result of displacement by the water. Assuming no water is being added or removed
from the system, the only thing to cause water to move in or out of the tank is the expansion or
shrinkage of the water in the system. Thus, in sizing the tank, thermal expansion is related to the
pressure extremes of the air in the tank (as will be seen in the tank calculations). The connection
point of the tank to the system is very important and should be based on the pressure requirements
of the system, remembering that the pressure at the tank connection will not change as the pump is
turned on or off. This is also commonly called the point of no-pressure change.
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For example, consider a system containing an expansion tank at 200 kPa pressure and a pump with
a total pressure of 70 kPa, as shown in Figure 6–13. Alternate locations (A and B) for connecting
the expansion tank are shown. In either case, with the pump off, the pressure will be 200 kPa on
both the pump suction and the discharge.
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• With the tank connected to the pump suction side (as in A), the pressure increases on the
pump discharge by an amount equal to the pump pressure (for example, 200 + 70 = 270
kPa).
• With the tank connected to the pump discharge side (as in B), the pressure decreases on
the suction side by the same amount (for example, 200 - 70 = 130 kPa) and pressure at the
pump discharge remains at 200 kPa (point of no-pressure change).
6: 12
t
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Figure 6-13. Effect of Expansion Tank Location
With Respect to Pump Discharge Pressure
Sizing the tank is the primary thermal consideration in incorporating a tank into a system. How-
ever, prior to sizing the tank, the control or elimination of air must be considered. The amount of air
where:
x
p
x=
p
H
Eg
that will be absorbed and can be held in solution with the water is expressed by Henry’s equation:4
= solubility of air in water (percentage by volume)

= absolute pressure, kPa
6–1
H = Henry’s constant
up
Henry’s constant varies with temperature, as shown in Figure 6–14. It is only constant at a given
temperature. It has been shown4 by combining the above equation and the Henry’s constant graph
that the solubility in percentage air by volume can be seen for system temperatures and pressures
(see Figure 6–15). For example, if a system is at 600 kPa and 85°C, the water can contain 6% air by
volume; if the pressure is dropped to 400 kPa at the same temperature, the water contains about 4%
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air by volume, or 2% by volume will be released and must be vented or work its way into the
compression tank.
The equation4 for determining the size of a closed compression tank in a closed hydronic system is:
⎡⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎤
G
⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − 3α∆t
⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎦
Vt = Vs ⎣ 6–2
⎛ pa ⎞ ⎛ pa ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠
For open tanks with an air/water interface, the tank size can be determined by using:
⎧⎪ ⎡⎛ V ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪ 6-3
Vt = 2⎨Vs ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − 3α∆t ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭
6: 13
where:
Vt = volume of expansion tank, m3
Vs = volume of water in system, m3
t1 = lower temperature, °C
t2 = higher temperature, °C
pa = atmospheric pressure, kPa
p1 = lower temperature pressure, kPa
t
p2 = higher temperature pressure, kPa
v1 = specific volume of water (low temperature), m3/kg
pe
v2 = specific volume of water (high temperature), m3/kg
α = linear coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m⋅K
(α = 11.7×10-6 m/m⋅K (steel))
(α = 17.1×10-6 m/m⋅K (copper))
∆t = (t2 - t1)K
Eg
up
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Figure 6-14. Henry's Constant Versus Figure 6-15. Solubility Versus Temperature
G
Temperature for Air and Water and Pressure for Air/Water Solutions
Vs is typically taken from tables such as Table 6–1 (for steel pipe) and Table 6–2 (for copper tube);
v1 and v2 are found in the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook– Fundamentals (Chapter 6, Table 3).1
6: 14
Table 6-1. Volume of Water

in Steel Pipes (AS-1074)
Nominal Size Volume - L/me tre
DN Light M e dium He avy
8 0.0 8 0.06 0.05
10 0.14 0.12 0.10
15 0.2 3 0.2 1 0.18
t
20 0.38 0.37 0.33
25 0.63 0.59 0.52
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32 1.07 1. 0 2 0.9 3
40 1.40 1. 3 8 1.28
50 2.29 2.2 1 2.0 6
65 3.75 3.7 1 3.5 2
80 5.26 5 . 12 4.87
10 0
12 5
15 0
Eg 8.85
-
8.66
13.18
18.86
8.37
13.02
18.67
Table 6-2. Volume of Water

in Copper Pipes (AS-1432)
Nominal Volume , L/me tre

up
Size DN Type A Type B Type C Type D
6 0 . 02 0.02 - -
8 0 . 03 0.03 - -
10 0 . 04 0.05 0.05 -
15 0 . 08 0.09 0.10 -
18 0 . 14 0 . 15 0 . 15 -
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20 0.20 0.23 0.23 -
25 0.38 0 . 41 0 . 43 -
32 0.63 0.67 - 0 .7
40 0 . 95 0.99 - 1.0
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50 1.77 1.83 - 1.9
65 2.84 2.92 - 3 .0
80 4 . 07 4.16 - 4. 3
90 5.63 5.74 - 5 .8
10 0 7 . 44 7.56 - 7 .7
12 5 11.83 11.98 - 12.1
15 0 16 . 9 3 17 . 2 2 - 17.4
200 30.78 31.03 - -
6: 15
Example
The following example shows the use of this equation:
Size an expansion tank for a heating system that will operate at 80° to 104°C. For the
design, it is given that the minimum pressure is 170 kPa and the maximum pressure is
270 kPa. Atmospheric pressure is assumed to be 101 kPa. The steel piping in the system
has an estimated volume of 10 m3, and will have minimum water fill temperature of 4°C.
t
Solution
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From the problem stated, we know:
Vs = 10 m3
v1= 0.001 m3/kg at 4°C (assumed lower temperature)
v2= 0.001047 m3/kg at 104°C (highest temperature per design)
Eg
Therefore, applying the equation:
⎡⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − 3α∆t
Vt = Vs ⎣
⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ pa ⎞ ⎛ pa ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠
up
⎧ ⎡⎛ 0.001047 ⎞ ⎤
⎪ ⎢⎜ ( )
⎟ − 1⎥ − 3 11.7 × 10 (104 − 4 ) ⎪
−6 ⎫
⎪ ⎝ 0.001 ⎠ ⎦ ⎪
Vt = 10⎨ ⎣ ⎬
⎛ 101 ⎞ ⎛ 101 ⎞
⎪ ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝ 170 ⎠ ⎝ 270 ⎠ ⎪⎭
= 1.98 m 3
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6: 16
Similarly, the equation for determining the size of a diaphragm compression tank in a closed hy-
dronic system is:
⎧ ⎡⎛ v 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − 3α∆t ⎪
⎪ ⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎪
Vt = Vs ⎨ ⎣ ⎬ 6-4
⎛ p1 ⎞
⎪ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎪
⎭
t
where:
pe
Vt = volume of expansion tank, m3
Vs = volume of water in system, m3
p1 = lower temperature pressure, kPa
p2 = higher temperature pressure, kPa
v1 = specific volume of water (low temperature), m3/kg
v2
α
∆t
Eg
= specific volume of water (high temperature),m3/kg
= linear coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m⋅K
(α = 11.7×10-6 m/m⋅K (steel))
(α = 17.1×10-6 m/m⋅K (copper))
= (t2 - t1)K
up
Example
The following example shows the use of this equation:
Size a diaphragm tank for a heating system that will operate at 80° to 104°C. The system
will operate with a minimum pressure of 170 kPa and a maximum pressure of 270 kPa.
Atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. The steel piping in the system has an estimated volume
of 10 m3 and will have a minimum water fill temperature of 4°C.
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Solution
We have been given: Vs = 10 m3

G
Applying the equation for a diaphragm tank:
⎧ ⎡⎛ v 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫
⎧ ⎡⎛ 0.001047 ⎞ ⎤
⎪ ⎢⎜ ( )
⎟ − 1⎥ − 3 11.7 × 10 (104 − 4) ⎪
−6 ⎫
⎪ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − 3α∆t ⎪ ⎪ ⎝ 0.001 ⎠ ⎦
Vt = 10⎨ ⎣
⎪
⎪ ⎝ v1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎪ 170
⎬
Vt = Vs ⎨ ⎣ ⎬ ⎪ 1− ⎜
⎛ ⎞
⎟ ⎪
⎛ p1 ⎞ ⎪⎩ ⎝ 270 ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎪ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎪
⎭ = 1.17 m3
6: 17
Sizing expansion tanks. Selection of

the lower and higher pressures pl
and p2 is critical in these determi-
nations. Pipe, tubing, boilers, chill-
ers and coils must be evaluated to
determine the total system volume
(see Figure 6-16).
The lower temperature for a heat-
t
ing system is normal ambient tem-
pe
perature at fill conditions (for ex-
ample, 5° to 10°C) and the higher
temperature is the operating supply
water temperature for the system.
For a chilled water system, the
lower temperature is the design
chilled water supply and the higher
Eg
temperature is the ambient (30° to
35°C). For a hot-chilled water sys-
tem, the lower is the chilled water
design temperature and the higher
is the heating water design supply
temperature. The specific volume
data (vl and v2) are found in the 1997
Figure 6-16. Flow Chart for Sizing Expansion Tanks
up
ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamen-
tals.1
At the tank connection point, the pressure in closed tank systems increases as the water temperature
increases. Pressures at the expansion tank are generally set by the following parameters:
• The lower pressure is usually selected to hold a positive pressure at the highest point in
the system (set on the water PRV fill valve).
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• The higher pressure is normally set by the safety relief valve RV selected for the maxi-
mum pressure allowable at the location of the valve (without opening the valve).
Other considerations are to ensure that:

• The pressure at any point will not drop below the saturation pressure at the operating
G
temperature (again refer to the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals.1

• All pumps have adequate net positive suction (NPS) available to prevent cavitation.
6: 18
The Next Step
In the next chapter, you will cover piping system development.
Summary
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• The differences between open and closed systems.
• How air enters a hydronic system.
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• How minimum and maximum pressures are maintained and set in a closed hydronic sys-
tem.
• The types of compression tanks and where they are located in a hydronic system.
• What solubility of air in a hydronic system is and what factors determine its increase.
• The factors that are needed to size and select a compression tank.
Bibliography
Eg
• Where the point of no-pressure change is.
1. ASHRAE. 1997. "Psychrometrics." Handbook–Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter

6, Table 3.
up
2. ASHRAE. 1987. "Basic water system design." Handbook–HVAC Systems and Applications.
Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chap. 13, p. 14.
3. ASHRAE. 1993. "Pipe sizing." Handbook–Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 33,
p. 33.4.
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6: 19
6-01. What maintains the maximum and minimum pressure limits of a hydronic system?
6-02. What must a closed water system have to permit the expansion and contraction of the water
t
volume?
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6-03. What should be specified for terminal coil returns and high points in the piping system to
provide service for air in the hydronic system?
6-04. Where does air come from in a hydronic system?
Eg
6-05. What routine tasks should be performed by the building maintenance staff to the hydronic
systems prior to the heating and the cooling seasons?
6-06. How much air can be present in water at 80°C and 400 kPa?
6-07. A steel pipe system has 5 m3 total volume, will operate periodically in the cooling season
with 5°C water, but will be off and reach 38°C ambient, minimum pressure is 150 kPa and
up
maximum is 300 kPa. What size diaphragm expansion tank is required?
6-08. A pump is selected for 6 L/s at 150 kPa pressure; the system has 130 kPa static pressure
when off; and the expansion tank is improperly located on the pump discharge. What will
the gauges read on the pump suction and discharge when the pump is started? What will
happen at the float-type air vents in the boiler room?
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6-09. Explain what factors are needed to size and select an expansion tank.
6-10. What are the differences between open and closed systems?
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6-11. What are the three types of expansion tanks?
6-12. Give three examples of where expansion tanks are used.
6-13. Why is it important to have the correct size expansion tank?
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7: 1
Chapter 7
Piping System Development
• Instructions
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• 7.1 Piping System Design
• 7.2 Direct Return Analysis
• 7.3 Reverse Return Analysis
• 7.4 Primary-Secondary Analysis
• 7.5 Types of Pumps and Valves
• 7.6 Primary-Secondary Application Study
• 7.7
• 7.8
• Summary
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Antifreeze Solutions for Low Temperature Applications
Pumping Design Factors
• The Next Step
• Bibliography
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Instructions
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• Know the factors to consider before starting a piping design.

