Death Meditation For Internal Alchemists

Emergency Death Meditations for Internal Alchemists
Author(s): Stephen Eskildsen

Source: T'oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 92, Fasc. 4/5 (2006), pp. 373-409
Published by: Brill
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EMERGENCY DEATH MEDITATIONS FOR
INTERNAL ALCHEMISTS
BY
STEPHEN ESKILDSEN
(The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga)
Introduction
When strivingupon a religiouspath of self-cultivation,how should

one deal with the prospect of imminent physical death? Certainly,
one ought to be able to accept death with equanimity, if not joy,
if one feels that one's striving has guaranteed the desired state of
salvation. However, death does not always wait until such a state of
self-assuranceis reached. What, then, can one do? If one's notion of
salvationis a state of redemptionand eternallife grantedby a supreme
being, one will most likely take recourse to prayer, repentance, or
sacrament in hope of divine mercy. If one believes in a more self-
reliantapproachtoward salvation,and fearsobtainingan evil rebirth
as dictatedby the principlesof karmaand samsara, one would probably
try to mitigate the damage at the last moment by keeping the mind
as pure as possible.
What should one do, however, if one is willing to settle for nothing
less than an eternal life unbound by the laws of karmaaltogether?
Furthermore,what if one believes-as do Taoist internalalchemists-
that this goal requiresthe dual refinementof both mind and body? In
such a case, one might perhapstry to hold on more tenaciouslyto the
body, or devise special tactics to avoid passing into a disembodiedor
subhumanstate.This essaywill examinea few such measuresendorsed
by at least some Taoists, whose views are primarily represented in
earlyinternalalchemicaltexts. These Taoists appearto have endorsed
and practiced techniques of emergency death meditation by which
they hoped to "enter the womb", "change the dwelling", "repel the
killer demons", or "flee the numbers".
Internal alchemy (neidanPgF), the predominantmethod of Taoist
C)Brill, Leiden, 2006 T'oungPao XCII

Also available online - www.brill.nl
374 STEPHEN ESKILDSEN
meditation from the Song period onward, typically entails the creation
(or more properly speaking, recovery) of an inner immortal Spirit'
that can travel at will outside the body before and after physical
death. This Spirit is referred to by various terms, such as "Golden
Elixir" (jindaniB), "Single Numinous Real Nature" (yilingzhenxing
or "Radiant Spirit" (yangshenWF$); the last of these terms
alludes to the notion that the Spirit, through the internal alchemical
process, has attained full maturity and power, and is pureyang in its
constitution.2
The internal alchemical process involves both body and mind.
Through a combination of prescribed postures and movements,
breathing methods, saliva-swallowing, mental concentration and
visualization, all of which is grounded on a lifestyle of purity and
self-discipline, the adept replenishes, circulates, combines and refines
his/her basic "ingredients" namely, essence (jing g), energy (qi i)
and spirit (shen14).At the rudimentary stages, where the procedures
tend to be more complicated, the adept aims to achieve perfect
health for the body, after which he/she will move on to advanced
procedures, typically less complicated but quite arduous, designed
to "conceive" the inner Spirit (or "baby") and bring it to maturity.
In the late stages the Spirit is transferred from the abdomen (the
"womb") into the head, and from this point the adept can begin
to send the Spirit out from the head on journeys outside the body.
Initially the Spirit can only travel a few "steps" out of the body,
1 I capitalizethe word "spirit"so as to designatea singular,unifiedconsciousness/

life force that survives and emerges from the flesh. I do so in order better to
distinguishit from the concept of the thousandsof spiritssaid by the Taoist tradition
to inhabit the body during life. The Spirit is completed (or restored) by bringing
all the spirits together.
2 The meditation method is called "internal alchemy" because the psycho-
physical procedures and phenomena that unfold in the mind and body of the
practitionerare said to be analogous to the procedures and chemical reactions that
take place in laboratory alchemy (waidanX1r, "external alchemy"). Neidantexts
draw heavily on the abstruse terminology employed in the more ancient waidan
materials. The best and most comprehensive study of Chinese alchemy (external
and internal) in English is Joseph Needham, Scienceand Civilization in China, vol. 5,
nos. 2, 4 and 5 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1974, 1981 and 1983).
A good history and introduction to the art of neidanis Isabelle Robinet, Introduction
a l'alchimieinterieuretaoaste:de l'uniti et de la multiplicite(Paris: Le Cerf, 1995). Another
excellent discussion, with particular emphasis on women's practices, is found in
Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn, Womenin Daoism(Cambridge, MA: Three
Pines Press, 2003), pp. 177-243.
EMERGENCY DEATH MEDITATIONS FOR INTERNAL ALCHEMISTS 375
but after some period of time it becomes able to travel enormous

distances. Simultaneously, the countenance of the Spirit by this stage
the adept should experience visions, and is not merely engaging in
active imagination gradually grows from that of an infant, ultimately
into a luminous replica of the adept's full-grown physical body.3
Taoist hagiography is filled with feats of multi-location, clairvoyance
and other miracles performed before and after death by internal
alchemists reputed to have thus completed the Radiant Spirit.4 The
Radiant Spirit, by virtue of being pure yang, is deemed capable if
it so wishes of making itself visible to the eyes of ordinary people
and of taking on corporeal traits such as physical solidity or the
functions of eating and drinking.5 In contrast, an immature, yin
Spirit cannot manifest itself or bear any corporeal traits if it ventures
outside the physical body. The Zhonglii chuandaoji Jgf4 and
See for example Zhenlonghu jiuxianjing A'LJtY{LU (DZ227/TT112), lOb-

11a; "Taibai huandan pian" A;EtR5g in DaoshuL (DZ 1017/TT641-648),
27/lOa-l ib; Chenxianshengneidanjue Wq;Hf3 (DZ1096/TT743), lib; Xishan
qunxianhuizhenji - (DZ246/TT 116), 5/8b- 1Oa; BichuanZhengyang
zhenrenlingbaobzfa ' (DZ 1191/TT874), 3/8b-12a; Dadanzhizhi
H (DZ244/TT 115), 8b-9b. (The DZ number denotes the number by which
the text is catalogued in Kristofer Schipper and Franciscus Verellen eds., 7The
TaoistCanon:A HistoricalCompanion to theDaozang [Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2004]; the TT number denotes the fascicle in which the text is found in
the 1926 Commercial Press [Shanghai] edition of the Taoist Canon.) See also the
discussionsin Eskildsen,"AeidanMaster Chen Pu's Nine Stages of Transformation",
Monumenta Serica,no. 49 (2001), pp. 1-31; Eskildsen, T7heTeachingsandPracticesof the
EarlyQuanzhenTaoistMasters (Albany:State University of New York Press, 2004),
pp. 93-94; and Despeux and Kohn, pp. 237-241.
4 Tales of this sort from the Song period can be found in abundance in Zhao
Daoyi St (fl. Ca. 1294-1304) comp., Lishizhenxiantidaotong/ian ff.
X (DZ296/TT139-148),juan nos. 47-52. On such tales within the early Quanzhen
tradition, see Eskildsen, Teachings andPractices,pp. 121-126.
5 This belief is clearly reflected in the Chunyangdjunshenhuamiaotongji,,f Wi
tP{L4fktd (DZ305/TT159), an early 14th_century compilationof storiesconcerning
the legendaryinternalalchemist/ immortalLu Yan. There we find an episode where
Lu Yan and the spiritof a deceased Buddhistmonk visit a home where a vegetarian
feast is being held. Lu Yan is fed immediately, but has to ask for another serving
for the Buddhist spirit, whom the hosts are unable to see. Lu Yan ends up eating
both servings himself, since the Buddhist spirit is incapable of eating his (3/1 la-
12a). A similar story about the famous internal alchemist Zhang Boduan mfnxmis
found in Lishizhenxiantidaotong/ian,49/7b- 11a. There we are told about a contest
held between Zhang Boduan and a friendly Buddhist monk. Both men entered
into trance and sent out their Spirit from Sichuan to Yangzhou. Zhang Boduan
then proposed that they each pluck a flower and bring it back as a souvenir of
their journey. The monk complied, but when they both came out of trance back
in Sichuan, only Zhang Boduan was holding a flower.
BichuanZhengyangzhenrenlingbaobifa (ca. 11th c.), both important texts

