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CHAPTER 7

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

7.1 Introduction

There are very few problems of interest in fluid mechanics that are solved
using differential and integral equations only. Most often it is necessary to do
experiments to establish relationships between variables of interest. Since
experimental studies are usually quite expensive, it is necessary to keep the
required experimentation to a minimum. This is done using a technique called
dimensional analysis, which is based on the concept of dimensional
homogeneity which means, the terms in an equation must have the same
dimensions. For example, if we write Bernoulli equation in the form of

P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

We note that dimension of each term is length. Furthermore, if we factor out

term Z1 from left hand side and Z2 from right hand side, the equation would
have

P1 V2 P V2 z
 1  1  ( 2  2  1) 2
z1 2 gz1 z2 2 gz2 z1

In this form of Bernoulli equation the terms are all dimensionless and we have
written the equation as a combination of dimensionless parameters. This is the
basic idea of dimensional analysis.
Often in experimental work we are required to perform experiments on objects
that are quite large, and it is costly to do experiments on them. This would
include flows over weir and dams, flow around ships, subsonic and supersonic
flow around aircraft, flow around bridges, stadium, buildings, flow around
automobiles, flows around large pumps and turbine blades etc.
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Such flows are usually studied in laboratories using models that are smaller
than the prototype, the actual ones. This reduces the cost when compared with
testing on full-scale devices.
There are also flows of interest that involve rather small dimension such as
flow around a turbine blade, flow around a capillary tube. These flows require
that model be large than prototype so that observation can be made
accurately.
Similarity is the study of predicting prototype conditions from model
observations. Similitude involves use of dimensionless parameters obtained in
dimensional analysis.

7.2 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is concerned with fundamental relation between

variables. Before we present the dimensional analysis technique we shall
review the dimensions of the quantities of interest in fluid mechanics. All the
quantities are derived from fundamental dimensions. [M] is used for the
dimension of mass. [L] is for the dimension of length, and [T] for the
dimension of time. The dimension of variables can be expressed in terms of
fundamental dimensions. For instance

Dis tan ce L
Velocity    LT 1
Time T

Velocity L
Acceleration   2  LT  2
Time T

Force  mass  acceleration  MLT 2

The quantities of interest in fluid mechanics are listed with their respective
dimensions in Table 7.1. Reference to the table will simplify the dimensions of
the quantities introduces in the problems.
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Table 7.1 – Symbols and Dimensions of Quantities Used in Fluid

Mechanics

Quantity Symbol Dimensions

Length l L
Time t T
Mass m M
Force F ML/T2
Velocity V L/T
Acceleration a L/ T2
Frequency  T-1

Gravity g L/ T2
Area A L2
Flow rate Q L2/T
Mass flux m M/T
Pressure P M/LT2
Stress  M/LT2

Density  M/L3

Specific weight γ M/L2 T2

Viscosity  M/LT

Kinematic viscosity  L2/T

Work W ML2 /T2

Power, heat flux W/Q ML2 /T2
Surface tension  M/T2

Bulk modulus B M/LT2

It is not sufficient to know for example, that a body has the dimension of
length we also need to know the magnitude of this length. For this purpose we
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use units of measurement. The SI system is usually followed. The unit of

length in the SI system is meter, unit of mass is kilogram, and unit of time is
seconds. Thus velocity will have dimension of L/T and unit of measurement
will be m/s.

7.3 Dimensional Homogeneity

Dimensional reasoning is based on proposition that an equation describing a

physical situation to be true, the two sides must be equal both numerically
and dimensionally. An equation must compare like with like.

The simple equation

1+3=4

Is numerically correct, but in physical terms, may be entirely untrue,

depending on nature of each term. Thus, it would be incorrect to say;

1 book + 3 pens = 4 days

Since book, pen, and day are not the same things. It would be correct if we say

1m + 3m = 4m

which means we have used length as the dimension. Thus, an equation

describing a physical situation will be true if all terms are of same kind and of
same dimension. The equation is then said to be dimensionally homogeneous.

7.4 Dimensionless Quantity

Sometimes we use a dimensionless quantity. For example relative density,

strain, are rations comparing one quantity with another of the same kind. For
example tensile strain is defined as extension divided by the original length,
and both quantities have same dimension of length [L].
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Strain =
Extension

L  L0  1
 
original length L

Indicating that dimension of strain is pure number and therefore,

dimensionless.