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• Understand what piping equipment should be considered at a load coil.

• Know which piping system design gives more uniform pressure drop and why.
• Understand how flow can be determined in a given loop.
• Know what type of pump curve should be selected if two-way valves are to be used.
• Know the two advantages of primary-secondary hydronic systems.
• Know how the possibility of freezing coils and piping in an HVAC system can be re-
duced.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 7 Piping System Development

7: 2
7.1 Piping System Design
To develop the piping system approach, the designer must consider several factors to arrive at a
project solution. In short, there is no one way to satisfy all the conditions. The purpose of this
course is to help identify possible design methods and to select those options that best meet design
and energy efficiency requirements. Looking at a project, a designer must consider some logical
steps and questions to develop a design philosophy:
1) Determine where the loads (for example, the terminal heat transfer coils) and the source
(for example, boilers and chillers) are to be located. A typical building layout is shown in
t
Figure 7-1. There are several decisions to be made to determine the best design approach
pe
depending on the building layout and type, whether it is a single-story or multistory building
and whether it is a single building or a complex of buildings (such as a campus). Should
there be a mechanical room, or will the equipment be distributed throughout the struc-
ture? Where should the mechanical rooms be located? How will the piping and ductwork
be routed? All of these factors influence the design decisions that must be made to specify
equipment location.
2) Determine the heating and cooling loads, based upon occupancy, comfort require-
Eg
ments, codes and standards (see ASHRAE Standard 90.1 and the AIRAH Application
Manual–Air Conditioning Load Estimation and Psychrometrics), and determine any spe-
cial requirements for facilities like computer rooms, laboratories and clean rooms (see
Figure 7–2).
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Figure 7-1. Typical Building Layout
Chapter 7 Piping System Development Fundamentals of Water System Design

7: 3
3) Develop a concept for part-load con-

trol:
• Are large zones or individual
rooms to be controlled?
• Are part-load heat transfer condi-
tions to be obtained by varying water
flow, water temperature or air flow and
temperature?
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• Will fan-coil terminals or large air
handling units considered?
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• Will the system satisfy the full-
load conditions for all building zones
or must the designer consider some di-
versity factors?
• How is the source of cooling or
heating to be operated at part-load con-
Figure 7-2. Determine Loads
Eg
ditions?
• Are control valves to be selected
with adequate characteristics and pres-
and Consult References
sure drop to provide good coil control at various loads?

• Will the piping system design consider methods to measure, balance and adjust
flows in each zone to ensure performance at various loads?
• Will backup be required? If so, which zones will be included?
up
4) Develop the piping and pumping system concept (see Figure 7–3), such as:
• Direct return piping
• Reverse return piping
• Primary-secondary piping
• Combinations of the above
• Constant speed pumping
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• Two-speed pumping
• Multiple pumps
• Primary-secondary pumps
• Variable speed pumping
G
• Distributed pumping
• Consider modeling the system to determine the full- and part-load flows,
the pressure distribution required and this effect on components.
5) Develop a first-cost analysis versus energy operating costs over the projected life of
the system.
6) Determine the maintenance and operating requirements and if they will match with the
personnel capabilities.
The piping system design may not address all of these issues, but they need to be identified by the
designer in the system layout and the project specifications.
7: 4
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Eg Figure 7-3. Develop Piping/Pumping System Concept
The flowchart in Figure 7-4

summarizes the key steps in the
up
piping system design process. In
Section 1–1, we introduced the
basic direct and reverse return
piping concepts. In Section 2–1,
pressure drops and pipe sizing
were discussed.
ro
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Figure 7-4. Piping System Design Flowchart

7: 5
7.2 Direct Return Analysis
Now let’s examine a model of a system requiring four air handling units (AHUs), loads of 5 L/s
each at locations 30 m apart in a square floor area configuration (see Figure 7–5). At each load, it
is planned to control the load flow with two-way control valves and to determine the effect that 30
kPa and 15 kPa pressure drop coils have on the piping design for direct return and reverse return
layouts.
Each load coil is to have a manual shutoff valve for servicing, a flow strainer on its supply, an
t
automatic air vent at the coil return, a two-way control valve (one size smaller than the branch pipe)
on the leaving side of the coil and a manual balancing valve with test ports and shutoff (line size)
pe
after the control valve (see Figure 7–6). In Figure 7–7, for a 5 L/s flow condition, 65 mm pipe has
a pressure drop of 300 Pa/m at 1.3 m/s velocity; a 50 mm pipe has 1,000 Pa/m pressure drop at 2.3
m/s, so a 65 mm pipe is a good starting point.
The general guideline for velocity is between 0.5 to 1.5 m/s. Air separates from the water below 0.5
m/s and, above 1.5 to 2.0 m/s, velocity noise might be noticed. Similarly, 10 L/s in 80 mm pipe is
close to 500 Pa/m (2.0 m/s), 15 L/s in 80 mm pipe is about 1,000 Pa/m (3.0 m/s) and 20 L/s in 100
Eg
mm pipe is nearly 500 Pa/m (2.3 m/s). These pressure drops will be checked against the values in
Tables 7-1, 7-2 and 7-3, which are derived from Australian Standard AS-1074.
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Figure 7-5. Load System Example

7: 6
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Figure 7-6. Piping Detail at Load Coil
Eg
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Figure 7-7. Friction Loss, Medium Steel Pipe5

7: 7
Table 7-1. Friction Loss for Water Table-7-2. Friction Loss for Water
for 65 mm Medium Steel Pipe for 80 mm Medium Steel Pipe
Pre s s ure Pre s s ure
D is charge , V, D is charge , V,
D rop, D rop,
L/s m/s L/s m/s
Pa/m Pa/m
0.80 0.16 4 . 3 95
0.50 0.13 4.138
0.90 0.18 5.467
0.60 0.16 5.80 0
1.00 0 . 20 6 . 6 44
0.70 0.19 7 . 7 16
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1. 2 0 0 . 23 9 . 3 13
0.80 0.2 2 9.88 1
1. 4 0 0 . 27 12.390
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0.90 0.2 4 12.290
1.60 0.31 15.867
1.00 0.27 14.938 1.80 0 . 35 19.734
1.20 0.32 20.93 8 2.00 0.39 23.986
1.40 0.38 27.85 6 2.50 0.49 3 6 . 2 61
1.60 0.43 35.671 3.00 0.59 50.825
1.80
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
Eg 0.48
0.5 4
0.6 7
0.81
0.9 4
44.366
53.92 5
81.521
114.265
15 2 . 0 2 0
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
0.68
0 . 78
0 . 88
0.98
1. 0 7
67.619
86.590
107.697
130.902
156.173
6.00 1. 1 7 183.480
up
4.00 1. 0 8 19 4 . 6 7 1 6.50 1. 2 7 212.798
4.50 1. 2 1 242.123 7.00 1. 3 7 244.104
5.00 1. 3 4 294.29 2 7.50 1. 4 6 277.374
5.50 1. 4 8 351.105 8.00 1. 5 6 312.590
8.50 1. 6 6 349.733
6.00 1. 6 1 412.498
9.00 1. 7 6 388.786
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6.50 1. 7 5 478.411
9.50 1. 8 5 429.731
7.00 1. 8 8 548.791
10.00 1. 9 5 4 7 2 . 5 56
7.50 2.02 623.590
11.00 2.15 563.783
8.00 2.15 702.762 12 . 0 0 2.34 6 6 2 . 3 64
G
8.50 2.2 9 786.26 6 13 . 0 0 2.54 768.203
9.00 2.4 2 874.063 14 . 0 0 2.73 881.215
9.50 2.5 6 966.117 15 . 0 0 2.93 1001.322
10.00 2.6 9 10 6 2 . 3 9 4 16 . 0 0 3.12 1128.452
17 . 0 0 3.32 1262.538
11.00 2.9 6 12 6 7 . 4 9 1
18 . 0 0 3 . 51 1403.517
12 . 0 0 3.2 3 1489.119
19 . 0 0 3 . 71 1551.332
13.00 3.5 0 17 2 7 . 0 6 5
20.00 3 . 90 1705.927

7: 8
Table-7-3. Friction Loss for Water

for 100 mm Medium Steel Pipe
Pre s s ure
D is charge , V,
D rop,
L/s m/s
Pa/m
1. 6 0 0 . 18 4 . 2 93
1. 8 0 0.21 5.339
2.00 0.23 6 . 4 89
t
2.50 0.29 9 . 8 10
3.00 0.35 13.750
pe
3.50 0.40 18.293
4.00 0 . 46 23.426
4.50 0 . 52 29.136
5.00 0.58 35.414
5.50 0.63 42.251
6.00 0.69 4 9 . 6 38
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
Eg 0.75
0.81
0 . 86
0.92
0.98
57.570
6 6 . 0 39
7 5 . 0 40
84.568
94.616
9.00 1.04 105.181

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9.50 1. 1 0 116.259
10 . 0 0 1. 1 5 127.844
11.00 1. 2 7 152.525
12.00 1.38 179.195
13.00 1.50 207.828
14.00 1. 6 1 2 3 8 . 4 02
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15.00 1.73 270.896
16.00 1.84 305.289
17.00 1.96 341.564
18 . 0 0 2.07 3 7 9 . 7 05
19 . 0 0 2.19 419.694
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20.00 2.31 461.518
22.00 2 . 54 5 5 0 . 6 15
24.00 2 . 77 6 4 6 . 8 93
26.00 3 . 00 750.260
28.00 3 . 23 8 6 0 . 6 33
30.00 3 . 46 9 7 7 . 9 35
35.00 4.03 1301.054

7: 9
It is important to note that the selection of pipe size and the resulting velocity is based on the
designer’s judgment and experience. For the example, assume 80 mm pipe for main supply and
return connections and 65 mm pipe for the rest of the system. Assessing each unit’s piping for
pressure drop from the main to the coil:
Unit 1: Supply Side (5 L/s):

1 – 80 mm Tee branch 2.3 kPa
1 – 80×65 mm Bush 0.4
t
1 – 65 mm Butterfly valve 2.7
3 – 65 mm Els @ 0.8 2.3
pe
1 – 65 mm Strainer 1.2
10 m – 65 mm Pipe (300 Pa/m) 3.0
Supply branch 11.9 kPa
(report as 12 kPa)
Unit 1: Return Side (5 L/s):

1 – 80 mm Tee branch 2.3 kPa
Eg
1 – 80×65 mm Bush
3 – 65 mm Els @ 0.8
1 – 50 mm Control valve
2 – 65×50 bush. @ 0.1
1 – 65 mm Balancing valve w.o.
10 m – 65 mm Pipe
Return branch
(report as
0.1
2.3
15.0
0.2
6.0
3.0
28.9 kPa
30.0 kPa)
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Figure 7-8. Direct Return Piping Layout

7: 10
Similarly, we check units 2, 3 and 4 and find they look close, so the 12 kPa for supply and 30 kPa
for return will be assumed for this example. Now let’s look at the system pressure drops for a direct
return piping layout (in Figure 7-8) using 30 kPa pressure drop coils and the control valve selection
of 15 kPa pressure drop (assuming one size smaller than branch size):
Direct Return:
Unit 1 (Path A–B–B–F): Supply Main

(10 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s) 5 kPa
t
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
pe
return branch 30
return main (10 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s) 5
Total 80 kPa
Unit 2 (Path A–B–C–C’–B’–F):
Eg
supply main (10 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s)
supply branch
coil (5 L/s)
return branch
return main (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s)
Total
5 kPa
9
10
30
30
9
5
98 kPa
up
Unit 3 (Path A–E–D–D’–E’–F):
supply main (20 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s) 10 kPa
supply main (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s) 9
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
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Total 108 kPa
Unit 4 (Path A–E–E’–F):

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supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
Total 90 kPa
The highest pressure drop path is unit 3, with a differential of 108 kPa required at A–F to provide 5
L/s flow.

