EE7001 – High Voltage Engg

Nov-2018 Solution
Q.1 (a)
Solid insulating materials, and to a lesser extent liquid dielectrics contain voids or cavities within the
medium or at the boundaries between the dielectric and the electrodes. These voids are generally filled with
a medium of lower dielectric strength, and the dielectric constant of the medium in the voids is lower than
that of the insulation. Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that across the dielectric.
Therefore, even under normal working voltages the field in the voids may exceed their breakdown value,
and breakdown may occur.
Let us consider a dielectric between two conductors as shown in Fig. 4.5a. If we divide the insulation into
three parts, an electrical network of C1, C2, and C3 can be formed as shown in Fig. 4.5b. In this, C1
represents the capacitance of the void or cavity, C2 is the capacitance of the dielectric which is in series with
the void, and C3 is the capacitance of the rest of the dielectric. When the applied voltage is V, the voltage
across the void, V1 is given by the same Eq. (4.7a).

where d1 and d2 are the thickness of the void and the dielectric, respectively, having permittivities ε0 and
ε1. Usually d1 << d2, and if we assume that the cavity is filled with a gas, then where εr is the relative
permittivity ofthe dielectric.
When a voltage V is applied, V1 reaches the breakdown strength of the medium in the cavity (Vi) and
breakdown occurs. Vi is called the ‘discharge inception voltage’. When the applied voltage is ac, breakdown
occurs on both the half cycles and the number of discharges will depend on the applied voltage. The voltage
and the discharge current waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.6. When the first breakdown across the cavity
occurs the voltage across it becomes zero. When once the voltage V1 becomes zero, the spark gets
extinguished and again the voltage rises till breakdown occurs again. This process repeats again and again,
and current pulses as shown, will be obtained both in the positive and negative half cycles.

These internal discharges (also called partial discharges) will have the same effect as ‘treeing’ on the
insulation. When the breakdown occurs in the voids, electrons and positive ions are formed. They will have
sufficient energy and when they reach the void surfaces they may break the chemical bonds. Also, in each
discharge there will be some heat dissipated in the cavities, and this will carbonize the surface of the voids
and will cause erosion of the material. Channels and pits formed on the cavity surfaces increase the
conduction. Chemical degradation may also occur as a result of the active discharge products formed during
breakdown.
All these effects will result in a gradual erosion of the material and consequent reduction in the thickness of
insulation leading to breakdown. The life of the insulation with internal discharges depends upon the applied
voltage and the number of discharges. Breakdown by this process may occur in a few days or may take a
few years.

Q.1 (b)
The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent, on several factors, such as the nature and
condition of the electrodes, the physical properties of the liquid, and the impurities and gases present in the
liquid. Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in liquids, and they are classified as
follows:
(a) Suspended Particle Mechanism
(b) Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism
(c) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism
These are explained briefly below.

DIELECTRICS SUSPENDED PARTICLE THEORY

In commercial liquids, the presence of solid impurities cannot be avoided. These impurities will be
present as fibres or as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity of these particles (ε2) will be different from
the permittivity of the liquid (ε1). If we consider these impunities to be spherical particles of radius r, and if
the applied field is E, then the particles experience a force F, where
1    1 
F 3 2 gradE 2 (3.1)
2r 2 1   2
This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε2 > ε1, for example, in the case of the
presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present in the
liquid, i.e. ε2 < ε1, the force will be in the direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is continuously
applied (D.C.) or the duration of the voltage is long (A.C.), then this force drives the particles towards the
areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present is large, they become aligned due to these
forces, and thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the electrodes.
If there is only a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will give rise to local field
enhancement depending on its shape. If this field exceeds the breakdown strength of the liquid, local
breakdown will occur near the particle, and this will result in the formation of gas bubbles which may lead
to the breakdown of the liquid.
The vales of the breakdown strength of liquids containing solid impurities was found to be much less
than the values for pure liquids. The impurity particles reduce the breakdown strength, and it was also
observed that the larger the size of the particles the lower were the breakdown strengths.

ELECTRONIC BREAKDOWN
Both the field-emission and the field-enhanced thermionic emission mechanisms discussed earlier
have been considered responsible for the current at the cathode. Conduction studies in insulating liquids at
high fields show that most experimental data for current fits well the Schottky-type equation in which the
current is temperature dependent. Breakdown measurements carried out over a wide range of temperatures,
however, show little temperature dependence. This suggests that the cathode process is field-emission rather
than thermionic emission. It is possible that the return of positive ions and particularly positively charged
foreign particles to the cathode will cause local field enhancements and give rise to local electron emission.

