Asian Ars Erotica and the Question of Sexual Aesthetics

Author(s): Richard Shusterman

Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 65, No. 1, Special Issue: Global
Theories of the Arts and Aesthetics (Winter, 2007), pp. 55-68
Published by: Wiley on behalf of American Society for Aesthetics
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 RICHARD SHUSTERMAN
Asian Ars Eroticaand the Question
of SexualAesthetics
Fairel'amourn'estpas moderne,pourtantc'estencorece
quej'aimele mieux.
There'snothingmodernaboutmakinglove,yetit'sstill
whatI likebest.
FrancisPicabia
On a recent visit to Vienna'sopulent Kunsthis-
torischesMuseum,I unexpectedlyencountereda
genrepaintingthatexpressed,withart'smostpow-
erful immediacy,a central theme of this paper.
The theme is philosophy'spersistentpose of re-
sistanceto the seductiveaestheticsof sex, and the
painting,TheSteadfastPhilosopherby Gerritvan
Honthorst(1592-1656),depictsthe attemptedse-
ductionof a diligentphilosopherby a lovelyyoung
womanwith fullyexposedbreasts(Figure1).
The philosopher in the painting is a manly,
moustachedfigure in the primeof life, seated at
his desk with a pile of books to his right and an
open book directlyin frontof him.He has appar-
ently been interruptedin the act of writing,since
hisrighthandholdsa feathered-quillpen,whilehis
left armis raisedforwardwithits fingersspreadin
a gestureof "stop,"as if to wardoff bothphysically
and symbolicallythe advancesand attractionsof
the seductresswhostandsnearthe deskandseems
to be removingthe wrapcoveringhis left shoulder
andtugginggentlyon the uppersleeve of hisshirt.
The woman'sblue dressand undergarmentshang
about her waist,while undera matchingblue cap
(whose feathercorrespondsnicelyto the philoso-
pher's quill) her open-mouthedsmile and intent
eyes are invitinglydirected toward the philoso-
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pher, whose gaze is turnedaway,his lips pursed,
and his face flushedred (whetherfrommere em-
barrassmentor otherpassions).In the chiaroscuro
style of the painting,the woman'sconfident,open,
naked postureis bathed in painterlylight, while
the philosopher'sfigurecontrastinglyshrinksde-
fensively towardthe shadows.Not only uninter-
ested in engagingin the pleasurablebeauties of
sexual seduction,he also seems,with his averted
gaze, resolutelyunwillingto face up to the real-
ity of theirattractions-personifyingphilosophy's
willful,fearfulblindnessto the aestheticsof erotic
experience,a blindnessthat the paintervan Hon-
thorstseems to portraywith some criticalirony.1
If the paintingremindsus of the familiaran-
cientquarrelbetweenphilosophyandthe mimetic
arts,it should also recall philosophy'straditional
hostility and neglect regardingerotic arts, ex-
tending back to Socrates'scondemnationof sex
as "a savage and tyrannicalmaster"and despite
his provocative self-definitionas "a master of
erotics."2Makinga case for the aestheticpoten-
tialof lovemakingmeansconfrontingthe problem
thatmodernWesternphilosophyhastendedto de-
fine aestheticexperienceby contrastto sexualex-
perience.3Considerthishistoryin briefsummary.
Shaftesbury defined the contemplation of
beautyas disinterestedanddistancedby explicitly
contrastingit to sexualfeelingsarousedby (andin)
humanbodies-"a set of eagerdesires,wishesand
hopes,no way suitable... to yourrationalandre-
finedcontemplationof beauty."Though"wonder-
ful as theyare,"sexuallyattractivebodies"inspire
nothingof a studiousor contemplativekind.The
more they are viewed, the furtherthey are from
satisfyingby mere view."4Kantmade this notion
56 GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics

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FIGURE 1. Gerrit van Honthorst, Der StandhaftePhilosoph [The SteadfastPhilosopher], first half of 17th Century.Private
property,currentlyon display at KunsthistorischesMuseum,Vienna.

of contemplativedisinterestednessa cornerstone malionwasnot entirelydevoidof estheticfeeling."

for definingaestheticpleasure(andjudgment)in
opposition to the agreeablefeelings of sensual-
ity and the satisfactionsof appetitethat also give
pleasure.Refiningstill furtherthe notion of aes-
thetic disinterestednessand linkingit to the per-
ception of PlatonicIdeas, ArthurSchopenhauer
drawsthe contrastof sexualand aestheticexperi-
ence stillmoresharplyandexplicitly.In "aesthetic
pleasure"we enjoy the disinterestedexperience
of "delightin the mere knowledgeof perception
as such, in contrastto the will";"aestheticcon-
templation"is "purewill-less knowingand with
the knowledge,which necessarilyappearsthere-
with,of the Ideas."Sexualexperience,instead,in-
volvesthe "strongest"of life'sinterests-"the will-
to-live"-and is cognitivelydeficientanddistorted
by thisinsistentwill.ForSchopenhauer,"thegeni-
talsarethe realfocus of the will,andaretherefore
the oppositepole to the brain,the representative
of knowledge.'"
Deriding the prudishnessof this anti-sexual
aesthetic tradition,FriedrichNietzsche remarks:
"Whenourestheticianstirelesslyrehearse,in sup-
portof Kant'sview,thatthe spellof beautyenables
us to view even nude female statues 'disinterest-
edly' we may be allowedto laugh a little at their
expense.The experiencesof artistsin this delicate
matterarerathermore'interesting';certainlyPyg-
Buteven if Nietzscheastutelyadmits"thepossibil-
ity thatthe peculiarsweetnessandrichnessproper
to the estheticconditionmay involve a sexualin-
gredient,"he still refusesto affirmthat erotic ex-
perienceof sexualactivitycan be aesthetic.Insist-
ing that the "emergenceof the estheticcondition
transmutes[sexualfeeling] in a way that it is no
longer experiencedas a sexual incentive,"Niet-
zschefollowsthe anti-sexualaesthetictraditionby
warningthat actualsexual activityis detrimental
for aestheticcreationand recommending"sexual
continence"for artistsand philosophers."Every
artistis familiarwiththe adverseeffect whichsex-
ual intercoursehas duringtimes of greatintellec-
tual tension and preparation.The strongestand
instinctuallystrongestamong them do not need
to learn this by experience,since their 'maternal'
instincthas from the startmade its strictdisposi-
tions,puttingall animalinstinctsat the serviceof
that one greatend, so that the lesserenergyis ab-
sorbed by the greaterdangersof such activity."6
The erotic play of humansexual behavioris thus
relegatedto the realmof mereanimalinstinctsand
deprivedof aestheticrecognition.
Contrastingsexual and aesthetic experience
has become so deeply entrenchedin our West-
ern philosophicaltraditionthat the authoritative
Oxford Companion to Aesthetics even insists that

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Shusterman Asian Ars Erotica and the Question of Sexual Aesthetics
one of the four majordesideratafor a theory of
aestheticexperienceis explainingthe difference
between such experience and the experienceof
sex and drugs.7A carefulanalysisof the concept
of aestheticexperience,however,revealsthat the
mostcrucialfeaturesattributedto suchexperience
seem also attributableto certain sexual experi-
ences.If we put asidephilosophicalprejudiceand
recall our most gratifyingsexual performances,
do we not recognizethat some such experiences
can be truly aesthetic? Many of us, I sincerely
hope,havehadexperiencesof lovemakingthatare
rich in beauty,intensity,pleasure,and meaning,
that displayharmoniesof structureand develop-
ingform,andthatdeeplyengageboththoughtand
feeling,stimulatingbody,mind,and soul.
If human sexual performancecan be signifi-
cantly aesthetic,then we can think of the erotic
arts as arts in a truly aestheticsense ratherthan
simplyin the general (nonaesthetic)meaningof
the word 'art'as any organizedexpertise,skill,or
branchof learning.Sucha reorientationnot only
has value in expandingour theoreticalperspec-
tives on aestheticsand erotics while challenging
the presumptionthat art must be distinguished
fromperformancesin "reallife,"but it couldalso
enrich,in a mostpracticalandpleasurableway,the
actualaestheticexperienceof ourlivesby enhanc-
ing the artistryand appreciationof our erotic ac-
tivity.Thisin turncould deepen our appreciation
of the aestheticpotentialof other somaticprac-
tices, thus promotingfurtherexplorationsin the
emergingfield of somaesthetics.8Sinceour West-
ern intellectualtraditionseems to offer very little
guidanceor encouragementin sexualaesthetics,it
seems worthexploringthe Asian traditionsof ars
erotica.
