LECTURE 5: INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

• All radiation is detected through its interaction with matter!

INTRODUCTION: What happens when radiation passes through matter?

Emphasis on what happens to emitted particle (if no nuclear

reaction and MEDIUM (i.e., atomic effects)

RELEVANCE: (1) Detection of Radiation

(2) Radiation Safety
(3) Environmental Hazards
(4) Biological Effects − "Radiation Hypochondria"
(5) Risk Assessment – Alternative Medicine

TYPES OF RADIATION:

(1) Positive Ions: X+q − α, fission, cosmic rays, beams

(2) Electrons: β±, IC, Auger, cosmic rays
(3) Photons: γ → x-ray → uv → visible
(4) Neutrons: nuclear reactors, nuclear weapons, accelerators
I. Positive Ions
A +q
Definition: Cation = ZX , where q = atomic ionization state

Actual SRIM calculation of

energy loss as ions stop in
matter.

A. Overview

1. Possible interactions: Nuclei σ ~ 10−24 cm2 ~ 10−8 ;

Orbital e−s σ ~ 10−16 cm2
Result: ion-electron collisions dominate interactions

2. Qualitative Properties of ion-electron Collisions

a. vI < < c (usually ~ 0.01 − 0.1 c)
b. Mass (ion) > > Mass (e−) ; ∴ Many collisions required to stop ion
c. Trajectory: straight line

Analogy: bowling ball – ping-pong ball collisions

B. Stages of Energy Loss
1. Electronic Stopping: vI > > ve- in atomic orbitals (95%)
A +q A +Z 16 + 2 16 + 8
a. Stripping: ZX → → ZX ; e.g., 8O → → 8O

ion medium
(electron sea)
 i.e., ion loses all electrons (usually) in passing through matter
(∆X~100 atoms)

b. Ion-Electron Collisions
Multiple, sequential collisions ; straight-line trajectory

c. Medium Effects
(1) Ionization → Creation of multiple cations (from medium) –
electron pairs
(2) Electronic Excitation: fluorescence (uv, x-rays, etc.)
(3) Molecular Dissociation (free radical formation)

2. Intermediate Stopping: vI ≈ ve− (inner shells)

a. Pickup: Incident ion begins to pick up electrons from stopping
medium. K-shell first, since they have highest velocity (binding energy).

b. Moderate Directional Changes (Dramatic size increase)

- - -
+8 +e +7 e +6 e +5
O   → O  → O  → O → → → O± 1,0
v(1s)
1s1 1s2 1s22s1 1s22s22p4±1

c. Ion slows down at each step and ionic charge is ≈ neutralized

3. Atomic ("nuclear") stopping: vI ≈ ve (valence shell)

a. Ion charge ±1,0

 b. Elastic ion-atom collisions
∴ Mass (ion) ≈ Mass (medium atoms) – billiard ball collisions
c. Result large directional changes: Straggling

4. Summary

Go Stop
5. Concept of Range (R ≠ Rate)
a. Definition: The average distance traveled by an ion with a
given energy E during stopping process.

b. Straggling: The distribution of ranges resulting from the

statistical nature of the stopping process

C. Energetics

1. Maximum energy loss per collision: ∆Emax

X+q e−
a. ∆Emax is obtained when ion scatters at 180° (c.m.)
From energy and momentum conservation (relativistic solution)
∆Emax = 4 E0 (Me/Mion) = E0/459 Aion (MeV)
b. Example:6 MeV 4He ion
∆Emax = 6.000 /459(4) = 0.003 MeV
∴ E(α)′ = 6.000 −0.003 = 5.997 MeV; i.e., long way to go

2. Average Energy Loss: <∆E>

Average over all scattering angles,
<∆E> ≈ 100 eV for 6.000 MeV α

E0 6.000
∴ <Ncollisions> = = ≈ 104 − 105
∆E 0.0001

3. Each collision creates a cation-electron pair; creates a measurable

current; basis for detectors
D. Rate of Energy Loss: dE/dx: Specific Ionization
(Related to radiation damage)
 dE MeV ρ MeV MeV
1. Units: = = 2
∝ ; since ρ is a constant
dx cm g / cm (g / cm2 )

i.e., thickness is expressed in g/cm2

2. Schematic Picture
a. Assume a homogeneous sea of electrons
e−
X +q
(E = E0) X+q (E = E′)
X+q

3. Bethe-Bloch Formula – For Positive Ions in Matter

Relativistically, by considering the momentum transfer to the electron (in the transverse
direction) one can derive (see FKMM or ES for derivation):

dE 4πZ 2e 4 n  2mv 2 2
− =  ln − ln(1 − β 2
) − β 
dx mv 2  I 
Where
v is the velocity of the ion
m is the mass of the ion
Z is the atomic number of the ion
v
β=
c
I is the ionization potential of the absorber
n is the number of electrons per unit volume in the absorber