7.5 Dimensional Analysis Methods

There are two methods for dimensional analysis:

(i) Rayleigh method
(ii) Buckingham π theorem

(i) Rayleigh method

The Rayleigh method gives a special form of relation among dimensionless
groups but it does not give prior information regarding the number of
dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.

(ii) Buckingham π theorem

The Buckingham π gives before analysis how many dimensionless groups are
to be expected. Buckingham designated the dimensionless groups by Greek
letter π (pi) and thus it is called Buckingham π theorem. The method organizes
the steps of ensuring dimensional homogeneity, it requires some knowledge of
the phenomena being studied in order that appropriate quantities of interest
are included.

The above two methods are illustrated through an example below.

EXAMPLE 7.1
The thrust F of a screw propeller is known to depend on diameter of propeller
d, velocity v, mass density of fluid ρ, speed n, and viscosity . Using the
Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis obtain an expression for F in terms
of these quantities.
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Solution:
The general relationship between dependent and independent variables can be
expressed as
F  d , v,  , n,  
From the principle of dimensional homogeneity it is clear that variables
cannot be added or subtracted since their dimensions are different. This
principle limits the equation to a combination of products of powers of the
variables involved.
Thus it can be reduced to
F  K  d m  v p   q  nr   s (7.1)
where K is numerical constant

The dimension of dependent variable F and independent variables d, v, ρ, n

and  are

[F] = [Force] = [MLT-2]

[d] = [diameter] = [L]
[v] = [velocity] = [LT-1]
[ρ] = [density] = [ML-3]
[n] = [rotational speed] = [T-1]
[] = [dynamic viscosity] = [ML-1 T-1]

Substituting dimensions of variables in equation (7.1) and noting that K is a

number and is dimensionless.

[MLT-2] = [L]m [LT-1]p [ML-3]q [T-1]r [ML-1T-1]s

Equating powers of M, L, and T

M: 1=q+s (7.2)
L : 1 = m + p – 3q-s (7.3)
T : -2 = -p-r-s (7.4)
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Since there are 5 unknown and only 3 equations it is not possible to obtain a
complete solution, but the three unknowns can be determined in terms of
remaining two, solving for m, p, and q.

q = 1 – s; p = 2-r-s; m = 2+r-s

Substituting these values in equation 7.1 we get

F  K  d 2  r  s v 2  r  s  1 s  n r  s

Regrouping the powers

s
 vd 
r
 dn 
F  Kv d   2 2
 
 v    
Since r and s are unknown this can be written as
 dn vd 
F  v 2 d 21  , 
 v  

or
F  dn vd 
 1  , 
v d
2 2
 v  

Each of the terms is a dimensionless quantity.

The Buckingham π theorem states that if there are n variables including

dependent variable and there variables contain m fundamental dimensions, for
example, M, L, and T, the equation relating the variables will contain n-m
independent dimensionless groups and in the form of

1, 2 , 3 ,....., n m   0
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In the previous example there were 6 variables F, d, v, ρ, n and  and 3

fundamental dimensions M, L and T, the solution, therefore, contains 6 - 3 = 3
dimensionless groups which are

F vd dn
1  , 2  , 3 
v 2d 2  v

After determining the number of dimensionless groups as described above, the

next step is to combine the variables to form these dimensionless groups using
the following rules:

(i) From independent variables select certain variables in more and than
one group. The repeating variables should contain all fundamental
dimensions used in the problem and must be those quantities which
have great influence on dependent variable.
(ii) Combine repeating variables with remain variables to form
dimensionless groups which are independent of each other.

In problem in which all the three fundamental dimensions are involved, it is

usual to select repeated variables using following guide lines.

(i) Select the first repeating variable from those describing the geometry
of flow such as diameter, length etc.
(ii) Select the second variable from those describing the characteristics of
fluid properties such as density, viscosity etc.
(iii) Select the third repeating variable from those describing fluid motion
such as velocity, acceleration, pressure, force. On the above guidelines
the previous example is again solved by Buckingham π theorem.

The dimensions of dependent variable F and independent variables d,

v, ρ, n and  are

F   ( d , v ,  , n,  )
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The dependent variable is F and repeating variables could be selected as d, ρ,

and v.