Once the electron is injected into the liquid it gains energy from the applied field. In the electronic
theory of breakdown it is assumed that some electrons gain more energy from the field than they lose in
collisions with molecules. These electrons are accelerated until they gain sufficient energy to ionize
molecules on collisions and initiate avalanche.
 The condition for the onset of electron avalanche is obtained by equating the gain in energy of an
electron over its mean free path to that required for ionization of the molecule.
eEλ = chυ (6.13)
where E is the applied field, λ the electron mean free path, hυ the quantum of energy lost in ionizing the
molecule and c an arbitrary constant. Typical strengths for several highly pure liquids are included in Table
6.2.

CAVITY BREAKDOWN (BUBBLE’S THEORY)

Insulating liquids may contain gaseous inclusions in the form of bubbles. The processes by which
bubbles are formed include:
(i) Gas pockets on the electrode surface,
(ii) Changes in temperature and pressure,
(iii) Dissociation of products by electron collisions giving rise to gaseous products,
(iv) Liquid vaporization by corona-type discharges from points and irregularities on the electrodes.
The electric field in a spherical gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permittivity εliq is given by:
3E 0
Eb 
 liq  2
where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble. When the field Eb becomes equal to the
gaseous ionization field, discharge takes place which will lead to decomposition of the liquid and breakdown
may follow. Kao has developed a more accurate expression for the ‘bubble’ breakdown field strength which
is of the form
1/ 2
1  2 2 1   2    V  
E0     b   1 (6.25)
1   2  r  4  2rE 0  
  
where σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε1 and ε2 are the permittivities of the liquid and the bubble
respectively, r is the initial radius of the bubble (initially spherical, which is assumed to elongate under the
influence of the field), and Vb is the voltage drop in the bubble. This expression indicates that the critical
electric field strength required for breakdown of liquid depends upon the initial size of the bubble which is
affected by the external pressure and temperature. A strong dependence of liquid breakdown strength upon
the applied hydrostatic pressure has been observed experimentally.
Commercial insulating liquids cannot readily be subjected to highly elaborated purification
treatment, and the breakdown strength will usually depend upon the nature of impurities present.

ELECTRO-CONVECTION BREAKDOWN
It has been recognized that the electro-convection plays an important role in breakdown of insulating fluids
subjected to high voltages. When a highly pure insulating liquid is subjected to high voltage, electrical
conduction results from charge carriers injected into the liquid from the electrode surface. The resulting
space charge gives rise to coulombic forces which under certain conditions causes hydrodynamic instability,
yielding convecting current. It has been shown that the onset of instability is associated with a critical
voltage. As the applied voltage approaches the critical voltage, the motion at first exhibits a structure of
hexagonal cells and as the voltage is increased further the motion becomes turbulent. Thus, interaction
between the space charge and the electric field gives rise to forces creating an eddy motion of liquid. It has
been shown that when the voltage applied is near to breakdown value, the speed of the eddy motion is given
by νe=  2 /  where ρ is the density of liquid. In liquids, the ionic drift velocity is given by
νd = KE
where K is the mobility of ions.
 2
Let M e  / KE
d 

Thus, in the theory of electro-convection, M plays a dominant role. The charge transport will be largely by
liquid motion rather than by ionic drift. The criterion for instability is that the local flow velocity should be
greater than drift velocity.
The ratio M is usually greater than unity and sometimes much greater than unity (Table 1.4).
Table: 1.4
Medium Ion ε M
-
Air NTP O2 1.0 2.3x10-2
-
Ethanol Cl 2.5 26.5
+
Methanol H 33.5 4.1
-
Nitrobenzene Cl 35.5 22
Propylene Carbonate Cl- 69 51
+
Transformer Oil H 2.3 200

Q.1 (c) EXAMPLE 1.1 of C L WADHWA

Q.2 (a)
Power Transformers. For small rating, the coils are made of super-enamelled copper wire. For layer to
layer, coil to coil and coil to ground (iron core) craft paper is used. However, for large size transformers
paper or glass tape is rapped on the rectangular conductors whereas for coil to coil or coil to ground,
insulation is provided using thick radial spacers made of press board or glas fibre.
In oil-filled transformers, the transformer oil is the main insulation. However between various layers of low
voltage and high voltage winding oil-impregnated press boards are placed. SF6 gas insulated power
transformers make use of sheet aluminium conductors for windings and turn to turn insulation is provided by
a polymer film. The transformer has annular cooling ducts through which SF6 gas circulates for cooling the
winding. SF6 gas provides insulations to all major gaps in the transformer. This transformer is used where
oil filled transform is not suitable e.g., in cinema halls, high rise buildings and some especial circumstances:
The end turns of a large power transformer are provided with extra insulation to avoid damage to coil when
lighting or switching surges of high frequency are incident on the transformer winding.
The terminal bushings of large size power transformer are made of condenser type bushing. The terminal
itself consists of a brass rod or tube which is wound with alternate layers of treated paper and tin foil, so
proportioned, as to length, that the series of condensers formed by the tin foil cylinders and the intervening
insulation have equal capacitances, thereby the dielectric stress is distributed uniformly.

Transformer oil provides the required dielectric strength and insulation and also cools the transformer by
circulating itself through the core and the coil structure. The transformer oil, therefore, should be in the
liquid state over the complete operating range of temperatures between –40°C and +50°C. The oil gets
oxidized when exposed to oxygen at high temperatures, and the oxidation results in the formation of
peroxides, water, organic acids and sludge. These products cause chemical deterioration of the paper
insulation and the metal parts of the transformer. Sludge being heavy, reduces the heat transfer capabilities
of the oil, and also forms as a heat insulating layer on the coil structure, the core and the tank walls.

Q.2 (b)
HVDC- VOLTAGE DOUBLER CIRCUIT
Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits produce a D.C. voltage less than the A.C. maximum
voltage. When higher D.C. voltages are needed, a voltage doubler or cascaded rectifier doubler circuits are
used. The schematic diagram of voltage doublers are given in Figs. 6.3a and b. In voltage doubler circuit
shown in Fig. 6.3a, the condenser C1 is charged through rectifier R to a voltage of +Vmax with polarity as
shown in the figure during the negative half cycle. As the voltage of the transformer rises to positive Vmax
during the next half cycle, the potential of the other terminal of C1 rises to a voltage of +2Vmax.
Thus, the condenser C2 in turn is charged through R2 to 2Vmax. Normally the D.C. output voltage on
load will be less than 2Vmax, depending on the time constant C2RL and the forward charging time constants.
The ripple voltage of these circuits will be about 2% for R L/r ≤ 10 and X/r ≤ 0.25, where X and r are the
reactance and resistance of the input transformer. The rectifiers are rated to a peak inverse voltage of 2Vmax,
and the condensers C1 and C2 must also have the same rating. If the load current is large, the ripple also is
more.
Cascaded voltage doublers are used when larger output voltages are needed without changing the
input transformer voltage level. A typical voltage doubler is shown in Fig. 6.3b and its input and output
waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.3(c). The rectifiersR1 and R2 with transformer T1 and condensers C1 and C2
produce an output voltage of 2V in the same way as described above. This circuit is duplicated and
connected in series or cascade to obtain a further voltage doubling to 4V. T is an isolating transformer to
give insulation for 2Vmax since the transformer T2 is at a potential of 2Vmax above the ground. The voltage
distribution along the rectifier string R1, R2, R3 and R4 is made uniform by having condensers C1, C2, C3 and
C4 of equal values. The arrangement may be extended to give 6V, 8V, and so on by repeating further stages
with suitable isolating transformers. In all the voltage doubler circuits, if valves are used, the filament
transformers have to be suitably designed and insulated, as all the cathodes will not be at the same potential
from ground. The arrangement becomes cumbersome if more than 4V is needed with cascaded steps.

Fig. 6.2 Input and output waveforms of half and full wave rectifiers
(a) Input sine wave (b) Output with half wave rectifier and condenser filter
(c) Output with full wave rectifier and condenser filter (d) Vmax, Vmean and ripple voltage and 8V with condenser filter of a full wave
rectifier

(1) A.C. input voltage waveform, (2) A.C. output voltage waveform without condenser filter,
(3) A.C. output voltage waveform with condenser filter
Fig. 6.3 Voltage doubler circuits
T1, T2 - H.V. transformers; R1, R2, R3, R4 - rectifiers;
C1, C2, C3- condensers; RL - Load resistance; T- Isolating transformer
COCK CROFT- WALTON TYPE HIGH VOLTAGE DC SET

In 1932, Cockroft and Walton suggested an improvement over the circuit developed by Greinacher
for producing high D.C. voltages. Fig. 2.3 shows a multistage single phase cascade circuit of the Cockroft-
Walton type.
No Load Operation: The portion ABM′MA is exactly indentical to Greinarcher voltage doubler
circuit and the voltage across C becomes 2Vmax when M attains a voltage 2Vmax. During the next half cycle
when B becomes positive with respect to A, potential of M falls and, therefore, potential of N also falls
becoming less than potential at M′ hence C2 is charged through D2. Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3,
C1, C2, and C3 are charged. The voltage across the column of capacitors consisting of C 1, C2, C3, keeps on
oscillating as the supply voltage alternates. This column, therefore, is known as oscillating column.
However, the voltage across the capacitances C′1, C′2, C′3, remains constant and is known as smoothening
column. The voltages at M′, N′, and O′ are 2V max, 4Vmax and 6Vmax. Therefore, voltage across all the
capacitors is 2Vmax except for C1 where it is Vmax only. The total output voltage is 2nVmax where n is the
number of stages. Thus, the use of multistages arranged in the manner shown enables very high voltage to be
obtained. The equal stress of the elements (both capacitors and diodes) used is very helpful and promotes a
modular design of such generators.
Generator Loaded: When the generator is loaded, the output voltage will never reach the value
2nVmax. Also, the output wave will consist of ripples on the voltage. Thus, we have to deal with two
quantities, the voltage drop ∆V and the ripple δV.
Suppose a charge q is transferred to the load per cycle. This charge is q = 1/f = 1T. The charge comes
from the smoothening column, the series connection of C′1, C′2, and C′3. If no charge were transferred during
T from this stack via D1, D2, D3, to the oscillating column, the peak to peak ripple would merely be
n
1
2V  1T  (2.6)
n  0 Ci '
But in practice charges are transferred.
Cascade generators of Cockcroft – Walton type are used and manufactured today worldwide. The
D.C. voltages produced with this circuit may range from some 10 kV up to more than 2 MV, with current
ratings from some 10 µA up to some 100 mA. Supply frequencies of 50/60 Hz are heavily limiting the
efficiency, and therefore higher frequencies up to about 1000 Hz (produced by single-phase alternators) or
some 10 kHz (produced by electronic circuits) are dominating.
Q.2 (c)
IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF HIGH VOLTAGE
Important applications of High Voltage are:
i. Transmission of high power across long distance with very little power loss.
ii. High voltage is needed when we use high power equipments (industrial and medical instruments)
as high current is difficult to generate and high voltage source is easily available (3-ph AC or
high voltage DC transmission lines).
iii. As it is easy to convert High value power into lower values using transformers and voltage
dividers to get desired value so high voltages are used in industry.
iv. Generation of high D.C. voltages is required in research work in the areas of pure and applied
physics.
v. High direct voltages are needed in insulation tests on cables and capacitors.
vi. Impulse generator charging units also require high D.C. voltages of about 100 to 200 kV.
vii. For the generation of D.C. voltages of up to 100 kV, electronic valve rectifiers are used and the
output currents are about 100 mA.

The reasons for adopting of EHV/UHV range for transmission purposes are given below:
1. Reduction of Electrical Losses, Increase in Transmission Efficiency, Improvement of Voltage
Regulation and Reduction in Conductor Material Requirement:
For transmission of given amount of power over a given distance through the conductors of a given material
and at a given power factor as the transmission voltage increases,
(a) Line losses are reduced since line losses are inversely proportional to the transmission voltage,
(b) Transmission efficiency increases because of reduction in line losses,
(c) Voltage regulation is improved because of reduction of percentage line drop, and
(d) Lesser conductor material is required being inversely proportional to the square of transmission voltage.
2. Economic considerations have led to the construction of power stations of large capacity and so need of
transfer of bulk power over long distances arose. Transmission of bulk power from generating stations to the
load centres is technically and economically feasible only at voltages in the EHV/UHV range.
3. Generating stations (Steam-, hydro- and nuclear-power stations) are located in remote areas (far away
from load centres) because of the reasons of economy, feasibility and from the point of view of safety and
environmental conditions. EHV transmission is, therefore, inevitable for transmission of huge blocks of
power over long distances from these power plants to load centres.
4. Flexibility for Future System Growth:
There is flexibility of future system growth.
5. Increase in Transmission Capacity of the Line:
Power transferred is expressed as:

where VS and VR are the two terminal voltages, δ is the load angle and X is
the line reactance.
Thus the power transmission capacity of a transmission line increases with
the increase in transmission voltage. No doubt the cost of transmission line
and terminal equipment also increases with the increase in the
transmission voltage but in general these costs are proportional to the
transmission voltage rather than the square of the transmission voltage.
Moreover there is also a saving in cost due to reduction in energy losses
occurring in transmission lines. As a consequence the total cost of trans-
mission decreases with the increase in transmission voltage, as depicted in
Fig. 13.1.
6. Possibility of Interconnections of Power Systems:
It is practically not possible to have interconnections of two or more power systems, which is necessary to
achieve sharing of installed reserves and for development of integrated systems and grids, without EHV
transmission.
7. Increase of Surge Impedance Loading:
Load carrying capability of a line is usually expressed in terms of “surge impedance loading” (SIL). Surge
impedance loading (SIL) is the power that a line carries when each phase is terminated by a load equal to the
surge impedance of the line.
For a transmission line, the surge impedance is given as ZC = √L/C where L and C are respectively the series
inductance and shunt capacitance per unit length. The surge impedance loading (SIL), for a transmission line
is given as 3V2/ZC where V is the line-to-neutral voltage.
It is evident that SIL varies as the square of the operating voltage, and, therefore, with the increase in voltage
level, SIL itself increases. Thus power transfer capability of the line increases with the increase in voltage
level.
The surge impedance of a line can be determined from its conductor configuration. The approximate values
of surge impedances for lines with single, double, triple and quadruple conductors are 400, 300, 280 and 260
ohms respectively.

Q.3 (a)
E. Marx suggested a multiplier circuit which is commonly used to obtain impulse voltages with as high a
peak value as possible for a given D.C. charging voltage.
Depending upon the charging voltage available and the output voltage required a number of identical
impulse capacitors are charged in parallel and then discharged in series, thus obtaining a multiplied total
charging voltage corresponding to the number of stages. Fig. 3.7 shows a 3-stage impulse generator circuit
due to Marx employing ‘b’ circuit connections. The impulse capacitors C1 are charged to the charging
voltage V0 through the high charging resistors RC in parallel. When all the gaps G break down, the C1′
capacitances are connected in series so that C2 is charged through the series connection of all the wave front
resistances R1′ and finally all C1′ and C2 will discharge through the resistors R2′ and R1′. Usually RC >>
R2 >> R1.
If in Fig. 3.7 the wave tail resistors R2′ in each stage are connected in parallel to the series
combination of R1′, G and C1′, an impulse generator of type circuit ‘a’ is obtained.

In order that the Marx circuit operates consistently it is essential to adjust the distances between
various sphere gaps such that the first gap G1 is only slightly less than that of G2 and so on. If is also
necessary that the axes of the gaps G be in the same vertical plane so that the ultraviolet radiations due to
spark in the first gap G, will irradiate the other gaps. This ensures a supply of electrons released from the
gap electrons to initiate breakdown during the short period when the gaps are subjected to overvoltages.
The wave front control resistance can have three possible locations (i) entirely within the generator
(ii) entirely outside the generator (iii) partly within and partly outside the generator.
The first arrangement is unsatisfactory as the inductance and capacitance of the external leads and the load
form an oscillatory circuit which requires to be damped by an external resistance. The second arrangement is
also unsatisfactory as a single external front resistance will have to withstand, even though for a very short
time, the full rated voltage and therefore, will turn out to be inconveniently long and would occupy much
space.

Q.3 (b)
Coulomb’s law defines the electrical field as a field of forces, and since electrical fields may be
produced by voltages, the measurement of voltages can be related to a force measurement. In 1884 Lord
Kelvin suggested a design for an electrostatic voltmeter based upon this measuring principle. If the field is
produced by the voltage V between a pair of parallel plane disc electrodes, the force F on an area A of the
electrode, for which the field gradient E is the same across the area and perpendicular to the surface, can be
calculated from the derivative of the stored electrical energy Wel taken in the field direction (x). Since each
volume element Adx contains the same stored energy dWel  E 2 Adx / 2 , the attracting force F  dWel / dx
becomes
AE 2 A 2
F   V , (3.7)
2 2S 2
Where ε = permittivity of the insulating medium and S = gap length between the parallel plane electrodes.
The attracting force is always positive independent of the polarity of the voltage. If the voltage is not
constant, the force is also time dependent. Then the mean value of the force is used to measure the voltage,
thus:
T
A 1 T 2 A
F (t )dt  2  (t )dt  2 Vr .m.s.  ,
1

2
(3.8)
T0 2S T 0 2S
where T is a proper integration time. Thus, electrostatic voltmeters are r.m.s.-indicating instruments.
The design of most of the realized instruments is arranged such that one of the electrodes or a part of
it is allowed to move. By this movement, the electrical field will slightly change which in general can be
neglected. Besides differences in the construction of the electrode arrangements, the various voltmeters
differ in the use of different methods of restoring forces required to balance the electrostatic attraction; these
can be a suspension of the moving electrode on one arm of a balance or its suspension on a spring or the use
of a pendulous or torsional suspension. The small movement is generally transmitted and amplified by a
spotlight and mirror system, but many other systems have also been used. If the movement of the electrode
is prevented or minimized and the field distribution can exactly be calculated, the electrostatic measuring
device can be used for absolute voltage measurements, since the calibration can be made in terms of the
fundamental quantities of length and forces.
The paramount advantage is the extremely low loading effect, as only electrical fields have to be
built up. The atmospheric air, high-pressure gas or even high vacuum between the electrodes provide very
high resistivity, and thus the active power losses are mainly due to the resistance of insulating materials used
elsewhere. The measurement of voltages lower than about 50 V is, however, not possible, as the forces
become too small.
The measuring principle displays no upper frequency limit. The load inductance and the electrode
system capacitance, however, form a series resonant circuit, thus limiting the frequency range. For small
voltmeters the upper frequency is generally in the order of some MHz.
An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, without appreciable oscillations, rises rapidly to a maximum
value and falls more or less rapidly to zero. The maximum value is called the peak value of the impulse and the
impulse voltage is specified by this value. Small oscillations are tolerated, provided that their amplitude is less than
5% of the peak value of the impulse voltage.

Q.3 (c) CL WADHWA EXAMPLE 2.1

Q.4 (a)
A porcelain bushing (Fig. 7.40) contains a number of series gaps, coil units and the V-I valve elements of
the non-linear resistance material usually made of silicon carbide disc, the latter possessing low resistance to
high currents and high resistance to low currents. The characteristic is usually expressed as I = KVn where n
lies between 2 and 6 and K is constant, a function of the geometry and dimension of the resistor. The non
linear characteristic is attributed to the properties of the electrical contacts between the grains of silicon
carbide. The discs are 90 mm in dia and 25 mm thick. A grading ring or a high resistance is connected
across the disc so that the system voltage is evenly distributed over the discs. The high resistance keeps the
inner assembly dry due to some heat generated.

Figure 7.41 shows the volt-ampere characteristics of a non-linear resistance of the required type. The closed
curve represents the dynamic characteristic corresponding to the application of a voltage surge whereas the
dotted line represents the static characteristic. The voltage corresponding to the horizontal tangent to the
dynamic characteristic is known as the residual voltage (IR drop) and is the peak value of the voltage during
the discharge of the surge current. This voltage varies from 3 kV to 6 kV depending upon the type of arrester
i.e., whether station or line type, the magnitude and wave shape of the discharge current. The spark gaps are
so designed that they give an impulse ratio of unity to the surge diverter and as a result they are unable to
interrupt high values of current and the follow up currents are limited to 20 to 30 A. The impulse breakdown
strength of a diverter is smaller than the residual voltage, and therefore, from the point of view of insulation
co-ordination residual voltage decides the protection level.

Q.4 (b)
The making and breaking of electric circuits with switchgear may result in abnormal overvoltages in power
systems having large inductances and capacitances. The overvoltages may go as high as six times the normal
power frequency voltage. In circuit breaking operation, switching surges with a high rate of rise of voltage
may cause repeated restriking of the arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker, thereby causing
destruction of the circuit breaker contacts. The switching surges may include high natural frequencies of the
system, a damped normal frequency voltage component, or the restriking and recovery voltage ofthe system
with successive reflected waves from terminations.

Characteristics of Switching Surges

The waveshapes of switching surges are quite different and may have origin from any ofthe following
sources.
(i) De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, capacitor banks, banks, etc.
(ii) Disconnection ofunloaded transformers, reactors, etc.
(iii) Energization or reclosing oflines and reactive loads
(iv) Sudden switching offofloads
(v) Short circuits and fault clearances
(vi) Resonance phenomenon like ferro-resonance, arcing grounds, etc.
Typical waveshapes ofthe switching surges are given in Figs 8.16a to e.

Q.4 (c)
A uniform field spark gap will always have a sparkover voltage within a known tolerance under
constant atmospheric conditions. Hence a spark gap can be used for measurement of the peak value of the
voltage, if the gap distance is known. A sparkover voltage of 30 kV (peak) at 1 cm spacing in air at 200C and
760 torr pressure occurs for a sphere gap or any uniform field gap. But experience has shown that these
measurements are reliable only for certain gap configurations. Normally, only sphere gaps are used for
voltage measurements. In certain cases uniform field gaps and rod gaps are also used, but their accuracy is
less. The spark gap breakdown, especially the sphere gap breakdown, is independent of the voltage
waveform and hence is highly suitable for all types of waveforms from D.C. to impulse voltages of short rise
times (rise time ≥ 0.5μs). As such, sphere gaps can be used for radio frequency A.C. voltage peak
measurements also (up to 1 MHz).
Sphere Gap Measurements
Sphere gaps can be arranged either (i) vertically with
lower sphere grounded, or (ii) horizontally with both spheres
connected to the source voltage or one sphere grounded. In
horizontal configurations, it is generally arranged such that both
spheres are symmetrically at high voltage above the ground. The
two spheres used are identical in size and shape. The schematic
arrangement is shown in Figs. 7.18a and 7.18b. The voltage to be
measured is applied between the two spheres and the distance or
spacing S between them gives a measure of the sparkover voltage.
A series resistance is usually connected between the source and
the sphere gap to (i) limit the breakdown current, and (ii) to
suppress unwanted oscillations in the source voltage when breakdown occurs (in case of impulse voltages).
The value of the series resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 kilo ohms for A.C. or D.C. voltages and not
more than 500Ω in the case of impulse voltages.
In the case of A.C. peak value and D.C. voltage measurements, the applied voltage is uniformly
increased until sparkover occurs in the gap. Generally, a mean of about five breakdown values is taken when
they agree to within ± 3%.
In the case of impulse voltages, to obtain 50% flashover voltage, two voltage limits, differing by not
more than 2% are set such that on application of lower limit value either 2 or 4 flashovers take place or on
application of upper limit value 8 or 6 flashovers take place respectively. The mean of these two limits is
taken as 50% flashover voltage. In any case, a preliminary sparkover voltage measurement is to be made
before actual measurements are made.
Sphere gaps are made with two metal spheres of identical diameters D with their shanks, operating
gear, and insulator supports (Fig. 7.18a or b). Spheres are
generally made of copper, brass, or aluminum; the latter is used
due to low cost the standard diameters for the spheres are 2, 5,
6.25, 10, 12.5, 15, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150 and 200 cm. The spacing
is so designed and chosen such that flashover occurs near the
sparking point P. The spheres are carefully designed and
fabricated so that their surfaces are smooth and the curvature is
uniform. The radius of curvature measured with a spherometer at
various points over an area enclosed by a circle of 0.3 D around
the sparking point should not differ by more than ±2% of the
nominal value. The surface of the sphere should be free from
dust, grease, or any other coating. The surface should be
maintained clean but need not be polished. If excessive pitting occurs due to repeated sparkovers, they
should be smoothened. The dimensions of the shanks used, the grading ring used (if necessary) with spheres,
the ground clearances, etc. should follow the values indicated in Figs. 7.18a and 7.18b and Table 7.5. The
high voltage conductor should be arranged such that it does not affect the field configuration. Series
resistance connected should be outside the
shanks at a distance 2D away from the high
voltage sphere or the sparking point P.
Irradiation of sphere gap is needed
when measurements of voltages less than
50kV are made with sphere gaps of 10 cm
diameter or less. The irradiation may be
obtained from a quartz tube mercury vapour
lamp of 40 W rating. The lamp should be at a
distance B or more as indicated in Table 7.5.

Q.5 (a)
Bushings are an integral component of high voltage machines. A bushing is used to bring high voltage
conductors through the grounded tank or body of the electrical equipment without excessive potential
gradients between the conductor and the edge of the hole in the body. The bushing extends into the surface
of the oil at one end and the other end is carried above the tank to a height sufficient to prevent breakdown
due to surface leakage.
Following tests are carried out on bushings:
(i) Power Factor Test The bushing is installed as in service or immersed in oil. The high voltage terminal of
the bushing is connected to high voltage terminal of the Schering Bridge and the tank or earth portion of the
bushing is connected to the detector of the bridge. The capacitance and p.f. of the bushing is measured at
different voltages as specified in the relevant specification and the capacitance and p.f. should be within the
range specified.
(ii) Impulse Withstand Test The bushing is subjected to impulse waves of either polarity and magnitude as
specified in the standard specification. Five consecutive full waves of standard wave form (1/50 µ sec.) are
applied and if two of them cause flash over, the bushing is said to be defective. If only one flash over occurs,
ten additional applications are made. If no flash over occurs, bushing is said to have passed the test.
(iii) Chopped Wave and Switching Surge Test Chopped wave and switching surge of appropriate duration
tests are carried out on high voltage bushings. The procedure is identical to the one given in (ii) above.
(iv) Partial Discharge Test In order to determine whether there is deterioration or not of the insulation used
in the bushing, this test is carried out. The procedure is explained in detail in Chapter-VI. The shape of the
discharge is an indication of nature and severity of the defect in the bushing. This is considered to be a
routine test for high voltage bushings.
(v) Visible Discharge Test at Power Frequency The test is carried out to ascertain whether the given
bushing will give rise to ratio interference or not during operation. The test is carried out in a dark room. The
voltage as specified is applied to the bushing (IS 2099). No discharge other than that from the grading rings
or arcing horns should be visible.
(vi) Power Frequency Flash Over or Puncture Test (Under Oil): The bushing is either immersed fully in
oil or is installed as in service condition. This test is carried out to ascertain that the internal breakdown
strength of the bushing is 15% more than the power frequency momentary dry withstand test value.

Q.5 (b)
Impulse Testing of Transformer - The impulse level of
a transformer is determined by the breakdown voltage
of its minor insulation (Insulation between turn and
between windings), breakdown voltage of its major
insulation (insulation between windings and tank) and
the flash over voltage of its bushings or a combination
of these. The impulse characteristics of internal
insulation in a transformer differs from flash over in air
in two main respects. Firstly the impulse ratio of the
transformer insulation is higher (varies from 2.1 to 2.2) than that of bushing (1.5 for bushings, insulators
etc.).
Secondly, the impulse breakdown of transformer
insulation in practically constant and is independent of
time of application of impulse voltage. Fig. 5.1 shows
that after three micro seconds the flash over voltage is
substantially constant. The voltage stress between the
turns of the same winding and between different
windings of the transformer depends upon the steepness
of the surge wave front. The voltage stress may further
get aggravated by the piling up action of the wave if the length of the surge wave is large. In fact, due to
high steepness of the surge waves, the first few turns of the winding are overstressed and that is why extra
insulation to the first few turns of the winding is provided. Fig. 5.2 shows the equivalent circuit of a
transformer winding for impulse voltage.

Here C1 represents inter-turn capacitance and C2 capacitance between winding and the ground (tank). In
order that the minor insulation will be able to withstand the impulse voltage, the winding is subjected to
chopped impulse wave of higher peak voltage than the full wave. This chopped wave is produced by flash
over of a rod gap or bushing in parallel with the transformer insulation. The chopping time is usually 3 to 6-
micro seconds. While impulse voltage is applied between one phase and ground, high voltages would be
induced in the secondary of the transformer. To avoid this, the secondary windings are short-circuited and
finally connected to ground. The short circuiting, however, decreases the impedance of the transformer and
hence poses problem in adjusting the wave front and wave tail timings of wave. Also, the minimum value of
the impulse capacitance required is given by

where P = rated MVA of the transformer Z = per cent impedance of transformer. V = rated voltage of
transformer.

Fig. 5.3 shows the arrangement of the transformer for impulse testing. CRO forms an integral part of the
transformer impulse testing circuit. It is required to record to wave forms of the applied voltage and current
through the winding under test.
Impulse testing consists of the following steps:
(i) Application of impulse of magnitude 75% of the
Basic Impulse Level (BIL) of the transformer under
test.
(ii) One full wave of 100% of BIL.
(iii) Two chopped wave of 115% of BIL.
(iv) One full wave of 100% BIL and
(v) One full wave of 75% of BIL.
During impulse testing the fault can be located by
general observation like noise in the tank or smoke
or bubble in the breather. If there is a fault, it
appears on the Oscilloscope as a partial of complete collapse of the applied voltage.

Q5 (c)
Dielectric Tests
The general dielectric characteristics of any circuit breaker or switchgear unit depend upon the basic design
i.e. clearances, bushing materials, etc. upon correctness and accuracy in assembly and upon the quality of
materials used. For a C.B. these factors are checked from the viewpoint of their ability to withstand over
voltages at the normal service voltage and abnormal voltages during lightning or other phenomenon.
The test voltage is applied for a period of one minute between (i) phases with the breaker closed, (ii) phases
and earth with C.B. open, and (iii) across the terminals with breaker open. With this the breaker must not
flash over or puncture. These tests are normally made on indoor switchgear. For such C.Bs the impulse tests
generally are unnecessary because it is not exposed to impulse voltage of a very high order. The high
frequency switching surges do occur but the effect of these in cable systems used for indoor switchgear are
found to be safely withstood by the switchgear if it has withstood the normal frequency test.
Since the outdoor switchgear is electrically exposed, they will be subjected to over voltages caused by
lightning. The effect of these voltages is much more serious than the power frequency voltages in service.
Therefore, this class of switchgear is subjected in addition to power frequency tests, the impulse voltage
tests.
The test voltage should be a standard 1/50 µ sec wave, the peak value of which is specified according to the
rated voltage of the breaker. A higher impulse voltage is specified for non-effectively grounded system than
those for solidly grounded system. The test voltages are applied between (i) each pole and earth in turn with
the breaker closed and remaining phases earthed, and (ii) between all terminals on one side of the breaker
and all the other terminals earthed, with the breaker open. The specified voltages are withstand values i.e.
the breaker should not flash over for 10 applications of the wave.
Normally this test is carried out with waves of both the polarities. The wet dielectric test is used for outdoor
switchgear. In this, the external insulation is sprayed for two minutes while the rated service voltage is
applied; the test overvoltage is then maintained for 30 seconds during which no flash over should occur. The
effect of rain on external insulation is partly beneficial, insofar as the surface is thereby cleaned, but is also
harmful if the rain contains impurities.