國立台灣海洋大學
國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University
National Taiwan Ocean University
通訊與導航工程學系
通訊原理
Fundamental Communications Theory
Fall 2018
吳家琪 助理教授
Lecture 9. Baseband Data Transmission
國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
 Digital data transmitting over a physical communication
channel is limited by two unavoidable factors:
Intersymbol interference (ISI) and Channel noise.
 Understanding and resolving of the intersymbol
interference problem is of fundamental importance to the
design of digital communication systems.
 The raised cosine spectrum provides a powerful
mathematical tool for baseband pulse-shaping designed to
mitigate the intersymbol interference problem
 The eye pattern is a visual indicator of performance,
displaying the physical limitations of a digital data
transmission system in an insightful manner
 6.1 Baseband Transmission of Digital Date
 6.2 The Intersymbol Interference Problem
 6.3 The Nyquist Channel
 6.4 Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum
 6.5 Baseband Transmission of M-ary Data
 6.6 The Eye Pattern
 6.7 Computer Experiment: Eye Diagrams for Binary
and Quaternary System
 6.8 Theme Example: Equalization
 6.9 Summary and Discussion
國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
6.1 Baseband Transmission of Digital Data
 In discrete pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the
amplitude of transmitted pulses is varied in a discrete
manner in accordance with an input stream of digital
data. Figure 6.1(a) depicts the basic functional blocks
of a baseband PAM system.
 The input binary data stream is denoted by {bk}.
 At time t = kTb, where Tb is the bit duration and k = 0,
±1, ±2,…; the element bk, representing binary symbol 1
or 0, is emitted by the source of information.
 The binary data stream {bk} is applied to a line encoder,
the purpose of which is to produce a level-encoded
signal denoted by {ak}.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 We emphasize the use of discrete pulse-amplitude

modulation
 Discrete pulse-amplitude modulation is simple to analyze
 PAM is the most efficient form of discrete pulse
modulation in terms of both power and bandwidth use
 Analytic techniques developed for handling discrete
PAM may be extended to other discrete-pulse modulation
techniques using phase or frequency
 In discrete PAM (Pulse-Amplitude Modulation)
 Theamplitude of transmitted pulses is varied in a discrete
Figure 6.1 Baseband binary data transmission. (a) Block
manner in accordance with an input stream of digital data diagram of the system, depicting its constituent components all
the way from the source to destination. (b) Simplifed
representation of the system.

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The level-encoded signal and the discrete PAM signal are 6.2 The Intersymbol Interference Problem
 1 if the input bk is symbol 1 The receive filter output
ak   

 1 if the input bk is symbol 0 

 y (t )  a p(t  kTb )
 a k g (t  kTb )
k
s(t )  k  
k  

 The channel output is: x(t) = s(t)*h(t)  Linearity of the data transmission depicted in Fig. 6.1
y(t) = x(t) * q(t) leads us to express the overall pulse shape p(t) in Eq.
where the symbol * denotes convolution in the time domain. (6.5) by the multiple convolution product
 The filter output y(t) is next sampled synchronously p(t) = g(t) * h(t) * q(t)
with the generator of clock pulses in the transmitter;
synchronization is commonly established by extracting
a clock or timing signal from the receive-filter output.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

P(f) = G(f)H(f)Q(f)  The pulse-shaping problem involved in designing the

 Rewrite the sample of y(t) at time t = iTb compactly as PAM system of Fig. 6.1(a) may now be stated as
the discrete convolution sum follows:


a
 Given the channel transfer function H(f), determine the
yi  k pi  k , i  0,1,2,...
k   transmit-pulse spectrum G(f) and receive-filter transfer
function Q(f) so as to satisfy two basic requirements:
 Isolating the term representing k = i in Eq. (6.8), we
(i) Intersymbol interference is reduced zero.
may equivalently write
(ii) Transmission bandwidth is conserved.

yi  E ai  a
k  
k pi  k , i  0,1,2,...
k i

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

6.3 The Nyquist Channel  We obtain the sinc function

 The distinctive feature of Fig. 6.1(b) is its focus on the E sin (2B0t )
popt (t )  E sinc(2 B0t ) 
overall pulse spectrum P(f). 2B0t
 E, for i  0 as the optimum pulse shape.
p i  p (iTb )  
 0, for all i  0  The overall pulse spectrum is defined by the optimum
brick-wall function

 i 
p (t )   p 2B sinc(2 B0t  i)  E
 , for  B0  f  B0
i    0 P opt ( f )   2 B0
1  0, otherwise
B0  
2Tb
 Parts (a) and (b) of fig.6.2, respectively, plot the
optimum spectrum Popt(f) and its inverse popt(t).
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The important points to take from the idealized plots of

Fig. 6.2 are twofold:
1. The brick-wall spectrum Popt(f) defines B0 as the
minimum transmission bandwidth for zero intersymbol
interference.
2. The optimum pulse shape popt(t) is the impulse response
of an ideal low-pass channel with an amplitude response
of Popt(f) in the passband and a bandwidth B0.
 The Nyquist channel defined by the overall pulse
spectrum P(f) is the optimum solution for zero Figure 6.2 (a) Sinc function p(t) as the optimum pulse shape.
intersymbol interference at the minimum transmission (b) Optimum pulse spectrum.
bandwidth possible in a noise-free environment.