7: 11
Because the other units have lower pressure drops, this means they will have a greater flow than
design unless balanced. The unbalanced branches can be estimated by the use of the Darcy-Weisbach
relationship where Q2 ~ ∆p:
7-1
⎛ ∆p ⎞
Q2 = Q12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ∆p1 ⎠
for Unit 1:
⎛ 108 kPa ⎞
⎟ = 5.81
t
52 ⎜
⎝ 80 kPa ⎠
pe
for Unit 2:
⎛ 108 kPa ⎞
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.24
⎝ 98 kPa ⎠
Eg
for Unit 4: ⎛ 108 kPa ⎞
52 ⎜
⎝ 90 kPa ⎠
⎟ = 5.48
In summary, for direct return piping and 30 kPa coils:
Unit 1 5.8 L/s

up
Unit 2 5.2
Unit 3 5.0
Unit 4 5.5
Total 21.5 L/s
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This example shows the effect of the uneven flow in a direct return piping example without balanc-
ing.
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7: 12
If a lower coil pressure drop is selected in the example, say 15 kPa (by changing the coil design),
the unbalance gets worse. The calculations are performed as follows:
Direct Return:
Unit 1 (Path A–B–B–F):

supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
return branch 30
t
Total 65 kPa
pe
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
Eg
return branch
Total
30
9
5
83 kPa

up
supply unit (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s) 9
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
return branch 30
Total 93 kPa
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supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
G
return branch 30
Total 75 kPa
As you can see, unit 3 is still the highest pressure drop path, with 93 kPa required at A–F to provide
it with a design flow of 5 L/s.

7: 13
Again applying the Darcy-Weisbach relationship Q2 ~ ∆p, the overflows can be approximated:
⎛ ∆p ⎞
Q2 = Q12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ∆p1 ⎠

52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.98
⎝ 65 kPa ⎠
t
pe
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.29
⎝ 83 kPa ⎠
for Unit 4:
Unit 1
Eg 6.0 L/s
⎛ 93 kPa ⎞
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.57
⎝ 75 kPa ⎠
In summary, for direct return piping and 15 kPa coils:
Unit 2 5.3 L/s

up
Unit 3 5.0 L/s
Unit 4 5.6 L/s
Total 21.9 L/s
The summary shows a greater flow unbalance in the direct return piping due to the lower coil drop.
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7: 14
7.3 Reverse Return Analysis
Let’s look at a reverse return piping arrangement for the same example, per Figure 7–9. We will
assume the supply and return branches are also 10 kPa and 30 kPa.
t
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Eg
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Figure 7-9. Reverse Return Piping Layout
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7: 15
Unit 1 (Path A–B–B’–C’–D’–E’–F):

supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
Total 139 kPa
t
pe
Unit 2 (Path A–B–C–C’–D’–E’–F):
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
Eg
Unit 3 (Path A–B–C–D–D’–E’–F):

Total

10
160 kPa
5 kPa
up
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
Total 160 kPa
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Unit 4 (Path A–B–C–D–E–E’–F):

supply branch 10
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coil (5 L/s) 30
return branch 30
Total 139 kPa

7: 16
As you can see, units 2 and 3 are the highest pressure drop paths, with 160 kPa required at A–F to
provide them with a design flow of 5 L/s each. Again when applying the Darcy-Weisbach relation-
ship Q2 ~ ∆p, we can estimate the overflow in the other coils:
⎛ ∆p ⎞
Q2 = Q12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ∆p1 ⎠
In summary, for reverse return piping and 30 kPa coils:
t
pe
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.36
⎝ 139 kPa ⎠
for Unit 2: =5
Eg
for Unit 3:

52 ⎜
=5
⎟ = 5.36
⎝ 139 kPa ⎠
Total = 20.72 L/s

up
Note that the reverse return lowered the total flow from 21.5 L/s to 20.7 L/s and each branch’s
pressure drop is more balanced.
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7: 17
If the lower pressure drop coil of 15 kPa is substituted, we see for:
Unit 1: Reverse Return

(Path A–B–B’–C’–D’–E’–F):
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
return branch 30
t
pe
Total 124 kPa
Unit 2 (Path A–B–C–C’–D’–E’–F):

supply branch 10
Eg
coil (5 L/s)
return branch
Total
15
30
15
30
10
145 kPa
up
Unit 3 (Path A–B–C–D–D’–E’–F):
supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
return branch 30
ro

Total 145 kPa
Unit 4 (Path A–B–C–D–E–E’–F):

G

supply branch 10
coil (5 L/s) 15
return branch 30
Total 124 kPa

7: 18
Estimating the coil flows for the reverse return piping and 15 kPa coils, we see a reduced flow as
compared to direct return piping:

52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.41
⎝ 124 kPa ⎠
for Unit 2: = 5.0
t
pe
for Unit 3: = 5.0

52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.41
⎝ 124 kPa ⎠
Eg Total = 20.8 L/s
Conclusion
up
By going through these examples for direct and reverse return piping system designs, we have
shown how the use of the reverse return design lowers the overall flow requirement and the magni-
tude of imbalance in the circuits. Furthermore, we have seen that coil flow selection (lower flow
rating) increases this flow imbalance for the direct return system, but has only a small effect for the
reverse return system.
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Summary of Pumping Power — Direct Return versus Reverse Return
Using the pump power equation discussed in Chapter 4, we can make a judgment on the relative
power used in each of these examples:
G
Pw = Flow (L/s) × Pressure(kPa)...watts

7: 19
System: 30 kPa coils 15 kPa coils
Direct Return (unbalanced flow)
21.5 L/s and 108 kPa 2.3 kW

21.9 L/s and 93 kPa 2.1 kW
(if flow is balanced)
20 L/s and 108 kPa 2.2 kW
t
pe
Reverse Return (unbalanced flow)
20.7 L/s and 160 kPa 3.3 kW

(if flow is balanced )
Eg 20 L/s and 145 kPa 2.9 kW
The above is the theoretical power at 100% flow and does not take into account the pump or motor
efficiencies, which would increase the values. Direct return uses less power than the reverse return,
but is more unbalanced at 100% flow. A further comparison might be made at part-load conditions
to determine operating hours versus percent of flow based on local weather patterns to get a closer
look at pumping power. Further study of decreasing pipe diameter selection to increase flow ve-
up
locities could be examined, as well as pressure drop selected for the control valves. A basic com-
parison is to look at the piping lengths of the direct return versus reverse return piping in this
example:
Direct Return:
Supply main (80 mm) 10 + 20 = 30 m

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Return main (80 mm) 10 + 20 = 30 m

Supply main (65 mm) 30 + 30 = 60 m
Return main (65 mm) 30 + 30 = 60 m
Unit branches (65 mm) 8 × 10 = 80 m
Total 260 m
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Reverse Return:
Supply-Return mains
(100 mm) 10 + 20 = 30 m
(80 mm) 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 = 120 m
(65 mm) 30 + 30 = 60 m
Unit branches (65 mm) 8 × 10 = 80 m
Total 290 m
7: 20
Summary:
100 mm 80 mm 65 mm Total
Direct 60 m 200 m 260 m
Reverse 30 m 120 m 140 m 290 m
As you can see, the analysis of the piping layout takes time, but it is valuable to determine the
design options available, amount of piping needed, and how to reduce pumping power.
t
There are many design trade-offs to be considered. The direct return system requires less piping
pe
and, theoretically, less power than the reverse return system. However, the reverse return system
balances the system flow better, which translates into better efficiency and performance in load
distribution. If the imbalance in the system is left unchecked, uneven distribution of flow to the
loads may result, producing poor performance. In the next section, we will explore alternative
designs that eliminate some of these performance shortcomings.
7.4 Eg
Primary-Secondary Analysis
Another consideration in the piping design strategy is to select a secondary pump for each unit coil
and move the two-way valve to the connecting bridge return (see Figure 7–10). One advantage of
this concept is to reduce the burden of the pressure drop of the unit coil from the distribution pump
and allow constant flow in the unit coil to improve coil heat transfer and response to load. Adjust-
up
ing the coil flow permits flexibility of higher coil ∆t as compared to the primary system.
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Figure 7-10. Piping Detail - Load Coil Primary-Secondary

7: 21
Reviewing the example above, modified for primary-secondary design but limiting the study to the
30 kPa pressure drop coil and a direct return piping system (see Figure 7–11), we again assess each
unit’s piping for pressure drop from the main to the secondary bridge:
Unit l: Supply side to bridge 5 L/s:
1 – 80 mm tee, branch 2.3 kPa

1 – 80 × 65 mm bush 0.4
1 – 65 mm Butterfly valve 2.7
t
3 – 65 mm Els @ 0.8 2.3
pe
1 – 65 mm Strainer 1.2
1 – 65 mm Tee-thru 0.8
10 m – 65 mm Pipe (300 Pa/m) 3.0
Supply branch 12.7 kPa
Eg
up
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Figure 7-11. Primary-Secondary Piping

7: 22
Unit 1: Return side from the bridge to the main:
1 – 65 mm Tee-thru 0.8 kPa

3 – 65 mm Els @ 0.8 2.3
1 – 50 mm Control valve 15.0
2 – 65 × 50 mm Bush @ 0.1 0.2
1 – 65 mm Balancing valve w.o. 0.6
1 – 80 × 65 mm Bush 0.4
t
1 – 80 mm Tee branch 2.3
10 m – 65 mm Pipe 3.0
pe
Return branch 24.6 kPa
Direct Return Unit l (path A–B–B‘–F):
Supply main (10 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s) 5.0 kPa

Supply branch 12.7
Eg
Common pipe
Return branch
Return main (10 m – 80 mm pipe 10 L/s)

—
24.6
5.0
47.3 kPa
up
Supply main (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s) 9.0
Supply branch 12.7
Common pipe —
Return branch 24.6
Return main (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s) 9.0
ro

Total 65.3 kPa

G

Supply main (30 m – 65 mm pipe 5 L/s) 9.0
Supply branch 12.7
Common pipe —
Return branch 24.6
Total 75.3 kPa

7: 23

Supply branch 12.7
Common pipe —
Return branch 24.6
Total 57.3 kPa
t
pe
Unit 3 is the highest pressure drop path, with 7.78 m required at A–F to provide a design flow of 5
L/s. Again applying the Darcy-Weisbach relationship, Q2~∆p:
⎛ ∆p ⎞
Q2 = Q12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ∆p1 ⎠
for Unit 1: ⎛ 75.3 kPa ⎞

52 ⎜ ⎟ = 8.0
Eg
for Unit 2:
for Unit 4:
⎝ 47.3 kPa ⎠
⎛ 75.3 kPa ⎞
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.8
⎝ 65.3 kPa ⎠
⎛ 75.3 kPa ⎞
52 ⎜ ⎟ = 6.6
⎝ 57.3 kPa ⎠
up
In summary:
Unit 1 8.0 L/s

Unit 2 5.8
Unit 3 5.0
Unit 4 6.6
ro
Total 25.4 L/s
Again using the water power equation, the primary loop power used at 25.4 L/s and 75.3 kPa is 1.9
kW, which is less than direct return case above (2.2 kW).
G
The pressure drop in a typical secondary loop is:
4 – 65 mm Els @ 0.8 3.2

1 – Coil 30.0
20 m – 65 mm pipe 6.0
Total 39.2 kPa
At 5 L/s coil flow, this requires 0.2 kW pumping power to handle the secondary loop and coil.
Summarizing, 1.9 + 4 (0.2) = 2.7 kW, as compared to 2.1 kW for the direct return.