The erotic arts of ancientChinaand (especially)
Indiaformthe core of my study,but theirdistinc-
tive charactercan be broughtinto sharperfocus
by examiningthem againstthe backgroundof two
interestingcontemporaryexceptionsto Western
philosophy'sresistanceto the aesthetics of sex,
which I first briefly discuss.One is a short arti-
cle by the distinguishedAnglo-Americananalytic
philosopherRonald de Sousa, who "argue[s]for
the rehabilitationof certainformsof imaginative
rehearsalsof love in 'casual,''uncommitted,'or
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57
even commercialsex."9His provocativeclaim is
motivatedby an equallybold assertionthat "the
projectof romanticlove is in essenceincoherentor
impossible"becausesuchlove involvesconflicting
commitmentsto both consummationand the im-
possibilityof possession,to Platonicidealization
of whatis loved andanti-Platonicaffirmationthat
it is a concreteparticular,to unique novelty and
the desire for permanencethat instead involves
repetitionof consummationwith the beloved.
Giventhe allegedimpossibilityof realizingsuch
romanticlove, de Sousa argues that individuals
committedto its ideal(andseekingconsolationfor
its perceivedimpossibility)can seek satisfaction
in what he calls "thetheaterof love" that "mixes
real sex and aestheticimagination."In contrastto
the theatricaltraditionsof marriageceremonies
(whichde Sousaclaimsare essentiallyopposedto
erotic love becausethey highlightsocial andfam-
ily relations),"thetheatricalceremonies"he rec-
ommendsare sexual encountersthat "consistin
stagingthe eroticgesturesof love with a view to
pleasureand an aestheticcreationor re-creation
of the poignancyof love, of the impossibilityof
possessionandthe irreplaceability of time.""Such
ceremonies,"he insists,"requiresome of the same
qualitiesof art and of the best kindsof nonerotic
love-integrity, honesty, intense attention, gen-
erosity,imagination,and a capacityto take plea-
sure in the pleasureof the other. It can therefore
be demandingin the sense in whichall aesthetic
experiencescanbe demanding.Neverthelessit can
remainprimarilyan aestheticexperience,a piece
of theater, a form of play, because both parties
agreeto keep the experienceof romanticlove con-
fined insidea kindof frameisolatedfromthe rest
of theirlives and expectations."
Unfortunately,de Sousa does not adequately
elucidatethe dimensionsin whichsuchsexualex-
periencesare aesthetic.The requiredqualitieshe
mentions clearly refer to qualitiesdemandedof
the personsengagedin the ceremoniesratherthan
aestheticqualitiesof the experienceof such cer-
emonies. His assertionof the aestheticstatus of
these sexualengagementsseems to restwhollyon
their theatricalnature,and theirtheatricalnature
seems to restsalmostentirelyon the idea of some
sort of fictionalityof simulationand separation
from life. The aestheticsof his theater of love is
constitutedby "the self-consciousplayingout of
an emotion relativelyinsulatedfrom the rest of
reality."Thoughsuchtheateris not explicitlyand
58
fictionally"scripted"as most plays are, de Sousa
argues that it is implicitlyscripted by our past
performances-and, one could add, by our fan-
tasies.Further,its fictional,simulationalessence,
he assumes,is alreadyestablishedby the fact that
the romanticlove it expressescannotbe real.With
an obligingnod "to the aestheticsand ethics of
prostitution,"de Sousa concludes:"If the con-
scious simulationof love bolsteredby the power
of sex is a valuableform of theater,why should
some people not make a professionof it?"
I shallnot pausehere to examinethe contested
realityof romanticlove as de Sousadefinesit, nor
to insist that there are other notions of roman-
tic love worthexploringthat do not seem caught
in the web of contradictionsthat make him think
the whole notion is incoherent.Nor shall I bela-
bor the point that realityneed not implyperma-
nence and consistency,so that romanticlove can
be real even if transientand conflicted.Instead,
I wish to underlinehow his defense of the aes-
theticsof sex is essentiallycommittedto the idea
that sexualperformanceis aestheticonly in so far
thatit involvesa theatricalfictionor simulationof
somethingelse (thatis,an impossibleidealor feel-
ing of romanticlove). It is not aestheticbecause
(or in terms) of the intentionaland appreciated
aesthetic qualities of the sexual performanceas
a real event that is deeply embedded in (rather
than "isolatedfrom")the rest of the lives and ex-
pectationsof the performinglovers. This sexual
aesthetics,with its doublecommitmentto fiction-
ality and isolation,reflects the old philosophical
dogmasof contrastingart to realityand dividing
aestheticsfrom the affairsof real life-whether
practical,political,or sexual. In contestingthese
dogmas,pragmatistaestheticsnot only makes a
case for the robustrole of the arts and aesthetics
in the diversecurrentsof real life, but also argues
that the very doctrinethat relegatesthem to the
realm of fictionalsimulationsimplies the regret-
tablecounterpartandconsequencethatreallife is
robbedof artistryand beauty.1o
A post-Puritanpragmatismshould recognize
that sexual performanceprovides a realm of
human artistry and aesthetic experience to be
practicedand enjoyed in real life and real love
(marital or extramarital)without invoking the
need for theatricalfictions."11 The possibilityof
practicingandtheorizingsuchreal-lifesexualaes-
thetics is shown in the Asian ars erotica,which
MichelFoucault,the secondcontemporaryWest-
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GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics
ern exceptionI shall consider,highlightsand op-
poses to the scientiasexualisof modernWestern
culture.
Unlike de Sousa's,Foucault'sadvocacyof sex-
ual aestheticshas been extremelyinfluential.His
most prominentadvocatorytheorizingof sexual
artistryconcernsgay sex and, more particularly,
consensualhomosexualS/M, whichFoucaultcel-
ebrates as "a whole new art of sexual practice
whichtries to exploreall the internalpossibilities
of sexual conduct."This art, a "mixtureof rules
and openness,"combinesconsensualcodes (that
significantlyscriptsexual behavior)with experi-
ments"to innovateand createvariationsthat will
enhance the pleasureof the act" by introducing
novelty, variety,and uncertaintythat otherwise
would be lackingin the sexual act.12Moreover,
despite its use of scriptingand special fictional
frames of performance(for example, the sexual
dungeon),this sexual activityis not portrayedby
Foucaultas isolatedfromthe rest of one's life and
subjectivity.One's formationas a sexual subject
is an importantpart of one's thoughtfulshaping
of one's self in termsof one's "aestheticsof exis-
tence."13
Foucault'ssexualtheorizingwas not principally
inspiredby the Asian erotic arts but rather by
his study of ancient Greek and Roman litera-
ture on the erotic and by his own erotic desires
and activity.However, he does enlist the Asian
eroticartsto demonstratethe valuableimportance
of an alternativeto our modernWestern"scien-
tia sexualis."14In contrastto our sexual science,
whose discourse of truth combines the ancient
tool of confession with the modern "imperative
of medicalization"(HS, p. 68) of sexual behav-
ior and function,the erotic arts draw their truth
"from pleasure itself, understood as a practice
and accumulatedas experience"(HS, p. 57). In
these arts,the pleasureof eroticpractice,Foucault
explains:
isnotconsidered inrelationtoanabsolutelawoftheper-
mittedandtheforbidden, norbyreferenceto a criterion
of utility,butfirstandforemostin relationto itself;it is
experienced aspleasure, in termsof itsinten-
evaluated
itsduration,
sity,itsspecificquality, itsreverberations in
thebodyandthesoul.Moreover, thisknowledge mustbe
deflectedbackintothesexualpracticeitselfin orderto
shapeit asthoughfromwithinandamplifyitseffects.In
thisway,thereis formeda knowledge thatmustremain
secret,not becauseof an element of infamythat might
ShustermanAsian Ars Eroticaand the Questionof SexualAesthetics
attachto its object,but becauseof the need to hold it
in the greatestreserve,since, accordingto tradition,it
would lose its effectivenessand its virtue by being di-
vulged.Consequently,therelationshipto themasterwho
holds the secretsis of paramountimportance;only he,
workingalone,cantransmitthisartin anesotericmanner
andas the culminationof an initiationin whichhe guides
the disciple'sprogresswith unfailingskill and severity.