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

6.4 Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum  To cast the raised-cosine pulse spectrum in

 The modified P(f) decreases toward zero gradually mathematical terms,
rather than abruptly. In more specific terms, P(f) is 0  | f | < f1
proposed to consist of two portions: f1  | f | < 2B0 – f1
1. Flat portion, which occupies the frequency band 2B0 – f1  | f |
0≦│f│≦f1 for some parameter f1 to be defined.
f1
2. Roll-off portion, which occupies the frequency band   1
B0
f1≦│f│≦2B0－f1.
which is called the roll-off factor.
 cos(2B0t ) 
p (t )  E sinc(2 B0t ) 
2 2 2 
 1  16 B0 t 
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The amount of intersymbol interference resulting from

a timing error ∆t decreases as the roll-off factor is
increased from zero to unity.
 The modified pulse shape p(t) is plotted in Fig. 6.3(b)
for  = 0, 0.5, and 1.
 For the special case of  = 1, the function p(t)
Figure 6.3 (a) Raised-cosine simplifies as
pulse spectrum for varying
roll-off rates. (b) Pluse  sinc(4 B0t ) 
p(t )  E  2 2 

response p(t) (i.e., inverse  1  16 B0 t 
Fourier transform of p(f ) for
varying roll-off rates).

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

Transmission-Bandwidth Requirement
BT = B0(1 + )
fv = B0
which is called the excess bandwidth.

 The ratio of the excess bandwidth fv to the Nyquist

bandwidth B0 is equal to the roll-off factor ; this is
why the roll-off factor is also sometimes called the
excess-bandwidth factor.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

Two Additional Properties of the Raised-Cosine Pulse

Spectrum
 Property 1: The roll-off portion of the spectrum P(f)
exhibits odd symmetry about the midpoints f = ±B0
Pv(f) = Popt(f) – P(f)
 Property 2: The infinite summation of replicas of the
raised-cosine pulse spectrum, spaced by 2B0 hertz,
equals a constant, as shown by

E Figure 6.4 (a) Nyquist and
 P( f  2mB )  2 B
m  
0 raised-cosine pulse spectra for
0 positive frequencies. (b)
Residual spectrum Pv(f ).

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The pulse-shaping criterion for zero intersymbol
interference is embodied in the following general
statement:
 Given the modified pulse shape p(t) for transmitting
data over an imperfect channel using discrete pulse-
amplitude modulation at the data rate 1/T, the pulse p(t)
eliminates intersymbol interference if, and only if, its
spectrum P(f) satisfies the condition

m 1
 P ( f  )  constant, | f |
T 2T
m  
Root Raised-Cosine pulse Spectrum
 A more sophisticated form of pulse shaping for
baseband digital data transmission is to use the root
raised-cosine pulse spectrum rather than the regular
pulse-shaping spectrum of Eq. (6.17).
G(f)H(f) = P1/2(f)
 The receive-filter’s frequency response is defined by
Q(f) = P1/2(f)
G(f)H(f)Q(f) = P (f)

國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
6.5 Baseband Transmission of M-ary Data
 Consider then an M-ary PAM system with a signal
alphabet that contains M symbols, with the symbol
duration denoted by T seconds.
 We refer to 1/T as the signaling rate or symbol rate of
the system, which is expressed in symbols per second
or simply bauds.
T = Tb log2M
國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
Figure 6.5 (a) Binary data sequence and its waveform. (b)
Corresponding eye pattern.
6.6 The Eye Pattern
國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
 Produced by the synchronized superposition of
successive symbol intervals of the distorted waveform
appearing at the output of the receive-filter prior to
thresholding.
 From an experimental perspective, the eye pattern
offers two compelling virtues
 The simplicity of generation
 The provision of a great deal of insightful information
about the characteristics of the data transmission
system, hence its wide use as a visual indicator of how
well or poorly a data transmission system performs the
task of transporting a data sequence across a physical
channel.
國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University Timing Features
 Figure 6.6 depicts a generic eye pattern for distorted,
but noise-free, binary data. Three timing features
pertaining to binary data transmission system,
 Optimum sampling time : The width of the eye opening
defines the time interval over the distorted binary
waveform appearing at the output of the receive-filter
 Zero-crossing jitter : in the receive-filter output, there
will always be irregularities in the zero-crossings,
which, give rise to jitter and therefore non-optimum
sampling times
 Timing sensitivity : This sensitivity is determined by the
rate at which the eye pattern is closed as the sampling
time is varied.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

The Peak Distortion for Intersymbol Interference  An eye opening of 0.5 or better is considered to yield
 In the absence of channel noise, the eye opening reliable data transmission.
assumes two extreme values: (Eye opening) = 1 – Dpeak
(i) An eye opening of unity, where Dpeak denotes a new criterion called the peak
(ii) An eye opening of zero. distortion.
 
Dpeak   | pi k | 
k  
 | p[(i  k )T ] |
k  
b

k i
 The relationship between the eye opening and peak
distortion is illustrated in Fig. 6.7.