7: 24
7.5 Types of Pumps and Valves
Pump performance must be considered not only at the design point but across its entire character-
istic curve. Centrifugal pumps are available with steep curves that drop from high pressure at low
flow to low pressure at high flow versus those with flat curves that show a small change in pressure
between shutoff to design flow (see Figure 7–12). Some designers like to limit this to a 15% to
25% rise-to-shutoff curve. These flat curve pumps are always recommended where two-way valves
are applied to unit terminals. At part-loads, the valves will be operating at lower flows and this will
move the system operating differential pressure up the pump curve.
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Another factor is when the pressure drop through the terminals is low and the system balance is less
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than ideal, there may be a tendency to short-circuit the flow in the units closest to the pump. With
a steep curve pump, this results in a drop in pressure and less flow is available to the units farthest
from the pump. A flat curve pump will show a minimum drop in pressure and give better flow to
the remote units.
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Figure 7-12. Flat Versus Steep Pump Characteristics

7: 25
Effects of Control Valves
Factors affecting control valve performance in a typical load’s control loop are:
• Valve size. It is most important that a valve be sized for the required load flow in L/s and
adequate pressure drop. Some size a valve for one size less than coil inlet/outlet size, but
this is not accurate enough. Higher pressure drops should be considered to give a high
valve authority.
• An adequate control valve actuator with sufficient power to hold the valve’s commanded
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position at maximum pressure drop should be selected and specified.
• The valve characteristic selected for hydronic heat or cooling units should be an equal
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percentage characteristic to give a linear output of kW emission in relation to valve stroke.
• Valve authority is determined by the valve pressure drop at full load compared to the load
coil and piping pressure drop. The pressure drop selected should be at least 25% to 50%
of the loop pressure drop. In the direct return example, a valve drop of 15 kPa was se-
lected as compared to the loop drop of 108 kPa, which results in 15/108 = 13.9%. When
the coil drop of 15 kPa was selected, the authority increased to 15/93 = 16.1%; an author-
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ity of 25% would require a drop of 27 kPa for the 108 kPa loop pressure drop.
• The valve rangeability should be of 20:1 or more. That is the ratio of its maximum con-
trolled flow; say, 5 L/s to a minimum flow of at least 0.25 L/s (for example, 5/0.25 =
20:1).
• Valve body style. In general, the two-way valve is recommended because it modulates the
volume of flow in relation to the load. Use of three-way valves on terminals in large
systems is not recommended because the flow is bypassed and does not reduce the pump-
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ing power at low loads. In some cases, three-way valves are used on small systems where
a constant system flow is required in a chiller and where variable speed pumping may not
be economically feasible.
• The balancing valve is a multifunction valve that is used to measure flow, stop flow for
servicing, and to proportionally balance the flow in circuits that have excessive flow.
This valve should be selected for the design flow and a minimum pressure drop. In some
cases, automatic flow limiting valves are chosen instead of manual balancing valves.
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Care should be taken in the selection of these devices for design flow at a minimum
pressure drop. Also, a shutoff valve is required in the return for servicing, and a venturi or
orifice may be required to determine the flow in the field.
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7.6 Primary-Secondary Application Study
The use of a secondary pump to reduce the pump pressure of the main distribution pump is always
an option when designing a hydronic system. Each system should be evaluated on its own require-
ments and the resulting pumping energy reductions that may be obtained. Figure 7–13 shows a
four-zone heating system employing a single 3.0 kW pump delivering 15 L/s at 200 kPa pressure
with a 12°C ∆t.

7: 26
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The zones are:
Eg Figure 7-13. Four-Zone Heating System
• One-pipe heating zone: 2 L/s at 50 kPa

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• Two-pipe reverse return heating zone: 4 L/s at 70 kPa
• Two pipe direct return heating zone: 6 L/s at 140 kPa
• Heat exchanger zone: 3 L/s at 60 kPa
• The distribution main has a total friction loss of 90 kPa from the distribution pump through
the mains and returning through the boiler to the pump suction. The pump has to deliver
the total flow of 15 L/s and must overcome the worst case pressure drop of 200 kPa,
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which is shown in the following table:
Total Pressure
Zone Mains Required
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Zone 1: 50 kPa + 0 kPa = 50 kPa

Zone 2: 70 kPa + 15 + 15 kPa = 100 kPa
Zone 3: 140 kPa + 30 + 30 kPa = 200 kPa
Zone 4: 60 kPa + 45 + 45 kPa = 150 kPa
Zone 3 requires 200 kPa pump pressure for main and zone.

7: 27
A redesign of the system to a primary-secondary concept is shown in Figure 7–14. Each zone is
connected to a primary-secondary bridge and a secondary pump is selected for each zone’s load, for
example:
Zone 1: 2 L/s @ 50 kPa 0.1 kW pump

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Zone Total: 15 L/s 1.4 kW pumps
Primary: 15 L/s @ 90 kPa 1.35 kW pump
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Because the primary/secondary bridge has a minimal pressure drop, the distribution pump is re-
quired to flow 15 L/s at 90 kPa instead of 200 kPa, and so a 1.35 kW motor can be selected, as
shown in Figure 7–14. This means the original 3 kW pump is replaced by five pumps totaling 2.75
kW, which gives a reduction of 10% in pumping energy. This assumes the load flows are based on
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a 12°C drop and further study of the primary-secondary bridge flows shows a capability to have
different ∆t as follows:
For a typical secondary bridge (see Figure 7-15):
Energy In = Energy Out

Primary Energy = Secondary Energy
4.19 × L/sp × ∆tp = 4.19 L/ss × ∆ts
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If we assume a greater drop of 24°C in the primary and maintain a 12°C drop for the design flow in
the secondary (as shown in Figure 7–15), we see a 50% reduction in the supply required; also,
because the supply mains behave similar to the Darcy-Weisbach relationship. The 50% reduction
in the supply flow means one-fourth of the original main pressure drop, so the primary distribution
pump is reduced to 7.5 L/s at 22.5 kPa, which means the supply pump can be a 0.17 kW inline
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circulator.
Summarizing, secondaries (∆t = 12°C):

Zone 2 : 4 L/s @ 70 kPa 0.28 kW pump
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15 L/s 1.40 kW pump
Primary (∆t = 12°C) 7.5 L/s 0.17 kW pump
Total 1.57 kW pump

7: 28
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Figure 7-14. Primary-Secondary Pumping, Four-Zone Heating System
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L/s p ∆ t p = L/s s ∆ t s
Figure 7-15. Primary-Secondary Bridge Energy

7: 29
The original design requiring a single 3.0 kW has been reduced to a total of 1.57 kW using the
primary-secondary design principles per Figure 7–16. A further review of pipe sizing may provide
additional economies. Another review may yield further flexibilities in the zoning capabilities to
provide diversity and energy economy by treating the secondary circuit as a controlled supply
temperature and ∆t when used with a two-way valve in the bridge return.
Note: By increasing ∆t in the primary piping circuits, a 50% reduction in supply flow was achieved.
This allowed significant energy savings by reducing the total pump power requirements.
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Figure 7-16. Primary-Secondary Pumping, Four-Zone Heating System
7.7 Antifreeze Solutions for Low Temperature Applications

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Another topic that relates to piping system development is how to treat low temperature applica-
tions. In most cases, protection is required in the form of circulating an antifreeze solution that is
capable of preventing bursting of coils, fittings and piping. Figure 7–17 shows a dedicated heat
exchanger and pump for a glycol subsystem complete with an expansion tank and detachable water
makeup (or other water makeup devices to meet local code requirements). Other approaches as-
sume constant water flow in a coil by treating it as a secondary-pumping circuit with constant flow
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to provide 1.2 to 1.8 m/s tube velocities.
On the air side, face-bypass dampers are required to provide temperature control to blend warm air
from the coil side with bypass air to maintain a controlled discharge temperature (see Figure 7–18).
In addition, a separate low-temperature thermostat with a long sensing element (within which the
coldest 300 mm length controls) set at 4°C is recommended on the coil air discharge surface. An
alternate method is a bulb inserted in the leaving water to provide alarm to the operating personnel
before the discharge or water temperature reaches freezing conditions. Sometimes this is wired to
the fan circuit to shut down the fan and close outside dampers to reduce the possibility of damage.

7: 30
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Figure 7-17. Coil With Glycol Heat Exchanger and Pump for Low Temperatures
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Figure 7-18. Pumped Coil With Face-Bypass Dampers for

Low Temperature Primary-Secondary Pumping

7: 31
When applying water-glycol solutions, it is important to recognize the reduced heat carrying capac-
ity due to the lower specific heat and higher density of the mixture. Earlier, we discussed the heat
transferred to or from water qw, kW is expressed as:2
qw = mc p ∆t 7–2
where:
m = mass flow of water, kg/s
cp = specific heat, 4.19 kJ/kg⋅K
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∆t = K temperature change across unit
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If water flow is expressed in L/s (Qw ):
qw = 0.001 ρ w c p Qw ∆t 7–3
where, for water:

ρw = density 1000 kg/m3
For example:
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For water-glycol mixtures, the specific heat (cp ) and density (ρw ) of the mixture have to be used.
A 30% propylene glycol-water solution at 80°C, with 12°C drop will transfer
qw = 0.001 ρw cp Qw ∆t
up
= 0.001 × 992.42 × 4.013 × Qw × 12
= 47.8 kW
In other words, at 12°C ∆t, the mixture will transfer 47.8 kW per L/s as compared to 50 kW per L/s
for water.
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Chapter 20 in the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals shows complete reference tables of

freezing points and graphs of specific heat versus percentage water mixture and temperature (see
Figures 7–19 and 7–20).3 In addition to specific heat, the Handbook displays density, viscosity and
thermal conductivity for ethylene-glycol and propylene-glycol water mixtures.
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This chapter also states that for winterizing coils in HVAC systems, a 30% ethylene-glycol or 35%
propylene-glycol mixture with water can be used. It states that as the fluid freezes, it forms a slush
that expands and flows to any available space. Therefore, expansion volume must be included with
this type of protection. It also recommends that if the application requires the fluid to remain en-
tirely liquid, a concentration with a freezing point 3°C below the lowest expected temperature
should be chosen. Further information regarding corrosion inhibition is provided. Without inhibi-
tors, glycols oxidize into acidic end-products.