The effectsof this masterfulart,whichare considerably
more generousthan the sparsenessof its prescriptions
would lead one to imagine,are said to transfigurethe
one fortunateenoughto receiveits privileges:an abso-
lute masteryof the body,singularbliss,obliviousnessto
time and limits,the elixirof life, the exile of death and
its threats.(HS, p. 57)
Refining, in a later interview, his views on ars
erotica and summarizing the differences between
Greek, Christian, and Chinese cultural attitudes to
sexual practice in terms of the three factors of "act,
pleasure, and desire," Foucault claims that in con-
trast to the Greeks, who focused on the act and its
control as "the important element" by defining the
quantity, rhythm, occasion, and circumstances of
its performance, but also in contrast to the Chris-
tians, who focused on desire in terms of how to
fight it and extirpate its slightest roots while limit-
ing or even avoiding pleasure when performing the
act, the Chinese elevated pleasure as the highest,
most valuable factor in sex. "In Chinese erotics,
if one believes van Gulik, the important element
was pleasure, which it was necessary to increase,
intensify, prolong as much as possible in delaying
the act itself, and to the limit of abstaining from
it."15
As this interview indicates, Foucault's under-
standing of the Asian ars erotica rests largely
on Chinese sources, particularly those compiled,
translated, and analyzed by Robert van Gulik in
his groundbreaking classic Sexual Life in Ancient
China.16 Unfortunately, Foucault seems to have
misconstrued the texts and gloss that van Gulik
provides in some important ways, which I shall
presently demonstrate.
III
First, it is very misleading to characterize the classi-
cal Chinese texts of ars erotica in sharp contrast to
sexual science and the medical approach to sex.17
These writings (which the Chinese often described
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59
as treating "the Art of the Bedchamber"or as
"handbooksof sex")were insteadverymuchcon-
cernedand largelymotivatedby healthissues;so
much so that when they are listed in the biblio-
graphicalsectionsof the ancientwrittenhistories
of the variousdynasties,they often appearunder
the headingof medicalbooks or, whenlisted sep-
arately,after the medicalbooks (SL, pp. 71, 121,
193).VanGulikhimselfrepeatedlyaffirmsthatthe
"handbooksof sex ... constituteda specialbranch
of medicalliterature"because their two primary
goals of sexualintercoursewere focused on pro-
motinghealth-that of the husband,his wife, and
the child to be conceived(SL, p. 72).18 "Primar-
ily,"he argues,"thesexualact was to achievethe
woman'sconceiving"(preferablya male child)so
as to perpetuatethe family."Secondly,the sexual
act was to strengthenthe man'svitalityby mak-
ing him absorbthe woman'syin essence [held to
be an invigoratingpower],while at the same time
the womanwouldderivephysicalbenefitfromthe
stirringof her latentyin nature"(SL, p. 46).
This suggested the following twofold sexual
economy.Since "a man'ssemen [wherehis yang
force is concentrated]is his most preciousposses-
sion, the source not only of his health but of his
very life[,] every emissionof semen will diminish
this vitalforce,unlesscompensatedby the acquir-
ing of an equivalentamountof yin essence from
the woman"(SL, p. 47). Therefore,a man'ssex-
ual activityshouldseek to ensurethat his female
partnersbe given full satisfactionso that he can
absorb the yin essence that will flow from their
multiple orgasms,"but he should allow himself
to reach orgasmonly on certain specified occa-
sions,"notablythose most suitablefor conceiving
a childwithhiswife(SL,p.47). A pluralityof wives
and concubineswas accordinglyrecommendedto
providethis abundanceof yin, since relyingon a
singlewomanfor multipleorgasmswouldeventu-
ally drainher of the yin essence needed both to
maintainher own health (and consequentpower
to conceive)andto increasethe healthof hermale
partner.19By copulatingwith manywomen each
night withoutreachingorgasmand savinghis se-
men only for occasionalejaculations,the mannot
only increasedhis vitalityandyang (thatis, male)
essence,but in doingso raisedthe chancesof con-
ceivinga malechildto perpetuatethe familyname.
These principlesof sexual logic, explains van
Gulik, "implied that the man had to learn to
prolong the coitus as much as possible without
60
reachingorgasm;for the longerthe memberstays
inside,the moreyin essence the man will absorb,
thereby augmentingand strengtheninghis vital
force" (SL, p. 46). The sex handbookstherefore
advise the man of methods to "preventejacula-
tion either by mentaldisciplineor by such phys-
ical means as compressingthe seminalduct with
his fingers.Then his yang-essence,intensifiedby
its contactwiththe woman'syin willflow upwards
along the spinalcolumnand fortifyhis brainand
his entire system. If thereforethe man limits his
emissionsto the dayswhenthe womanis liableto
conceive, his loss of Yang essence [sic] on those
occasionswill be compensatedby the obtainingof
childrenperfectin body and mind"(SL, p. 47).20
Moreover, accordingto some of the radical
Taoist-inspiredtexts, a man who thus preserves
his sementhroughsuchcoitusreservatuswhileab-
sorbingthe yin of the manywomen he bringsto
orgasmwill not only sustainhis health but also
become more youthfuland age-resistant,even to
the pointof achievingimmortality.21 To quoteone
of the TangDynastytexts thatvan Guliksupplies
(whose title Fang-nei-pu-iis "freelytranslatedas
'Healthy Sex Life"'):"If one can copulate with
twelve women withoutonce emittingsemen, one
will remain young and handsomefor ever. If a
mancan copulatewith93 womenand still control
himself,he will attain immortality"(SL, p. 194).
Thoughmost potent in the woman'sgenitalia,the
invigoratingflowsof yin couldalso be drawnfrom
the secretionsof her mouth and breasts,both in
eroticforeplayandin the actof coitusitself.These
secretionswereoften referredto as the "Medicine
of the ThreePeaks"(SL, pp. 96, 283).
Coitusreservatusservedanotherhealth-related
function-the emotional stability and peace of
mind that depends on a harmoniouslymanaged
andsatisfiedhouseholdof women.Alreadyin the
ancient Confucian Book of Rites (Li-chi), a man's
sexualduty to both his wives and concubineswas
firmly assertedand even inscribedin strict pro-
tocols of sequence and frequencyof intercourse,
the violationof whichwas "a grave offense."As
the Li-chistates:"Evenif a concubineis growing
older, as long as she has not yet reachedthe age
of fifty,the husbandshall copulatewith her once
every five days. She on her part shall, when she
is led to his couch, be cleanlywashed,neatly at-
tired,haveherhaircombedandproperlydone up,
andweara long robe andproperlyfastenedhouse
shoes"(SL, p. 60). These duties (apartfrombrief
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GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics
respitesin periodsof mourning)onlyceasedwhen
the husband"reachedthe age of seventy"(SL, p.
60). Withoutsavinghis yang throughcoitusreser-
vatusandwithoutthe eroticabilityto consistently
give his wives and concubinesreal sexual (and
emotional) gratification,a husbandwith a large
householdof womencould easilyexhausthimself
withoutsatisfyinghis females,thuscreatinga dis-
gruntled,disorderlyhomewhoseill-reputeas mis-
managed"couldruina man'sreputationandbreak
his career"(SL, p. 109).
It should alreadybe clear from this brief ac-
count (and there is an overwhelmingwealth of
furtherevidencein vanGulik)that,paceFoucault,
the Chinesearseroticawereverydeeplymotivated
by health issues and very much concernedwith
medicalmattersand sexualscience (albeit not in
the dominantforms of modernWesternmedical
science). Foucaultthus is wrong in highlighting
pleasureas the most importantaspectof China's
erotic arts,since mattersof health clearlytrump
it.22He also is confusedin thinkingthat pleasure,
for them, is more importantthan the sexual act
becauseit is pleasurethat they seek to prolongby
delayingandeven abstainingfromthe act.Instead,
it is the act itself that the Chinese male seeks to
prolongso as to magnifyhis yin andyang powers
and the salutarybenefitsthese bring.Pleasureis
indeed significantfor Chinese sexual theory but
it is integrallybound up in the act and cannotbe
increasedby being separatedfrom it. Foucault's
errorseemsto be in identifyingthe sexualactwith
the act of orgasm rather than the act of coitus
or the broaderact that we could call the entire
erotic performanceand that would includefore-
play, coitus, and (when present) also postcoital
play.
Thoughsometimescelebratingsexualpleasure
as "the supreme joy" and "climax of human
emotions"and affirmingits embodimentof "the
SupremeWay" (SL, pp. 70, 203), classical Chi-
nese sexualtheoryembeddedits importanceinto
the largergoals of health and good management
(of self and household).The view was that sex-
ual pleasureshould be used to regulate and re-
fine one's body,mind,and characterthroughthe
ritualshapingof the rules of ars erotica.As one
FormerHan Dynastydocumentputs it: "'Thean-
cientscreatedsexualpleasuretherebyto regulate
all humanaffairs.'If one regulateshis sexualplea-
sure he will feel at peace and attain a high age.
If, on the other hand, one abandonshimself to
Shusterman Asian Ars Erotica and the Question of Sexual Aesthetics
its pleasuredisregardingthe rulesset forthin the
abovementionedtreatises[i.e.,the sex handbooks]
one will fall ill and harmone's very life" (SL, pp.
70-71).