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The peak distortion is formally defined as the

maximum value assumed by the intersymbol
interference over all possible transmitted sequences,
with this evaluation divided by a normalization factor
equal to the absolute value of the corresponding signal
level idealized for zero intersymbol interference.
 By its very nature, the peak distortion is a worst-case
criterion for data transmission over a noisy channel.
The eye opening specifies the smallest possible noise
margin.

Figure 6.7 Illustrating the relationship between peak distortion

and eye opening.
 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University 6.7 Computer Experiment 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University

 Eye Diagrams for Binary and Quaternary Systems:

 Fig. 6.8(a)-(b) show the eye diagrams for a baseband PAM
transmission system using M = 2 and M = 4, respectively.
 Fig. 6.9(a)-(b) show the eye diagrams for these two
baseband-pulse transmission system using the same system
parameters as before, but this time under a bandwidth-
limited condition. 1
| H ( f ) |
1  ( f / f0 )2N
 Specifically, the channel is now modeled by a low-pass
Butterworth filter. Figure 6.8 Eye diagram of
received signal with no
 N=3, f0=0.6Hz for binary PAM bandwidth limitation. (a) M＝2.
 N=3, f0=0.3Hz for 4-PAM (b) M＝4.
 BT=B0(1+)=0.5(1+0.5)=0.75 Hz

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

6.8 Theme Example: Equalization

 An efficient approach to high-speed transmission of
digital data over a linear band-limited communication
channel is to use a combination of two signal-
processing strategies:
 Discrete pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM),
 Linear modulation scheme.

Figure 6.9 Eye diagram of received

signal, using a bandwidth-limited
channel. (a) M＝2. (b) M＝4.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The transversal filter, depicted in Fib. 6.10, consists of

the following components:
 Delay line, whose taps are uniformly spaced T seconds
apart; T is the symbol duration.
 Adjustable weights, which are connected to the taps of
the delay line.
 Summer, which adds successively delayed versions of
the input signal, after they have been individually
weighted.

Figure 6.10 Transversal filter.

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University Zero-Forcing Equalization National Taiwan Ocean University

 The composite system depicted in Fig. 6.11:  The impulse response of the equalizer:
 The first subsystem characterized by the impulse N

response c(t) represents the combined action of the heq (t )   w  (t  kT )

k  N
k

transmit-filter and communication channel. N

 The second subsystem characterized by the impulse p (t )  c(t )  heq (t )  c(t )   w  (t  kT )

k  N
k

response heq(t) accounts for pulse shaping combined N N

with residual-distortion equalization in the receiver.   w c(t )   (t  kT )   w c(t  kT )
k  N
k
k  N
k

Figure 6.11 Simplified depiction of the scenario for solving the channel-
equalization problem.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The discrete convolution sum.  c0  c N 1 c N c N 1  c 2 N   w N   0 

N
 
             

p (iT )   wk c((i  k )T )
k  N
c N 1  c0 c1 c 2  c N 1   w1   0 
    
N
 cN  c1 c0 c1  c N   w0    E
pi  w c
k  N
k i k c N 1  c2 c1 c0  c N 1   w1   0 
    
 E, for i  0              
p i  p (iTb )   c  c N 1  c0   wN   0 
 2N c N 1 cN
 0, for i  1,2,..., N
 A transversal equalizer described by Eq. (6.42), or
N  E, i0 equivalently Eq. (6.43), is referred to as a zero-forcing
w c k ik 
equalizer, so called because the equalizer forces the
k  N  0, i  1,2,..., N
intersymbol interference to be zero at (2N + 1)
sampling instants of the received signal.

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

How Could the Receiver Determine the {ck}? 2. The PN sequence is known a priori to the receiver.
 This computation, presumes that the receiver already 3. Finally, knowing the transmitted PN sequence and
has knowledge of the set of coefficients {ck}. measuring the corresponding channel output, it is a
 A commonly used method of addressing this straight-forward matter for the receiver to estimate the
fundamental question is to use a pilot-assisted training sequence {ck} representing the sampled impulse
session that proceeds as follows: response of the transmit-filter and channel combined.
1. For the binary data sequence {bk} applied to the
transmitter input, use a deterministic sequence of 1s
and 0s that is noise-like in character, hence the
reference to this sequence as a pseudo-noise (PN)
sequence.
 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University Summary 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University Summary
 Baseband data transmission, for which the channel is of  The eye pattern portrays the degrading effects of timing
a low-pass type jitter, ISI, channel noise
 Band-pass data transmission, for which the channel is of  ISI is a signal-dependent phenomenon, it therefore

a band-pass type disappears when the information-bearing signal is

switched off.
 The intersymbol interference problem, which arises due
 Noise is always there, regardless of whether there is data
to imperfections in the frequency response of the channel
transmission or not.
 ISI refers to the effect on that pulse due to cross-talk or
 Another corrective measure for dealing with the ISI;
spillover from all other signal pulses in the data stream
applied to the channel input channel equalization
 A corrective measure widely used in practice is to shape
the overall pulse spectrum of the baseband system,
starting from the source of the message signal all the way
to the receiver.