7: 32
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Eg Figure 7-19. Specific Heats of Aqueous Solutions of
Industrially Inhibited Ethylene Glycol (% by volume)
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Figure 7-20. Specific Heats of Aqueous Solutions of

Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol (% by volume)

7: 33
Provision should be made for test-

ing and filling glycol and glycol-
inhibitor into the piping system.4
Figure 7–21 is one design of a one-
shot chemical feeder that should be
considered.
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7.8
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Pumping Design Factors
Figure 7-21. One-Shot Chemical Feeder
By completing this chapter, you should have learned the following general design concepts:
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• The higher the pressure losses through the terminal units of a hydronic system, relative to
the main piping losses, the closer the system comes to a natural balance.
• Reverse return systems are closer to a natural balance of flows than direct return systems.
• If automatic control valves are employed, the design pressure drop selected should be as
high as practical. A pressure drop at least equal to the drop in the terminal unit coil is a
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desirable goal. The valve should be sized for the design flow with the Kv flow formula,
which may not be the same size as the coil inlet piping.
• Centrifugal pumps with flat characteristics should be selected for systems with control
valves.
• Two-way valves should be considered over three-way valves because they vary the vol-
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ume of water flow in direct relationship with the control signal. Three-way valves pro-
vide a continuous flow regardless of the load and are not suitable with variable volume
pumping systems.
• Manual balancing valves should be chosen for a minimal pressure drop and provide the
means to measure flows in various loops in the field as well as provide a shutoff valve for
coil servicing.
• Performance is best assured by requiring proportional balancing after the system is oper-
ating. Variable volume pumping systems should be checked and adjusted for balance at
50%, 75% and 100% design flows.
7: 34
The Next Step
In Chapter 8, you will learn how to match pumps to systems.
Summary
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• The factors that must be considered before starting a piping design.
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• What piping equipment should be considered at a load coil.
• Which piping system design gives more uniform pressure drop and why.
• How flow can be determined in a given loop.
• What type of pump curve should be selected if two-way valves are to be used.
• Two advantages of primary-secondary hydronic systems.
• How the possibility of freezing coils and piping in an HVAC system can be reduced.
Bibliography
Eg
1. Standards Australia. 1989. AS 1074, Steel Tubes and Tubulars for Ordinary Service Steel Pipe
for Light, Medium and Heavy Grades. Homebush, NSW, Australia.
2. ASHRAE. 1996. “Hydronic heating and cooling system design.” ASHRAE Handbook–HVAC
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Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 12.
3. ASHRAE. 1997. “Physical properties of secondary coolants (brines).” ASHRAE Handbook–

Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 20.
4. Beaty, F. 1987. Sourcebook of HVAC Details. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
5. AIRAH. 1994. AIRAH Application Manual – Air Conditioning Water Piping. Melbourne, Victoria,
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Australia: Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating Inc.

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7: 35
7-01. In the direct return example (see Figure 7–8), which unit’s piping path dictates the pump
pressure from A to F? How much pressure is required?
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7-02. What size pump capacity and pressure would be required to handle the four air handling
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units in Figure 7–8 for the conditions shown from A to F?
7-03. What size pump capacity and pressure would be required in Figure 7–8, direct return for
supplying four identical floors, assuming 3 m between floors and allowing a 25% pressure
drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa pressure drop across the chiller?
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7-04. In the reverse return example in Figure 7–9, which unit’s piping path dictates the pump
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7-06. What size pump capacity and pressure would be required in Figure 7–9, assuming 3 m
between floors and allowing a 25% pressure drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa
pressure drop across the chiller?
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7-07. In the primary-secondary examples in Figures 7–10 and 7–11, which unit’s piping path
dictates the pump pressure from A to F? How much pressure is required?
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7-08. What size distribution pump capacity and pressure would be required to handle the four air
handling units in Figure 7–11 primary–secondary example for the conditions shown from
A to F?
7-09. What size distribution pump capacity and pressure would be required for supplying four
identical floors, similar to Figure 7–11 primary-secondary, assuming 3 m between floors
and allowing a 25% pressure drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa pressure drop across
the chiller?

7: 36
7-10. What is the cooling capacity of 6 L/s of water flow with 50% propylene-glycol mixture at
an average temperature of 10°C and a 5.5°C rise?
7-11. What is the cooling capacity of 6 L/s of water flow at a 5.5°C rise? How many kW of
cooling?
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7-12. What is the increase in actual pumping power for the propylene-glycol mixture (s.g. = 1.05)
of Exercise 7-10 compared to plain water, if the coil pressure drop is 60 kPa, assuming a
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pump efficiency of 75% and motor efficiency of 85%?
7-13. How can the possibility of frozen coils and piping in a HVAC system be reduced?
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7-14. What are two advantages of primary and secondary hydronic systems?
7-15. What type of pump curves should be selected if two-way valves are to be used?
7-16. How can flow be determined in a given loop?

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7-17. Which piping system design gives more uniform pressure drop? Why?
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8: 1
Chapter 8
Matching Pumps to Systems
• Instructions
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• 8.1 Matching the Pump to the System
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• 8.2 Parallel Pumping
• 8.3 Series Pumping
• 8.4 Standby Pumps
• 8.5 Trimming Pump Impellers
• 8.6 Two-Speed Pumping
• 8.7 Variable Speed Pumping
• 8.8
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Source Distribution Pumping
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Instructions
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After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• Determine the operating point of a pump and a system by plotting the system curve and
the pump capacity curve.
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• Determine static pressure in a system by turning the system pumps off and reading the
gauge pressure at the pump.
• Plot system pressure and pump capacity curves, including the incremental effect of static
pressure.
• Know what methods are available to match pumping operation to a system for full- and
part-load flow.
• Develop operating curves for pumps connected in series and in parallel.
• Plan for emergency flow in case of a pump failure.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems

8: 2
• Determine how many combinations of capacity and pressure two two-speed pumps can
provide when operating in parallel.
• Identify what the variable volume controller should measure to control variable speed
pumps.
• Describe what methods are available to provide flow to buildings that are remote from a
central chiller plant.
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Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems Fundamentals of Water System Design

8: 3
8.1 Matching the Pump to the System
In section 2–1, we discussed pressure

drop in piping systems and the system
curve that results from plotting pressure
drop versus flow (see Figure 8–1).1,2
Similarly, in section 3–1, the concept of
pump curves was developed, noting that
each type of pump has a unique curve
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governed by its size and design. Inde-
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pendent pressure is the system static
pressure with the pump off.
A good piping system design will match

the system characteristics to the pump
curve to provide the best system perfor-
mance with the best economics over the
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life of the system. Superimposing the
system curve and pump curve, the oper-
ating point is defined by the intersection
of the curves (see Figure 8-2). Under ac-
tual operating conditions, control valves
are varied to meet changing load condi-
tions and the system curve changes,
Figure 8-1. Typical System Curve
moving the operating point along the

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pump curve.
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Figure 8-2. Pump Curve and System Curve

8: 4
In large systems, a single pump may not be able to satisfy the full design flows and yet give eco-
nomical operation at part-loads. The designer has several approaches to meet the requirements of
these large applications, such as:
• Multiple pumps in parallel or series arrangements.

• Pumps with two-speed motors.
• Variable speed pumping.
• Primary-secondary pumping.
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• Distributed pumping.
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Figure 8–3 shows how the system curve is shifted to the right by an increase in the flow rate due to
an actual lower system pressure drop than calculated, assuming a larger safety factor in design,
overstated pressure drop data or insufficient balancing of total water flow.
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Figure 8-3. Shift of System Curve

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8: 5
8.2 Parallel Pumping2
If two pumps are applied in parallel, each pump operates at the same pressure and provides its share
of the system flow at that pressure (see Figure 8–4). The parallel pump curve is established by
starting at no-flow with identical pressures and then doubling the flow of the single pump curve
(Figure 8–4) at each pressure value. At each value, the horizontal vector of flow is added to the first
as shown:
Y1 + Y2 = Total flow at B
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and
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X1 + X2 = Total flow at A
A new pump curve is developed on the paralleled pump curve line A–B–C.
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Figure 8-4. Pump Curve for Parallel Operation

8: 6
Plotting a system curve across the parallel pump curve shows the operating points for both single
and parallel pump operation (see Figure 8–5). It is interesting to note that parallel pumping tends to
flatten the combined pump curve to make the system pressure more suitable for control valve
operation. It is important that the pumps be identical in rating of flow and pressure, design, impeller
diameter and speed. It may cause problems if one of the pump’s characteristics is greater than the
other (such as closing the discharge check valve), thereby making start-up unpredictable. Pumps of
unequal pressures may result in one pump creating a pressure across the other pump in excess of its
cutoff pressure, causing the flow through the second pump to reduce or cease. This can cause flow
problems or pump damage. Note that running the single pump yields more than 50% flow.
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The system curve crosses the single pump curve to the left of the combined pumps’ operating point.
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This factor leads to two important points:
• The pump motor must be adequately sized to prevent overloading during single pump
operation (see Figure 8–6).
• A single pump can provide standby service up to about 80% of design flow, but at lower
pressure; the actual amount depends on the specific pump curve and the system curve.
The piping of parallel pumps (Figure 8–6) should be laid out with provision to run either pump
Eg
with a bypass around the other. Hand valves (gate or butterfly) must be manually positioned or
two-position automatic control valves can be tied in with the pump selection controls. The check
valve in the pump discharge closes when the pump is shut down. The alternate pump draws from
the return bypass and discharges into the supply bypass.
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Figure 8-5. Operating Conditions for Parallel Pump Installation

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8.3
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Series Pumping2
Figure 8-6. Piping Schematic of Parallel Pumps
When operated in series, each pump operates at the same flow rate and provides its share of the
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total pressure at that flow (see Figure 8–7). At each flow, the vertical vector of pressure is added to
the first (shown as X1 + X2 = total pressure at A, and Y1 + Y2 = total pressure at B, etc.) until a new
pump curve is developed (curve CAB).
The series pump curve is drawn with full flow at low pressure and then doubling the pressure of the
single pump curve at each flow value to construct a similar pump curve. A system curve plotted
across the series pump curve shows the operating points for both single and series pump operation
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(see Figure 8–8). Note that the single pump provides up to about 80% flow as a standby and at a
lower power requirement.
Like parallel pumps, it is important that the pumps be identical in rating of flow and pressure,
design, impeller diameter and speed. Pumps of different flow capacity connected in series can
result in problems; the pump of greater capacity can overflow the pump of lesser capacity, causing
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damage in the smaller pump due to cavitation. This can also cause a pressure drop rather than a
pressure rise across that pump.
It is important to discuss the proposed parallel, series or multiple pump selection with the pump
manufacturer to prevent a potential problem and to get the manufacturer’s suggestions and power
requirements.
The piping of series pumps (see Figure 8–9) should be laid out with provision to run either pump
with a bypass (B–C) around the other. Hand valves (gate or butterfly) must be manually positioned
or two-position automatic control valves can be selected.

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9: 1
Chapter 9
Water Chillers and Load Control
• Instructions
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• 9.1 Basic Water Chiller Components
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• 9.2 Refrigeration Cycle
• 9.3 Heat Transfer Chiller
• 9.4 Refrigeration Power
• 9.5 Chiller Types and Control
• 9.6 Chiller Piping Arrangements
• 9.7 Chiller Energy Performance
• 9.8
• Summary Eg
Thermal Storage
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
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Instructions
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• Be able to identify a water chiller's capability to reduce water temperature, dependent on