This equation can be simplified in the non-relativistic case for

fully-stripped ions (γ = q/Z = 1) :

dE ∆E γAZ ion
2

∫ dx dx = ∆x ∝ Eion
Z,A,E
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF RADIATION DAMAGE BY POSITIVE ION

a. Note: dE/dx increases with Z & A of ion

dE/dx decreases with E of ion

b. Terminology:
dE/dx ≡ ionization ≡ energy loss ≡ radiation damage

4. Result: Bragg Curve

Bragg peak – point at which maximum ionization occurs

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RADIATION THERAPY

E. Range Determination
Relation between Range and Specific Ionization:
0
dx
R=∫ dE
E dE

1. Calculations: Require knowledge of atomic orbital densities and

binding energies. Some success for light ions

2. Range Graphs for 1H and 4He

a. R is plotted for an Al absorber (ρ = 2.70 g/cm3) in mg/cm2
b. E of ion is expressed as E/A ; i.e., Eion = (E/A) Aion
c. Examples: 500 MeV p: RP = 52 cm ≈ 20 inches
500 MeV α: Rα =R(125 MeV p) = 5.2 cm ≈ 2 inches
6 MeV α: Rα = 30µm (~ thickness
A 100 MeV of lung tissue)
p has a range
of 9000 mg/cm2. Density
of Al is 2700
mg/cm3.Therefore, the
thickness of Al required
to stop a 100 MeV
proton is:
9000
= 3.3cm
2700

What thickness of Al is
necessary to stop a 500
MeV proton, the
maximum energy of the
IUCF synchrotron?
Why do the range curves for alpha particles and protons diverge at low energy?
3. Ranges of Other Ions in Al
a. Scaling: Relative to protons

A i Zp2  A 
R(Zi, Ei, Ai) = Rp(Ei/AI) =  2i  Rp (Ei/Ai)
A p Zi 2  Zi 

b. Example:500 MeV 20Ne ion

20  500  1 1
R (10, 500 MeV, 20) = •R   = Rp(25 MeV) (900 mg/cm2)
10 2  20  5 5
R (500 MeV 20Ne) = 180 mg/cm2 , or 0.67 mm

4. Methods exist to determine:

a. dE/dx we will not do this; procedures

b. Other absorbers similar to finding range
c. Compounds
II. Electrons ( and Positrons prior to annihilation)

A. Sources
1. Radioactive Decay: β±, IC, Auger, pair production

2. Electron Accelerators: Therapy, light sources

e−
e−
3. Cosmic-Ray Showers: lower atmosphere: X+q e−
e−
−
e
−8
B. Energy-Loss Mechanism -- σ(nucleus)/σ(atom) ≈ 10 again
electron-electron collisions billiard ball

1. Ionization

a. Repulsive charge-charge interaction

b. Me = Me ; ∴ number of collisions much smaller

c. Electrons relativistic above ~ 10 keV

d. Products: scattered e− and cation-electron pair

NET RESULT: Greater energy loss per collision; ∴ greater straggling;

collisions less frequent ; ∴ ionization density much lower

C. Range Energy Relation

1. Range determination – direct from graph
Energy
(in MeV)

Notice that a 1 MeV β has a range of 400 mg/cm2 in Al. What energy alpha particle has
this same range?
 2. Absorber dependence
At low E e− , R ≠ f (absorber Z)
3. Example: 10 MeV e− in Al
R e− ≈ 5500 mg/cm2 ≈ 2 cm
(Rα (10 MeV) ≈ 10 mg/cm2 = 0.004 cm)

(I estimated the 10 mg/cm2 from range chart above)

D. Bremsstrahlung
1. When ve− ≈ c, e− − e− interactions decrease ; long range.
∴ higher probability of passing in vicinity of a nucleus
∴ path is bent due to Coulomb interaction and energy is radiated to
conserve momentum

hν
hv

hν = f (θ, Ee, Z)
e-
+Z θ
e-

2. Probability
P (bremsstrahlung) = EZabs
P (ionization) 800 MeV

3. Result
a. High Z – good photon producer
b. Low Z – good shielding for high energy electrons.

4. Light Sources
Create same effect by passing an electron beam through a magnetic field H.
By adjusting H and E e− , can fine-tune Ehν.
Gives uv and x-ray sources of high intensity and variable frequency;
significant role in future chemical research
 hν
H

e-

e-

III. Electromagnetic Radiation -- Photons

A. Sources: Electromagnetic Spectrum

1. Rearrangement of nuclear orbitals: γ-rays

2. Rearrangement of atomic and molecular orbitals: x-rays, uv …

3. Annihilation radiation ; e.g., e+ −e− → two 0.511 MeV γ s

4. Bremsstrahlung: electron deceleration

5. Cosmic ray showers

B. Interactions

1. Photon: Carriers of Electromagnetic force

∴ must interact with electric charge
Medium:
a. electrons
b. protons in nucleus γ - e− most probable – size argument again

2. Mechanisms
a. Photoelectric Effect: Eγ e− photon disappears

Eγ ′
b. Compton Scattering: Eγ photon scatters

e−
c. Pair Production: Eγ e± pair produced
+
e
C. Photoelectric Effect
1. Mechanism: Photon is completely absorbed by a charged particle; all
energy Eγ is transferred to an atomic electron, which
is ejected from the atom

2. ∴ ONE COLLISION STOPS PHOTON

γ e− (photoelectron); monoenergetic

Ee− = Eγ − EB( n) ; i.e., electron is monoenergetic

where EB(n) is ∴ Photopeak Detector sees electron

electron binding energy (Einstein Nobel Prize)
for n orbital

3. When Eγ ≳ EB(n) , λγ ≈ λe-

∴ resonance-like situation; large wave function overlap leads to
high absorption → probability

4. For Eγ ≳ EB

Z5
PPE ∝ Best absorbers: ; heavy elements (Pb)
E γ 7 / 2 (MeV)