If the classicalChineseerotic artswere largely
aimedto promotepracticalmatterssuchas health,
does it then follow that we cannotspeak of them
as havingaestheticcharacter?Thatmisguidedin-
ference rests on the common error of assuming
(becauseof the dogmaof disinterestedness)that
functionalityand aestheticqualityare incompati-
ble.Thefactthatreligiouspaintingsandsculptures
have spiritualfunctions and that protest songs
have politicalgoals does not rob them of having
aestheticvalue and of being appreciatedfor their
aestheticqualitieseven while we appreciatetheir
other functions.Such appreciationof functional-
ity caneven feed backinto ouraestheticapprecia-
tion by addingdimensionsof meaningto aesthetic
experienceof these works.Intrinsicvalue is not
inconsistentwith instrumentalvalue. We can ap-
preciatethe intrinsictaste of a meal we are eating
even if we know that the meal is also nourishing
us;likewiseour intrinsicenjoymentof good sex is
no less in knowingthat it is also good for us.
One canindeedmakea case for the presenceof
aestheticdimensionsin the classicChineseerotic
arts,as these are describedin the texts presented
by van Gulik. These aesthetic elements can be
discernedin certainremarksrelatingto the cos-
micmeaningsof the sexualrelationsbetweenman
and woman, to issues of harmonizingthe cou-
ple's energies throughforeplay,to the aesthetic
arrangementof "thebedstead"as the stageof the
eroticencounter,and to the blendingof different
eroticmovementsandpleasures,includingthe or-
chestrationof differentstyles,depths,speeds,and
rhythmsof the penetratingstrokes of the penis.
Butsincediscussionof the aestheticaspectof these
elements is ratherlimitedand is overwhelmingly
overshadowedby the emphasison health issues,
the case for the aestheticcharacterof the erotic
artscanbe muchbettermadeby movingfromChi-
nese to Indiansexualtheory.
iv
My discussionof Indian ars eroticais based on
threeclassictextsfromthreedifferentperiods:the
Kama Sutra,the Koka Shastra,and the Ananga
Ranga, from around the third, twelfth, and six-
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61
teenthcenturies,respectively.23The foundingand
most influentialwork of this tradition,the Kama
Sutra,was writtenin prose by a religiousstudent,
Vatsyayana,on the basis of more ancient texts
(now lost) that, accordingto legend, stretchback
to the God Shivawho,afterfallingin love withhis
own female emanation,discoveredsexual inter-
course and then celebratedits pleasuresin many
thousandsof books.In contrast,the KokaShastra
and Ananga Rangaare shorterworkscomposed
in poetryand,becausethey were writtenin much
later times when Indiansociety was increasingly
more chasteand morallyrestrictive,they also dif-
fer from the KamaSutrain some of their sexual
attitudesor emphases.Whilethe KamaSutrawas
directedto a morepromiscuousandwide-ranging
populationof loversintenton engagingwithmul-
tiple partnersin bothmaritalandextramaritalsex,
the Koka Shastra and Ananga Ranga were essen-
tially addressedto husbandsand theirwives,pri-
marily aimingto promote the couple's conjugal
satisfactionso asto enablethemto avoidthetemp-
tationsof extramaritalerotics;theythereforecon-
tainfarmoresexualprohibitions(relatingto part-
ners, times, and places) than the Kama Sutra.24
Nonetheless,becausethese laterworkswere sub-
stantiallyderivedfrom the KamaSutra,they es-
sentiallyagreewith its fundamentalprinciples,in-
cludingtheaestheticcharacterof eroticartsas nec-
essaryfor the properrealizationof kama-a term
thatsignifiesnot onlysexuallove butsensualityin
general,and that togetherwith dharma(duty or
right conduct)and artha(practicalactivity)con-
stitute the traditionallyrequisite three-partway
of life leadingto the goal of mokshaor liberation
(KS, p. 102).
In making a case for the aesthetic character
of Indianerotic arts,the first point to underline
is that expertise in sexual artistryimplies profi-
ciency in the arts more generally.Thoughrecog-
nizing that brute animalshave sex and that hu-
manscan also engage in it at this brutelevel, the
Kama Sutra insists that human sexualityis mo-
tivated primarilyby attractivenessand pleasures
ratherthandictatedby the seasonalinstinctsof an-
imalsin heat,andthathumansexualperformance
thereforecan and should be renderedmore en-
joyable and rewardingthroughthe applicationof
knowledge,methods,and refinementsintroduced
by learning,thought, and aesthetic sensitivity-
exactly the sort of mastery "of proper means"
that the erotic texts aim to promote(KS, p. 103).
62
Unfortunately,as theAnangaRangalaments,men
typicallyneithergivetheirwives"plenarycontent-
ment nor do they themselves thoroughlyenjoy
theircharms"because"theyare purelyignorant"
of the erotic arts "and, despisingthe difference
between the severalkindsof women [elaborated
with colorfuldetail in the texts of erotic theory],
they regardthemonly in an animalpointof view"
(AR, p. 1).
The artistic trainingconsidered essential for
masteringthe erotic arts and perfectingsexual
performanceemphaticallyincludesandhighlights
those artsWesternculturedistinctivelydenotesas
fine arts,thoughit rangesfarwider.In urgingthat
both menandwomen"shouldstudythe KamaSu-
traandthe artsandsciencessubordinatethereto,"
Vatsyanainsistson thestudyof sixty-fourartsfrom
which the book's erotic artistrydraws its skills.
"Singing,playingon musicalinstruments,dancing,
unionof dancing,singing,and playinginstrumen-
tal music,writingand drawing"are the firstto be
mentioned,but the list also includesother prac-
ticescentralto the Westernfine artstradition,such
as "picturemaking,""scenicrepresentation"(or
"stageplaying"),"architecture," "composingpo-
ems," and "makingfigures and images in clay."
Otherarts amongthe sixty-fouralso clearlyhave
aesthetic character-from tattooing, working in
stainedglass,bed andflowerarrangementandthe
makingof artificialflowers,to the fashioningof
jewelryand other ornamentsand furtherto vari-
ous cosmeticand culinaryarts(KS, pp. 108-111).
To regardthese diversearts as contributingto
arseroticais not,however,to assertthattheirhigh-
est purpose is sexual, for the expressedgoal of
even the KamaSutraitself is not merelythe sat-
isfactionof eroticor more broadlysensualdesire.
It is ratherto deploy and educate one's desires
in order to cultivate and refine the mastery of
one's senses so that one can emergea more com-
plete andeffectiveperson.Vatsyanaconcludeshis
bookby insistingthatit "isnot intendedto be used
merelyas an instrumentfor satisfyingourdesires"
but to enablea person"toobtainthe masteryover
his senses"and thusobtain"successin everything
that he mayundertake"(KS, p. 292).
Aesthetic artsare not only includedin the rec-
ommendedtrainingfor Indianerotics;they also
contributesignificantlyto the eroticperformance
itself.Thisperformanceis not limitedto the act of
coitusbutincludesan elaborateaestheticsof fore-
play and postcoitalentertainment.As described
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GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics
by Vatsyana,"the beginningof sexual union"in-
volves the gentlemanreceivinghis lady love in an
aestheticallyarranged"pleasureroom,decorated
with flowersand fragrantwith perfumes,"where
he and his lover are "attendedby his friendsand
servants.""Heshouldthenseat heron hisleftside,
andholdingherhair,andtouchingalsotheend and
knot of hergarment,he shouldgentlyembraceher
with his right arm.... They may then sing ... and
play on musicalinstruments,talk about the arts,
and persuadeeach otherto drink"untilherloving
feelingsanddesirefor coitusare stronglyaroused
(KS,p. 167).
Then, when the other people are dismissed,
more intimateforeplay ensues that leads to the
consummationof "congress."The end of coitus,
however, does not terminatethe sexual perfor-
mance, which instead continues into postcoital
embraces,massage,sweet refreshments,and en-
tertainingconversation,includingthe gentleman's
pointingout the differentcelestialbeautiesof the
nightsky that his lady contemplates,lying "in his
lap,with her face towardsthe moon."Only at this
point does Vatsyanademarcate"theend of sexual
union"(KS, p. 168). The clear sense of a staged,
choreographedstructurewitha beginning,middle,
and end in the sexualperformancesuggestsa dra-
matic,stylizedmis-en-scenewith aestheticintent.
The aestheticallydesignedstage for the erotic
event is reaffirmed in the Koka Shastra and
elaborated most fully in the Ananga Ranga,
whose recommendedartisticfurnishingsinclude
not only musicalinstrumentsbut "bookscontain-
ing amorous songs" and "illustrationsof love-
postures"for "gladdeningthe glance,"and "spa-
cious and beautiful walls" decorated "with pic-
tures and other objects upon which the eye may
dwell with delight," such aesthetic delights en-
hancingthose of sex by quickeningour sensory
imagination and pleasures (AR, pp. 96-97).25
The stagingof the sexualperformancedoes not
confineitselfto aestheticconsiderationsof artfully
organizedspace and artisticactivities;temporal
factorsalso need to be harmonizedinto the per-
formance.Accordingto the typeof womanandthe
day of the (lunar)month,the womanloverwill be
best arousedin differentpartsof her body and by
differentformsof foreplay;in the same way,dif-
ferent kinds of women will enjoy sex at different
timesof the day.Thesedifferenttimes,days,body
parts, and modes of foreplay (involving differ-
ent stylesof embracing,kissing,biting,scratching,
Shusterman Asian Ars Erotica and the Question of Sexual Aesthetics
rubbing, sucking, stroking, squeezing, and the
makingof certainerotic sounds) are articulated
in greatdetail,and the loveris instructedthat"by
varyingthe site of yourcaresseswith[thecalendar]
you will see her light up in successiveplaces like
a figurecut in moonstonewhen the moon strikes
on it." In short, not only the setting and acts of
sexual arousal,but also the displayof arousalit-
self is clearly aestheticized(AR, pp. 6-14; KKS,
pp. 105-110,citationp. 107).
Music,choreographedmovement,artisticdeco-
rationsof the eroticstage,andthe lovers'aesthetic
discourseformpartof India'sextendednotion of
sexual performance;there are also distinctlyaes-
theticdimensionsin its aims,methods,andprinci-
ples of sexualforeplayandcoitus.26Manyof these
methods and principlesaim at both stimulating
and harmonizingthe energies of the lovers and
ensuringthat coitus bringsfullnessof pleasureto
both manand woman.Hence the intenseconcern
withclassifyingmale and female typesin termsof
size (and sometimesalso texture)of the genitals,
force of desire,and time requiredfor its satisfac-
tion,so thatdisparitiesbetweenthe loversregard-
ing these dimensionscan be identifiedand then
remediedthroughappropriateforeplayandcoital
positions, which overcome such disproportions
that impingeon the aesthetic harmony,graceful
balance,and pleasurableease of the union. Pro-
portionateunionsare deemed best, and the opti-
mumdesirecannotbe the most intense,since ex-
treme intensitycould so captivatethe lovers that
they wouldneithernotice nor oblige the needs of
each other nor have the patientpresenceof mind
to stylizetheir sexualperformanceso as to maxi-
mize its beautiesand drawout its pleasuresto the
fullest(AR, pp. 21-24;KS, pp. 127-130).27
Aestheticintentis clearlydisplayedin the mak-
ing of certainrepresentationalformson the body
of the lover throughbites and nail markings,so
that the sexual performancealso becomes a per-
formanceof figurativeart.Besidesthe tactileplea-
suresthey give the lovers,these eroticfigurations
are aestheticallyappreciatedas artful represen-
tations.28One varietyof nail marksmade on the
neck andbreasts"resemblesa half-moon"(AR,p.
105;cf. KS, p. 143), another"madeon the breast
by means of the five nails ... is called the pea-
cock's foot" and "is made with the object of be-
ing praised,for it requiresa great deal of skill to
make it properly"(KS, p. 143). The varietiesof
bite marksincludea specialclusterof impressions
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63
on the woman'sbrow,cheek,neck,andbreastthat
togetherform "themouth-shapedoblong"of the
mandalasummarizingthe differentforms of bit-
ing, and, we are told, "it will add greatlyto her
beauty" (AR, p. 108). Such nail and bite mark-
ings also serve as symbols of affection that en-
durebeyondthe sexualperformanceandaesthet-
icallydocumentit, servingas a comforting"token
of remembrance"that also rekindleslove and de-
sire betweenthe lovers(AR, p. 106;KS, p. 144).29
Such markingsare also appreciatedby strangers
who,whennoticingthem(on eitherthe manor the
woman),are "filledwith love and respect"for the
lovers(AR, p. 144).30
Complementingthe variousstylesof bitingand
use of the nails are varietiesof embraces,kisses,
love sounds,modes of erotic strikingof the body,
and ways of holding the hair. Indianars erotica
is, however,probablymost famousfor its detailed
articulation,classification,andcolorfulnamingof
a wide variety of coital positions.Varietyhere,
as elsewhere,derivesfrom the aestheticimpulse
for the richnessof diversitythat renewsinterest,
compoundspleasure,and so preventsthe bore-
dom of monotony.As Vatsyayanaargues,"if va-
riety is soughtin all the arts and amusements,...
how muchmoreshouldit be soughtin the present
case,"thatis,eroticarts;forjust "asvarietyis nec-
essaryin love, so love is to be producedby means
of variety"(KS,p. 144).
That many of these coital positions(or band-
has) seem somewhat to overlap or blend into
each other suggeststhat this varietyis to be de-
ployed withinone act of coitus,ratherthan lim-
iting the coital act to a single posture. In other
words, in any particularcoital event, a number
of diversebandhascan be aestheticallyarranged
as sequenceddance steps into a choreographyof
sexual performance.These posturalchanges not
only add varietyand can help prolongthe act by
delayingthe male'sejaculation,but they also can
have specialsymbolicsignificancein termsof the
namesandassociationsthey bear.Thus,for exam-
ple, "byadoptingsuccessivelythe 'fish,''tortoise,'
'wheel,'and 'sea-shell'position(matsya,kaurma,
cakra,?ankhabanda) one identifies oneself with
the first four avatarsof Vishnu."31Moreover,in
such animal-namedpositions,the lover is encour-
agedto dramatize"thecharacteristics of these dif-
ferentanimals.., by actinglikethem,"thusadding
a furtherdimensionof artisticrepresentationto
the sexualperformance(KS, p. 152).
64
The analogyof sexual performanceto dance,
though present in other cultures, is especially
salientin the Indiantradition.Close affinitiesex-
ist, for example,between its erotic texts and the
twenty-fourthchapterof the BharataNatyaSastra
(the classicancienttext on drama,dance,and aes-
thetics),which,as one commentatornotes, treats
"the practiceof harlotry... as part of the tech-
nique of dance. Not only did the virtuosiof one
artpracticethe other,butjudgingfromsculptural
representations[often found in holy temples] it
was in the spirit of a dance that ritual [notably
Tantric],andpossiblyalso secular,coitionwas un-
dertaken."32 In thisculturalcontext,sexualunion
with its taste of heavenlypleasuresand god-like
feelingsof radiatingfulfillmentcouldbe seen both
as an analogueand an instrumentto the higher
mysticalunionwith God.33
Well beyond the sexually intense framework
of Tantrism,Indiantraditionregardedthe proper
pursuitof eroticartsas divinelyinspiredandlead-
ing towardreligiousprogress.Vatsyayanainsisted
that his KamaSutrawas "composedaccordingto
the preceptsof Holy Writ... whileleadingthe life
of a religiousstudentand wholly engaged in the
contemplationof the Deity" (KS,p. 222), and the
AnangaRangaarguesthat havingcarefullystud-
ied the artsof carnalknowledgeandbeingfulfilled
andrefinedthroughtheirpleasures,a man"asad-
vancingage cooleth his passions,... learnethto
think of his Creator,to study religioussubjects,
and to acquiredivineknowledge"(AR, p. 223).
The religioussignificanceof the sexualunion--
whethersymbolizedin termsof copulatingdeities
(suchas Shaktiand Shiva)or in the more abstract
terms of basic gender-relatedprinciples(such as
PurushaandPrakritior,in Chinesetheory,yin and
yang)-adds furtherrichnessof symbolicmean-
ing to the erotic arts and encouragestheir ritu-
alized aestheticizationeven in contexts that are
not explicitly religious.34Recognition that such
aestheticritualizationcan artfullytransformthe
most basic functions of life is a crucial insight
of Asian culture that could be therapeuticfor
our dominantlyPlatonic-Kantianaesthetictradi-
tion grounded on the art/realityand aesthetic/
functionaldichotomies.Art's transfigurationof
the commonplaceneed not requirethe production
of fictionalcounterpartsto the realworld,butsim-
ply a more intensifiedexperienceand mindfully
stylizedperformanceof the ordinarypracticesof
living(whetherhavingsex or takingtea) thatren-
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GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics
ders those practicesreplete with special beauty,
vividness,and meaning.Such transfiguredprac-
tices of the real can in turn inspireart'sfictional
figurations.
It is thereforenot enough to insist that India's
eroticartsdeploythe objectsand practicesof fine
art;we must acknowledgethat its fine arts recip-
rocallydrawon its ars erotica.The positionsout-
lined in the KamaSutraclearlyhelpedinspirethe
sculpturaldepictionsof sexual union in medieval
Hindu temples,most notablyin Konarak,Khaju-
raho,Belur,andHalebid,andalsoin Buddhistcen-
ters,suchas Nagarjunikonda, wheremanystatues
of sexual congress"couldbe identifiedas sculp-
turalversionsof Vatsyayana'ssutras-sometimes
as interpretedby poets."35His seminaltext of ars
eroticaindeed becamethe mainparadigmfor lit-
erary depictions of love (and the charactersof
lovers) in Sanskritpoetry.Its influencewas espe-
cially strongin epics and dramaticworks (which
traditionallyincludedalso dance and music) and
extendedalso to lyricsof love and even some re-
ligious poetry (for example, the Gita Govinda,
which treats of the love of a girl cowherderfor
the god Krishnaas analogicalto the humansoul's
thirstfor the ecstasyof unionwiththe divine).This
centralrole in literatureand sculpturehelped the
arseroticafurtherits influencealsoin otherIndian
fine arts.36
Unity in varietyis amongthe most prominent
of our traditionaldefinitionsof beauty.In Indian
eroticarts,the richnessof varietyis foundnot only
in the diversityof embraces,kisses,scratchings,bit-
ings, strikings,hair fondlings,temporalities,love
noises, coital positions (which include oral and
anal sex37), and even different ways of moving
the penis inside the vagina,but also in the ways
these severalmodes of varietyare combinedinto
an aestheticunity,achieving,in the wordsof one
commentator,"thecreationof an elaboratesexual
sensationas a positiveworkof art."38Sexualper-
formanceis heightenedandharmonizedbypaying
carefulattentionto whichelementsof these vari-
ous modes fit most successfullytogetherso as to
both stimulateand satisfydesire.An entire chap-
ter of the KamaSutra,for example,treatsof "the
variousmodesof striking,andof the soundsappro-
priateto them,"whichshould also appropriately
vary accordingto whetherthe man or woman is
strikingor beingstruck,andaccordingto the stage
of foreplayor coitusin whichthe loversfindthem-
selves (KS,pp. 154-156).Guidingthis aestheticof
Shusterman Asian Ars Erotica and the Question of Sexual Aesthetics
a dynamicallyharmonizingmixtureis the recog-
nition that these rules of art are not absolutely
fixed prescriptions,but ratherneed to be applied
with a sense also to the varietiesof context,rang-
ing fromthe contingenciesof the individuallovers
(their bodily condition,social status,habitualin-
clinations,and currentfeelings) to circumstances
of time, place, and culture."The variousmodes
of enjoymentare not for all times or for all per-
sons, but they should only be used at the proper
time,andin the propercountriesandplaces"(KS,
p. 157).
In drawingon so manyvarietiesof sensorial,for-
mal, cognitive,cosmic,sociocultural,and ethical
aspects,the aestheticvarietyof Indianars erotica
self-consciouslyserveda varietyof purposes.One
purposethat became increasinglyimportantwas
the sustainingof sexualattractionandsexuallove
between the marriedcouple in orderto preserve
domesticharmonyand throughit social stability.
"Thechief reasonfor the separationbetweenthe
marriedcouple and the cause, which drives the
husbandto the embracesof strangewomen, and
the wife to the armsof strangemen, is the wantof
variedpleasuresand the monotonywhichfollows
possession,"concludestheAnangaRanga."There
is no doubtaboutit. Monotonybegetssatiety,and
satiety distastefor congress,especiallyin one or
the other;maliciousfeelings are engendered,the
husbandor the wife yield to temptation,and the
otherfollowsbeingdrivenbyjealousy."Fromsuch
monotonyand discord"resultpolygamy,adulter-
ies,abortions,andeverymannerof vice"thateven
"dragdownthenamesof deceasedancestors."The
book's study of erotic arts is thus dedicated to
showing"howthe husband,by varyingthe enjoy-
ment of his wife, may live with her as with thirty-
two differentwomen,ever varyingthe enjoyment
of her, and renderingsatiety impossible"while
also teachingthe wife "all mannerof useful arts
and mysteries,by which she may render herself
pure,beautiful,andpleasingin his eyes" (AR, pp.
128-129).
If Indianerotic arts striveboth to give women
"plenarycontentment"and to "thoroughlyenjoy
theircharms,"suchsatisfactionsarecharacterized
in clearlyaesthetictermsof the participatoryen-
joymentof sensorialharmoniesof pleasurableper-
ceptionsandmovements,repletewithrepresenta-
tionalformsandcomplexmeanings,andcarefully
structuredwith dramaticself-consciousnessand
performativestylization.The aestheticgoal of art-
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65
fullycreatingharmonyand pleasurethroughskill
in playingvariationson an instrumentof beauty
is statedmostexplicitlyin the AnangaRanga:"all
you who readthis book shall knowhow delicious
an instrumentis woman, when artfully played
upon; how capableshe is of producingthe most
exquisiteharmony;of executingthe most compli-
cated variationsand of giving the divinest plea-
sures" (AR, p. xxiii). One might understandably
balk at objectifyingwomanas an aestheticinstru-
mentforman'spleasure,butthe stingis somewhat
mitigatedby Indianeroticism'sinsistentadvocacy
thatwomenreciprocallyplayon maleinstruments,
and sometimeseven play the male by taking on
his actions and coital positions.Here, in the dif-
ferent formsof Purushayita,the wife mountsthe
prostrateman, effects the penetration,initiates
the rhythmiccoital movement,and thus "enjoys
herhusbandandthoroughlysatisfiesherself"(AR,
p. 126).
Besidesthe aimsof conjugalhappinessthrough
the pleasuresof love and the bonds of intimate
friendshipthey can create, the aesthetic variety
of the Indianerotic traditionhas broadercogni-
tive andethicalaims.Extendingwell beyondmat-
ters of sexual and sensual pleasure,kama con-
cernsthe whole domainof sensorycognition.Ars
erotica'srichstimulationandsophisticationof the
senses, togetherwith its masteryand refinement
of a wide rangeof complexmotor coordinations
and bodilypostures,cannothelp but bringsignif-
icantcognitiveenhancementto both sensoryand
motor abilities.Its cultivationof perceptionin-
cludes an educationin recognizingthe enduring
dispositionsbut also the changingthoughtsand
feelings of others,so that the lover can properly
respond to them. Considerableattentionis paid
to discerningthe movementsandexpressionsthat
indicatea woman'scharacter,erotic accessibility,
interest,inclinations,changingmoods,sexualpas-
sions, and the means and degrees to which her
interestsand passionsare satisfied.Such percep-
tual trainingdevelopsethicalsensitivityto others
and to their diversity(reflectedin the complex,
multipleclassificationsof differenttypesof lovers
but also of go-betweensand courtesans).39Con-
versely,ethicalself-knowledgeand self-discipline
are similarlydeepened and honed througherotic
practicesthatprobeour desiresandinhibitionsas
they reshapethem,whilealso testingandrefining
our self-control,throughartful,pleasurablemas-
teryof our senses and sensuality.As "Kamais the
66
enjoyment of appropriateobjects by the five
senses of hearing, feeling, seeing, tasting and
smelling,assistedby the mind together with the
soul,"so its practicein the arseroticaaimsat a var-
ied "masteryof [one's]senses"(KS, pp. 102-103,
222).Theseaimsof masterfulsensuousenjoyment
remainaestheticdespitetheirpracticalvalue.
To conclude,ancientIndia(even morethanan-
cient China) has much to teach the West about
the aestheticpowersandpossibilitiesof sexualac-
tivity. Because our culture is dominatedby the
model of scientiasexualisand the Cartesianno-
tion of body as machine,it is obsessivelypreoccu-
piedwithimprovingsex throughmechanical,non-
perceptualmeans (such as pills, lubricants,penis
enlargements),thus neglectingthe artistictech-
niques of enhancingerotic experience.Although
Indian erotic theory (includingthe three exem-
plarytextsherediscussed)likewiseoffersanabun-
dance of mechanicaldevices (pharmacological,
prosthetic,and even magical)for enhancingsex-
ualperformanceanddesirability,its dominantem-
phasisis on cultivatingeroticartistrythroughaes-
thetic expertise and its perfectionof sensorimo-
tor skills relatingto lovemaking.For the nascent
disciplineof somaesthetics,a field of theory and
practicedevoted to the study and cultivationof
our bodiesas loci of aestheticperceptionandself-
fashioning,the Asian eroticarts,especiallyas the-
orized and practicedin classicalIndian culture,
constitutean exemplaryresourceand an invalu-
able inspiration.40
RICHARD SHUSTERMAN
Department of Philosophy
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
INTERNET:
shusterl@fau.edu
The resistanceof philosophersto the beautiesof erotic
1.
seduction is a classictheme in the arts,exemplifiedby Keats's
famous poem "Lamia,"in which the philosopher seeks to
rescue his student from the wiles of a beautifulwoman who
is actually a lamia (a creature with the head and breast
of a woman and the lower body of a serpent and that is
said to suck the blood of those it seduces). The female fig-
ure depicted by Honthorst, with her head and breast ex-
posed but her lower body concealed, could representsuch a
creature.
2. See Plato's Republic329c, where Socrates confirms
this condemnation, originally attributed to Sophocles. See
also Symposium198D for his self-descriptionas erotic mas-
ter and 203C-212Bfor his accountof the philosophicalquest
in the erotic terms of seeking and giving birth in beauty.
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GlobalTheoriesof the Arts and Aesthetics
3. See Richard Shusterman, "Aesthetic Experience:
From Analysis to Eros," TheJournalof Aestheticsand Art
Criticism64 (2006):217-229.
4. Anthony Ashley Cooper (Third Earl of Shaftes-
bury), Characteristics of Men,Manners,Opinions,Times,ed.
LawrenceKlein (CambridgeUniversityPress,1999), p. 319.
5. ArthurSchopenhauer,The Worldas Willand Repre-
sentation,trans.E. F J. Payne (New York:Dover, 1958), vol.
1, pp. 200-202, 330-331.
6. FriedrichNietzsche, "The Genealogy of Morals,"in
The Birth of Tragedyand The Genealogy of Morals, trans.
FrancisGolffing(New York:Doubleday,1956),pp. 238-240.
7. Gary Iseminger,"AestheticExperience,"in The Ox-
ford Handbook of Aesthetics,ed. JerroldLevinson (Oxford
University Press,2003), pp. 99-116.
8. For my account of somaesthetics, see, for exam-
ple, Richard Shusterman,"Somaesthetics:A Disciplinary
Proposal," The Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism57
(1999): 299-313; PracticingPhilosophy (New York: Rout-
ledge, 1997), chs. 4, 6; PerformingLive (Cornell University
Press, 2000), chs. 7-8. For further discussions of somaes-
thetics, see, for example, the essays of MartinJay,Gustavo
Guerra,Kathleen Higgins,Casey Haskins,and my response
in TheJournalof AestheticEducation36 (2002): 55-115; and
the symposiumon PragmatistAesthetics, 2nded., withcontri-
butions by Antonia Soulez, Paul Taylor,and Thomas Leddy
(and my response) in Journalof SpeculativePhilosophy 16
(2002): 1-38. See also Peter Arnold, "Somaesthetics,Ed-
ucation, and the Art of Dance," The Journal of Aesthetic
Education 39 (2005): 48-64; Eric Mullis, "PeformativeSo-
maesthetics,"TheJournalof AestheticEducation40 (2006):
104-117.
9. Ronald de Sousa, "Love as Theater,"in The Philos-
ophy of (Erotic) Love, ed. Robert Solomon and Kathleen
Higgins (Universityof KansasPress, 1991), pp. 477-491, ci-
tations on pp. 478, 479, 483, 489, 485, 486, 488.
10. See, for example, John Dewey, Art as Experience
(Southern Illinois UniversityPress, 1987);RichardShuster-
man, PragmatistAesthetics(Oxford:Blackwell, 1992).
11. There is not much emphasison the erotic in the clas-
sical pragmatists,and WilliamJameseven affirms,in his fa-
mous Principlesof Psychology, the role of an "anti-sexual
instinct" (HarvardUniversity Press, 1983), pp. 1053-1054.
Noting Dewey's neglect of the erotic, Paul Taylor argues
that Du Bois's frank recognition of sexual dimensions of
self-realizationusefullyenriches the classicalpragmatistno-
tion of perfectionism.See Paul C. Taylor,"What'sthe Use
of CallingDu Bois a Pragmatist?"in The Range of Pragma-
tism and the Limitsof Philosophy,ed. Richard Shusterman
(Oxford:Blackwell,2004), pp. 95-111.
12. MichelFoucault,"SexualChoice, Sexual Act," in Es-
sential Worksof Michel Foucault (New York: New Press,
1997), vol. 1, pp. 151-152. In making his case for "aesthetic
appreciation of the sexual act as such," Foucault praises
gay S/M because "all the energy and imagination,which in
the heterosexualrelationshipwere channeledinto courtship,
now become devoted to intensifyingthe act of sex itself. A
whole new art of sexual practicedevelops which tries to ex-
plore all the internalpossibilitiesof sexual conduct."Liken-
ing the gay leather scenes in San Franciscoand New Yorkto
"laboratoriesof sexual experimentation,"Foucault claims
such experimentation is strictly controlled by consensual
codes, as in the medieval chivalriccourts "wherestrictrules
of proprietarycourtship were defined." Experimentation
ShustermanAsian Ars Eroticaand the Questionof SexualAesthetics
is necessary,"explainsFoucault,"becausethe sexual act has
become so easy and available ... that it runs the risk of
quicklybecomingboring,so that every effort has to be made
to innovate and create variationsthat will enhance the plea-
sure of the act." "Thismixtureof rules and openness,"Fou-
cault concludes, "has the effect of intensifyingsexual rela-
tions by introducinga perpetualnovelty,a perpetualtension
and a perpetualuncertaintywhichthe simpleconsummation
of the act lacks.The idea is also to make use of every partof
the body as a sexual instrument"(Foucault,"SexualChoice,
Sexual Act," pp. 149, 151-152). For a criticalstudy of Fou-
cault'ssomaestheticsof sex as part of his idea of philosophy
as an art of living, see Richard Shusterman,"Somaesthet-
ics and Care of the Self: The Case of Foucault,"Monist 83
(2000): 530-551.
13. Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality (New York:
Pantheon, 1986), vol. 2, pp. 12, 89-93.
14. Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality (New York:
Pantheon, 1980), vol. 1, pp. 57-71 [hereafterHS].
15. A version of this interview, "On the Genealogy of
Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress,"was first pub-
lished in English in Michel Foucault:Beyond Structuralism
and Hermeneutics,ed. Herbert Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow
(University of Chicago Press, 1983), but I am citing (and
translating) from the more complete French version that
was revised by Foucault and published in his Dits et Ecrits,
vol. 2 (Paris:Gallimard,2001), pp. 1428-1450,quotationson
p. 1441. In this interview,Foucault acknowledges that the
ancient Greeks and Romans did not really have an elab-
orate ars erotica comparable to that of the Chinese (see
p. 1434).
16. R. H. van Gulik, Sexual Life in Ancient China: A
PreliminarySurveyof ChineseSex and Societyfrom ca. 1500
B.C. till 1644 A.D. (Leiden: Brill, 2003) [hereafterSL].
17. It is also worthnotingthat Chinese texts on the erotic
arts are not a monolithic unity but rather display some va-
riety in differenthistoricalperiods and accordingto the dif-
ferent dominantphilosophicalideologies that inspiredtheir
authors (for example, the more sexually liberal Taoist ver-
sus the more straight-lacedConfucian).The classic texts of
Indian ars erotica also display clear differences that reflect
the differentmores of differentperiods.
18. Foucault'semphasison the essential esoteric nature
of these arts is also rather misleading.For many periods of
China'slong history,accordingto van Gulik, the handbooks
of sex, whichwere frequentlyillustrated,"circulatedwidely"
and "werewell knownand the methodsgiven by themwidely
practiced"not only by esoteric specialistsbut "bythe people
in general."The handbooksbegan to fall into decline in the
Sungperiod,andstill more in the Mingperiodwithits greater
Confucian prudishness,but the handbooks' practices and
"principlesstill pervaded sexual life" (SL, pp. 79, 94, 121,
192, 228, 268).
19. See SL, p. 138: "If a man continually changes the
woman with whom he copulates the benefit will be great. If
in one night one can copulate with more than ten women
it is best. If one always copulates with one and the same
woman her vital essence will graduallygrow weaker and in
the end she will be in no fit conditionto give the man benefit.
Moreover,the woman herself will become emaciated."
20. It followed from this logic that male masturbation
was "forbidden(except for extreme occasions) and noctur-
nal emissions were viewed with concern."As long as it did
not involve ejaculation,homosexualitywas not condemned
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67
in classical Chinese culture,but nor did it form part of the
ancient sexual handbooks(SL, p. 48).
21. In one documentfromthe LaterHan period,we read
of a Taoistmasterwho "livedto the age of over 150 years by
practicingthe art of havingsexual intercoursewith women"
and that by such art "one's grey hair will turn black again
and new teeth will replace those that have fallen out" (SL,
p. 71).
22. Another passagefrom the Fang-nei-pu-ithat empha-
sizes multiple partners nonetheless makes clear that this
multiplicitydoes not have pleasure as its highest end. "The
method is to copulateon one nightwith ten differentwomen
withoutemittingsemen even a single time.Thisis the essence
of the Art of the Bedchamber.A man must not engage in
sexual intercoursemerely to satisfy his lust. He must strive
to control his sexual desire so as to be able to nurturehis
vital essence. He must not force his body to sexual extrav-
agance in order to enjoy carnalpleasure, giving free rein to
his passion. On the contrary,he must think of how the act
will benefit his health and thus keep himself free from dis-
ease. This is the subtle secret of the Art of the Bedchamber."
The text also discusses the method for controllingejacula-
tion and making its energy "ascend and benefit the brain"
(SL, pp. 193-194). A Sui Dynasty sex handbook, Fang Nei
Chi, offers a health-orientedgraduatedschedule of ejacu-
lations accordingto one's age and strengthof constitution,
rangingfrom stronglybuilt fifteen-year-oldswho can ejacu-
late twice a day to strongmen of seventy who may ejaculate
once a month;"weakones should not ejaculate anymoreat
that age" (SL, p. 146). A different Sui Dynasty handbook,
The Ars Amatoria of Master Tung-Hsuan,which also of-
fers methods of controlling ejaculation, is less nuanced in
prescriptionsof frequency:"only emit semen two or three
times in ten" (SL, p. 132).
23. See RichardBurton and E E Arbuthnot,trans.,The
Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana,including a preface by W. G.
Archerand an introductionby K. M. Panikkar(Unwin:Lon-
don, 1988),page referenceswill be to this edition [hereafter
KS]. Besides this famous (and controversial)translation,I
have consulted two other translations:W. Doniger and S.
Kakar(Oxford UniversityPress,2003); S. C. Upadya (Cas-
tle Books: New York, 1963). Alex Comfort,ed. and trans.,
The Koka Shastra,with a Preface by W. G. Archer (Stein &
Day: New York, 1965) [hereafter KKS]. See also E E Ar-
buthnot and RichardBurton, ed. and trans.,Ananga Ranga
(Medical Press:New York, 1964) [hereafterAR]. The dat-
ing of the KamaSutrais particularlyuncertain,rangingfrom
300 BCE to 400 CE, while that of the Koka Shastra(whose
formal title is Ratirahasyaor Secretsof Rati) ranges from
the eleventh to twelfth century,and Ananga Ranga'sfrom
the sixteenthto the seventeenth.Besides these primarytexts
(and the commentaryof the editionscited), my researchalso
draws on J. J. Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient China, 2 vols.
(London: Kegan Paul, 2003) and S. C. Banerji, Crimeand
Sex in Ancient India (Naya Prokash:Calcutta,1980).
24. This is especially so with the Ananga Ranga, which,
Archer notes, excludes more than 30 kinds of women as
partnersfor sexual intercourse,while the Kama Sutraonly
excludes two (KS, pp. 30-31).
25. The Koka Shastra(p. 133) recommends the staging
of the act in a "brightly-litroom filled with flowers[,]incense
... burning,""livelyconversation,"and with the gentleman
"singing ... cheerful songs,"while Ananga Ranga (pp. 96-
97) describes the setting "best fitted for sexual intercourse
68
with women"as follows:"Choosethe largest,and finest, and
the most airy room in the house, purify it thoroughlywith
whitewash,anddecorateits spaciousandbeautifulwallswith
pictures and other objects upon which the eye may dwell
with delight. Scattered about this apartmentplace musical
instruments,especially the pipe and the lute; with refresh-
ments, as cocoa-nut, betel leaf, and milk, which is so use-
ful for treating and restoring vigour;bottles of rose water
and various essences, fans, and chauris for cooling the air,
and books containing amorous songs, and gladdening the
glancewith illustrationsof love-postures.SplendidDivailgiri,
or wall lights, should gleam around the hall, reflected by a
hundredmirrors,whilst both man and woman should con-
tend againstany reserve,or false shame,givingthemselvesin
complete nakedness to unrestrainedvoluptuousness,upon
a high and handsomebedstead,raisedon tall legs, furnished
[with]manypillows and covered by a richchatra,or canopy;
the sheets being besprinkledwith flowers and the coverlet
scented by burninglusciousincense,such as aloes and other
fragrantwoods. In such a place, let the man, ascending the
throne of love, enjoy the woman in ease and comfort, grati-
fying his and her every wish and whim."
26. The methods and joys of foreplay and coitus are
distinguished(in the Koka Shastraand Ananga Ranga) as
"'outer'and ... 'inner'formsof lovemaking"(KS, p. 125) or
"externalenjoyments"and "internalenjoyments"(AR, pp.
97, 115). The Indian classificationrecognizes that outer ac-
tions and pleasures (kissing,for example) can continue well
beyond foreplay.
27. Nor can desire be too weak. Indeed it is the pro-
portionate fit of the organs and its productionof sufficient
enjoyment and desire that "enables the husband to turn
his mind [away from the problems of mechanics of pene-
tration] towards the usual arts which bring women under
subjection"to the enthrallingpleasuresof sexual love (AR,
p. 22).
28. Some styles of nail scratching and biting are not
meant to leave visible marks,but simplyto give more tactile
pleasure (see AR, pp. 105, 107;KS, pp. 143, 146).
29. Indian erotic arts also deploy elements of symbolic
action that refer suggestively to other elements of the sex-
ual performance, thereby seeking to promote them. The
"transferredkiss" is one given not to the lover but to
a child or object simultaneously viewed by the lover so
as to suggest the desire to kiss the lover (KS, p. 141).
The "Ghatika" kiss, designed to stimulate the man to-
ward the act of coitus by also symbolizing it, is when the
woman "thrustsher tongue into his mouth, moving it to
and fro with a motion so pleasant and slow that it at
once suggests another and a higher form of enjoyment"
(AR, p. 102).
30. Vatsyayanaalso cites some ancientverseson thismat-
ter: "The love of a woman who sees the marks of nails on
the private parts of her body, even though they are old and
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Global Theories of the Arts and Aesthetics
almost worn out, becomes again fresh and new. If there be
no marksof nails to reminda person of the passagesof love,
then love is lessened in the same way as when no union takes
place for a long time" (KS, p. 144).
31. Alex Comfort, "Introduction,"in KKS, p. 63.
32. Comfort,"Introduction,"pp. 49, 63.
33. See the BrihadaranyakaUpanishad:"Inthe embrace
of his beloved, a man forgets the whole world--everything
both within and without;in the same way he who embraces
the Self knows neither within nor without." Comfort, "In-
troduction,"p. 28.
34. Such ritualizedaestheticizationcan be found in the
Japanesetea ceremony,whichhas its roots in ritualtea drink-
ing in Zen monasteries(in Chinabefore Japan)but has long
flourished beyond these religious contexts while still main-
taining a strong sense of aesthetic ritualwith a Zen-like de-
votion to harmony,gentleness of spirit, reverence, purity,
and tranquility.See D. T. Suzuki,Zen and JapaneseCulture
(Princeton UniversityPress, 1989), pp. 272-274.
35. K. M. Pannikar,"Introduction,"in KS, pp. 74-75.
36. Painters thus came to deploy, as classical represen-
tations of love, the various female types and situations de-
lineated by the erotic texts and by the literaryworks these
texts inspired.See Pannikar,"Introduction,"p. 75; Comfort,
"Introduction,"p. 70. Eight of these classicalfiguresare de-
scribed in AR (pp. 113-114).
37. The KamaSutradevotes a chapter(ch. 9) to positions
and methodsof oralsex buthas nothingto say about methods
of anal sex, merely noting that it is done (KS, p. 153). In the
later, more straight-lacedKoka Shastravery little is said of
oral sex and anal sex is not mentioned. Neither oral nor anal
sex is discussed in the still more prudish Ananga Ranga,
though later erotic writersrecognize oral sex. See Comfort,
KKS, p. 124.
38. Comfort,KKS, p. 49.
39. The Kama Sutraalso contains elaborate recommen-
dations for the aesthetic stylization of life in general, not
just for specifically erotic matters.See its chapter "On the
Arrangementsof a House, and Household Furniture;and
about the Daily Life of a Citizen, his Companions,Amuse-
ments, etc.," which contains suggestions of how to aesthet-
ically organize the living conditions and daily routines of
a gentleman or man about town (which I prefer to "citi-
zen" for translatingthe Sanskrittermnayaka)These lifestyle
recommendationsrange from ablutions,cosmetics, clothes,
meals, and siestas to amusements such as festivals, drink-
ing parties, discussions of the arts, and aesthetic pastimes
(for example, games of verse and decorating oneself with
flowers).
40. I am grateful to Pradeep Dhillon for help with San-
skrit and to Naked Punch, who first invited me to address
this topic at the London School of Economics in February
2006. I also thank the owners of Der StandhaftePhilosoph
for permissionto use this image.