the capacity rating and water flow rate.
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• Understand temperature rise in water temperature across a chilled water coil; for a 10°C
rise, it will require 0.24/10° = 0.024 L/s for each kW of load.
• Understand temperature drop in condenser water temperature; for a 4.5°C drop, it will
require 0.286/5° = 0.057 L/s for each kW of load.
• Understand the many types of refrigeration compressors used in chillers, depending on
the manufacturer and the refrigeration capacity.
• Know that the theoretical power used in a chiller is directly related to the heat (enthalpy)
absorbed in the evaporator, the mass rate of refrigerant flow, the enthalpy change in the
compressor and the chiller capacity.
Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control
9: 2
• Understand that chillers can be piped in series or parallel, but are commonly in parallel to
provide for expansion.
• Understand piping of multiple chillers, employing primary-secondary principles, and load-
ing chillers evenly when locating the common-bridge between the load and the chillers.
• Know how to optimize chiller operation versus chilled water supply temperature, taking
into account the compressor power and the pumping power.
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9.1 Basic Water Chiller Components
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Water chillers provide cooling of water, brines or other secondary coolants for air conditioning or
refrigeration.1 The systems can be either factory-assembled and -wired packages, or shipped as
component sections and built up in the field. The basic components of a liquid chilling system
include the compressor, evaporator (liquid cooler), condenser, refrigerant flow-control device and
a control center as well as other auxiliary devices (receiver, intercooler, oil separator, etc.) within
the chiller package (see Figure 9–1). Externally, the chiller must have a condensing water system
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(cooling tower, pumps, diverting valve, etc.) to transfer the heat properly.
Figure 9–2 shows a schematic of a simple liquid chiller cooling a water system from 12°C to 7°C
and transferring that energy to a condenser water system operating from 29°C to 35°C.
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Figure 9-1. Liquid Chilling System
Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control Fundamentals of Water System Design
9: 3
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9.2
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Refrigeration Cycle
Figure 9-2. Simple Chiller Schematic
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The p-h chart (also called the Mollier diagram) is a portrayal of the pressure (p) enthalpy (h) values
of the refrigerant. Figure 9–3 shows the low-pressure (evaporation side) versus the high pressure
(condensing side) of a basic system, and is useful for visualizing the refrigeration cycle of the water
chiller.2 Exact values of the refrigerant pressures, temperatures, enthalpy, density and specific vol-
umes are found in manufacturers' tables in the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook–Fundamentals.3,4
To understand the power used in a water chiller system, it is important to understand the basic
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refrigeration cycle and how compressor power and pumping power interrelate. In the p-h chart
(Figure 9–3), temperature lines are constant with the pressure line between saturated liquid and the
saturated vapor line, or the “wet” region. If the refrigerant is at point A, it absorbs heat with no
change in pressure; it will begin to boil and evaporation will occur with no change in temperature.
As heat is added at point G, the refrigerant's enthalpy increases until it becomes saturated at point
G
B. Further addition of heat at constant pressure moves the refrigerant condition into the superheat
region to point C.
Tracing the simple chiller (in Figure 9-2) onto the p-h chart (Figure 9-3), liquid is throttled by the
expansion valve from the condenser pressure at point J to the evaporator low pressure at point D at
a constant enthalpy. As the refrigerant flows through the evaporator, it absorbs the heat necessary
to completely vaporize it by point E (water chilling), and in practice is superheated to point F. The
compressor raises the vapor from low pressure at point F to high pressure at point H. The high
pressure vapor is then condensed from point H to point J, where the heat picked up in the evapora-
tor plus the superheat and the heat of compression are transferred to the cooling tower water.
9: 4
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Figure 9-3. Refrigeration Cycle on the p-h Chart (Mollier Diagram)
Example
What chilled water flow will a 350 kW chiller handle for a 7°C rise in water temperature and a
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4.5°C drop in tower water? First, determine the flow in the evaporator (chiller flow):
Capacity
Flow (L/s) =
4.19 × ∆t
350 kW
Flow (L/s) = = 11.9 L/s
4.19 × 7
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Next, find the flow in the condenser:
⎛ 0.286 ⎞
Flow (L/s) = ⎜ ⎟ × 350 kW = 22.2 L/s
⎝ 4.5°C ⎠
9: 5
9.3 Heat Transfer Chiller
The size of the chiller is rated in kilowatts (kW) of refrigeration. Reviewing Chapter 1, the heat
transferred to or from water is:
qwe = 4.19 Qwe ∆t 9–1
where:
qwe = capacity of chiller evaporator, kW
t
Qwe = water flow through evaporator, L/s
pe
since:
qw
Qwe =
4.19 × ∆t
0.24
L/s = per kW capacity 9–2
∆t
Eg
This is a good formula for estimating flows versus ∆t.
If the liquid is a brine or glycol mixture and not water only, then the formula must include specific
heat and density of the solution:
kW =
(L/s)(∆t )(Specific Heat )(Density ) 9–3
1000
up
In the condenser, the heat transferred to the condenser water includes the heat from the evaporator
plus the heat of compression. For most practical comfort air-conditioning applications, a value of
1.2 × chiller capacity may be used as the total heat transferred to the condenser water. Since:
qwe = 4.19 Qwe ∆t

ro
1.2 = 4.19(L/s )∆t
1.2
L/s =
4.19 × ∆t
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0.286
= L/s per kW of chiller capacity
∆t
9: 6
9.4 Refrigeration Power
The theoretical power required by a water chiller compressor is a function of the refrigerant flow
rate and the change in enthalpy during compression.
The heat absorbed in the evaporator:
qe = w ×RE 9–4
where:
t
qe = heat absorbed in the evaporator, kW
pe
w = mass rate of refrigerant flow, kg/s
RE = refrigerating effect
= heat absorbed in evaporator
= (hF – hD), kJ/kg of refrigerant
(See Figure 9–3)
or:
w= Eg
kW
(hF − hD )
kg/s
The theoretical compressor power required:
PT = (hH − hF )× w kW 9–5
up
The input power required:
PT
Pinput = kW
(overall efficiency *)
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* efficiency from manufacturer's data
9.5 Chiller Types and Control

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Depending on the chiller’s capacity, a general guideline1 of the types of chillers available for air
conditioning are:
• Up to 90 kW: Reciprocating (see Figure 9-4) and scroll

• 90 to 700 kW: Screw (see Figure 9-5) and reciprocating
• 700 to 2800 kW: Screw or centrifugal (see Figure 9-6)
• Above 2800 kW: Centrifugal
9: 7
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Eg Figure 9-4. Reciprocating Compressor Refrigeration System
up
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Figure 9-5. Screw Compressor
9: 8
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Eg Figure 9-6. Centrifugal Compressor
up
Absorption refrigeration machines are available for water chilling in capacities of 10 to 20 kW
(ammonia), 10 to 100 kW (lithium bromide), and 200 to 6000 kW (lithium bromide); see Figures
9-7 and 9-8.5
Reciprocating compressors are used in smaller systems of up to 700 kW. An interesting discussion
is presented in the 1994 ASHRAE Handbook–Refrigeration1 about the performance characteristics
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of reciprocating compressors as compared to centrifugal and screw compressors (see Figure 9–9).
A distinguishing feature of the reciprocating compressor is its pressure rise versus capacity charac-
teristic. Pressure rise has only a slight influence on the volume flow rate of the compressor, and
therefore a reciprocating liquid chiller retains nearly full cooling capacity even on days above
design wet bulb. It is well suited for air-cooled condenser applications and low temperature refrig-
eration. Methods of capacity control are furnished by:
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• Unloading compressor cylinders

• On-off cycling of compressors
• Hot gas bypass
• Compressor speed control
• Combination of the above
Figure 9–10 shows the relationship between system demand and compressor performance with
three equal steps of cylinder unloading.1
9: 9
t
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Eg Figure 9-7. Two-Shell Lithium
Bromide Cycle Water Chiller
up
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Figure 9-8. Double-Effect Direct-Fired Chiller
9: 10
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Eg
Figure 9-9. Comparison of Single-Stage Centrifugal,
Reciprocating and Screw Compressor Performance
up
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Figure 9-10. Reciprocating Liquid Chiller Performance

With Three Equal Steps of Unloading
9: 11
Two basic piping arrangements for multiple chiller systems are parallel and series chilled water
flow (as described in the ASHRAE Handbook–Refrigeration1 ). In the parallel arrangement, the
water to be chilled is divided among the liquid chillers and combined again in a common header
after chilling (see Figure 9–11). As the cooling load decreases, one unit may be shut down, but the
remaining units must then provide colder-than-design chilled water so that when the streams com-
bine, the design water supply is provided. Usually the idling chiller’s pump is shut down when the
chiller is stopped and a check valve closes in this pump’s discharge to prevent a bypass flow.
In the case of water chilling designs above 7°C, all units should be controlled by the combined exit
t
water temperature or by the return water temperature (RWT), because overchilling will not cause a
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dangerously low water temperature in the operating machine. In the case of water chilling designs
below 7°C (see Figure 9–12), each machine should be controlled by its own chilled water tempera-
ture, both to prevent dangerously low evaporator temperatures and to avoid frequent shutdowns by
the low temperature cutout. In this case, the temperature differential setting of the RWT must be
carefully adjusted to prevent short-cycling caused by the step increase in chilled water temperature
when one chiller is cycled off.
Eg
In the case of a series chiller operation (see Figure 9–13), the Handbook suggests that this arrange-
ment is better, except that the combined chiller pressure drops will be higher unless chillers with
fewer waterside passes are used. No overchilling is required and compressor power consumption is
lower than it is for the parallel method at part-loads. In the series method, a valved piping bypass is
suggested around the lead and lag chillers to facilitate future servicing. This piping design philoso-
phy also applies to parallel chillers; it again gives the maintenance staff an opportunity for service
without a complete shutdown.
up
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Figure 9-11. Parallel Chiller System Design, Water 7°C and Above
9: 12
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Eg
Figure 9-12. Parallel Chiller System Design, Water 7°C and Below
up
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Figure 9-13. Series Chiller System
9.6 Chiller Piping Arrangements
In general, we see multiple chiller designs applied in parallel instead of series because this permits
adding chillers in the future due to single or multiple building additions, such as campus-type site
plans. The designer must allow space in the chiller plant for the additions and the distribution mains
must be sized for the future flows (see Figure 9–14).
9: 13
Early chiller applications employed three-way valves on unit terminals to permit continual flow in
the chiller (see Figure 9–15) and to permit part-load terminal control by reducing the coil flow to
bypass flow around the coil. The result is that the chilled water pumping power is a constant and
cannot be reduced with load. As the size of the system increases, this means that the distribution
system is pumping a constant volume and is not energy-efficient. The use of the two-way valve
gives the opportunity to reduce the distribution pumping with the load but, as discussed before,
must have provision to reduce the potential valve differential by staging parallel pumps or by
reducing the distribution pump’s capacity with a variable speed pumping control system. The chill-
t
ers are piped in parallel in a primary-production loop (see Figure 9–14) with a common bridge to
hydraulically decouple the chiller pumps from the distribution pumping, and determine from recir-
pe
culation at part-load if chillers should be shut down. The location of the common bridge determines
how the chillers will be loaded or unloaded.6,7
Eg
up
Figure 9-14. Chiller Plant Expansion, Parallel Configuration
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Figure 9-15. Small System With Three-Way Valves Versus Two-Way Valves
9: 14
In studying one referenced example7, the system consists of three chillers, as shown in Figure 9-16.
Each chiller is fed by a constant-speed chiller pump (with a check-valve) that operates only when
the chiller is on. Each chiller pump is sized to achieve a ∆t of 9°C, and the chiller is controlled by a
discharge thermostat at 5.5°C.
With the common bridge located between the load and the production sections (see Figure 9–17)
and the system operating at part-load (75 L/s, 2800 kW load), due to the hydraulics inherent in the
design, chillers 2 and 3 will load proportionally and chiller 1 will shut down. Chillers 2 and 3
receive the same temperature water from the return main. The chillers load in proportion to the ratio
t
of their flow rates to the total load flow. Chiller 2 loads to 1130 kW and chiller 3 loads to 1680 kW
(each is 64% of their full load output because the load is 2800/4360 = 64% of the combined chiller
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flow rate). Because the chiller pumps are constant speed, chiller 2 delivers 47 L/s and chiller 3
delivers 70 L/s, for a total of 117 L/s. Because the load is calling for 75 L/s, 42 L/s must flow in the
common-bridge.
Mixing occurs at the return tee:
42 L/s at 5.5° + 75 L/s at 14.5° = 117 L/s at 11.27°
(42 × 5.5) + (75 ×14.5) = 11.27°

Eg 117
The load on chiller 2 is:

47 × (11 . 27 − 5 . 5 )
0 . 24
= 1129 kW
up
and on chiller 3 is:
70 × (11 . 27 − 5 . 5 )
= 1682 kW
0 . 24
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Figure 9-16. Primary-Secondary Parallel Chillers Example
9: 15
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Figure 9-17. Parallel Chillers With Common Bridge Between Load and Production
If the common-bridge is located on the opposite end of the production section (see Figure 9–18),
the chillers will load unevenly due to the hydraulics. Looking at this part-load example, chiller 3
loads fully:
(70 L/s )× (14.5° − 5.5°C) = 2625 kW
up
0.24
Chiller 2 receives 5 L/s (75-70) from the return main which is mixed with 42 L/s (47-5) from the
common-bridge at 5.5°C. This water enters chiller 2 at 6.5°C:
(5 ×14.5°C ) + (42 × 5.5°C) = 6.5°C

47
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The load on chiller 2 is only:
47 × (6 . 5 ° − 5 . 5 ° C )
= 196 kW
0 . 24
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Chiller 1 shuts down due to the 5.5°C return water, so you can see the uneven loading that can
occur and why the designer should consider the common-bridge between the load section and the
production section.
9: 16
t
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9.7
Eg Figure 9-18. Parallel Chillers With Common Bridge
At Opposite End of Production Section
Chiller Energy Performance
Evaluation of a chiller’s performance is sometimes shown as the kW input energy per kW capacity
plotted against the percentage of design capacity of the chiller, as shown in Figure 9–19. This curve
up
shows the improvement in efficiency
that a particular manufacturer has ac-
complished in redesign to make the
chiller more energy-efficient. Older
chiller systems may have difficulty
operating at less than 3.5 kW/kW.
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Another curve (Figure 9–20)8 shows

a projection for higher ∆t, and vari-
ous control valve, pumping methods
and chiller staging options for a hy-
pothetical design. Some of these op-
tions require a study of some propri-
G
etary features that may require the

designer to consider patent licensing.
Energy performance of a chilled

water system should not be limited
to the most efficient chillers, piping,
valves and variable speed pumping
arrangements. There is a need for Figure 9-19. Chiller Performance
Improvement Versus Percent Load
skilled, trained operators working
9: 17
t
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Eg Figure 9-20. Chiller, Control and Pumping Alternatives
Versus Design Temperature Rise
up
with some form of DDC system to optimize the overall chiller system9 by:
• Optimizing the staging on or off of multiple chillers;
• Optimizing condenser water temperature and cooling tower operation; and,
• Optimizing chilled water temperature when variable speed chilled water pumps are em-
ployed.
ro
Resetting chilled water temperature upward under lighter load conditions saves energy at the chiller
due to lower refrigerant head requirements of the compressor. However, increasing the chilled
water temperature will cause the variable speed pumps to increase in speed due to the two-way
valves opening to satisfy the load. Figure 9–21 shows the relationship between chiller power con-
sumption and the variable speed pump power consumption and how the optimal chilled water
temperature can be found.
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The total power of the chilled water system includes the chiller compressors and the variable speed
pumps:
Ptot = Pcomp + Ppump
where:
Ptot = Total power consumption
Pcomp = Compressor power consumption
Ppump = Variable speed pump power
9: 18
t
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Eg Figure 9-21. Chiller and Pumping Total Power Optimization
9.8 Thermal Storage

up
Another design consideration is to provide
a thermal storage facility as part of the
chilled water system to reduce construction
costs and operating costs. The principles of
thermal storage with the primary-secondary
chiller piping and variable speed pumping
discussed can be applied.7
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ASHRAE publications such as Cool Stor-

age Modeling and Design should be stud-
ied for further design considerations.10,11
Overall improvement in water chiller per-
formance and selection for a particular de-
G
sign requires careful study by the designer

not only in various chiller manufacturers'
performance data, pumping and piping de-
sign arrangements, control valve selections
and pump speed control, but also how they
perform together from part-load to full load.
Figure 9–22 shows a thermal storage ex- Figure 9-22. Ice Builder Thermal
ample employing an ice-builder or thermal Storage With Series Chiller
storage with a chilled water system.11
9: 19
Summary
After completing Chapter 9, you should:

• Be able to identify a water chiller's capability to reduce water temperature, dependent on
the capacity rating and water flow rate.
• Understand temperature rise in water temperature across a chilled water coil.
• Understand temperature drop in condenser water temperature.
• Know the types of refrigeration compressors used in chillers, depending on the manufac-
turer and the capacity.
t
• Know that the theoretical power used in a chiller is directly related to the heat (enthalpy)
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absorbed in the evaporator, the mass rate of refrigerant flow, the enthalpy change in the
compressor and the chiller capacity.
• Understand that chillers can be piped in series or parallel, but are commonly in parallel to
provide for expansion.
• Understand piping of multiple chillers, employing primary-secondary principles, and load-
ing chillers evenly when locating the common-bridge between the load and the chillers.
• Know how to optimize chiller operation versus chilled water supply temperature, taking
Conclusion
Eg
into account the compressor power and the pumping power.
As can be seen in this course, there are many aspects of water system design. It requires careful
study by the future designer to understand the part-load and full-load requirements, the boiler and
chiller equipment designs available, the proper selection of control equipment and the various
up
pumping, piping and storage arrangements to determine the most economical operation.
Bibliography
1. ASHRAE. 1994. "Liquid chilling systems." Handbook–Refrigeration. Atlanta, GA. Chapter 42.
2. Trane Co. Air Conditioning Manual. Chapter VI.
3. ASHRAE. 1997. "Refrigerants." Handbook–Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA. Chapter 18.
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4. ASHRAE. 1997. "Thermophysical properties of refrigerants." Handbook–Fundamentals. At-

lanta, GA. Chapter 19.
5. ASHRAE. 1994. "Absorption, cooling, heating and refrigeration equipment." Handbook– Re-
frigeration. Atlanta, GA. Chapter 40.
6. Coad, W. 1958. Hydronic Systems. Atlanta, GA. Technical Data Bulletin.
G
7. Daviess, G. 1993. "P/S with thermal storage." Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning. Cleveland,
OH: Penton Publishing.
8. Mannion, G. 1988. "High temperature rise piping design for variable volume systems: Key to
chiller energy management." ASHRAE Transactions. Atlanta, GA. Pt. 2.
9. Cascia, M. 1988. "Optimizing chiller plant energy savings using adaptive DDC algorithms."
ASHRAE Transactions. Atlanta, GA. Pt. 2.
10. ASHRAE. 1989. Cool Storage Modeling and Design. Atlanta, GA. Technical Data Bulletin.
11. Brady, T. 1994. "Achieving energy conservation with ice-based thermal storage." ASHRAE
Transactions. Atlanta, GA. Pt. 1.
9: 20
9-01. What pumping flow is required for a 1400 kW chilled water system employing 20% ethyl-
ene glycol and water at 6.7°C supply and 7°C rise? (Per the 1997 Handbook–Fundamen-
tals, the density of a 20% ethylene glycol/water solution at 6.7°C is 1033.4 kg/m3.)
t
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9-02. What is the pumping flow in Exercise 9-01, except using propylene glycol and water, at the
same freezing conditions? (Per the 1997 Handbook–Fundamentals, the density of a 20%
propylene glycol/water solution at 6.7°C is 1023.8 kg/m3.)
Eg
9-03. Estimate the volumetric flow rate of condensing water to be pumped for the condenser of an
R-22 water cooled unit operating at a condensing temperature of 43°C, an evaporating
temperature of 4.5°C with a 5.5°C liquid sub-cooling and 5.5°C suction superheat; water
enters condenser at 29°C and exits at 35°C; the load is 1400 kW (use the figure below).
up
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9: 21
9-04. In Figure 9–17, at what load does Chiller 1 shut down?
9-05. The capacity of a chiller is dependent on what two basic load factors?
t
9-06. What are three advantages of a direct digital control (DDC) system for a multiple chiller
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plant?
9-07. What type of control valves should be employed with variable speed chilled water pumps?
Eg
9-08. Name several methods that manufacturers furnish for refrigeration capacity control.
up
9-09. Name at least four types of chillers.
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t
Skill Development Exercises
Contents
• Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts
t
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• Chapter 2 Piping System Design
• Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings
• Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps
Eg
• Chapter 5
• Chapter 6
• Chapter 7
Terminal Unit Performance and Control
Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
Piping System Development

up
• Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems
• Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control
Instructions
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After reading each chapter, answer all of the questions pertaining to that chapter on the following
worksheets. Be sure to include your name and address.
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Skill Development Exercises

G
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up
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1: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Company/Department _________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
Eg
1-01. Water systems that convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled
water are frequently called ________.
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1-02. What is the fundamental difference between closed and open types of water systems?
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1-03. A cooling tower has at least two points of interface. What are they?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

1: 2
1-04. What is the maximum working pressure for LTW boiler systems?
t
1-05. What is a CHW system? How is it different from a CW system?
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Eg
1-06. What are the fundamental components of a closed hydronic system?
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Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

1: 3
1-07. Explain the most common source devices for heating and cooling systems.
Heating Cooling
t
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1-08. Explain what load means.
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1-09. What factors influence the heating and cooling load requirements?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

1: 4
1-10. Define sensible heat transfer.
t
1-11. Name five heating load devices and describe how each is used in system applications.
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Eg
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Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

2: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
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2-01. What causes unequal flow rates in direct return piping arrangements?
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2-02. What is the most often used equation that relates to pressure drop?
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2-03. Fluids can flow through a pipe under two different conditions. Name them. Explain the
differences between these flow conditions.
Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 2 Piping System Design

2: 2
2-04. Explain friction factor.
t
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2-05. In commercial installations, it is suggested that ____% should be added to the friction loss
to allow for aging.
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2-06. What is the Bernoulli principle?
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2-07. What factors determine pressure drop in piping?
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Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

2: 3
2-08. What methods allow thermal expansion?
t
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Eg
2-09. What is the minimum distance upstream and downstream for a water flow measuring
device (in pipe diameters)?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 2 Piping System Design

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t
3: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
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City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
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3-01. What is the safe working pressure (per AS-1432 to 50°C) for each of the following copper
pipe diameters:
Nominal Size
and Pipe OD
200 mm, D=203
Type
B
Working Pressure (kPa)
________________
80 mm, D=76.11 B ________________
up
100 mm, D=101.48 A ________________
25 mm, D=25.35 B ________________
3-02. List three joining methods used with copper tubing.

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3-03. List five methods of joining metal pipe.

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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings

3: 2
3-04. Name and briefly describe the two main categories of plastic piping materials, and list at
least three of each type of plastic pipe.
t
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Eg
3-05. List the AS/NZS-1477 long-term hydrostatic pressure test, allowed values (MPa @ 20°C)
for each of the following plastic pipe sizes:
up
AS/NZS-1477 Hydrostatic
PVC Pipe Sizes Test Pressure (MPa @ 20°C)
Up to 150 mm _____________________
175 mm and above _____________________
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3-06. List the five methods of corrosion control.