of the influential Zhong-Lu internal alchemical tradition,6 state as
follows:
Lu [Yan]7 said, "What are these 'Ghost Immortals' (guixian)that you refer
to?"
Zhong[i Quan]8 said, "Ghost Immortals constitute the lowest of the five
grades of immortals. They have become emancipated from within the yin
(the insufficiently trained body), and their spiritual image is not bright. Their
surnames are not found in the Ghost Pass, and their name is absent from the
Three Mountains. Although they do not enter samsara, they have difficulty
returning to Peng and Ying (islands of the immortals). In the end they have
no place to return to, and can only enter into a womb (toutai) or take up a
dwelling (jiushe)."
Lu said, "Ghost Immortals such as these; what technique or exercise do
they employ to bring about this?"
Zhong said, "Practitioners, without understanding the Great Tao, nonethe-
less desire to attain [their immortality] quickly. They make their bodies like
6 Beginning probably in
the 1oth or 11 th century there emerged a lore concerning
two immortals named Zhongli Quan i1M and Lu Yan go, along with a corpus of
neidanteachings purportedly taught and practiced by them. The history of the move-
ment that propagated this lore and teachings (e.g., when it originated and who partici-
pated in it) is still very murky. Three of the principal texts of this "Zhong-Lui neidan
tradition" are Zhong-Liichuandaoji f (In Xiuzhen shishu XA+
, [DZ263/
TT 122-13 1], juan 14-16), BichuanZhengyangzhenrenlingbaobzfa,and Xishan qunxianhui-
zhenji.
7 Lu Yan (sobriquet, Chunyang ,$t; style name, Dongbin iW-j)is probably the
most revered Taoist immortal from the Song period onward. While his historicity is
uncertain, hagiographical records indicate that he was born at the end of the eighth
century. Various internal alchemical writings are supposed to have come through his
hands, and hagiographies are full of his miraculous feats. He is also an important
deity among popular spirit-writing cults. The already-mentioned Chunyangdjun shen-
hua miaotongji(DZ305/TT159), an early 14th century text compiled by a Quanzhen
monk named Miao Shanshi Pq , records in detail his conversion and tutelage un-
der Zhongli Quan, and presents over a hundred stories of his subsequent miracles and
exploits. Accounts of his life are also given in Zhao Daoyi, Lishi zhenxiantidaotong/ian,
in the Jinlian zhengzongji MIF'd (DZ 173/TT75-76), and in the Jinlian zhengzong
xianyuanxiangzhuan IEv{[//fM (DZ 174/TT76). Also see Isabelle Ang, "Le culte
de Lu Dongbin sous les Song du sud", Journal Asiatique,no. 285.2 (1997), pp. 473-
507; Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein, "Lii Tung-pin in Northern Sung Literature", Cahiers
d'Extriime-Asie,no. 5 (1989/1990), pp. 133-169; and Paul Katz, Imagesof the Immortal:
The Cultof Lii Dongbinat thePalaceof Eternaljoy (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1999), pp. 52-93.
8 Zhongli Quan (sobriquet, Zhengyang REX; style name, Yunfang is said to
g)
have been the teacher of Lu Yan. Although he almost certainly is a fictional character,
he is said to have been a government official and military general during the end of
the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty (i.e., third century
A.D.). Accounts of his life are found in the Lishi zhenxiantidaotong/ian,Jinlian zhengzong
ji- and Jfinlianzhengzongxianyuanxiangzhuan.
withered trees and their minds like dead ashes. Their spirit-consciousness
guards the inside, single-mindedly without scattering. While in their meditative
absorption they send out their yin Spirit. This is but a pure and numinous
ghost; it is not a pure yang immortal. Due to their single-mindedness the yin
Spirit does not scatter. This is why it is called a 'ghost immortal'. Even though
it is called an immortal, it is in fact a ghost. Buddhists of past and present
do their exercises and arrive at this result, and thereby say that they have
attained the Tao. This is truly laughable."9
From times of old until now few have practiced this method (the liberation
of the Spirit) and succeeded. This is because their merit is insufficient and yet,
desiring speed in their practice they immediately carry out this method. Or,
furthermore, without verifications of merit and efficacy (gongy~an) they assign
themselves solely to quiet sitting, desiring to seek transcendence and liberation.
Or, furthermore, without scattering theyin Spirit (yinling),they send it out and
become Ghost Immortals. People cannot see their form. They come and go
with no place to go home to in the end. They are merely able to enter into a
womb or take a dwelling, thus seizing the bodily shells of people and getting
to become Human Immortals (renxian).Or, inept and inexperienced at exiting
and entering [their bodies], they come and go without a [proper] method.
They leave and come, but have no way of re-entering their original body, and
the Spirit (shenhun)does not know where it is. This is the seated transformation
(zuohua)of Buddhists and the corpse liberation (sh4/ie)of Taoists. 10
We are thus told that there are unseasoned, impatient and mis-
guided practitioners (both Buddhist and Taoist) who attempt to
liberate the Spirit without having followed appropriate internal
alchemical procedures and without an adequate degree of prior
mystical experience. The Spirit that they send out is nothing better
than ayin Spirit (yinlingKA-,yinshen or Ghost Immortal, which
lacks many of the powers of the Radiant Spirit, such as the ability to
become visible and assume other corporeal properties. Although it is
9 Zhong-Li chuandaoji,in Xiuzhenshishu 14/3a-b.

10 Bichuan
Zhengyangzhenrenlingbaobjfa, 3/1 la-b.
no longer subject to the laws of karmaand samsara,it cannot merge

with the Tao, nor can it enter the various paradises of the immortals
(things which the Radiant Spirit can do at will). It may even be "lost",
unable to return to its body, thus inadvertently causing death. The
best that such ayin Spirit can do, then, is to "enter a womb" or "take
up a dwelling". To "enter a womb" apparently means to become
reincarnated through entry into the womb of a parent of one's choice.
To "take up a dwelling" means to take over the body of another
person. Having thus reassumed human physical form, the adept
can attain no more than so-called Human Immortal status, which
in Zhong-Lu literature designates merely good health and longevity,
and does not constitute immortality properly speaking."1
"Entering a womb" and "taking up a dwelling" are thus cited
as measures resorted to by inept, misguided practitioners who
have failed to refine the Spirit adequately and yet have foolishly-
or inadvertently-separated the feeble yin Spirit from the body.
It would therefore appear that these are not measures that a com-
petent, properly guided internal alchemist should ever have to
resort to. This rather disdainful view is expressed in various
other internal alchemical texts from the Song period down to
late traditional and modern times-most notably the Wuzhenpian
Ig1o' and its various commentaries12-and might be charact-
" See Zhong-Liichuandaoji, in Xiuzhenshishu,14/3a-b.

12 Zhang Boduan's WnbS (984-1082) Wuzhen pian is one of the most influential
of all neidanclassics. In it one finds a passage that reads, "Enteringa womb, seiz-
ing a dwelling (duoshe) and changing one's residence from one's decrepit dwelling.
[Those who do these things] are referredto as the people attainingthe four fruits.If
one is able to subdue the dragon and tiger,the true metal will hold up the house-
when will it ever decay?" $
;. The various commentatorsunderstandthis as a passage that contrastsBuddhists
and other heterodox practitionersunfavorablyto good internal alchemists.For ex-
ample, Xue Daoguang jg& (1078-1191)comments,"Thosewho enter a womb and
seize a dwellingare people attachedto emptiness;subduingthe dragonand tigeris the
marvel of the recycled elixir" t; . Lu Shu M
(fl. 13' c.?) comments, "The Way of the Golden Elixir-once attained it is attained
for perpetuity.You have a body outside the body that you can hide or revealwithout
limit. This is unlike the fellows of stubbornemptinesswho enter a womb and seize
a dwelling" 21VTri. Chen Zhixu
WR (b. 1290) explainsthat the four fruitsare those of the four grades of Buddhist
practitionersknown as 1) srota-dpanna (xutuohuangtL,l; a stream-winnerwho will be
rebornseven more times alternatelyas a devaand a human beforeattainingenlighten-
ment), 2) sakrd-agamin (situohanWrF'-t;a once returnerwho is destinedto be reborn as
a deva, and then once more as a human, and then gain enlightenment),3) anagamin
(anahanrjflt; a non-returnerwho will never be reborn in the realm of desire and is
"entering a womb" and "taking up a dwelling" along with "repelling

the killer demons" are valid tactics for sincere, able adepts to resort
to when physical death looms imminent before the Spirit has gained
its full perfection and maturity. Both of these texts are tentatively
datable to the Tang dynasty, which is quite early in the evolutionary
history of internal alchemy.16 The Taibai huandanpian, a discourse
ascribed to Wang Yuanzheng EEJLEE,states as follows:
However, if within the period [of practice] (yiji zhi nez)`7you encounter dif-
ficulty, there are three things that you can practice. They are called "entering
a womb", "changing your dwelling" (yishe),and "repelling the killer demons"
ju shaguti).8
This passage comes at the end of a long description of the inter-

nal alchemical process, which culminates in the maturation and
sending out of the Spirit. It is clearly addressed to sincere, diligent
internal alchemists who are recommended to "enter the womb", or
"change their dwelling", or "repel the killer demons", in the event of
"difficulty". The difficulty anticipated here as will become clearer in
16 Admittedly, some skepticism is warranted in ascribing neidantexts to such an early

date. The fact that neither text is included or cited in the Yunjiqiqian(the voluminous
Taoist anthology compiled in 1028) strengthens this skepticism. However, the neidan
theory and method described in both texts is indeed indicative of a quite early date.
The theories and methods seem archaic and quite different from what is described in
the influential neidanclassics of the Song period, as do their assumptions regarding
what the highest immortality entails (both texts seem to regard immortality of the
Spirit alone as an ideal less lofty than the immortality of both mind and flesh). The
then longhujiuxianjingis listed in both Zheng Qiao's 9%---(1104-1162) Tongzhi c and
Ma Duanlin's W-6(ca. 1254-1323) Wenxiantongkao3;tS. The latter bibliogra-
phy mentions that the text was once banned during the Dazhong era of the Tang
(847-859); if so, this would indeed mean that it is a Tang text and could explain its
exclusion from the Yunjiqiqian. One modern Chinese scholar speculates that the ban
perhaps resulted from the controversial nature of some of the procedures alluded to
(i.e., some of the very ones that constitute the topic of this article). See RenJiyu, ed.,
Daozang tiyao,pp. 163-164.
17 The length of time meant here is unclear. Oneji could perhaps mean ten years,
twelve years, a century, or more vaguely a period of indefinite length. In the text
immediately preceding this passage we are told that the elaborate procedures for de-
veloping and nurturing the "elixir" or "embryo" within the body take a total of three
years. After this the adept proceeds to send the "infant" out of the head on journeys
of increasing length. After a hundred days of this it grows to the size of an eight
year-old boy, and becomes the same size as the adept's body after a year. See Daoshu,
27/1 la-b.
18
Daoshu, 27/1 lb.
our ensuing discussion-is none other than death, or the imminent

threat thereof. "Entering a womb", "changing one's dwelling" and
"repelling the killer demons" are three types of emergency death
meditation. They are psychic techniques that a competent internal
alchemist can and should perform when he/she is running out of
time. Despite his/her best efforts, the allotted life span of the adept
can sometimes run out slightly before the Spirit has attained maturity.
What the adept then needs to do is transfer the Spirit to another
body where it can continue to mature, or buy some time by fighting
off the forces of death.
The Zhen longhujiuxian jing also regards these psychic techniques
as the property of competent adepts, but at the same time it conveys
an awareness of their potential abuse. After describing visualization
techniques for sending the spirit out through the head, the text
adds:
Some [adepts] return and dwell in their original body. Some leave it and
enter another body. Some start from the beginning elsewhere (are reborn
in a new womb?). Some take away from others to give ease to their selves.
Some cause others to leave their bodies. Some use expedient means to help
and rescue [others]. Some vastly spread peace and wellbeing [to others].
Some benefit themselves while harming others. Guilt becomes attached to
their persons, and they will definitely fall. This method [of sending out the
Spirit to do such various things] is truly not false. Through lengthy kalpasit
has simply been like this.'9
This method is a lesser art. You can use it to benefit yourself so that you can
live for a long time amidst the world. At your own will you can constantly
emerge and disappear. One, you can enter a womb. Two, you can change
your dwelling. Three, you stay in the old [dwelling/body]. Four, you can seize
the rank [of another adept?].20
The Zhenlonghujiuxianjingthus asserts that psychic techniques such

as "entering the womb" or "changing the dwelling" truly do exist
and have been practiced by advanced adepts throughout all ages of
history. (As we shall see, "repelling the killer demons" is mentioned
and described at some length in the commentary to the Zhen longhu
jiuxianjing. "Stay in the old" perhaps alludes to the repelling of the
19 Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,
6a-b.
20 6b-7a.
Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,
killer demons, or what results from it.) They are "lesser arts", perhaps
because they do not in themselves constitute the attainment of the
ultimate goal, which for this early internal alchemical text seems to
be heavenly ascension of both the Spirit and the transformed physical
body. However, as will be apparent later in our discussion, they can
be utilized in the lengthy process leading ultimately to the highest
goal. These psychic techniques can also be utilized for the benefit
of other people by performing helpful miracles of the sort extolled
in Taoist hagiography.
However, the text also notes that the psychic techniques can be
used in ways that are selfish to the point of being evil. What it seems
to suggest is that less scrupulous adepts will usurp the bodies of people
who are still living, thus displacing their spirit(s) from their rightful
"dwelling", and exploiting the resources of essence and energy that
the previous "inhabitant" perhaps an adept in his/her own right-
had been carefully replenishing and refining. (This may be what is
meant by "seize the rank"; i.e., usurping the place in the ranks of
the immortals that rightfully belongs to the other person.) The text
warns, albeit in vague terms, that such unscrupulous adepts will
suffer just and stern consequences (they will "fall"). One of the two
commentaries to the text the one ascribed to Luo Gongyuan2'
elaborates slightly as follows:
This is [what is known as] a Spirit Immortal (shenxian).
His/her body hides
amidst the mundane world, but his/her spirit and energy are both wondrous.
They exit and enter and are discernible and bright. This is called a Spirit
Immortal, and is also called an Energy Immortal (qixian).He/she can come
and go at will. However, if he/she violates the precepts of the immortals22
in going about the process, he/she will be punished.23
21 The other is ascribed to Ye Fashan. The two commentaries shall here on be re-
ferred to as the "Luo commentary" and "Ye commentary".
22 The best study to date on moral precepts in Taoist history is Livia Kohn, Cosmos
and Community:The Ethical Dimensionof Daoism (Cambridge, MA: Three Pines Press,
2004). Numerous sets of moral precepts were being transmitted, recited and put to
practice among Taoists during the period considered in the present case. The text
here is implying that the psychic powers of internal alchemists can be abused in ways
that violate the precepts, and seems to be specifically denouncing the act of "changing
the dwelling" to "seize the rank"-an act that violates precepts against stealing and
killing.
23 Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,6b.
Thus, while the psychic techniques sometimes are used immorally,

both the text and commentary agree that the Taoist universe is
moral, and that unscrupulous adepts will be punished.
In what follows, we shall examine in more detail what the Taibai
huandanpian, Zhen longhujiuxian jing, and other texts have to tell us
about how, when and why one should carry out emergency death
meditations.
Entering a Womb
After enumerating the three types of emergency death meditation,

the Taibai huandanpian gives the following lengthy, and baffling,
description of how to "enter a womb":
What is [the method for] entering a womb? Its essence lies merely in recogniz-
ing one's external surroundings. If you see large houses and high buildings,
these are dragons. Thatched shacks are camels and mules. Wool-covered
carts are hard- and soft-shelled turtles. Boats and carts are bugs and snakes.
Silk-brocaded curtains are wolves and tigers. Thatched huts are cows. Those
in fur robes are elephants. Slender branch sedan chairs are pigs and sheep.
Baoxiang flowers are chickens. White lotus flowers are geese. White lotuses
are ducks. Black lacquered towers are dogs. Those in yellow robes are zhang
deer.24 Those in silk-brocaded robes are pheasants. The hundred [varieties
ofl flowers in the forest are the hundred [varieties of] birds. Woolen curtains
are beasts. Those covered with armor are fish. Those entering the water are
bugs and maggots. Those troops charging toward enemy lines are bees. Those
crowds bearing the same name are ants. Jugs and jars are conch-shelled mol-
lusks. People going about in the mountains are lice. Those wielding swords
and battleaxes are crabs. Those falling into wells are women. Those falling
from mountains are men.25
One can speculate here that this passage is describing visions that
the adept is likely to encounter while in the process of dying and
becoming reborn: it is deemed crucial for the adept to know and
discern what the visions are or represent; his/her ability to do so
24 The zhang is a variety of deer that is small in stature, has no antlers, and has
small fangs.
25 Daoshu, 27/llb-12a.
will somehow determine the species of living being that he/she will
be reborn as. Such speculation readily occurs to whoever has some
familiarity with Tantric Buddhist theories and practices concerning
the bardo-an intermediate state between death and reincarnation
that is filled with visions-as described in such texts as the Tibetan
Book of theDead, which has come to be so well-known to Europeans
and North Americans.26
Although the TibetanBookoftheDeaditself probably dates to no earlier
than the 14th century, some of the essential concepts underlying it are
already present in Indian Buddhist texts that had been translated into
Chinese by Tang times. Vasubhandu's Abhidharnakosa(4th c.)27 argues
for the existence of an intermediate state between death and rebirth
called the antardbhava,in which the deceased exists as a type of spirit
called a gandharvacomposed of subtle aspects of the five aggregates
(skandhas),whose organs are complete and who already bears the
form of the being that it is going to be incarnated as. The gandharva,
by virtue of its past actions, possesses a "divine eye" by which it sees
its future parents having sexual intercourse. If the gandharvais male it
will feel sexual desire for its future mother and will be born male
and vice versa if it is female.28 A similar exposition is found in an
even earlier text, the Mahavibhasa(2nd c.), which was first translated
into Chinese in 383.29 Substantial descriptions of the intermediate
state are also found in such sutras as the Garbdvakrdntinirdesa-siitra30
and the Saddharmasmrtyupastdna-si7tra31 (both texts were translated
Bookof theDeador TheAfter-

26 See WY Evans-Wentz,comp. and ed., The 7Tibetan
toLamaKaziDawa-Samdup's
ontheBardoPlane,according
DeathExperiences EnglishRendering
(London: Oxford University Press, 1927); Glen H. Mullin, Death andDying: The Tibetan
Tradition(London: Arkana, 1987);John Powers, Introductionto TibetanBuddhzsm(Ithaca,
NY: Snow Lion, 1995), pp. 283-3 10.
27 The Chinese translation, by Xuanzang -, (ca. 596-664), bears the title Api-
lun
damojushe vol. 29, no. 1558).
s (TaishiDaizokyU,
28 The whole matter was highly controversial. The notion of antarabhavawas ac-
cepted by such schools as the Sarvastivadin (to which Vasubhandhu was affiliated),
VAtsiputrTya,Sammatlya and Pirvasaila. It was rejected by the Theravadins, as well as
the Vibhajyavadins, Mahasanghikas and Mahlisasakas.
29 This translation bears the title Piosha lun W51 (TaishoDaizokyo, vol. 28, no.
1547). The longest and most authoritative translation is Xuanzang's Apidamodapiposha
lun . (Taishi Daizjkyft,vol. 27, no. 1545).
30 The oldest existing Chinese translation of this text is the Foshuobaotaijing%:=W,
Y (TaishoDaizjkyo, vol. 1 1, no. 317), translated by Dharmaraksa (Zhu Fahu SA)
during the WesternJin Dynasty (265-316).
`' The Chinese translation of this text, byjutan Panruo Liuzhi L dates
into Chinese before the Tang Dynasty).The lattergives a description

that particularlyresembleslater Tibetan Tantric descriptionsof the
bardo.32It describes how people have visions of being crushed by a
mountain when dying, and then see a bright light at the moment of
death. This confuses and perplexes them even more, so that while in
the intermediatestate they see "all sorts of things such as are seen in
dreams",culminatingin the same sort of "Oedipal"vision described
by Vasubhandu.33
In other words, by the 6th century there existed among some
exoteric Buddhist schools (such as the Sarvastivadinand Yogacara)
a notion of an intermediate state during which certain visions were
to be experienced. However, the exoteric Buddhisttexts in question
do not convey any notion that practitioners, by possessing prior
knowledge about the visions of the intermediatestate, can somehow
favorablydetermine their station in their next rebirthwhile they are
in the intermediatestate. What unfolds there is entirelypreordained
by the karmaaccrued before death. The notion of controlling to an
extent the outcome of the intermediatestate while in that state would
appear to be the contribution of Esoteric (or Tantric) Buddhism.
This notion, which is clearly articulated in Tibetan texts, perhaps
originated from the Indian Esoteric schools that sprung up around
the 7th and 8th centuries. By the 8th century, Esoteric Buddhism
had found its way into China and was enjoying great prestige at
the Tang court.34It was also around this general period that the
Taibai huandanpian and Zhen longhujiuxianjingwere composed.
In sum, while the basic notions concerning the intermediate
to around 542 and bears the title, Zhenfanianchujing H (TaishiDaizokyoi,

vol.
17, no. 721)
32 A translationof this passageby ArthurWaleyis found in EdwardConze et al.,
ed., BuddhistTextsThrough theAges(Oxford:Bruno Cassirer,1954), 283.
` See BryanJ.Cuevas, TheHiddenHistoryof The TibetanBookof theDead(Oxford:
Oxford UniversityPress, 2003), pp. 40-44; BryanJ. Cuevas, "Predecessorsand Pro-
totypes:Towardsa ConceptualHistory of the BuddhistAntarabhava", Nurmen,vol. 43,
no. 3 (1996), pp. 263-302; Robert Kritzer,"The Four Ways of Entering the Womb
Bukkyobunka,no. 10 (2000), pp. 1-41; Robert Kritzer,"Semen, Blood
(garbhMvakrantt)",
and the IntermediateExistence",journalof IndianandBuddhistStudies,vol. 46, no. 2
(March, 1998), pp. 30-36; Robert Kritzer,"Garbhdvakrantisiutra:
A Comparisonof the
Contents of Two Versions",Maranatha: Bulletinof theChristian
Culture
ResearchInstitute,
;NotreDameWomen's College,no. 6 (1998),pp. 4-13.
34 See Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism in China:A Historical
Survey(Princeton:Princeton
UniversityPress, 1964),pp. 325-337.
existence and the visions therein not to mention the very notions
of karma and samsara35 are clearly of Indo-Buddhist origin, the
psychic techniques for manipulating its outcome may have been
developed simultaneously within the Buddhist and Taoist camps,
which existed in ready proximity. If one is to speak of connections
rather than mere parallels, one should consider the possibility that
Taoism influenced Buddhism (by proposing tactics to manipulate
the outcome of the intermediate state) as well as vice versa. Also, a
certain degree of initiative and autonomy can be glimpsed on the
Taoist side in that the specific contents of the visions are different
from those in the Buddhist descriptions. Most notably, perhaps,
Wang Yuanzheng's description lacks the "Oedipal" vision at the
culmination of the intermediate state an essential component of
Buddhist expositions from Vasubhandu right down to the Tibetan
texts.
What the adept is to do once he/she has these visions and is
properly discerning them is not at all specified by Wang Yuanzheng.
If one were to further speculate, in part based on what we know about
the bardotheories, it was probably deemed important to avoid that
the dying adept become startled or agitated, or attracted or drawn
to the wrong type of vision. Perhaps the understanding was that the
adept will be reborn as a dragon if he/she gets drawn into a large
house or high building, or that he/she will be reborn as a camel or
35 In some indigenousChinese,pre-Buddhisttexts,one does occasionallyfind con-

veyed notions of what might be consideredreincarnation,where it is said that living
beings,or the materials/life-forcesconstitutingthem, get recycledinto otherlife forms.
Most notable here, perhaps, are a few passages in the 6th and 18thchapters of the
Zhuangzi.See Burton Watson, transl., Zhuangzi: Basic Writings(New York:Columbia
UniversityPress,2003), pp. 80-82, 118-119. However,it is fair to say that the notion
of reincarnation,understoodas being dictatedby the laws of karma(and furtherdic-
tated by underlyingstates of mind), did not become an integralpart of the Chinese
religious worldview until Buddhism had left its impact. The Lingbao scripturesof
the fifth century,which clearlywere deeply influencedby Mahayana Buddhism,are
the first Taoist scripturesto expound forcefullyupon karmaand samsaraas central
themes within their systemof soteriology,cosmologyand morality.Karmaand samsara
have been an importantpart of the religiousTaoist worldviewever since. See Erik
Zurcher,"BuddhistInfluence on Early Taoism; a Survey of ScripturalEvidence,"
7ToungPao, vol. 66 (1980),pp. 84-147; Stephen Bokenkamp,"Sourcesof the Ling-pao
Scriptures,"In Michel Strickmann,ed., Tantric andTaoistStudiesin Honourof RA. Stein
(Brussels:InstitutBelge des Hautes EtudesChinoises, 1983), vol. 2, pp. 434-486; and
Stephen Eskildsen,Asceticism in EarlyTaoistReligion(Albany:State Universityof New
YorkPress, 1998),pp. 95-128.
mule if he/she is drawn into a thatched shack, and so on. Since the
adept will presumably want to be reborn as a human being, so that
he/she can resume the internal alchemical practice,36 one would
guess that he/she is somehow supposed to try mentally to go toward
"those falling into wells" and "those falling from mountains", or
perhaps envision him/herself falling off a mountain or into a well
(very peculiar though this might seem).
Fortunately, there exists in the Taoist Canon a text that gives a
fuller exposition on death visions and how to bring about a desirable
rebirth. This is the LingbaoguikongjueflR2=R, compiled by Zhao
Yizhen S (d. 1382).37 This text is of much later date than the
Taibai huandanpian or Zhenlonghujiuxian jing-interestingly, it dates
to roughly the same period when the TibetanBook of the Dead was
"rediscovered" or authored by the Ter-tonKar-ma Ling-pa.38 Zhao
Yizhen states in his postface that his work was in part based on
an older text which had been in circulation for some time and
was purported to be the work of the semi-legendary first Chan Pa-
triarch, Bodhidharma (fl. ca. 500). (Zhao Yizhen himself expresses
strong skepticism regarding Bodhidharma's putative authorship,
however.) Although in many ways the descriptions in the Lingbao
guikongjueare very different from those in the Taibai huandanpian
Buddhist terminology is much more abundant, and the details of
the visions do not match-they do say a little more about what the
adept actually does, and so may help us speculate as to what was
intended in the Taibai huandanpian. The Lingbaoguikongjuedescribes
the practice as follows:
Examine [yourself]while burning incense in the quiet of the night.
If there are two or three signs of returning to emptiness,
36 That suchwas the objectiveis conveyedmoreclearlyin the Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,

lOb,as we shall see below.
37 DZ568/TT3 19.Zhao Yizhenwas one of the leadingTaoistsof the lateYuanand
earlyMingperiod. He is regardedas one of the patriarchsof the Qingwei f School,
one of the most importantlineagesof Thunder ritual.See Schipperand Verellen,The
TaoistCanon,vol. 2, pp. 1095-1096 and vol. 3, p. 1290;and KristoferSchipper,"Master
Chao I-chen (?-1382)and the Ch'ing-weiSchool of Taoism,"In AkizukiKan'ei, ed.,
Dokyotoshiikyjbunka(Tokyo:Hirakawashuppansha,1987),pp. 715-734.
38 There is the idea in Tibetan BuddhismthatTantricmastersof extraordinaryat-
tainment sometimes hide texts and images in secret locations and guard them with
spellsthat keep them secretuntil conditionsare right for them to be discovered.Such
hidden treasuresare called terma,and those who discoverand reveal them are called
terton.
Bathe yourself in hot peach water and change your clothing.

[Drink] one cup of white tea and return to the samadhiof stillness.39
Various sights of people and things will come,

Drawing you toward the paths of karmato receive transmigration.
Firmly hold your mind-seal without craving or becoming attached.
When the axe splits [your head] do not be scared and do not resent it.40
Only see the paths of thunder fire and lightning radiance,

Rays of sun light in measurements of 1000 fathoms.
Take yourself and bravely go with an unwavering heart.
Thereby you will attain human or devastatus, or take refuge in the Pure
Land.4'
54 t9t H XQ ttST X X]At

If you encounter a yin person (woman)who offers you tea,
This is a medicine that confuses the hunsoul-do not partake.
If you can firmly remember [what has been told to you about] this vision,
You will [some day] be able to penetrate your past lives, forever without
forgetting.42
The "signs of returning to emptiness" are physical symptoms

indicative of the imminence of death. They are enumerated at some
length in the portion of the text preceding the verses just quoted. Some
of the symptoms can be detected during meditation. Concentration
on the Great Light Passage (damingguan )kHJA) at the top of the
head is said to bring forth thunderous rumbling noises in the head. If
two or three rumblings occur, the adept has only two or three years
left to live. If only one rumbling occurs, he/she has only one year
left. (Presumably, then, an inability to make it rumble at all would
indicate that death is imminent.) Another way of discerning his/her
remaining lifespan is by covering the ears and tapping the back of
the head with the fingers thirty-six times. If the tapping produces a
sound like that of drums, one has three years (or more?) left. If the
sound made is more like bells or chimes, there is a year left. If the
sound is like that of cicadas, there are only about seven days left. If
39 Lingbaoguikongjue,3b.
40 Lingbaoguikongjue,4a.
41 Lingbaoguikongjue,5a.
42 Lingbaoguikongjue,5b.
be a potion that causes a person to forget all memories of their past

lives. The implication seems to be that common people inevitably
drink the tea, and that this is why virtually all living beings retain
no memory of their past lives.45
In his prose commentary to the above-quoted verses Zhao Yizhen
provides a much more detailed description of the visions:
As your life is coming to an end, the eyes transforminto nameless demons.
The ears transforminto asheidemons.46The nose transformsinto dead tree
demons. The tongue transformsinto swift troop demons. The body transforms
into demons of thought. The heart transformsinto female and male demons.
All the demons and spirits arise from the mind. In other words, they do not
come from the outside. You need to know what they are in advance.
If you meet with various forms of Buddhas,Bodhisattvas,teachersor literati,
some welcoming you with their entourages, these are all visions brought by
celestial demons and infidels. If you meet with the members and relatives of
a vengeful family, or with yellow, red or white paths, these are also demonic
scenes of the ways of karma.If you meet with lamp lights, these are family
members and relatives of inner demons.
If you come upon vast open fields, these are the wombs and eggs of humans.
If you encounter younger female relatives, these are the wombs for entering
samsara.Without a womb, one enters the field (?). If you encounter black and
white sedan chairs, these are the wombs of cows, horses and the like. If you
encounter palaces, these are the wombs of pigs and sheep. If you encoun-
ter those in yellow robes and white garments, these are the wombs of cats
and dogs. If you encounter those with yellow flags and leopard tails, these
are the wombs of running beasts. If you encounter elephants, these are the
wombs of foxes. If you encounter those playing flutes, these are the wombs
of earthworms, cicadas and such. If you encounter drum music, these are
the wombs of birds and insects. If you encounter red light districts,these are
the wombs of snakes.
If you encounter busy marketplaceswith many people coming and going,
with some black, some white, some blue and some purple, these are all [sights
leading to] the path of beasts. If you encounter wines, meats and other food
and drink, this is the path of hungry ghosts. If you smell wondrous fragrances,
45 A very similar notion (provided my interpretation is accurate here) is found in

Chinese popular religious beliefs concerning afterlife judgment and reincarnation.
According to Wolfram Eberhard, Guiltand Sin in TraditionalChina(Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1967), p. 41, the Dongmingbaoji , an early 20th century
morality book (shanshu ) describes a place called "Mother Meng" located in
the tenth hell. This is "a kind of amusement park" in which waitresses, directed by
an old woman, offer drinks to all who go there. The drinks make everybody forget
about their entire past.
46 The word ashei oJl can mean "who" or "somebody". An "Asheidemon" per-
haps means an anonymous demon or the ghost of a stranger. Possibly Asheicould also
be a transliteration of a Sanskrit term denoting some sort of demonic or ghost being
in the Indo-Buddhist world view.
these are the wombs of devasand humans. If you encounter your father, mother
and other family members and relatives, these have issued from the heavens
of six desires, and will cause you to become a deity of the kind enshrined at
village temples. If you encounter instruction from a divine person in golden
armor, this is a meat-eating god of great blessings among humans and devas.
All such sights of deities and humans are external demons drawn to you by
your own spirit-consciousness. Thus these are not of the proper Way. Do not
carelessly dispose of them, but in coming and going do not fear or dislike, or
take, or cherish them. If you transgress in a single thought, you will thereby
fall into the womb of another.
At the moment the energy is cut ofT, you may feel the sensation of being
split apart with an ax; do not be scared. As it becomes dark do not flee or
hide; it is essential to hold firmly to the mind-seal without wavering. After a
while, you will become stable.47
aE2fAR
ai,#\WEkkiSE
emR4, SkR;-flJ PR MfiA @SA R 1~
M i mAASA 7'P
1), L9S
In its gist (though not in its specific details), the third paragraph
of the above passage is more or less the same as what is described
in Taibai huandanpian. However, in the paragraphs preceding and
following it we are told of how the various parts of one's own body
turn into demons and invite other demons from the outside to come
and entice the adept. Some of these external demons are so devious
as to assume the form of sacred, virtuous beings. The adept is again
told to remain calm and focus on the "mind-seal". He/she is also told
to maintain equanimity at the actual instant of death-the moment
the energy is cut off, in other words when the vital energy departs
the body for good-when he/she is likely to feel as though the head
is being split open with an ax.
The lingering question is whether or not, and to what degree, one
can rely on information in the Lingbao guikongjue to fill in the gaps in
the Taibai huandanpian. During the roughly six hundred years that
elapsed between the two texts there must have been a great deal of
47 Lingbaoguikongjue,4a-5a.
evolution and elaboration in Taoist and Buddhist death meditation

theories and methods. The Lingbaoguikongjue incorporates many
more concepts and terms of Buddhist origin, e.g., devas, Pure Lands,
Buddha, Bodhisattva, infidels (waidao#St), paths of samsara,hungry
ghosts; it is a syncretistic text that perhaps has Buddhists and Taoists
equally in mind as its intended audience. (Interestingly, though, it
also lacks any description of what we have called an "Oedipal"
vision; perhaps this one element was too unpalatable to Taoist/
Chinese tastes.) In contrast, the Taibai huandanpian seems to reflect
a more pristine stage of development, where it is not clear whether
Buddhism is influencing Taoism or vice versa.
For a Taoist internal alchemist, the benefit desired from "entering
a womb" is the renewed opportunity to cultivate the Spirit in a fresh
new body richly endowed with essence and energy. Thus, the Zhen
longhujiuxianjing asserts that it is perfectly valid to "enter a womb"
over and over again in one's pursuit of lofty immortality:
The Holy Body (shengshen)leaves the worldly dust,
Lengthily and quietly.
Amid meditative absorption you contrarily enter a womb,
To cultivate again and form together again.
In one century48 to transform four bodies,
Gradually in the manner as before.
When it appears, its responses are limitless,
It is called the true method of change and transformation.
This is all completion by accordance,
Completely without recalcitrant transformation.49
The Holy Body here (assuming that the Luo commentary's

interpretation is correct)50 refers to the Spirit of the adept that
has left the body in the midst of meditative absorption. Instead of
returning to the body it "contrarily" (que)enters a womb. The word
48 Although there are several other possible ways to translate the termji td ("ten
days", "twelve days", "one period"), the context here would tend to suggest that "one
century" may be what is intended.
`
Zhen longhujiuxianjing,14a.
50 For example, the Luo commentary states as follows: "When the Holy Body is
completed, night after night from the Sea of Essence it mounts a purple cloud and
rises to the Golden Hall andJade Palace. After thoroughly observing and taking notice
of [the body] from head to foot, it thrusts through the gate of the head, riding on the
purple cloud. When your holding of breath comes to its limit, it descends back down
to the Golden Hall andJade Palace." (Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,1Ob.)
"contrarily" might be taken to imply that "entering the womb"

comes about as the result of a mistake or miscalculation, and that
the adept enters a womb contrary to his/her intentions. If so, the
text would be in agreement on this point with the Zhong-Lu texts
that speak so disdainfullyof "enteringthe womb." However, this is
probably not the correct interpretationhere; entering the womb is
"contrary"not to the adept's intent, but to what he/she had been
habitually doing until then, which was to send the Spirit (or Holy
Body) in and out of his/her body repeatedly. Earlier on in the Zhen
longhujiuxianjingwe read as follows:
Night after night it comes out seven-times-seventimes.
The gate of the head naturally has a response.
After ten months it is equal to your body.
Darkly, darkly, you become an Earthly Immortal.5
Thus, the adept sends the Spirit out through the head and back
forty-nine (seven times seven) times per night for ten months, until
the Spiritgrows to be the same size as the physical body. This in fact
has a great transformativeeffect on the physical body. Once every
nook of it is filled with a Holy Body that equals its size, the adept
becomes an "EarthlyImmortal";in other words, he/she has attained
physicalimmortality.Most interestingly,the Ye commentaryremarks
here, "the EarthlyImmortal(dixian)is superiorto the SpiritImmortal
(shenxian)".52 Thus, in the view of some-or most?-of the very
early internal alchemists, though commendable, immortalityof the
Spirit alone without the flesh is not the highest goal; it is preferable
to live eternally in the flesh on earth, and best of all to ascend fully
in body and spiritto the heavens. Such was perhaps also the attitude
of Wang Yuanzheng, the author of the Taibaihuandan pian,judging
from his exposition on "expellingthe killer demons" examined later
on in this essay.
What does it mean to say that "entering a womb" constitutes
"completion by accordance" (shuncheng) and is not a "recalcitrant
transformation"(nihua)?The two commentaries explain as follows:
"Not recalcitrant transformation"means that one does not burn the body
and does not subdue the Three Corpses and Nine Worms. There is another
l Ob.
51 Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,
52 1l a.
Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,
method in which you refine the form by burning the body. The transforma-
tive fire [arises] from below and reaches the head. Visualize it as a red flame
that spreads throughout the entire body. Visualize the Three Corpses (sanshi),
Nine Worms (jiuchong) and Seven Po Souls all exiting the body. Thereby you
accomplish recalcitrant transformation. In the present method (of entering
a womb multiple, successive times) you attain the Tao together; the Three
Corpses, Nine Worms and Seven Po Souls all ascend to heaven together with
you. (Luo commentary)53
"Accordance"means that when the great limit arrives, you do not fight with
them. However, if you repel with transformativefire, or utilize the stabilization
of breath amidst samadhi,the demons and spirits will naturally be subdued.
Some use the Fire of Samadhi Concentration, which is called the Ground
of Flaming Wisdom. Some change the dwelling in order to avoid this (death
and the killer demons). Therefore this is called completion by accordance
and involves no recalcitranttransformationwhatsoever.All practitionersmust
earnestly keep their hearts firm. (Ye commentary)54
nW A ET-W$f kriE< eWQ A toffiS-W Rff
We can see from the two commentaries that "entering a womb"

is carried out at the preordained time of death ("the great limit"),
when one can anticipate hostile encounters with death-bringing
demons. (According to the Luo commentary, these demons are none
other than the Three Corpses, Nine Worms and Seven Po Souls-
malicious corporeal spirits well-known in early medieval Taoist
literature.)55 To fight against death and the demons that bring it
on would be "recalcitrant transformation". By contrast, to "enter a
womb" or "change your dwelling" means that you avoid fighting the
demons and concede the death of the old body-thus, it is deemed
"by accordance". The Luo commentary seems to maintain that,
ultimately, in the consummate transformation into an ascending
immortal body that occurs after "entering a womb" multiple times
the killer demons themselves are converted without a fight and get to
partake in celestial immortality. "Recalcitrant transformation", then,
5Z4en longkujiuxianjing,14a-b.
54
Zhen longhujiuxianjing,14b.
5 The Three Corpses-also knownas the Three Worms-are evil spiritsthatwere
believed to dwell in the three elixir fields (dantian
fJSiE)located in the head, chest and
lower abdomen. A detailedstudyon the developmentof this concept can be found in
Kubo Noritada,Koshinshinkonokenkyiu (Tokyo:Nihon GakujutsuShinkokai,1961).
is tantamount to the practice of "repelling the killer demons" (the

Ye commentary states so earlier on in more specific terms),56 which
shall be treated shortly in our discussion. First, however, let us briefly
turn our attention to the matter of "changing your dwelling".
Changing your Dwelling
Regarding the method for "changing your dwelling", the Taibai

huandanpian elaborates as follows:
What is [the method of] changing your dwelling? A person who is a prior
acquaintance and has already entered the darkness (died)-this is an empty
dwelling. It should be someone who prior [to death] had not been ill from
wind and coldness, and whose essence was firm and full. If so, you can move
to [this dwelling]. A male child is the best [dwelling to move into]. Thereby
when I enter into it I can resume my trainingjust as before.57
Unfortunately, we are not told of the actual technique for

transferring the Spirit to another body. But it is noteworthy that
the Taibaihuandanpian does not even mention-much less, endorse-
taking over the body of somebody who is still living. As the reader
will recall from the introduction to this essay, the Zhen longhujiuxian
jing does mention that such a thing can be and has been done,
although it warns that such selfish, cruel behavior will incur divine
punishment. Wang Yuanzheng, the author of Taibai huandanpian,
was quite likely aware of such abuses of the technique of "changing
your dwelling"; he probably chooses not to mention them, since they
are immoral and ultimately harmful to both self and others.
Wang further states that the new "dwelling" ought to be the corpse
of an acquaintance. This again would seem to be due to considerations
of what is right and proper in human relations and interactions. The
implication seems to be that one has gained prior consent from the
deceased and/or the family thereof. Or, somewhat more cynically,
one might surmise that the corpse of an acquaintance is preferable
56 'Also, if you have the great affliction, which is that of non-permanence (death),
you can use the fire to repel the killer demons. The method is described in my com-
mentary later on below" (Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,3b).
57 Daoshu, 27/12a.
because the adept can thus have greater knowledge of the life that
the deceased had lived, and thus also the consequent condition of
the new "dwelling".
The reason why the deceased should not have been "ill from wind
and coldness" during his/her life could be that it was thought that
pathological conditions might be lingering in the body after death,
and that the adept might "inherit" them when he/she enters it.
The deceased should also preferably be young and virginal. This is
because the "essence" becomes depleted with age and with sexual
activity. As for the recommendation that the deceased ought to be
a male child, the most likely explanation is that the author is male
and tends to make his statements with fellow male adepts in mind.
If he had had female adepts in mind, would he have said that they
should transfer into the body of a deceased young woman? This
is hard to say. As has been discussed by Catherine Despeux and
Livia Kohn, the female body was considered to be in some ways
disadvantageous, yet in other ways advantageous for the practice of
internal alchemy.58
Unfortunately, further discussions of "changing your dwelling"
have so far proven hard to come by in internal alchemical literature.
Again, as we have seen, the Zhen longhujiuxianjingwarns that adepts
who take over the bodies of living people will be punished. The
Taibai huandanpian seems to refuse to mention that such a practice
existed. However, I have found one Taoist text that speaks quite non-
judgmentally of what appears to be a somewhat similar phenomenon.
This text is a self-cultivation manual of uncertain date (possibly late
Tang or early Song) entitled Taixuanbaodian ZWit.59 It states
as follows:
58 Women are at some disadvantage at the initial

stages of practice, since they have
to become able to retain and harness their vitality by "decapitating the Red Dragon"-
i.e., stopping the menstrual cycle. However, they are thought to be at an advantage
at the intermediate stage of "growing the embryo", since they are naturally endowed
with wombs. See Despeux and Kohn, Womenin Daoism, pp. 221-243.
59 DZ 1034/TT703. This interesting text contains instructions on neidanmedita-
tion along with the preparation /ingestion of medicines. Unfortunately, the text bears
no colophon and is virtually free of references to historical figures and events. My
guess is that it is a product of the relatively early phases of the neidantradition, since
it lacks some of the characteristics of neidantexts of the Southern Song onward (e.g.,
references to such fabled neidanmasters as Lu Yan, Zhongli Quan or Zhang Boduan;
quotations from such texts as the Zhouyicantongqi MJ WuIzhen pian or Jnfujing
XA;sM;polemical statements asserting the superiority of neidanover other immortality
techniques).
When the refining of energy is complete, and the spirit is stable without
disorder, [adepts] can jump up through the Gate of Heaven and send out
the Spirit. Thus they can penetrate. Some take their lodging in icons. Some
lodge in the bodies of people. Human bodies that get lodged in are those of
people whose spirits are disorderly and whose energy is declining. If they meet
frequently [with such a Spirit?] they will fall down. Some [Spirits of adepts]
mingle and respond to people while they are drunk.60
While the full sense of the above passage is hard to grasp, it

seems to describe how adepts can enter bodies of vulnerable living
people, apparently at times to their detriment (they "fall down").
It is unclear whether the passage is speaking of transient episodes
of possession, or whether it means to imply that the adept's Spirit
permanently evicts the body's previous inhabitant. If it is with mere
temporary possession that we are dealing here, this can plausibly be
justified morally helpful revelations can come through the mouths
or hands of possessed mediums and is in fact, to this day, a capacity
frequently attributed to immortals, particularly within the context
of spirit writing.
Repelling the Killer Demons
The Zhen longhujiuxian jing describes the method for "repelling

the killer demons" as "recalcitrant transformation", since it entails
fighting for the life of one's body rather than conceding it to the
forces of death. Wang Yuanzheng's Taibai huandanpian describes the
method for "repelling the killer demons" in the following terms:
What is [the method for] repelling the killer demons? [Suppose that] a prac-
titioner of the Tao has not yet completed his residence in the womb but is
not far from [the time when] he/she will exit it. Suddenly there is the great
limit (the predestined time of death). By what means shall he/she cope with
this? If the five hearts have a single pain, this means that the great limit has
arrived. ([Editor Zeng Zao's note:] "Five hearts" refers to the centers of the
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, and the heart.) Thereupon you
should sit peacefully in a quiet room and carry out the visualization of having
an audience with the Realized Ones. [The visualization of] having an audience
with the Realized Ones [is done as follows]: Darken the mind [to focus on
the] inner being. Use the chain [to bind] your ears, eyes, nose, tongue, hands,
60 Taixuanbaodian,2/9b- 1Oa.
feet and the orifices of renand gui.61Make your teeth your city walls. With
your heart make fire, and with it burn your body. When you see the demons,
do not be scared. The heart is the emperor. Store the three in the nose. The
feet are the Three Tai [stars]. With it illuminate the ten thousand ministers.
The god(s) of the liver command(s) 36,000 deities of refined radiance, and
defend(s) the left side. The god(s) of the lungs command(s) 12,000 shadowy
deities and defend(s)the right side. The god(s) of the spleen command(s)the
84,000 deities of the hairs and pores and defend(s)the front side. The god(s)
of the kidneys command(s)the 50,000 refined efflorescentprimal energy dei-
ties and defend(s)the back. The god(s) of the head and the god(s) of the neck
command the deities of the hair and defend the upper palace. The god(s) of
the gall bladder defend(s) the lower section. The six bowels are the six ding.
When you engage the demons in battle, the demons will retreat. Three to
five days later they may come back again. Then you can abandon the city
and directly ascend to the Heavenly Officials [to join their ranks]. Or, you
can become a Heroic Immortal (liexian).Or, you can become an Earthly
Immortal (dixian).62
f4lX8E~~~6
tEXkAf~ L
1S P W; tP E MMXtoL' GiW
1p;FFin
Wang Yuanzheng recommends this type of death meditation when

the Spirit has yet to reach the desired level of maturity in the "womb",
but is nonetheless close to doing so. The implication is perhaps that
the adept who opts for this method is an adept who at the time of
impending doom has reached a higher level of cultivation than one
who would chose to "enter a womb" or "change the dwelling". The
body as well as the Spirit have been trained and refined to a point
where abandoning this particularly body for another would be a great
shame. The Spirit, the body, or both, are on the brink of attaining a
lofty grade of immortality if one can just buy some more time. The
61
"The orifices of renand gui" probably refers to the lower bodily orifices, particu-
larly the genitals. Ren and gui are the ninth and tenth "stems" in the traditional method
of denoting days and months by combinations of "stem" and "branch" symbols. In
traditional correlative cosmology, renand gui both correspond to the agent of water,
the direction of north. Within the human body, the kidneys and the lower end of the
abdomen were thought to correspond to this agent and direction. Also, the kidneys
were regarded largely as a sexual organ that manufactures semen. The testicles are
known as the "outer kidneys," as opposed to the "inner kidneys".
62 Daoshu, 27/12a-13a.
imminence of one's predestined time of death, we are told, can be

ascertained by pain that is felt in the heart, the palms of the hands
and the soles of the feet. Time is to be bought by fighting off the
demons of death.
The description of the method of "doing battle" is abstruse in
some of its terminology. Besides, it does not, unfortunately, tell us
more about who or what these demons are (the Three Corpses and
Nine Worms, perhaps?),and whether they come from the inside, the
outside, or both. Still,we can see that the "fighting"is done by means
of a method of meditativeconcentrationand visualization.The adept
imagines the body as a "city"that is defended by firmly closing its
entrances (the sense organs and bodily orifices) and concentrating
the mind and senses within. The adept generates inner heat ("fire"),
most likely through a combination of intense mental concentration
and the holding of breath (the latter is probably what is meant
by the obscure phrase, "store the three in the nose"). The "fire",
presumably, is meant to serve the function of burning away the
demons. The text anticipatesthat the adept may experience visions
of the demons, and tells him/her not to fear them. While arousing
the "fire",the adept also mobilizes his/her inner "troops",which are
the tens of thousands of corporeal spirits commanded by the chief
resident deities of the principal bodily organs.
After the demons have been successfullyrepelled,they are likelyto
return several days later. If so, the adept has three differentoptions.
One is to abandon the "city"-the body-and ascend spiritually
to heavenly immortal existence. The implication seems to be that
the Spirit has been refined to full maturity during the several days
since the first "siege"and has now become capable of lofty heavenly
ascension-which it was not at the moment of the first "siege".The
other two options-or at least the option of Earthly Immortal-
would appear to entail fighting off the demons as many times as
necessary while making the immortal body one's eternal dwelling.
A "Heroic Immortal", it would appear, is also a type of immortal
that lingersin the world of mortals,and furthermoreemploys martial
powers to combat the evil and benefit the righteous.63
63 This interpretation (and translation) of the term liexian YJ{W

is based on what
comes after in the text of the Taibai huandanpian and on parallel passages from the
roughly contemporary (if somewhat earlier) Zhenlonghujiuxianjing.Both texts contain
descriptions of how to forge a "sword" through inner visualization and manipula-
By the Northern Song period there came to be known yet another

method for neidanpractitioners to buy time at their allotted time of
death. The idea of this method, known as "fleeing the numbers"
(huanshuC.), seems to be to flee from the forces of death rather than
fight them. The Dongyuanzineidanjue [a tf []H-q , a text roughly
datable to the Northern Song64 and, to my knowledge so far, the
only one to discuss this particular method, states as follows:
When practitioners of the Way refine their spirits and make them immortal,
the yin registers erase their names, and demonic monitors will go far away.
Even if your dust number (remaining life span) is about to be exhausted, you
can still flee from it. This is why Lord Lao said, "My life is in my [own hands],
it is not in [the hands of] heaven".65
Later on in the text we find a chapter entitled, "Chapter on Fleeing

the Numbers" ("Huanshu pian" ) which reads as follows:
[The following regards] people who come to understand the Way and engage
in training late in life: If their training is not completed and the number of
years [that they have put into training] has not reached [the requisite amount
of time], they will definitely be unable to avoid death and fly to immortality.
If they know that the number has arrived (the time of death has come), they
can flee from it. After becoming Earthly Immortals they can cultivate the way
of long life and heavenly ascension.66
tion of one's own qi. The Zhen longhujiuxianjing(Luo commentary) further provides a
ranked list of nine types of Immortal Knights who employ a flying sword with varying
degrees of power and skill. The most likely explanation is that this internally forged
flying sword was supposed to be wielded by the adept's Spirit, which could be sent
out of the body during trance to combat evil forces in remote locations. Essentially,
it seems to have been a technique of therapeutic magic by which some early internal
alchemists claimed to be able to slay the demons that caused disease. However, in
mainstream internal alchemical discourse the "sword" came to be reinterpreted as a
metaphor for the adept's inner wisdom and fortitude, capable of slaying and cutting
off ignorance and temptations. I have discussed this issue of the internal alchemist's
sword in more detail in a conference paper, "Do Immortals Kill? The Controversy
Surrounding Lu Dongbin", presented at the American Academy of Religion Annual
Meeting, Philadelphia, 2005 (currently under revision for future publication).
64 DZ1097/TT743. As the title is listed in Zheng Qiao's Tongzhi,it probably dates
to the Northern Song. See RenJiyu, Daozang tyao, p. 840.
65 Dongyuanzineidanjue,preface 3b.
66
Dongyuanzineidanjue,2/6a.
Unlike the Zhenlonghujiuxianjing (and perhaps also the Taibai

huandan pian),the Dongvuanzi neidanjueenvisions the ultimate form of
immortality as the one of the perfected Spirit which casts aside the
bodily husk and ascends to the heavens.67However, we are told that
people who embark upon neidanpractice late in life are likely to see
theirearthlylifespanrun out beforethe Spiritis sufficientlyperfected-
a large part of the problem being that such late practitionersneed
extra time to replenish through neidanthe "essence"they have lost
through past sexual activity. These people must "flee the numbers";
if they are able to cheat death in this way, they have in effect already
become "EarthlyImmortals"(here regarded as of a rank below that
of Spirit Immortalsthat have been "liberatedfrom the corpse").The
text follows with a description of the actual method:
People of the world in their life spans vary in length and shortness.
Observe the great number as it gets completed over the mornings and eve-
nings.
If the spirituallight has left, the doorway will be black.
If you arouse the fire three times and yet the fire does not circulate,
You will know that the numbers have arrived and you must flee.
Quietly stabilize the Dark Passage (xuanguan)68 with utmost firmness.
Before your eyes you will see many divine immortal companions.
Some will be holding vermillion kerchiefs and wearing dark red sashes,
In their hands they will be holding the Most High Ordinance of the Mysteri-
ous Origin.
They will come inviting you with painstakinglypolite phrases,
And they will speak of various matters pertaining to heavenly ascension.
[They will further speak of] accompanying your body in its ascension to the
Nine Skies.
If they say things such as this, never listen to them.
If they want to go with you, do not fight with them.
Just know that you must confine yourself at the head of the Vermillion Gates
(zhumen).69
Discretely within the Mysterious Palace (xuangong)
relax in great stillness.70
67 The Dongyuanzi neidanjue,preface,5a, states:"The way of cultivatingimmortal-

ity beginswith a ten-monthregimen,and is completedin threeyears.You escapeyour
filthybody the way a cicada sheds its shell."
68 The Dark Passagehere most likelyrefersto either the mind or the heart, or per-
haps to the LowerElixirFieldbehind the navel. See Qing Xitai, ed., Zhongguo daojiaoshi
(Chengdu:Sichuanrenmin chubanshe, 1996),vol. 3, pp. 169-170.
69 The meaningof this sentenceis not very clear.It seems to mean, "keepthe heart
or mind stable".The color vermillion(or any shade of red) correspondsto the agent
fire and the direction south, and thus physiologicallywould most likely refer to the
heart.
70 The meaning of this sentence is not very clear.It means perhaps "to focus the
mind inwardly on the kidneys".The character xuant (translatedas "mysterious")
Wandering spirits [will come] from 1000 li away, traversing mountain passes
[or Make your Spirit travel 1000 li, traversing mountain passes].
Wait for them to leave and [or: After those accompanying you have left,]
then come to see (?).
After the wandering spirits have left [or When you send your Spirit traveling],
there is a divine chant [for you to chant].
The chant is transmitted from an immortal master with a golden mouth (?).1
It is first of all crucial to know when to "flee the numbers"; thus,

the Dongvuanzineidanjue-like the Lingbaoguikongjueand Taibaihuandan
pian sets forth a method for anticipating the predestined moment
of death. The adept is able to know that this moment is imminent
when there is no "spiritual light" (shenguang)and "the fire does not
circulate". The "fire" in this case probably refers to the inner heat that
neidanadepts create through breath-holding and mental concentration:
it is claimed here that it cannot be generated and spread through
the body effectively when death is imminent. The "spiritual light"
is also something that a neidanadept normally expects to be able to
generate or experience during meditation. A little later, in a section
entitled "Chapter on the Spiritual Light" ("Shenguang pian" ~$tBY,),
Dongyuanzi, the text's obscure author, criticizes his contemporaries
for maintaining that this "spiritual light" should be generated by
rubbing the lower eyelids. Rather, Dongyuanzi argues, one should
simply sit in a dark room during the fifth watch, prior to the rooster's
call, with one's eyes closed and one's mind calm. After a while one
will be able to see a "spiritual light" resembling that of the sun and
moon, or perhaps of a candle, rotating and flickering about. If for
three days in a row the procedure fails to bring forth such visions
of light, one will know that the time of death has come.
As death approaches, the adept concentrates his/her mind inward
and experiences visions, not of menacing demons, but rather of
amiable Immortals who invite him/her to ascend to Heaven with
them. Though it is not explicitly stated, it seems that one must
often denotes the color black, which corresponds to the kidneys. Besides, in two dif-
ferent places (1/6a, 1/9b) the Dongyuanzi neidanjue appears to use the term xuangong
t to denote the kidneys.
71 Dongyuanzineidanjue,2/6b.
understand here that these Immortal envoys are in fact demons, or

spirit envoys of the underworld, intent on deceiving the adept and
taking his/her premature Spirit to some less desirable destination of
the sort ordinary dead people normally go to (purgatory, or some lowly
station of samsara).The adept is told to ignore their invitations, but
also not to argue or fight with them; apparently they lack the power
to abduct him/her as long as he/she does not become deceived.
The rest of the passage is quite difficult to understand. Possibly,
it says that the adept's Spirit is simply to stay put within the head
while more and more deceptive spirits arrive from distant places, and
wait until they all leave for good. Another possible interpretation is
that, while concentrating inside, the adept sends his/her Spirit out
on a journey-and some of the demons perhaps tag along; after the
demons have given up harassing the adept's Spirit and body, the
Spirit returns safely to the body. If the latter interpretation is correct,
it would mean that the demons do not threaten to occupy the body
even when the Spirit is absent. But then it is hard to say whether
the reason is supposed to be their lack of power-or interest-to
do so, or if it is because when the Spirit is absent the adept's body
is guarded by some other corporeal spirits.
Conclusion
Techniques such as "entering a womb" or "changing the dwelling",

which are rather haughtily disdained in the Zhong-Lu texts (and in
many other internal alchemical writings), were in fact regarded by
some-perhaps, many-internal alchemists as valid measures to resort
to when death looms imminent and the desired level of attainment
has not yet been reached. Through these methods, as well as those
of "expelling the killer demons" and "fleeing the numbers", adepts
hoped to overcome the crisis in a manner that would enable them to
continue to exist in some sort of condition where they could continue
to make progress toward the level of immortality deemed desirable.
The post-crisis condition envisioned varies according to the technique
used: the Spirit either transfers to another womb or body (in the cases
of "entering a womb" and "changing the dwelling") or manages to
stay on in its accustomed body (in the cases of "expelling the killer
demons" and "fleeing the numbers"). Our texts seem to assume ta-
citly that adepts who can and should "enter the womb" are at a
lower level of attainment compared to those who can "change the

dwelling"; the latter in turn do not match those who can "repel the
killer demons". The bardocondition certainly seems highly perilous
and unstable, one which an adept ought to try to avoid entering
altogether if possible. To "change the dwelling" is a way of finding
another body without subjecting oneself to quite so much peril and
uncertainty; to "repel the killer demons" successfully would be even
better.
Internal alchemists also varied in their final desired goal. Some
saw physical immortality as superior to immortality of the Spirit
alone; the author and commentators of the Zhen longhujiuxianjingare
an example, as is perhaps also Wang Yuanzheng, the author of the
Taibai huandanpian. Others saw it as most desirable for the pureyang
Spirit to cast off the bodily shell; this is the view of the Dongvuanzi
neidan'jue,of the Zhong-Lu texts, and of the subsequent mainstream
Quanzhen tradition. But in all cases what seems to be at issue is
whether the mind of the adept will live on whole and intact, and
whether it will maintain control and free will in the face of hostile
and deceptive forces.
Ultimate defeat and failure-death in the true sense-occurs when
the adept's mind loses the power to control its own destiny. The
adept is winning as long as the famous phrase from the medieval
Taoist classic Xishengjingfi kg (Scripture of the Western Ascension),
"My life is in my [own hands], it is not in [the hands of] Heaven",
holds true. It is therefore natural that all the techniques examined
should involve keeping the mind calm, attentive and in control as it is
about to confront psychic forces spirits and demons that threaten
to take away its free will and/or disintegrate its state of unity and
awareness. These dangerous psychic forces can be internal-dwelling
within the adept's own body or psyche or external; they seem to be
of various types associated with both indigenous and Indo-Buddhist
conceptions of death and the afterlife.
Since at least early medieval times the immortality-seeking/Taoist
tradition has believed in the existence of corporeal spirits that desire
the person to die and disintegrate, and thus have the propensity to
delude them into self-destructive behavior or report their misdeeds to
the divine bureaucracy. The Three Corpses, Nine Worms and Seven
Po are such spirits/demons, and Luo Gongyuan's commentary to the
Zhen longhujiuxian jing specifically identifies them as the malignant
forces that one must flee or fight. Even older indigenous beliefs-
belonging to the larger common religious tradition and dating back

to Han times and earlier-have maintained that there is a spirit
bureaucracyin possession of the records of people's appointed times
of death, and that the souls of the dead live on in a subterraneanland
known as the Yellow Springs (huangquan t7g) or the Underground
(dixiaittFT).72In its description of how to "flee the numbers", the
Dongyuanzineidanjue seems to be describing an encounter with en-
voys of the underworld who have disguised themselves as celestial
immortal envoys in an attempt to mislead the adept. The Indo-
Buddhist influence-deeply embedded in the Taoist religion since
around the 5th century-is apparent in the way the Taibaihuandan
pianand Lingbao guikongjuedescribeencounterswith deceptive,vision-
creating forces instrumental to the unfolding of the processes of
samsara.These forces-at least according to the Lingbaoguikongjue-
are both internal and external.
So, what is at the source of such beliefs pertaining to death and
the psychic techniques for coping with it? Instrumental first and
foremost is the natural and virtually universal human wish or hope
that the life of an individual will continue somehow, at least at the
psychic level, after the seemingly inevitable death and decay of the
body. However, accompanying that hope is the uncertainty about
what the fate of such a disembodied mind might be-whether it will
soon face decay and disintegration,much like the corpse, or perhaps
surviveeternally,but in a state of abjectweaknessand misery. Hopes
and fears such as these would then inspire people to imagine the
sorts of hazards that the mind may face at the time of death and
devise strategiesto help ensure its survival and freedom. However,
one also surmisesthat internal alchemistsdid not derive their beliefs
only from mere ordinary imagination. As mystics who cultivated
frequenttrances of disembodiment whether real or imagined-the
most accomplishedof them probablybased their beliefs on evidence
gleaned frompersonalexperiencesthat bore at least subjectivereality.
They believed they had experienced the disembodied state in these
trancesand had witnessedthe increasingpower that the Spiritcomes
to bear with the repetition of such experiences.
Were the various sorts of death meditation developed completely
72 See Mu-chou Poo, In Searchof PersonalWeffare: Religion

A Viewof AncientChinese
(Albany:State Universityof New YorkPress, 1998),pp. 62-66,157-177.
indigenously, within strictly Taoist circles? Such was almost certainly

not the case, particularly in regard to the method of "entering a
womb". The very notions of karma and reincarnation, along with
the interval between death and rebirth (Sanskrit antardbhava; Tibetan
bardo)and the visions that ensue therein, were probably incorporated
into the Taoist worldview mostly as a result of Buddhist influence.
Psychic techniques for advantageously affecting the outcome of the
intermediate state are well-developed in the Tibetan Tantric tradition
and very likely derive from the teachings and methods of earlier
Indian Esoteric masters. In fact, Tibetan Tantric Buddhism also
has highly elaborate theories and practices regarding how to gauge
the imminence of one's death, how to prolong one's lifespan in the
face of impending death, and how to transfer one's consciousness to
a desirable realm (such as the Tushita Heaven of Maitreya or the
Western Pure Land of Amitabha) by sending it out through the top
of the head at the time of death.73 In all these instances the parallels
with the Taoist internal alchemical tradition are striking, the main
difference lying apparently in the fact that the internal alchemists-
at least those whose views are represented in the Zhen longhujiuxian
jing and Taibai huandanpian-hold more tenaciously to the hope of
remaining in the body and prolonging its life.
However, if the origins of the Tibetan Tantric death meditations
can be traced back no further than the 8th century (when Indian
Esoteric Buddhism flourished in Tang China), one needs to consider
the possibility that they came about at least partially as a result of
Chinese/Taoist influence. The Taoists may have provided some
of the encouragement needed for the Buddhists to try to influence
positively the outcome of the intermediate state while in the midst
of it. The possibility that the Taoists held some of the initiative
here is suggested by the fact that, in developing their own theory
and technique for "entering the womb", they did not-at least ini-
tially follow the established Buddhist theories on the antardbhavain
their specifics; perhaps most notably, the "Oedipal visions" are not
mentioned in the Taibai huandanpian nor in the Lingbaoguikongjue,
for that matter.
Since the late Tang and up to modern times, just how frequently
have Taoists endorsed and attempted to practice the emergency
73 See Mullin,DeathandDying,pp. 126-191.
death meditations discussed in this essay? Certainly, the fact that

the Lingbaoguikongjue of the 14th century describes in detail what
amounts to a method for "entering a womb" indicates that this type
of emergency death meditation was being propagated and perpetuated
among at least some Taoists well after the Tang period. Yet, as we
saw in the introduction, the mainstream of internal alchemy as
represented, for example, by the Zhong-Lu texts and the Wuzhen
pian and its commentaries-spoke disdainfully of "entering a womb"
and "changing/seizing the dwelling" as methods resorted to only
by inferior practitioners, especially Buddhists. This gives one the
impression that the mainstream of the internal alchemical tradition
did not endorse and practice emergency death meditations. This
impression is strengthened by textual data issuing from the influential
northern Quanzhen School. As I have discussed in a previous study,
Quanzhen hagiographies invariably portray the Quanzhen masters as
having faced death with the equanimity and joy that comes from the
knowledge that physical death is merely a transition to the glorious
eternal life of the liberated Radiant Spirit. Of course, these are
idealized descriptions of adepts who were regarded as having attained
the highest level of perfection in their lifetimes, and thus would have
had no need for emergency death meditations anyway. Yet, in the
collected sayings (yulu) of Quanzhen master Wang Zhijin IJ"i
(1178-1263) one can find some words of advice clearly addressed
to practitioners in general-not just those of highest attainment-
regarding how to comport oneself in the event of severe or mortal
illness. There Wang advises that one must accept one's predicament
with equanimity, neither fearing death nor resenting one's misfor-
tune doing so will help reduce the severity of the physical suffering
(it may even help cure the disease) and prevent the generation of bad
karmaleading to an evil, miserable rebirth. However, throughout this
fairly lengthy exposition Wang makes no endorsement or mention
of any sort of emergency death meditation.74
Yet again, and interestingly, a highly eminent commentator of the
Wuzhenpian, who seemed to see "entering a womb" as something
resorted to primarily by Buddhists,75 could nonetheless recognize
` See Eskildsen,The Teachings

andPractices
of theEarl Quanzhen
TaoistMasters,pp.
139-153; and PanshanQjyunWangzhenrenyuluZ (DZ1059/TT728),
lOb-1la.
75 See note 12 above.
and affirm the provisional benefits that could come from it. This
is Chen Zhixu P*RT (b. 1290),76 who says in his commentary to
the Wuzhenpian:
"Enteringa womb and seizing a dwelling" refers to a case such as when the
Fifth [Chan Buddhist] Patriarch [Hongren XL?] entered the womb of the
Zhou family. Thus he could hope to resume his cultivation in another life.
Because he had [the Fourth Chan BuddhistPatriarch]Daoxin [to guide him],
he was able not to get confused. Once one loses one's human body, one must
transmigrate for 10,000 kalpas.77
Chen Zhixu is alluding here to a legend that was in circulation

among the Buddhists of his time. According to this legend, the Fifth
Chan Patriarch Hongren (601-674), in his previous incarnation, was
planting pine trees on West Mountain (Xishan) in Qizhou (Hubei),
when he encountered the Fourth Chan Patriarch Daoxin (580-651).
Daoxin told him that he wanted to instruct him, but that he (the
tree planter, i.e. the future Hongren) was too old. Daoxin also said
that he would wait for him if he would "come again". Heeding
these words, the old tree planter went to be reborn from the womb
of a woman of the Zhou family (how exactly he did this is unclear).
Later, as a seven year-old boy, he re-encountered Daoxin, assumed
tutelage under him, and ultimately became the Fifth Chan Patriarch
Hongren.78 In citing this legend, the Taoist Chen Zhixu recognizes
that Hongren was wise to take measures to ensure the resumption
of an embodied human existence, since in this way he obtained a
renewed human lifespan in which he could fully benefit from Daoxin's
guidance. It is not clear from this passage whether Chen Zhixu
regarded the enlightenment ultimately attained by Hongren as being
of comparable value to Taoist immortality. It is also not clear whether
Chen Zhixu knew of any specific method that Hongren allegedly
76 Chen Zhixu, widely known

by the sobriquetShangyangzia WJf, is the author
of the voluminous internal alchemical collection Shangyangzi jindandayaofi-)co
(DZ1067/TT736-738). He traced his spiritual lineage back to the early northern
Quanzhen school, but clearly was at the same time deeply inspiredby the Southern
School (Nanzong M') of internal alchemy and by Chan Buddhism.
7 Zyang zhenrenWuzhen pian sanzhu,5/20b-2 1a.
78 This story is found in the 7th juan of the Chanzong songgulianzhutongjiW'
JAIAV9W (Xuzangjing, vol. 65, no. 1295; compiled around 1175 by Faying ,
with a supplement added in 1318 by Puhui t).
employed to "enter the womb".79Nevertheless, one gets the sense

that if he could have, he would have imparted such a method upon
any of his Taoist discipleswho were faced with imminent death and
had not yet brought the Radiant Spirit to maturity.80
It is certainly possible that emergency death meditations were
(Perhapsstill are) taught and practiced among Taoists-and Chinese
Buddhists-more widely and frequently than our textual sources
would seem to indicate. "Entering a womb", "repelling the killer
demons" and "fleeingthe numbers"certainlyseem like useful tactics
for Taoists of any period; so does "changing/seizing the dwelling",
even though possibly this technique was phased out of the tradition
due to its alleged potential for abuse.
79 Interestingly,as we saw earlierthe Lingbaoguikongjuedrewpart of its inspiration

from an older text that had been attributedto Bodhidharma.One wonders whether
a death meditation method quite similar to that of the Lingbao guikongjue was being
propagated among Chan Buddhists, and in this case whether the Chan Buddhist
hagiographers of Hongren understood that Hongren had somehow learned and
employed that very technique.
80 The Lishizhenxian tidaotong;ian,the massivehagiographicalcollection compiled
by Zhao Daoyi, recordsthe storyof Zhang Xubai " n who, we are told, personally
claimed that his "previousbody" (qianshen) was none other than Master Zhang Bai
fHb of Wuling.When the matterwas investigatedit was indeed found that the dates
of Zhang Bai's "liberationfrom the corpse" and of Zhang Xubai's birth were con-
sistent with such a claim. Much like Zhang Bai, Zhang Xubai also loved liquor and
consumed it in heroic portions-a furtherindication that they were the same person
in different bodies. See Lishizhenxiantidaotong/ian,51 / la-2b. Could the narrative
be meant to imply that Zhang Bai intentionally chose to be reborn as Zhang Xubai
and that he had used some sort of death meditation technique for "entering the
womb"?

Death Meditation For Internal Alchemists

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Emergency Death Meditations for Internal Alchemists

Author(s): Stephen Eskildsen

When strivingupon a religiouspath of self-cultivation,how should

C)Brill, Leiden, 2006 T'oungPao XCII

1 I capitalizethe word "spirit"so as to designatea singular,unifiedconsciousness/

but after some period of time it becomes able to travel enormous

See for example Zhenlonghu jiuxianjing A'LJtY{LU (DZ227/TT112), lOb-

BichuanZhengyangzhenrenlingbaobifa (ca. 11th c.), both important texts

9 Zhong-Li chuandaoji,in Xiuzhenshishu 14/3a-b.

no longer subject to the laws of karmaand samsara,it cannot merge

" See Zhong-Liichuandaoji, in Xiuzhenshishu,14/3a-b.

"entering a womb" and "taking up a dwelling" along with "repelling

This passage comes at the end of a long description of the inter-

16 Admittedly, some skepticism is warranted in ascribing neidantexts to such an early

our ensuing discussion-is none other than death, or the imminent

The Zhenlonghujiuxianjingthus asserts that psychic techniques such

Thus, while the psychic techniques sometimes are used immorally,

After enumerating the three types of emergency death meditation,

Bookof theDeador TheAfter-

into Chinese before the Tang Dynasty).The lattergives a description

to around 542 and bears the title, Zhenfanianchujing H (TaishiDaizokyoi,

35 In some indigenousChinese,pre-Buddhisttexts,one does occasionallyfind con-

36 That suchwas the objectiveis conveyedmoreclearlyin the Zhenlonghujiuxianjing,

Bathe yourself in hot peach water and change your clothing.

Various sights of people and things will come,

Only see the paths of thunder fire and lightning radiance,

54 t9t H XQ ttST X X]At

The "signs of returning to emptiness" are physical symptoms

be a potion that causes a person to forget all memories of their past

45 A very similar notion (provided my interpretation is accurate here) is found in

evolution and elaboration in Taoist and Buddhist death meditation

The Holy Body here (assuming that the Luo commentary's

"contrarily" might be taken to imply that "entering the womb"

We can see from the two commentaries that "entering a womb"

is tantamount to the practice of "repelling the killer demons" (the

Changing your Dwelling

Regarding the method for "changing your dwelling", the Taibai

Unfortunately, we are not told of the actual technique for

58 Women are at some disadvantage at the initial

While the full sense of the above passage is hard to grasp, it

Repelling the Killer Demons

The Zhen longhujiuxian jing describes the method for "repelling

Wang Yuanzheng recommends this type of death meditation when

imminence of one's predestined time of death, we are told, can be

63 This interpretation (and translation) of the term liexian YJ{W

By the Northern Song period there came to be known yet another

Later on in the text we find a chapter entitled, "Chapter on Fleeing

Unlike the Zhenlonghujiuxianjing (and perhaps also the Taibai

67 The Dongyuanzi neidanjue,preface,5a, states:"The way of cultivatingimmortal-

It is first of all crucial to know when to "flee the numbers"; thus,

understand here that these Immortal envoys are in fact demons, or

Techniques such as "entering a womb" or "changing the dwelling",

lower level of attainment compared to those who can "change the

belonging to the larger common religious tradition and dating back

72 See Mu-chou Poo, In Searchof PersonalWeffare: Religion

indigenously, within strictly Taoist circles? Such was almost certainly

73 See Mullin,DeathandDying,pp. 126-191.

death meditations discussed in this essay? Certainly, the fact that

` See Eskildsen,The Teachings

Chen Zhixu is alluding here to a legend that was in circulation

76 Chen Zhixu, widely known

employed to "enter the womb".79Nevertheless, one gets the sense

79 Interestingly,as we saw earlierthe Lingbaoguikongjuedrewpart of its inspiration