F = MLT-2; D = L; v = LT-1;
ρ = ML-3; n = T-1; μ = ML-1T-1

Also the total number of variables is 6 and number of dimensionless groups

formed will be 6-3 = 3. The required solution is

1   2   3 

To find π1 this group is formed so that it includes dependent variable F since it

contains all the fundamental dimensions M, L, and T all the there of repeated
variables required to form a dimensionless group.

1  Fva d b  c (7.5)

Replacing the variables by their dimensions and remembering that

dimensional formula for dimensionless number is MºLºTº

[MºLºTº] = [MLT-2] [LT-1]a [L]b [ML-3]c

Equating powers of M, L, and T

M : 0=1+c (7.6)
L : 0 = 1 + a + b – 3c (7.7)
T : 0 = -2 – a (7.8)

Solving equations 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8

a = -2, b = -2; c = -1

Substituting in equation (7.5)

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1  Fv 2d 2  1

F
1 
v d 2
2

This group is formed by combining one of non-repeating independent variable

 with required number of repeated variables. Since dimensional formula for 
is [ML-1 T-1] all the three repeated variables will have to be in included to
form dimensionless group.

 2  v l d m  n

For dimensional homogeneity

M    
L T o  ML1T  2 LT 1 L ML 3 n
o o l m
 

Equating powers of M, L, and T

M : 0=1+n (7.10)
L : 0 = -1 + 1 + m – 3n (7.11)
T : 0 = -1 – 1 (7.12)

Solving equations 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12

n = -1, l = -1; m = -1
Substituting in equation (7.9)

 2  v 1d 1 1

2 
vd
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To find π3 the remaining independent variable is π which contains dimension

of time and so must be obtained from repeated variables v and d.

 3  nv r d s  t (7.13)

For dimensional homogeneity

Mº LºTº = [T-1] [LT-1]r [L]s[ML-3]t

Equating powers of M, L and T

M : 0=t
L : 0=r+s (7.14)
T : 0 = -1 - r (7.15)
Solving equation 7.14 and 7.15
r = -1, s = -1, t= 0
Substituting in equation (7.13)

 3  nv 1d

or

nd
3 
v

Thus, we obtain earlier three dimensionless groups

F   nd 
  , 
v d
2 2
 vd v 

7.6 Common dimensionless parameters

Consider a relatively general relationship between pressure drop P, a

characteristic length 1, characteristic velocity v, the density, viscosity , the
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gravity g, surface tension σ, the speed of sound c, and an angular velocity 

written as

P  f (l , v,  ,  , g ,  , c,  )

The -theorem applied to this problem, with 1, v, and as repeating variables,

results in

v 2  vl v 2 v 2 l v l 
 f1  , , , , 
P   lg  c v 

Each of the π terms in this expression is a common dimensionless group that

appears in numerous fluid flow situations. They are identified as follows:

v 2
Euler number, Eu 
P

vl
Reynolds number, Re 


v
Froude number, Fr 
lg

v
Mach number, M 
c

lv 2
Weber number, We 


l
Strouhal number, St 
v

The physical significance of each of the above dimensionless parameter is that

each can be written as the ratio of two ‘forces’. The various forces are:
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Pressure force, FP  PA  Pl 2

dv v
Inertia force, Fi  mv  l 3 v  l 2 v 2
ds l

dv v
Viscous force, F    A      l 2  lv
ds l

Gravitational force, Fg  mg  l 3 g

dP 2
Force due to compressibility, FB  KA l  c 2l 2 
d

Force due to Surface tension, FT  l

Rotational force, FW  mr 2  l 3  l   2  l 4 2

Therefore,

Inertia _ force l 2 v 2 v 2
Eu   
Pr essure _ force Pl 2 P

Inertia _ force l 2 v 2 vl

Re   
Viscous _ force lv 

Inertia _ force l 2 v 2 v
Fr   3 
Gravity _ force l g lg

Inertia _ force l 2 v 2 v
M  
Compressible _ force l 2 c 2 c
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Inertial _ force l 2 v 2 v 2 l
We   
Surface _ tension _ force l 

Rotational _ force l 4 2 l
St   2 2 
Inertia _ force l v v

Selection of proper dimensionless parameter for analysis in fluid flow is

important. For example in a particular flow where viscous forces are
predominant as in case of boundary layer, Reynolds’s number is a significant
dimensionless parameter, or study of flow over an airfoil at high speeds, Mach
no. is of significance. If surface tension forces are affecting the flow then
Weber number is important. Obviously all the dimensionless parameters will
not be included in a particular case as they have to be chosen for a particular
situation.

7.7 Similarity

Similarity is study of predicting prototype conditions from model

observations. If tests are not possible to make on a prototype be it large or
small then it is advisable to perform tests on models. Thus, it is necessary to
develop the means whereby a quantity measured on the model can be used to
predict the associated quantity on the prototype.
Dynamic similarity- we have dynamic similarity between model and
prototype if the forces acting on corresponding masses in the model flow and
prototype flow are in same ratio throughout entire flow field. Suppose that
pressure forces, inertia forces and viscous forces are presented, then
dynamic similarity requires that at corresponding points in the flow fields as
( Fi ) m ( FP ) m ( F ) m
   cons tan t
( Fi ) p ( FP ) p ( F ) p

Rearranging
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( Fi )m ( Fi ) p ( Fi )m ( Fi ) p
 ; 
( FP )m ( FP ) p ( F )m ( F ) p

In terms of dimensionless parameters it can be written as

Eum  Eu p ; Re m  Re p

We can write the inertia force ratio as

( Fi ) m mm  a m
  cons tan t
( Fi ) p m p  a p

Showing that acceleration ratio between corresponding points on model and

prototype is constant provided that mass ratio of corresponding fluid elements
is a constant. We may write acceleration ratio.

am vm2 / l m
  cons tan t
a p v 2p / l p

Showing that velocity ratio between corresponding points is constant provided

length ratio is constant.

Kinematics similarity- we have kinematics similarity between model and

prototype if the velocity ratio is constant. This would result in same flow
around a model to that of the prototype except for scale factor.

Geometric similarity- we have geometric similarity when length ratio is

constant between all corresponding points in flow fields in model and
prototype. This results in model having same shape as prototype.

Hence to achieve complete similarity between model and prototype the

demands are
(1) Geometrical similarity be satisfied
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(2) Mass ratio of corresponding elements be a constant

(3) Appropriate dimensionless parameters be equal

Example 7.2
A 1:10 scale model of an automobile is used to measure the drag on a proposed
design. It is to simulate a prototype speed of 90km/h. What speed should be used in
the wind tunnel? For a same speed of 90km/h used on the model, what drag force on
the prototype would correspond to a drag of 1.2N measured on the model?

Solution:
For a dynamic similarity, Reynolds number should be the same;

Vm l m VP l P

m P
VP l P
Vm   90  10  900km / h
lm

This speed would introduce compressibility effects, the effects that do not exist in the
prototype. Hence, the model study would be inappropriate.

For drag force on the prototype;

𝐹𝐷𝑚 = FDp x Am/Ap

= 1.2 x 100/1
= 120N

Problems

1. The drag force FD on a very rough sphere held inside a pipe in which
liquid is flowing is a function of D, ρ, , V, and k, D is the diameter of the
sphere, ρ is mass density,  is viscosity, V, is the velocity of the liquid,
and k is the height of the roughness elements on the sphere.
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By dimensional analysis, determine the relevant dimensionless numbers

for this problem. Express your answer in the functional form

 f  1 ,  2 
FD
V 2 D 2

2. Starting with the functional relationshio ΔP = f (ρ, L, V, , Ev, , ∆)

show by the exponent method that

P  LV V LV 2 V 2  
 f  , , ,
V 2   E /   L 
 v

3. An experimental test program is being set up to calibrate a new

flowmeter. The flow meter is to measure the mass flow rate of rate of
liquid flowing through a pipe. It is assumed that the mass flow rate is a
function of the following variable:

m  f P, D,  ,  
.

Where ∆P is the pressure difference across the meter, D is the pipe

diameter,  is the liquid viscosity, and ρ is the liquid density. Using
dimensional analysis, find the -groups. Express your answer in the form:
.

 f  
m
PD 2
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4. A ¼ scale model of an experimental bathysphere that will operate at great

depths is tested to determine its drag characteristic by towing it behind a
submarine. For true similitude, what should be the towing speed relative
to the speed of the prototype?

5. Using the Reynolds-number criterion, a 1:1 scale model of a torpedo is

tested in a wind tunnel. If the velocity of the torpedo in water is 10 m/s.
what should be the air velocity (standard atmospheric pressure) in the
wind tunnel? The temperature for both tests is 10ºC.