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Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

3: 3
3-07. List the K values for each of the following screwed pipe fittings:
Nominal
Pipe Dia.
(mm) Fitting TypeK Value
32 90° ell long________
15 Globe valve________
t
80 Tee branch________
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3-08. What is the function of a backflow-prevention device?
Eg
3-09. Determine the pipe sizing and total pressure drop for the piping system shown be-low. You
are given that the system consists of :
• 1 heating coil rated at 2.2 L/s and 10 kPa pressure drop
• 1 gate valve — 50 mm
• 1 control valve — 50 mm rated at 2.2 L/s at 27.5 kPa pressure drop
• 1 balance valve — 50 mm rated at 2.5 L/s at 7 kPa pressure drop
up
• 2 tee branches
• 4 elbows
• Total pipe length = 60 m (medium screwed pipe)
• Assume water temperature of 82°C and density of 972 kg/m3
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings

3: 4
3-09. (cont.)
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Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

4: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
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4-01. List three factors that influence the type of pump selected for a particular application.
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps

4: 2
4-02. Label the components of the centrifugal pump shown. Describe the function of each com-
ponent.
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Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

4: 3
4-03. The suction flange gauge of a pump reads 70 kPa. If the temperature of water being pumped
is 95°C and the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa, what is the available NPS? At what
temperature will the pump cavitate? (Water at 95°C vaporizes at 84.6 kPa abs, per the 1997
Handbook–Fundamentals, Table 3, p. 6.7.)
t
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4-04. What is the net positive suction pressure on the inlet to a 1.5 kW pump rated at 9 L/s at 100
kPa for a cooling tower application (see diagram below)? The centerline of a pump inlet is
to be 750 mm below the tower sump water surface; assume tower water at 40°C and piping
equivalent to 20 m of 50 mm pipe on pump suction. Assume atmospheric pressure is
Eg
101.325 kPa abs; assume friction pressure in 50 mm pipe is 62.6 kPa (according to Table
2-2, 9 Ls flow in 50 mm pipe yields 3129 Pa/m of pipe: 20 ∞ 3.129 = 62.6 kPa) and vapor
pressure of water at 40°C is 7.383 kPa abs (per Table 3, above). Pump curve shows 30 kPa
NPSR.
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4: 4
4-05. What is radial thrust?
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4-06. Explain what pump cavitation is and how it can be avoided.
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4-07. Write the NPSA formula for a proposed design, and explain what each variable represents.
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4-08. Write the pump affinity laws and explain how they are applied.
Speed Change Diameter Change
Flow:
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Pressure:
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Power:

4: 5
4-09. Explain how to determine the input power for a centrifugal pump.
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4-10. How does the capacity of a centrifugal pump change?
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4-11. Name six types of centrifugal pumps and their mounting arrangements.
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4: 6
4-12. A pump is rated at 15 L/s at 200 kPa of pressure. What are the flow and pressure if the
impeller size is changed to 85% of its original diameter? Assume there is no static pressure.
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5: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
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5-01. A typical fan coil terminal requires 0.25 L/s. What valve Kv should be selected if a control
valve is specified for a 3 m drop?
up
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5-02. What piping components should be specified at the terminal?

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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control
5: 2
5-03. What type of control action should be considered to reduce discharge temperature cycle?
t
5-04. A control valve is to be selected for a 3 L/s terminal coil; coil drop is 55 kPa. Select the
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correct size of control valve if the valve is specified for 50% of the coil drop, and the typical
valve sizes and Kv (Kv is in parentheses) available are:
• 15 mm (2.2); 20 mm (5); 25 mm (8.7)

• 32 mm (14); 40 mm (18); 50 mm (26)
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5-05. What control valve flow characteristic should be specified for proportional control of a hot
water heating control?
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5-06. An on-off thermostat controls a cabinet heater in a hallway. What valve flow characteristic
should be specified?
Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
5: 3
5-07. A three-way valve is to be applied to a refrigeration condenser and cooling tower to main-
tain a 35°C condensing temperature. What type of three-way valve arrangement should be
applied?
t
pe
5-08. It is desirable to control flow in a chilled water coil down to a minimum of 5% of design
flow before close-off. In addition to proper valve sizing for design flow capacity and pro-
portional control, what else should be specified?
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5-09. What should be specified in the bypass circuit of a three-way valve?
ro
5-10. What type of control method varies air flow through a terminal coil?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control
5: 4
5-11. Explain the difference between primary and secondary pumping systems.
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5-12. Define valve authority, rangeability and selection.
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5-13. How is terminal control valve size selected?
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5-14. What are the three types of terminal control action?

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Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
6: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
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Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
Eg
6-01. What maintains the maximum and minimum pressure limits of a hydronic system?
up
ro
6-02. What must a closed water system have to permit the expansion and contraction of the water
volume?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
6: 2
6-03. What should be specified for terminal coil returns and high points in the piping system to
provide service for air in the hydronic system?
t
pe
6-04. Where does air come from in a hydronic system?
Eg
6-05. What routine tasks should be performed by the building maintenance staff to the hydronic
systems prior to the heating and the cooling seasons?
up
ro
6-06. How much air can be present in water at 80°C and 400 kPa?
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Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
6: 3
6-07. A steel pipe system has 5 m3 total volume, will operate periodically in the cooling season
with 5°C water, but will be off and reach 38°C ambient, minimum pressure is 150 kPa and
maximum is 300 kPa. What size diaphragm expansion tank is required?
t
pe
Eg
6-08. A pump is selected for 6 L/s at 150 kPa pressure; the system has 130 kPa static pressure
when off; and the expansion tank is improperly located on the pump discharge. What will
the gauges read on the pump suction and discharge when the pump is started? What will
happen at the float-type air vents in the boiler room?
up
ro
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination
6: 4
6-09. Explain what factors are needed to size and select an expansion tank.
t
6-10. What are the differences between open and closed systems?
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Eg
6-11. What are the three types of expansion tanks?
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6-12. Give three examples of where expansion tanks are used.
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6-13. Why is it important to have the correct size expansion tank?

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Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
7: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
pe
Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
Eg
7-01. In the direct return example (see Figure 7–8), which unit’s piping path dictates the pump
up
ro
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 7 Piping System Development

7: 2
7-03. What size pump capacity and pressure would be required in Figure 7–8, direct return for
supplying four identical floors, assuming 3 m between floors and allowing a 25% pressure
drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa pressure drop across the chiller?
t
pe
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7-04. In the reverse return example in Figure 7–9, which unit’s piping path dictates the pump
ro
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Chapter 7 Piping System Development Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

7: 3
7-06. What size pump capacity and pressure would be required in Figure 7–9, assuming 3 m
between floors and allowing a 25% pressure drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa
pressure drop across the chiller?
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pe
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up
7-07. In the primary-secondary examples in Figures 7–10 and 7–11, which unit’s piping path
dictates the pump pressure from A to F? How much pressure is required?
ro
7-08. What size distribution pump capacity and pressure would be required to handle the four air
handling units in Figure 7–11 primary–secondary example for the conditions shown from
A to F?
G

7: 4
7-09. What size distribution pump capacity and pressure would be required for supplying four
identical floors, similar to Figure 7–11 primary-secondary, assuming 3 m between floors
and allowing a 25% pressure drop in the main for fittings and a 60 kPa pressure drop across
the chiller?
t
pe
Eg
up
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7-10. What is the cooling capacity of 6 L/s of water flow with 50% propylene-glycol mixture at
an average temperature of 10°C and a 5.5°C rise?
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7: 5
7-11. What is the cooling capacity of 6 L/s of water flow at a 5.5°C rise? How many kW of
cooling?
t
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7-12. What is the increase in actual pumping power for the propylene-glycol mixture (s.g. = 1.05)
of Exercise 7-10 compared to plain water, if the coil pressure drop is 60 kPa, assuming a
pump efficiency of 75% and motor efficiency of 85%?
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7-13. How can the possibility of frozen coils and piping in a HVAC system be reduced?
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7: 6
7-14. What are two advantages of primary and secondary hydronic systems?
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pe
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7-15. What type of pump curves should be selected if two-way valves are to be used?
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7-16. How can flow be determined in a given loop?
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7-17. Which piping system design gives more uniform pressure drop? Why?
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8: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
pe
Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
Eg
8-01. Assume two pumps 150 outlet × 200 inlet × 240 mm impeller (see Figure 8–14) are to be
applied in parallel for a 210 kPa pressure system. What flow will result at 210 kPa?
up
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8-02. Assume the same two pumps (150 outlet × 200 inlet, with a 240 mm impeller) are to be
piped in series. What will the resulting pressure be at 100 L/s?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems

8: 2
8-03. Assume the 150 outlet × 200 inlet × 240 mm impeller pump is being considered for variable
speed operation of a system designed at 100 L/s at 210 kPa pressure, and the pump manu-
facturer advised that the electric motor to be furnished can be run down to 40% of its fur-
nished speed (9.6 rps). What is the minimum flow and pressure the pump can be run at,
following the same system curve?
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pe
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8-04. In Exercise 8-03, what is the theoretical power reduction if the pump is run at 40% speed?
ro
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Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

8: 3
8-05. What methods are used to provide flow to buildings that are remote from a chiller plant?
t
pe
8-06. What does the pump controller measure to control pump speed?
Eg
8-07. Explain how combinations of two-speed pumps can be used to provide required pressure
and flow capacity with improved efficiency at part-load conditions.
up
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems

8: 4
8-08. What is a good way to provide an emergency flow in case of a pump failure?
t
pe
Eg
8-09. What methods are used to match pump operation to a system?
up
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Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI

9: 1
Name ______________________________________________________________________
Address ____________________________________________________________________
t
City________________________________ State ___________________ Zip ____________
pe
Telephone ________________________________ Fax______________________________
Student Number _____________________________________________________________
Eg
9-01. What pumping flow is required for a 1400 kW chilled water system employing 20% ethyl-
ene glycol and water at 6.7°C supply and 7°C rise? (Per the 1997 Handbook–Fundamen-
tals, the density of a 20% ethylene glycol/water solution at 6.7°C is 1033.4 kg/m3.)
up
ro
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control
9: 2
9-02. What is the pumping flow in Exercise 9-01, except using propylene glycol and water, at the
same freezing conditions? (Per the 1997 Handbook–Fundamentals, the density of a 20%
propylene glycol/water solution at 6.7°C is 1023.8 kg/m3.)
t
pe
Eg
9-03. Estimate the volumetric flow rate of condensing water to be pumped for the condenser of
an R-22 water cooled unit operating at a condensing temperature of 43°C, an evaporating
temperature of 4.5°C with a 5.5°C liquid sub-cooling and 5.5°C suction superheat; water
enters condenser at 29°C and exits at 35°C; the load is 1400 kW (use the figure below).
up
ro
G
Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
9: 3
9-04. In Figure 9–17, at what load does Chiller 1 shut down?
t
pe
9-05. The capacity of a chiller is dependent on what two basic load factors?
Eg
up
ro
9-06. What are three advantages of a direct digital control (DDC) system for a multiple chiller
plant?
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Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control
9: 4
9-07. What type of control valves should be employed with variable speed chilled water pumps?
t
pe
9-08. Name several methods that manufacturers furnish for refrigeration capacity control.
Eg
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9-09. Name at least four types of chillers.
ro
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Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control Fundamentals of Water System Design - SI
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Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fittings

• 3.3 Valves and Fittings

Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of Contents

Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps

Chapter 5 Terminal Unit Performance and Control

• 6.3 Sizing Expansion Tanks

Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water System Design

Chapter 7 Piping System Development

Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of Contents

Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control

Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water System Design

After studying the material in this chapter, you should:

• Know what determines the load.

• Understand the difference between closed and open systems.

temperature water systems.

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

1.1 Introductory Concepts

Given the design require-

The historical weather distri-

bution for the project location

cupants must be studied for

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

Water systems may be

• Flow cannot be motivated by static head differences;

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

(LTW) system. This hydronic heat-

Piping Connections for Two or More Boilers in HTW Systems

Figure 1–7. Medium or High Temperature Water System

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

Figure 1–8. Chilled Water System – Direct Return Piping

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

Figure 1–10. Condenser Open Water System (Once Through)

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

1.2 Basic System Components

• By converting chemical, electrical or solar energy to heat, which is then transferred to

water in the system; or

Figure 1–13. Steam-to-Water or Water-to-Water Heat Exchanger

Figure 1–14. Multiple Chiller-Variable Flow Chilled Water System

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

⎛ Minimum Capacity ⎞ 1–1

Two Units Three Units

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

Figure 1–15b. Multiple Chiller Example

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

Figure 1–16c. Multiple Boiler Example

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

Figure 1–17. Psychrometric Chart-Chilled Water Example

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts

1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems

SENSIBLE HEATING OR COOLING OF AIR

q = heat transfer rate, kW

Figure 1–18. Sensible Heating Example

Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design

Figure 1–19a. Coil LMTD Example

Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts