Sei sulla pagina 1di 67

Power PE

Engineering Pro Guides

Technical Study Guide


How to pass the exam
Creates an understanding of the key exam concepts and skills
Simplifies and focuses your studying
Follows the exam outline and teaches the main topics.
Circuits, Electromagnetic Devices, Codes, PECs, Performance
Transmission, Rotating Machines, Protection, Special Appl.
Justin Kauwale, P.E.
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION

http://www.engproguides.com
Introduction
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Key Concepts and Skills ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Units .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... 5
3.0 How to use this Book .............................................................................................................. 5
4.0 Sample Exam Tips .................................................................................................................. 6
5.0 Recommended References ............................................................................................... 9
5.1 NFPA 70, NEC Handbook, 2014 Edition ........................................................................ 9
5.2 Engineering Unit Conversions Book ............................................................................... 9
5.3 Schaum's Outline of Basic Electricity ............................................................................. 9
5.4 Schaum's Outline of Electrical Power Systems ............................................................ 10
5.4 Electric Machines, Drives and Power Systems ............................................................ 10
5.5 Power System Analysis ................................................................................................ 10
5.6 Online Articles .............................................................................................................. 11
5.7 IEEE Color Books ......................................................................................................... 12

Introduction-1 http://www.engproguides.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important steps in an engineer's career is obtaining the professional
engineering (P.E.) license. It allows an individual to legally practice engineering in the state of
licensure. This credential can also help to obtain higher compensation and develop a credible
reputation. In order to obtain a P.E. license, the engineer must first meet the qualifications as
required by the state of licensure, including minimum experience, references, and the passing of
the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) exam. Engineering
Pro Guides focuses on helping engineers pass the NCEES exam through the use of free
content on the website, http://www.engproguides.com and through the creation of books like
sample exams and guides that outline how to pass the PE exam.

The key to passing the PE exam is to learn the key concepts and skills that are tested on the
exam. There are several issues that make this very difficult. First, the key concepts and skills
are unknown to most engineers studying for the exam. Second, the key concepts and skills are
not contained in a single document. This technical guide teaches you the key concepts and
skills required to pass the Electrical Power PE Exam.

1.1 KEY CONCEPTS AND SKILLS


How are the key concepts and skills determined?

The key concepts and skills tested in this sample exam were first developed through an analysis
of the topics and information presented by NCEES. NCEES indicates on their website that the
PE Exam will cover an AM exam (4 hours) followed by a PM exam (4 hours) and that the exam
will be 80 questions long, 40 questions in the morning and 40 questions in the afternoon. The
Power Electrical PE exam will focus on the following topics, as indicated by NCEES.
(http://ncees.org/engineering/pe/):

I. General Power Engineering (24 questions)

A) Measurement and Instrumentation (6 questions)


1 Instrument transformers
2 Wattmeters
3 VOM metering
4 Insulation testing
5 Ground resistance testing
B) Special Applications (8 questions)
1 Lightning and surge protection
2 Reliability
3 Illumination engineering
4 Demand and energy management calculations
5 Engineering economics
C) Codes and Standards (10 questions)
1 National Electrical Code (NEC)
2 National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)

Introduction-2 http://www.engproguides.com
5.6 ONLINE ARTICLES
1. Instrument Transformer Basic Technical Information and
Application http://www.gegridsolutions.com/products/manuals/ITITechInfo.pdf

This article covers everything you need to know to answer instrument transformers type
questions.

Topics Covered: 9.0 Measurement and Instrumentation – Instrument Transformers

2. 3 Phase 2 Wattmeter Power Measurements


http://www.newtons4th.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/APP014-3-Phase-2-Wattmeter-
Explained.pdf

This article provides a great explanation on the phasors and how a 3 phase power system can
be measured with 2 watt meters. The other scenarios are provided in this book.

Topics Covered: 9.0 Measurement and Instrumentation – Wattmeters

3. VOM Metering aka Digital Multi Meters (DMM)


http://support.fluke.com/find-sales/Download/Asset/1260898_6116_ENG_M_W.PDF

VOM metering is basically an older name for the current digital multi meters that are used
heavily in the electrical industry.

Topics Covered: 9.0 Measurement and Instrumentation – VOM Metering

4. Insulation Testing
https://www.instrumart.com/assets/Megger-insulationtester.pdf

A megger is the common name for the equipment used to test insulation. This article provides
background information on the equipment and also the process to test insulation under various
scenarios.

Topics Covered: 9.0 Measurement and Instrumentation – Insulation Testing

5. Ground Resistance Testing


http://www.fluke.com/fluke/inen/solutions/earthground/

This website has a lot of information on the equipment used to conduct ground resistance
testing and also information on the methods necessary for the exam.

Topics Covered: 9.0 Measurement and Instrumentation – Ground Resistance Testing

Introduction-11 http://www.engproguides.com
6. Bus Arrangements
http://testguy.net/content/256-6-Common-Substation-Bus-Schemes-Every-Test-Tech-Should-
Know

This website has information on the common bus arrangements that are used to enhance
reliability of an electrical power distribution system.

Topics Covered: 10.0 Special Applications – Reliability

5.7 IEEE COLOR BOOKS


By IEEE

The IEEE Color Books contain a lot of information that is used in nearly all of the recommended
references. There are 13 volumes and each book is given a color as shown in the list below.
For the purposes of the exam you should only get the items in bold.

Red Book™— IEEE STD 141™-1993 (R1999), Recommended Practice for the Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants

Green Book™— IEEE STD 142™-2007, Recommended Practice for Grounding of


Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

This book will help you understand the purpose of grounding and the different
approaches to grounding. There is also information on lightning protection in this book.

Topics Covered: 10.0 Special Applications – Lighting/Surge Protection

Gray Book™— IEEE STD 241™-1990 (R1997), Recommended Practice for Electrical Power
Systems in Commercial Buildings

Buff Book™— IEEE STD 242™-2001, Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

This book will help you to understand short circuit calculations, time current coordination
graphs and different approaches to the protection of various types of equipment like motors,
generators, transformers, buses and conductors.

Introduction-12 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 2
CIRCUITS

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 2.0 – Circuits
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Direct Current ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Electrical Power .............................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws ............................................................................................................. 6
2.3.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) ................................................................................. 6
2.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) ................................................................................. 7
2.4 Circuit Arrangements ...................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Series Circuits ......................................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Parallel Circuits ....................................................................................................... 9
2.4.3 Open Circuit .......................................................................................................... 11
2.4.4 Short Circuit ........................................................................................................... 11
3.0 Alternating current ............................................................................................................ 12
3.1 Frequency ..................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 RMS and MAX .............................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Complex Numbers ........................................................................................................ 16
3.3.1 Rectangular Form .................................................................................................. 16
3.3.2 Polar Form ............................................................................................................. 17
3.3.3 Converting Polar and Rectangular Forms - Calculator .......................................... 18
3.4 Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance and Impedance ................................................ 19
3.4.1 Resistance (Resistors) .......................................................................................... 20
3.4.2 Inductance or Inductive Reactance (Inductors) ..................................................... 20
3.4.3 Capacitance or Capacitive Reactance (Capacitors) .............................................. 20
3.4.4 Impedance ............................................................................................................. 21
3.5 Single-Phase vs. Three-Phase ..................................................................................... 21
3.5.1 Single-Phase ......................................................................................................... 21
3.5.2 Three-Phase .......................................................................................................... 22
3.6 Delta versus Wye Arrangements .................................................................................. 23
3.6.1 Delta Arrangement ................................................................................................ 23
3.6.2 Wye Arrangement ................................................................................................. 24
3.6.3 Convert between Delta and Wye ........................................................................... 25
3.7 Power Factor ................................................................................................................ 27

Circuits-1 http://www.engproguides.com
3.7.1 Waveform – Current & Voltage ............................................................................. 27
3.7.2 Phasor – Current & Voltage .................................................................................. 30
3.7.3 Apparent Power, Real Power and Reactive Power ............................................... 32
4.0 Symmetrical Components ................................................................................................ 34
4.1 Balanced vs. Unbalanced Loads .................................................................................. 34
4.2 Positive, Negative and Zero Components .................................................................... 35
5.0 Per Unit Analysis .............................................................................................................. 38
5.1 Change Per-Unit Base .................................................................................................. 38
5.2 Application of Per-Unit .................................................................................................. 39
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 40
6.1 Problem 1 – Per Unit .................................................................................................... 40
6.2 Problem 2 – Per Unit .................................................................................................... 40
6.3 Problem 3 – Power Factor ............................................................................................ 41
6.4 Problem 4 – Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................................... 41
6.5 Problem 5 – Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................................... 42
7.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 43
7.1 Solution 1 – Per Unit ..................................................................................................... 43
7.2 Solution 2 – Per Unit ..................................................................................................... 44
7.3 Solution 3 – Power Factor ............................................................................................ 45
7.4 Solution 4 - Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................................. 46
7.5 Solution 5 - Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................................. 47

Circuits-2 http://www.engproguides.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Circuits accounts for approximately 9 questions on the Electrical & Computer, Power PE
exam.

This section provides a refresher on the basic electrical engineering concepts, beginning with
direct current. Following the direct current section, exam type material will be covered with
alternating current, per-unit analysis and symmetrical components.

The circuit analysis section of this book will serve as the basis for many of the other application
sections. Therefore, the terms explained here will be used in sections such as 4.0 Rotating
Machines, 5.0 Electromagnetic Devices, and 6.0 Transmission. In the latter sections, it will be
expected that that you have a strong understanding of the material presented in this section, 2.0
Circuits. Specifically, this section will introduce three methods of understanding circuits, (1) one
line diagrams, (2) phasor diagrams and (3) waveforms. These three methods are the basic
tools that will be used in the other sections previously mentioned. The symmetrical components
and the three methods will also be used in 8.0 Protection.

2.0 Circuits
9 questions

Direct Current Alternating Current Per Unit Analysis Symmetrical


Components

• Ohm’s Law • Frequency • One-line • Unbalanced


• Series Circuit • RMS Diagrams Loads
• Parallel Circuit • Complex Numbers • Changing • Balanced
• Kirchhoff’s • Reactance Bases Loads
Laws • Impedance • Positive,
• Single-Phase Negative and
• Three-Phase Zero
• Delta & Wye Components
• Power Factor
• Phasor Diagrams

Circuits-3 http://www.engproguides.com
2.0 DIRECT CURRENT
The PE exam will most likely not have any easy direct current problems, so you may skip this
section if you are already familiar with the basics of electricity. This section is only provided as
a basis for the terms that are used in the other sections throughout this book.

Direct current (DC) is the supply of current in one direction. In a circuit, current flows from the
positive voltage terminal to the negative terminal. Current is deemed positive when it flows in
this direction. Current is considered negative when it flows from a negative terminal to a
positive terminal. DC current is a constant source and does not switch between negative and
positive. Alternating current (AC) is able to supply current in both directions, positive to negative
and negative to positive. This is shown in the graph below, where the current can be positive
(above the 0-axis) or negative (below the 0-axis).

Figure 1: In an AC circuit, current can alternate its flow from positive to negative. In a DC
circuit, current is constant.

There are three main elements to a basic circuit, (1) current, (2) voltage and (3) resistance. The
flow of electrons in a circuit is called current (I) and current is given in units of amperes. The
energy that drives the flow of electrons is called the voltage (V) and is given in units of volts.
The voltage is measured between two points because it is the difference in energy (also known
as the potential) that drives the current from one point to the next. The third term is resistance,
which is measured in units of ohms (Ω). Resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of current.
One ohm is described as the level of resistance that will allow 1 ampere to flow when 1 volt is
applied to a circuit.

In the following sections you will read about voltage in terms of “voltage between phases” or
“voltage across two phases” or “voltage between phase and neutral”.

Circuits-4 http://www.engproguides.com
line with each other and can be simply added. Once the calculation is complete you can then
convert your answer from wye back to delta.

Delta to Wye

These first sets of equations can be used for balanced and unbalanced circuits.

𝑍𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝑍𝐴𝐶 𝑍𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝑍𝐵𝐶 𝑍𝐵𝐶 ∗ 𝑍𝐴𝐶


𝑍𝐴,𝑤𝑦𝑒 = ; 𝑍𝐵,𝑤𝑦𝑒 = ; 𝑍𝐶,𝑤𝑦𝑒 =
𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶 𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶 𝑍𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐴𝐶 + 𝑍𝐵𝐶

If you assume that the impedances are balanced, then the above equations reduce to the
following.

𝑍𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 = 3𝑍𝑤𝑦𝑒 ;

Figure 26: Conversion of delta to wye in a balanced circuit.

Wye to Delta

These first sets of equations can be used for balanced and unbalanced circuits.

Circuits-26 http://www.engproguides.com
Figure 38: Power factor triangle

The second diagram shows the power factor triangle with leading and lagging power factors. It
also includes the inductor and capacitor effect.

Figure 39: Power factor

Circuits-33 http://www.engproguides.com
4.0 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The technique, symmetrical components, is used to analyze unbalanced 3-phase loads (does
not apply to 1-phase loads). This technique takes unbalanced loads and deconstructs the loads
into three sets of symmetrical components, called the positive, negative and zero components.
First, you should understand the difference between balanced and unbalanced loads.

4.1 BALANCED VS. UNBALANCED LOADS


In balanced loads, each phase carries an equal amount of current that are each 120 degrees
out of phase with one another. In addition, each of the phases has the same impedance and
same voltage drop.

𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼∠0°; 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼∠120°; 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼∠240°

When each of the three phases reaches the load, the three phases “cancel” each other out,
such that there is no return current.

𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼∠0° + 𝐼∠120° + 𝐼∠240°

Converting the polar form to rectangular form, you can see that the currents will sum to zero.

= (1 + 0𝑗)𝐼 + (−0.5 + 0.87𝑗)𝐼 + (−0.5 − 0.87𝑗)𝐼

𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = 0

In a delta, 3-phase circuit, the phases must be balanced, due to KCL. However, if there is a
wye, 4-phase circuit, then the KCL equation shall be as follows. The sum of the 3 phases and
the neutral current shall be equal to zero.

𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑁 = 0

In balanced loads, you know that the three phases add to 0, thus in a balanced load, the neutral
will have 0 current and in an unbalanced load, the neutral will have a non-zero current.

𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 → 𝐼𝑁 = 0

𝑈𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 → 𝐼𝑁 ≠ 0

The difficulty with unbalanced loads and the neutral wire is that you lose the symmetry which
allows for easy calculations. On the PE exam, most questions will indicate balanced loads,
which means that you do not need to use the symmetrical components technique and can use
the equations presented elsewhere in this book.

However, you will need to use the symmetrical components technique if one of the following
situations is presented in a question.

(1) The load is unbalanced. (2) There is a reference to positive, negative, zero components.
(3) There is an unsymmetrical fault, which is presented in Section 6.0 Transmission under fault
analysis.

Circuits-34 http://www.engproguides.com
4.2 POSITIVE, NEGATIVE AND ZERO COMPONENTS
The premise of the symmetrical components technique is that any unbalanced load can be
expressed as a set of three balanced components called, (1) Positive-sequence, (2) Negative-
sequence and (3) Zero-sequence. The following figure shows an unbalanced load that has
different magnitude phasors and phasors that are not 120 degrees apart.

Figure 40: An unbalanced load can be broken down into three sets of symmetrical components.
The right figure is the unbalanced load. The left are the symmetrical components that can
create the unbalanced load.

The figure above reconstructs the unbalanced load with three sets of symmetrical components.
The individual sets of components can be seen below for clarity.

Figure 41: These phasors show the positive, negative and zero components, from left to right,
that were used to construct the unbalanced loads.

The positive-sequence components are symmetrical and have the same magnitudes and are
120 degrees apart from one another. The sequence of the components is also in the same
order as the original unbalanced load (clockwise: A-B-C). The negative sequence components
are the same magnitude as the positive sequence. However, the negative sequence is
arranged in an opposite sequence from the positive sequence (counterclockwise: A-B-C). In

Circuits-35 http://www.engproguides.com
7.5 SOLUTION 5 - THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
Based on the diagram below, what is the current through phase B? Assume a balanced load.

First find the phase voltage.

𝑉𝐿𝐿 480
𝑉𝑝ℎ = → 𝑉𝑝ℎ = = 277𝑉
√3 √3

Next use the following equation to solve for current.

𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝐼𝑍

277𝑉 = 𝐼(150 + 𝑗80)

Convert to polar and divide.

277∠0°
𝐼=
177∠28.1°

𝐼 = 1.57∠ − 28.1°

The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 1.6 A.

Circuits-47 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 3
DEVICES

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 3.0 – Devices
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Batteries ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Equivalent Circuit ............................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Types .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Lead Acid Battery .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (VRLA) ............................................................ 6
2.1.3 Lithium Battery ........................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Ratings ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 C-Rating .................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.2 E-Rating .................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Cycle Life ................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.4 Temperature Effect .................................................................................................. 9
2.2.5 State of Charge ..................................................................................................... 10
2.2.6 Cold Cranking Amps ............................................................................................. 10
3.0 Power Supplies ................................................................................................................ 11
3.1 AC to DC Inverters ....................................................................................................... 11
3.2 DC to AC Inverters ....................................................................................................... 11
4.0 Variable Speed Drives ..................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Thyristors, Diodes and IGBTs ...................................................................................... 12
4.2 Rectifiers ....................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.1 Half-Wave Rectifiers .............................................................................................. 13
4.2.2 Full-Wave Rectifiers .............................................................................................. 15
4.2.3 DC Bus Ripple ....................................................................................................... 17
4.2.4 Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor ........................................................................ 18
4.3 Inverters ........................................................................................................................ 19
4.4 Variable Speed Drives .................................................................................................. 19
4.4.1 Construction .......................................................................................................... 19
5.0 Controls ............................................................................................................................ 21
5.1 Relays and Switches .................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Programmable Logic Controllers .................................................................................. 21
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 22
6.1 Problem 1 - Battery ....................................................................................................... 22

Devices-1 http://www.engproguides.com
6.2 Problem 2 – Half-Wave Rectifier .................................................................................. 22
6.3 Problem 3 – Full -Wave Rectifier .................................................................................. 23
7.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 24
7.1 Solution 1 - Battery ....................................................................................................... 24
7.2 Solution 2 – Half-Wave Rectifier ................................................................................... 24
7.3 Solution 3 – Full-Wave Rectifier ................................................................................... 26

Devices-2 http://www.engproguides.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Devices, accounts for approximately 7 questions on the Power Engineering,
Electrical PE exam.

This section discusses the Devices and Power Electronic Circuits section. At first this section
may seem very different from Power Engineering. However, upon closer inspection you will see
how this section is important to practicing Power Engineering. Batteries are beginning to play
an increasingly important role in the power field as intermittent renewable energy requires a
form of energy storage. Power supplies, drives and controls are used heavily in the motor
control section to reduce electricity costs and this effect is large, since motors account for more
than 50% of all industrial electricity usage. Some estimates indicate that motors account for
more than 2/3 of industrial electricity usage. But with these electricity savings comes unwanted
effects to power quality, which Power Engineers must be equipped to resolve. As you can see
this section is closely related to the 4.0 Machines section and the 7.0 Power System
Performance section, so please be sure to read through this section before reading those
sections.

Devices
7 questions

Batteries Power Supplies Drives Controls

• Types • AC to DC • Diodes & • Relays


• Ratings Inverter Thyristors • Switches
• Safety • DC to AC • Rectifiers • PLCs
Inverter • Inverters
• Variable Speed
Drives

Devices-3 http://www.engproguides.com
2.0 BATTERIES
Batteries are used to store electrical energy as chemical energy. A battery consists of an
electrolyte medium and two electrodes, one positive and the other negative. Current flows from
the positively charged end of the battery, through the circuit, then to the negatively charged
portion of the battery. Chemically, electrons are negatively charged and are attracted to the
positively charged end of the battery.

Figure 1: A battery provides direct current to a circuit. Current flows from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal.

This transfer of electrons creates this voltage potential, which drives the current during
discharge as shown in the figure above. The same principal is used when the battery is being
charged but in reverse.

2.1 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT


A battery is made up of internal resistance and capacitance. When a battery is placed in-line
with a circuit, it is important to account for the internal losses in addition to the charge it
provides. The figure below describes the equivalent circuit in a battery. The capacitance is
where the charge is stored in the battery. The internal resistance (or losses) is comprised of the
resistance through the terminals, electrodes, connections, electrolytes, and other components
that the current travels through within the battery. In parallel with the capacitance is the
resistance between the plates. This resistance is very small and most likely can be neglected.

Devices-4 http://www.engproguides.com
7.3 SOLUTION 3 – FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
A single-phase, full-wave rectifier consists of a thyristor that is activated based on the gate
current shown in the graph below. What is the average value of the output current?

The peak occurs at the maximum of the sine wave, which is at 90 degrees. This is also the
same time that the gate current is activated. Also the rectifier is full-wave, so the negative
portions of the waveform will also pass through the output as a positive. Thus, the amount of
current that is output is shown in the shaded region.

Now you need to quantify the shaded region by taking the integral of the sine wave from 90
degrees to 180 degrees but 2X.
180
𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 2 ∗ � 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
90

𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 2 ∗ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠(180) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90)) → 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 + 0)

Devices-26 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 4
ROTATING MACHINES

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 4.0 – Rotating Machines
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Synchronous Machines ...................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Construction ................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Synchronous Speed ....................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Synchronous Generator ................................................................................................. 6
2.3.2 Synchronous Generator – Leading Power Factor ................................................... 8
2.3.3 Synchronous Generator – Lagging Power Factor ................................................... 9
2.3.4 Generator Control .................................................................................................. 10
2.3.5 Voltage Regulation ................................................................................................ 15
2.3.5 Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 15
2.3.6 Generator Voltage Dip ........................................................................................... 15
2.3.7 Characteristics Under Various Loading Conditions ............................................... 16
2.4 Synchronous Motor ...................................................................................................... 17
2.4.1 Synchronous Motor - Leading Power Factor ......................................................... 17
2.4.2 Synchronous Motor - Lagging Power Factor ......................................................... 18
3.0 Induction Machines .......................................................................................................... 20
3.1 Construction ................................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Slip................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3 Equivalent Circuits ........................................................................................................ 23
3.4 Voltage Regulation ....................................................................................................... 24
3.5 Voltage Unbalance ....................................................................................................... 24
3.6 Characteristics under Various Loading Conditions ....................................................... 25
4.0 Speed-Torque .................................................................................................................. 25
5.0 Starting Methods .............................................................................................................. 26
5.1 Across the Line Starters ............................................................................................... 27
5.2 Reduced Voltage Starters ............................................................................................ 27
5.3 Variable Speed Drive as a Starter ................................................................................ 28
6.0 Power Flow Between Voltage Sources ............................................................................ 28
7.0 Practice problems ............................................................................................................ 30
7.1 Problem 1 – Poles ........................................................................................................ 30
7.2 Problem 2 – Breakdown Torque ................................................................................... 30
7.3 Problem 3 – Speed Regulation ..................................................................................... 31

Rotating Machines-1 http://www.engproguides.com


7.4 Problem 4 – Equivalent Circuits ................................................................................... 31
7.5 Problem 5 – Equivalent Circuits ................................................................................... 32
7.6 Problem 6 – Slip ........................................................................................................... 32
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 33
8.1 Solution 1 – Poles ......................................................................................................... 33
8.2 Solution 2 – Breakdown Torque ................................................................................... 34
8.3 Solution 3 – Speed Regulation ..................................................................................... 35
8.4 Solution 4 – Equivalent Circuits .................................................................................... 36
8.5 Solution 5 – Equivalent Circuits .................................................................................... 37
8.6 Solution 6 – Slip ............................................................................................................ 38

Rotating Machines-2 http://www.engproguides.com


The active power that is used by the motor can be found by summing up the power losses
through each resistive component.

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

(𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 )2
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑘𝑊) = + 𝐼02 ∗ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝐼32 ∗ 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑀

However, we can find a relationship between the current through the stator, I o , and the current
through the rotor, I 2 , with the slip across the air gap.

Therefore, the active power equation becomes:

(𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 )2 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑘𝑊) = + 𝐼02 ∗ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝐼02 ∗
𝑅𝑀 𝑠

For a three phase motor, the active power equation becomes:

3(𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 )2 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑘𝑊) = + 3𝐼02 ∗ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 3𝐼02 ∗
𝑅𝑀 𝑠

For mechanical power, you can ignore the X m and R m parallel circuit, because this circuit path
will have a minimal effect on power. Basically you will have the same equivalent circuit as the
synchronous motor.

3.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION


The voltage regulation of a rotating machine at a given load, power factor, and at rated speed is
defined as a function of the no load voltage and full load voltage.

𝐸𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑


𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑉𝑅)% = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

This term describes the machine’s ability to keep voltage at the same level as the machine is
loaded from “no load” to full load.

3.5 VOLTAGE UNBALANCE


Voltage supply to a three-phase motor should be balanced upon each phase. However, this
may not always be the case and voltages could be unbalanced between the three phases.
When this happens, there will be unbalanced currents which will cause an increase in
temperature at the motor due to the efficiency losses. Motors should be able to operate with
increased temperatures and should also be able to operate with some voltage unbalance. The
typical maximum recommended voltage unbalance is 5%. Voltage unbalance above this
amount is not recommended.

Rotating Machines-24 http://www.engproguides.com


8.0 SOLUTIONS
8.1 SOLUTION 1 – POLES
A 3-phase motor, 60 Hz, induction motor has the following values on its nameplate:

Efficiency (50% , 75%, 100% load) 94%, 95%, 96%


Efficiency (50% , 75%, 100% load) 0.78 pu, 0.85 pu, 0.88 pu
Full Load Speed 1,784 RPM
Full Load Torque 1,473 lb-ft
Locked Rotor Torque 90% full load
Breakdown Torque 220% full load
Voltage 4,160 V

This question asks for the number of poles, which can be found with the following equation.
The difficulty is that you don’t have the synchronous speed, but you can make a guess based
on the full load speed of the induction motor, which should only be slightly less than the
synchronous speed.

120 ∗ 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)


𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑅𝑃𝑀) =
𝑃 (# 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)

# 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Frequency
60 Hz
# of Poles Sync RPM
2 3,600.0
4 1,800.0
6 1,200.0

The closest greater synchronous speed that is greater than the full load speed of 1,784 RPM is
1,800 RPM, which corresponds to 4 poles. The correct answer is (d) 4.

Rotating Machines-33 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 5
ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES

http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 5.0 – ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Transformers ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Types .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Construction ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Types ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Tap Setting .............................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Ideal transformers ........................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Real transformers ........................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Coil Losses .............................................................................................................. 8
2.4.3 Core Losses ............................................................................................................ 9
2.5 Efficiency ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Testing .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.6.1 Short Circuit Test ................................................................................................... 10
2.6.2 Open Circuit Test .................................................................................................. 11
2.7 Impedance .................................................................................................................... 11
2.8 Transformers in Parallel ............................................................................................... 12
3.0 Transformer Arrangements (3-Phase) ............................................................................. 12
3.1 Delta-Wye Transformer ................................................................................................ 12
3.2 Delta-Delta Transformer ............................................................................................... 13
3.3 Wye-Delta Transformer ................................................................................................ 15
3.4 Wye- Wye Transformer ................................................................................................ 16
4.0 Measurement Transformers ............................................................................................. 19
5.0 Autotransformers .............................................................................................................. 19
5.1 Step-Up Autotransformers ............................................................................................ 19
5.2 Step-Down Autotransformers ....................................................................................... 21
6.0 Reactors ........................................................................................................................... 22
6.1 Line/Load reactor .............................................................................................................. 22
7.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 23
7.1 Problem 1 – Transformer Losses ................................................................................. 23
7.2 Problem 2 – Transformer Losses ................................................................................. 23

Electromagnetic Devices-1 http://www.engproguides.com


7.3 Problem 3 - Autotransformer ........................................................................................ 24
7.4 Problem 4 - Autotransformer ........................................................................................ 24
7.5 Problem 5 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 25
7.6 Problem 6 - Transformer Arrangements ....................................................................... 25
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 26
8.1 Solution 1 – Transformer Losses .................................................................................. 26
8.2 Solution 2 – Transformer Losses .................................................................................. 27
8.3 Solution 3 - Autotransformer ......................................................................................... 28
8.4 Solution 4 - Autotransformer ......................................................................................... 29
8.5 Solution 5 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 31
8.6 Solution 6 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 32

Electromagnetic Devices-2 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 6
TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

1 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 6.0 – TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Transmission Line Analysis ................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Equivalent Circuits .......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Resistance............................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Inductance ............................................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Capacitance ............................................................................................................ 7
2.1.4 Impedance ............................................................................................................... 9
2.1.5 Short Transmission Line .......................................................................................... 9
2.1.6 Medium Transmission Line ................................................................................... 12
2.1.7 Long Transmission Line ........................................................................................ 16
2.2 Voltage Drop ................................................................................................................. 16
2.3 Voltage Regulation ....................................................................................................... 16
2.4 Power Factor Correction ............................................................................................... 18
2.4.1 Correcting a Lagging Power Factor ....................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Correcting a Leading Power Factor ....................................................................... 19
2.4.3 Power Factor Correction Tables ............................................................................ 20
2.5 Power Quality ............................................................................................................... 23
2.5.1 Harmonics ............................................................................................................. 23
2.6 Power Flow Between Voltage Sources ........................................................................ 25
3.0 Distribution Analysis ......................................................................................................... 26
3.1 Fault Current Analysis .................................................................................................. 26
3.1.1 Symmetrical Faults ................................................................................................ 27
3.1.2 Asymmetrical Faults .............................................................................................. 28
3.2 Grounding Design ......................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Transformer Connections ............................................................................................. 33
4.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 34
4.1 Problem 1 – Power Factor Correction .......................................................................... 34
4.2 Problem 2 – Geometric Mean Distance ........................................................................ 34
4.3 Problem 3 – Voltage Regulation ................................................................................... 35
5.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 36
5.1 Solution 1 – Power Factor Correction ........................................................................... 36

Transmission & Distribution-1 http://www.engproguides.com


5.2 Solution 2 – Geometric Mean Distance ........................................................................ 37
5.3 Solution 3 – Voltage Regulation ................................................................................... 38

Transmission & Distribution-2 http://www.engproguides.com


1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Transmission & Distribution, accounts for approximately 10 questions on
the Power Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

Transmission covers the extra-high (>230 kV) and high (115 kV to 230 kV) voltage lines that
transport electricity from the electric power plants (generators) to the substations. These lines
can travel miles and miles between substations and are typically under the jurisdiction of the
electric utility. These transmission lines are also governed by the NES (under Section 11.0
Codes and Standards). The distribution system consists of the medium (69 kV to 2.4kV) and
low voltage (600V and less) lines that transmit electricity between substations and also transmit
electricity to consumers. These consumers can be residential, commercial voltages at 480V
and below. But these consumers can also be industrial at medium voltages (69 kV to 2.4kV).
Motors and generators are not included under this section, since they are covered under
Rotating Machines. Transformers are also included in a separate section, but are technically
covered under Transmission and Distribution. Protection devices are also technically part of
Transmission and Distribution but are excluded from this section and are included in its own
section.

Transmission Analysis Distribution Analysis

• Equivalent circuits • Transformers


• Voltage drop • Grounding
• Voltage regulation • Fault current
• Power factor
correction
• Power quality

Transmission & Distribution-3 http://www.engproguides.com


2.0 TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYSIS
Transmission lines may seem very simple, since transmission lines are just very long
conductors. However, the long length and high voltages on transmission lines make the
analysis of transmission lines a little more difficult than a simple wire running from your
residential panel to lights. On the PE exam, you should understand the following three
parameters of transmission lines, (1) resistance, (2) inductance and (3) capacitance.

Transmission lines are typically constructed of either aluminum or copper. Aluminum


conductors are lighter and cheaper, and copper conductors are more expensive and heavier.
However, aluminum is less conductive than copper. This means that larger diameter aluminum
conductors are needed to transmit the same amount of current than a smaller diameter copper
conductor. Conductors are also provided with insulation and possibly strengthening steel to
make the conductor more robust.

The purpose of transmission systems and distribution systems is to maintain power at all times
and to ensure stable voltage and frequency.

2.1 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS


An equivalent circuit is typically used to understand the three parameters of transmission lines,
however before the equivalent circuit is presented, you should first understand the details of the
three parameters (1) Resistance, (2) Inductance and (3) Capacitance. Each different
transmission line will have an equivalent circuit that consists of these three parameters, which
are uniformly distributed the length of the transmission line.

2.1.1 Resistance
The first voltage drop is the drop due to resistance in the transmission line. The resistance of
the transmission line is directly related to the length and resistivity of the line. The voltage drop
is inversely related to the cross sectional area of the line. In addition, the transmission line
material will also affect the resistance of the line, which will affect the voltage drop.

𝑙
𝑅 =𝑝∗ Ω
𝐴

𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω); 𝑝 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠);

𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (ft); 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠);

𝑋𝑅 = 𝑅∠0°

Make sure you use the correct units for these variables, because the exam may try to confuse
you with varying units that require converting. A circular mil is the area of a circle with a
diameter of 1 mil, where 1 mil is equal to .001 inches. Sometimes the exam will give you
conductor sizes in terms of American Wire Gauge (AWG). AWG is a wire size rating system
used in North America and common throughout the NEC. The increasing gauge number
corresponds to decreasing conductor diameter. The AWG and corresponding diameters may

Transmission & Distribution-4 http://www.engproguides.com


appear to be random, but the numbers follow the below formula. Each diameter is a function of
the AWG number (N) and the reference point (N = 36), which corresponds to a diameter of
0.005 inches.
36−𝐴𝑊𝐺
𝐷𝐴𝑊𝐺 = 0.005 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 92 39

The CMIL, KCMIL and area terms are found with the following equations.

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛2 ) = � � ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝐷𝑎𝑤𝑔
2
4
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛2 ) ∗ � �
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙

1 mil is equal to .001 inches.

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐾𝐶𝑀𝐼𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝐶𝑀) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙) ∗ ( )
1000

AREA DIAMETER
AWG CMIL KCMIL 2 2
MM IN MM IN
36 25.00 0.03 0.0127 0.000019635 0.1270 0.0050
34 39.75 0.03 0.0201 0.000031221 0.1601 0.0063
32 63.21 0.06 0.0320 0.000049643 0.2019 0.0080
30 100.51 0.06 0.0509 0.000078935 0.2546 0.0100
28 159.81 0.16 0.0810 0.000125512 0.3211 0.0126
26 254.11 0.16 0.1288 0.000199572 0.4049 0.0159
24 404.05 0.40 0.2047 0.000317333 0.5106 0.0201
22 642.46 0.40 0.3255 0.000504579 0.6438 0.0253
20 1,021.55 1.02 0.5176 0.000802311 0.8118 0.0320
18 1,624.33 1.02 0.8230 0.001275725 1.0237 0.0403
16 2,582.78 2.58 1.3087 0.002028482 1.2908 0.0508
14 4,106.78 2.58 2.0809 0.003225413 1.6277 0.0641
12 6,530.04 6.53 3.3088 0.005128608 2.0525 0.0808
10 10,383.18 6.53 5.2612 0.008154806 2.5882 0.1019
8 16,509.90 16.51 8.3656 0.012966650 3.2636 0.1285
6 26,251.76 16.51 13.3018 0.020617781 4.1154 0.1620
4 41,741.94 41.74 21.1506 0.032783557 5.1894 0.2043
3 52,635.61 41.74 26.6705 0.041339302 5.8273 0.2294
2 66,372.28 66.37 33.6308 0.052127897 6.5437 0.2576
1 83,693.90 66.37 42.4077 0.065732064 7.3481 0.2893

Transmission & Distribution-5 http://www.engproguides.com


5.3 SOLUTION 3 – VOLTAGE REGULATION
A 3-phase transmission line is measured at no load and full load. It is found that the line to line
voltage at full load is 13.8 KV and the line to line voltage is 14 KV at no load. What is the
voltage regulation?

14𝐾𝑉 − 13.8𝐾𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % = ∗ 100 = 1.45%
13.8𝐾𝑉

The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 1.5%

Transmission & Distribution-38 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 7
POWER SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

1 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 7.0 – POWER SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2


2.0 Power Flow ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.1 Power Flow Basics ......................................................................................................... 3
3.0 Load Sharing ...................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Parallel Generators ......................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1 Droop Compensation .............................................................................................. 6
3.1.2 Infinite Bus............................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Parallel Transformers ................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Different KVA Transformers .................................................................................. 11
3.2.2 Different Impedance Transformers ........................................................................ 12
3.2.3 Different Impedance and Different KVA transformers ........................................... 13
3.2.4 Different X/R Ratios ............................................................................................... 14
3.2.5 Different Taps, Different Voltage Ratio, Different Turns Ratio............................... 14
4.0 Power System Stability .................................................................................................... 16
5.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 17
5.1 Problem 1 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 17
5.2 Problem 2 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 17
5.3 Problem 3 – Parallel Generators .................................................................................. 18
5.4 Problem 4 – Parallel Generators .................................................................................. 18
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 19
6.1 Solution 1 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 19
6.2 Solution 2 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 20
6.3 Solution 3 – Parallel Generators ................................................................................... 21
6.4 Solution 4 – Parallel Generators ................................................................................... 22

Power System Performance-1 http://www.engproguides.com


1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Power System Performance, accounts for approximately 6 questions on the
Power Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

Power system performance includes topics like power flow, load sharing and stability. These
topics are vaguer than the other sections. These topics also involve computer software to
complete many of the problems encountered in the actual practice in this field of power
engineering. There are some basic concepts that govern these problems that might be tested
on the exam, but this guide focuses on the concepts that have a higher probability of being
tested.

Also notice that there are only 6 questions on this section, according to the NCEES exam
outline. There is less opportunity for the test creator to ask detailed questions because they
need to ensure that you have the minimal capability in this vast area of focus within only 6
questions and each question can only take 6 minutes to solve.

Power System Performance


6 questions

Power Flow Load Sharing Power System Stability

• Voltage drop • Parallel generators • Unbalanced loads


• Parallel transformers • Voltage instability

Power System Performance-2 http://www.engproguides.com


2.0 POWER FLOW
In power engineering, power flow is the analysis of the power throughout a system. This
analysis tracks voltage magnitude, voltage angle, reactive power and real power throughout the
power system. If you can track these items through the equivalent circuits discussed in rotating
machines and transformers, then you understand the basics of power flow analysis.

Power flow analysis also tracks the same items in the equivalent circuits for various scenarios
like short circuit, fault analysis, harmonic analysis and motor starting. The analysis can get very
long and even require iterations, since there will be multiple unknown variables in the system.
Therefore, this analysis is always completed through the use of software like Paladin Design
Based, which is linked below.

http://www.poweranalytics.com/paladin-software/paladin-designbase/

For the purposes of the exam, power flow analysis is too specific and difficult to test with a 6
minute problem. Thus you should only know the basics of power flow analysis. If you want real
life context on power flow and a look at how power flow analysis is conducted in practice, then I
suggest you read through these case studies and tutorials from the actual power flow analysis
software.

Basic Power Flow Tutorials: http://www.poweranalytics.com/designbase-tutorials/

Power Flow Case Study: http://www.poweranalytics.com/company/pdf/M-12-DB-ADV-X-005-


02%20DB%20Case%20Study%20%232%20Power%20Flow%20Analysis-v2r02e.pdf

Advanced Power Flow


Guide: http://www.poweranalytics.com/designbase/pdf/Adv_Power_Flow.pdf

2.1 POWER FLOW BASICS


When setting up a circuit for power flow analysis on a computer software program you must
create buses. Power flow software has a limit on the amount of buses that can be created
before the computations become too taxing even for a computer. There are three types of
buses used in a power flow analysis: load bus, voltage-controlled bus, and a slack bus. A
voltage-controlled bus is defined as a bus that maintains a constant voltage to the system,
which is accomplished with a generator. A load bus is anything that isn’t a voltage-controlled
bus. The slack bus has a varying voltage that is used to balance the difference between the
voltage-controlled buses and the load buses.

In between the buses are the passive elements, like transformers, transmission lines, reactors
and capacitors. These elements react to the circuit, but cannot manually affect the circuit.
Transformers are modeled with their apparent power, voltage and their impedance.
Transmission lines are modeled with their impedance, length and wire size. More detailed
transmission lines can also be modeled as short, medium or long in accordance with the
Transmission and Distribution section.

Power System Performance-3 http://www.engproguides.com


6.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
6.1 SOLUTION 1 – PARALLEL TRANSFORMERS
Two 1-phase, 480/120V, transformers are arranged in parallel. These transformers have the
following ratings, Transformer A – 1,500 KVA, Z = 5% impedance and Transformer B – 1,000
KVA, 4% impedance. What is the total load provided by the transformers, assuming that you
cannot exceed the ratings of each transformer?

1,500 1,000
5% 4%
𝑆𝐴 = 𝑆 ; 𝑆 = 𝑆
1,500 1,000 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝐵 1,500 1,000 𝑠𝑢𝑚
+ +
5% 4% 5% 4%
300 250
𝑆𝐴 = 𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑚 ; 𝑆𝐵 = 𝑆
550 550 𝑠𝑢𝑚

Let’s try the scenario where Transformer A is maxed out, so SA = 1,500 KVA

300
1,500 = 𝑆 → 𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 2,750 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐵 = 1,250 𝐾𝑉𝐴
550 𝑠𝑢𝑚

This scenario does not work, because Transformer B’s capacity is exceeded.

Let’s try the scenario where Transformer B is maxed out, so S2 = 1,000 KVA

250
1,000 = 𝑆 → 𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 2,200 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐴 = 1,200 𝐾𝑉𝐴
550 𝑠𝑢𝑚

The total KVA is equal to 2,200 KVA. The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 2,200 KVA

Power System Performance-19 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 8
PROTECTION

1 http://www.engproguides.com
Section 8.0 – Protection
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Protective (Tripping) Devices ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Fuses .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Circuit Breakers .............................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Re-closers ...................................................................................................................... 5
3.0 Overcurrent Protection ....................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Short Circuit Current ....................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1 Transformer Fault .................................................................................................... 7
3.1.2 Generator/Motor Fault ............................................................................................. 7
3.1.3 Transmission Line Fault .......................................................................................... 7
3.2 MVA Method ................................................................................................................... 8
3.3 Per-Unit Method ........................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Ohmic Method .............................................................................................................. 12
4.0 Protective Relaying .......................................................................................................... 13
4.1 Relay Types .................................................................................................................. 13
4.1.1 Overcurrent/Undercurrent Relays ......................................................................... 17
4.1.2 Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relays ......................................................................... 17
4.1.3 Directional Relays ................................................................................................. 18
4.1.4 Differential Relays ................................................................................................. 18
4.1.5 Distance Relays .................................................................................................... 19
5.0 Coordination ..................................................................................................................... 21
5.1 Primary Relaying .......................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Backup relaying ............................................................................................................ 22
5.3 Time-Current Coordination Graph ................................................................................ 22
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 25
6.1 Problem 1 – Short Circuit Current ................................................................................ 25
6.2 Problem 2 – Differential Relay ...................................................................................... 25
6.3 Problem 3 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 26
6.4 Problem 4 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 27
7.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 28
7.1 Solution 1 – Short Circuit Current ................................................................................. 28
7.2 Solution 2 – Differential Relay ...................................................................................... 29

Protection-1 http://www.engproguides.com
7.3 Solution 3 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 30
7.4 Solution 4 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 31

Protection-2 http://www.engproguides.com
4.1.3 Directional Relays
A directional relay is used on distribution and transmission lines to distinguish the direction of
the fault. There may be multiple overcurrent protection devices in a transmission distribution
system. If a fault were to occur, then all of them could potentially trip. By determining the
direction of the fault current, the protection devices will know which devices the fault falls in
between and the appropriate overcurrent protection devices can be tripped to isolate the fault.

Figure 9: A directional relay is often used to protect a transmission line.

4.1.4 Differential Relays


A differential relay consists of multiple circuit transformers (CTs) on either side of a bus or on
either side of a transformer. The CTs measure the current going into the bus or transformer and
they also measure the CTs leaving the bus or transformer. If the current values leaving and
entering are not equal, then the relay will trip the circuit breakers.

Figure 10: A differential relay is often used to protect a busbar as shown in this figure.

Protection-18 http://www.engproguides.com
7.4 SOLUTION 4 – TCC
A TCC is provided below for a relay with multiple time dial settings (1-6). The pick-up current is
set for 500 A. Short circuit calculations indicate that there will be a short circuit current of 1,500
A. The relay must operate in 5.5 seconds. Which time dial setting should be used?

The answer is most nearly, (b) TD-2.

Protection-31 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 9
MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 9.0 – Measurement & Instrumentation
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Instrument transformers ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Current Transformers ..................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Potential Transformers ................................................................................................... 4
3.0 Wattmeters ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 One-Wattmeter Method .................................................................................................. 6
3.2 Two-Wattmeter Method .................................................................................................. 6
3.3 Three-Wattmeter Method ............................................................................................... 7
4.0 VOM Metering .................................................................................................................. 10
4.1 Voltmeter ...................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Ammeter ....................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Ohmmeter ..................................................................................................................... 11
5.0 Insulation Testing ............................................................................................................. 11
5.1 Megger ......................................................................................................................... 11
6.0 Ground Resistance Testing .............................................................................................. 12
6.1 Soil Resistivity Testing .................................................................................................. 12
6.2 Fall of Potential Method ................................................................................................ 13
6.3 Additional Grounding Factors ....................................................................................... 14
7.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 15
7.1 Practice Problem 1 – Current Transformer ................................................................... 15
7.2 Practice Problem 2 – Potential Transformer ................................................................. 15
7.3 Practice Problem 3 – Wattmeters ................................................................................. 16
7.4 Practice Problem 4 - Wattmeters .................................................................................. 16
7.5 Practice Problem 5 – Ground Resistance Testing ........................................................ 17
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 18
8.1 Solution 1 – Current Transformer ................................................................................. 18
8.2 Solution 2 – Potential Transformer ............................................................................... 18
8.3 Solution 3 – Wattmeters ............................................................................................... 19
8.4 Solution 4 – Wattmeters ............................................................................................... 20
8.5 Solution 5 – Ground Resistance Testing ...................................................................... 21

Measurement & Instrumenation-1 www.engproguides.com


4.3 OHMMETER
An ohmmeter measures the resistance of a circuit. An ohmmeter consists of a voltage supply
that is applied to the circuit. In response to the voltage supply, a current will be produced, which
is then measured by the ammeter. Since the voltage and current are known, the resistance can
be calculated.

5.0 INSULATION TESTING


The purpose of insulation on conductors, transformers, generators, motors, etc. is to ensure that
current travels through the conductor and does not create a potential difference between the
metal part of the conductor or equipment and anything else. For example, if a conductor is
carrying 480 V and its insulation exposes the metal part of the conductor, then there will be a
potential difference of 480 V and the air, with little impedance. If a person walks near a
conductor then the potential difference between the exposed metal and the person will be 480
V. If the distance between the two is minimal then current will arc from the exposed metal
conductor to the person. If the voltage is much larger, like 13.8 KV then the person could be a
further distance away and current will still arc to the person.

Insulation in power systems will fail over time, and as it fails there will be unsafe conditions as
previously discussed. Maintenance personnel use mega-ohmmeters to test insulation to ensure
that the insulation meets safe code requirements. On the PE exam, you should be familiar with
this device and the code requirements for insulation.

5.1 MEGGER
A megaohmmeter is most often called a megger. The name of this device gives you a clue as
to its purpose. A megger consists of two leads that are connected to a conductor and the
insulation protecting the conductor. Next, the megger induces a large voltage, typically the
rated voltage of the conductor being tested. The megger measures the current through the
device and uses the known applied voltage to determine the resistance of the circuit. This
resistance is typically on the order of 1-10 mega-ohms, hence the name megaohmmeter.

Measurement & Instrumenation-11 www.engproguides.com


6.0 GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING
One of the best sources for ground resistance testing and also grounding design is IEEE. It is
recommended that you have IEEE 81 as a reference or to learn more about grounding.

6.1 SOIL RESISTIVITY TESTING


The first thing that should be tested when designing a grounding system or when testing a
grounding system is the soil resistivity. The various manufacturers of soil resistivity equipment
testers like Fluke have whitepapers on the process of testing soil resistivity. This information is
very good to get a practical idea of how soil resistivity is conducted, if you do not regularly
conduct soil resistivity tests.

For the exam, you should be familiar with the following equation and the basic idea of soil
resistivity resting. In a soil resistivity test, conductors are driven into the ground at certain
distances and these conductors are connected to a voltage supply (soil resistivity tester). Then
a known current is run through the test conductor and the voltage difference between two points
will provide a quick calculation for the resistivity of the soil in between the driven conductors.
The most common method of testing is the four-point method, which is shown in the figure
below.

Figure 6: Ground resistance testing with four-point method

𝑝 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝑅

𝑝 = 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑓𝑡 − 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠); 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑓𝑡)

𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠) → 𝑅 =
𝐼

You can only use the previous equation when D is sufficiently larger than B, on the order of 20
times B.

𝐷 > 20𝐵

Measurement & Instrumenation-12 www.engproguides.com


SECTION 10
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 10.0 – Special Applications
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Lightning & Surge Protection ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Design Standards ........................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3 Lightning Protection Systems ......................................................................................... 5
2.3.1 Elevated Strike Device ............................................................................................ 6
2.3.2 Conductors Connecting Strike Device and Grounding System ............................... 6
2.3.3 Grounding System ................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Lightning Protection Design and Surge Protection ......................................................... 7
3.0 Reliability ............................................................................................................................ 8
4.0 Illumination engineering ................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Basics ........................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Lumen Method or Zonal Cavity Method ....................................................................... 11
4.2.1 Determine Cavity Ratio ......................................................................................... 12
4.2.2 Determine Effective Cavity Reflectance ................................................................ 13
4.2.3 Select Coefficient of Utilization .............................................................................. 13
4.2.4 Compute Average Illuminance Level ..................................................................... 13
4.3 Point to Point Method ................................................................................................... 14
5.0 Demand and Energy Management/Calculations .............................................................. 16
5.1 Demand Factor ............................................................................................................. 16
5.1.1 Utility Company Demand Factor Perspective ........................................................ 16
5.1.2 Customer Demand Factor Perspective ................................................................. 18
6.0 Economic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 19
6.1 Interest Rate & Time Value of Money ........................................................................... 19
6.2 Annual Value/Annuities ................................................................................................ 20
6.3 Equipment Type Questions .......................................................................................... 22
6.4 Convert to Present Value ............................................................................................. 23
6.5 Convert to Future Value ............................................................................................... 24
6.6 Convert to Annualized Value ........................................................................................ 24
6.7 Convert to Rate of Return ............................................................................................. 25
6.8 Factor Tables ................................................................................................................ 26
7.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 27

Special Applications-1 http://www.engproguides.com


7.1 Problem 1 - Lighting ..................................................................................................... 27
7.2 Problem 2 - Lighting ..................................................................................................... 27
7.3 Problem 3 - Economics ................................................................................................ 28
7.4 Problem 4 - Economics ................................................................................................ 28
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 29
8.1 Solution 1 - Lighting ...................................................................................................... 29
8.2 Solution 2 - Lighting ...................................................................................................... 30
8.3 Solution 3 - Economics ................................................................................................. 31
8.4 Solution 4 - Economics ................................................................................................. 32

Special Applications-2 http://www.engproguides.com


6.3 EQUIPMENT TYPE QUESTIONS
In the Power Engineering field, often times the engineer must develop an economic analysis on
purchasing one piece of equipment over another. In this event the engineer will use terms like
present value, annualized cost, future value, initial cost and other terms like salvage value,
equipment lifetime and rate of return.

Salvage value is the amount a piece of equipment will be worth at the end of its
lifetime. Lifetime is typically given by a manufacturer as the average lifespan (years) of a
piece of equipment. Looking at the figure below, initial cost is shown as a downward arrow at
year 0. Annual gains are shown as the upward arrow and maintenance costs and other costs to
run the piece of equipment are shown as downward arrows starting at year 1 and proceeding to
the end of the lifetime. Finally, at the end of the lifetime there is an upward arrow indicating the
salvage value.

As previously stated, the most important thing in engineering economic analysis is to convert
all monetary gains and costs to like terms , whether it is present value, future value, annual
value or rate of return. Each specific conversion will be discussed in the following sections.

Each of the sections will use the same example in order to illustrate the difference in converting
between each of the different terms.

Special Applications-22 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 11
CODES & STANDARDS

http://www.engproguides.com
Section 11.0 – Codes & Standards
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 National Electric Code 2014 ............................................................................................... 4
2.1 Additional Resources .......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Color Coded EZ Tabs for the 2014 National Electric Code .......................................... 4
2.1.2 Key Word Index ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Chapter 1: General ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Chapter 2: Wiring & Protection ...................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Article 220 Load Calculations .................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Article 240 Overcurrent Protection .......................................................................... 7
2.3.3 Article 250 Grounding .............................................................................................. 7
2.4 Chapter 3: Wiring Methods & Materials ......................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Tables 310.15 & 310.60 Set .................................................................................... 9
2.5 Chapter 4: Equipment for General Use ....................................................................... 10
2.5.1 Article 430 Motors, Motor Circuits and Controllers ................................................ 10
2.5.2 Article 450 Transformers ....................................................................................... 13
2.6 Chapter 5: Special occupancies .................................................................................. 14
2.6.1 Article 500 – Hazardous Locations ........................................................................ 14
2.7 Chapter 6: Special Equipment ..................................................................................... 16
2.8 Chapter 7: Special Conditions ..................................................................................... 17
2.9 Chapter 8: Communication Systems ........................................................................... 17
2.10 Chapter 9: Tables ........................................................................................................ 18
2.10.1 Table 8 & 9 Conductors ......................................................................................... 18
3.0 National Electric Safety Code .......................................................................................... 19
3.1 2017 National Electrical Safety Code© (NESC©) .......................................................... 19
3.2 Outline .......................................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Part 1: Electric supply stations and equipment ............................................................ 19
3.4 Part 2: Overhead electric supply and communication lines ......................................... 20
3.5 Part 3: Underground electric supply and communication lines .................................... 20
3.6 Part 4: Rules for the operation of electric supply and communication lines and
equipment ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.7 Appendices ................................................................................................................... 21
4.0 Electrical safety ................................................................................................................ 22

Codes & Standards-1 http://www.engproguides.com


4.1 NFPA 70E – Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace ...................................... 22
5.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 23
5.1 Problem 1: Conductor Size ........................................................................................... 23
5.2 Problem 2: Locked-Rotor Current ................................................................................. 23
5.3 Problem 3: Voltage Drop .............................................................................................. 24
5.4 Problem 4: Overload Device ......................................................................................... 24
5.5 Problem 5: Disconnect Switch ...................................................................................... 25
6.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Solution 1: Conductor Size .......................................................................................... 26
6.2 Solution 2: Locked Rotor Current ................................................................................ 27
6.3 Solution 3: Voltage Drop .............................................................................................. 28
6.4 Solution 4: Overload Device ......................................................................................... 29
6.5 Solution 5: Disconnect Switch ...................................................................................... 30

Codes & Standards-2 http://www.engproguides.com


1.0 INTRODUCTION
Codes & Standards accounts for approximately 10 questions on the Electrical &
Computer Power PE exam.

The codes and standards section of the exam is the section where most people do well on the
exam. Many of these questions simply test your familiarity with the NEC and NESC. You
should be well prepared to go to any section in the book, although some sections of the codes
are more used than others. The most common questions are highlighted in this section of the
book. Also included in this section is a technique that you can use to quickly navigate to the
correct part of the code to answer a question on the exam. This technique involves memorizing
the format of the book, such that if you are given a certain type of code question, you will know
exactly what section to look at in the book.

Codes & Standards


10 questions

National Electric Code National Electrical Safety Electric Shock and


(NEC) Codes (NESC) Burns

• Resources • Resources • OSHA


• Outline • Outline • Arc flash
• General • Electric supply
• Wiring & protection stations and
• Wiring methods & equipment
materials • Overhead electric
• Equipment for supply and
general use communication lines
• Special occupancies • Underground electric
• Special equipment supply and
• Special conditions communication lines
• Communication • Appendices
systems
• Tables

Codes & Standards-3 http://www.engproguides.com


2.6 CHAPTER 5: SPECIAL OCCUPANCIES
This chapter covers the safety requirements for the installation of electrical requirement in
various occupancies. These occupancies range from farming to aircraft hangars and from
hospitals to gas stations. It would be unreasonable to test on the requirements of a mobile
home park due to its limited and specific use, but it would not be unreasonable to test on the
general hazardous locations requirements. Thus you should be familiar with the types of
occupancies that are covered in the NEC, but you should not spend time reading into the
verbiage of each type of occupancy, except for the general hazardous location requirements.

• Article 500 - Hazardous Locations, • Article 518 - Assembly Occupancies


Classes I, II and III, Division 1 and 2
• Article 501 - Class I Locations • Article 520 - Theaters, Audient Areas of
Motion Picture and Television Studios,
Performance Areas and Similar
Locations
• Article 502 - Class II Locations • Article 522 - Control Systems for
Permanent Amusement Attractions
• Article 503 - Class III Locations • Article 525 - Carnivals, Circuses, Fairs
and Similar Events
• Article 504 - Intrinsically Safe Systems • Article 530 - Motion Picture and
Television Studios and Similar Locations
• Article 505 - Zone 0, 1 and 2 Locations • Article 540 - Motion Picture Projection
Rooms
• Article 506 - Zone 20, 21 and 22 • Article 545 - Manufactured Buildings
Locations for Combustible Dusts or
Ignitable Fibers/Flyings
• Article 510 - Hazardous Locations - • Article 547 - Agricultural Buildings
Specific
• Article 511 - Commercial Garages, • Article 550 - Mobile Homes,
Repair and Storage Manufactured Homes and Mobile Home
Parks
• Article 513 - Aircraft Hangars • Article 551 - Recreational vehicles and
Recreational Vehicle Parks
• Article 514 - Motor Fuel Dispensing • Article 552 - Park Trailers
Facilities
• Article 515 - Bulk Storage Plants • Article 553 - Floating Buildings

• Article 516 - Spray Applications, Dipping, • Article 555 - Marinas and Boatyards
Coating and Printing Processes Using
Flammable or Combustible Materials
• Article 517 - Health Care Facilities • Article 590 - Temporary Installations

2.6.1 Article 500 – Hazardous Locations


• Class I – These locations are defined as locations where flammable gases or vapors
may be present in concentrations sufficient to facilitate explosions or to ignite. The
designation of a location as Class I or non-hazardous is usually conducted by a Fire

Codes & Standards-14 http://www.engproguides.com


6.5 SOLUTION 5: DISCONNECT SWITCH
A 20-hp, three-phase, induction motor is operated at 230 V. The motor has a service factor of
1.15 and is a code letter B. What is the minimum size of a separate motor disconnect switch?
Assume that there is already a circuit breaker and this is a separate motor disconnect switch.

Stationary Motors (<1/8 HP) Use branch circuit OCPD


Stationary Motors (<2 HP) 2X FLC or FLC/0.8 or HP rating of motor
Motors (<1,000 V) 115% of FLC rating of motor
Horsepower Rating FLC Rating (430.248, 249 or 250) and LRC
Rating (430.251A & B)
Ampere Rating 115% of FLC

Since the answers are looking for the ampere rating, you can use the equation 115% of the
FLC.

The full load current can be found in Table 430.250.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 115% ∗ 54𝐴 = 62.1 𝐴

You may be asked for the horsepower rating, which may differ for the various types of
disconnect switches in practice. However, for the purposes of the exam, you should only be
concerned about the specific rating asked for in the question.

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 63A.

Codes & Standards-30 http://www.engproguides.com


SECTION 12
CONCLUSION

1 http://www.engproguides.com
12.0 CONCLUSION
If you have any questions on this book or any other Engineering Pro Guides product, then
please contact me at my email below. Also if you are looking for more exam problems, then
please visit the website and purchase the sample exam. In addition, the website has a bunch of
free information that you can use to facilitate your studying.

Justin Kauwale at contact@engproguides.com

Hi. My name is Justin Kauwale, the creator of Engineering Pro Guides. I will be happy to
answer any questions you may have about the PE exam. Good luck on your studying! I hope
you pass the exam and I wish you the best in your career. Thank you for your purchase!

Conclusion -1 http://www.engproguides.com
SECTION 13
CHEAT SHEETS

1 http://www.engproguides.com
Section 1.0 - Basic/Common Equations
Term Equation Description
Waveforms
Max Voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Root Mean 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
Square Voltage √2

2 ∗ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Average Voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋

Square Wave RMS 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥


𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Triangle/Sawtooth Wave RMS 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√3
𝑇2
1
Waveform RMS 𝑋𝑟𝑚𝑠 = � 𝑓(𝑡)2
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1

Power, Circuits

𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
Apparent Power
𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑆= = 𝐼𝑉 =
𝑍 𝑍

1
http://www.engproguides.com
Section 8.0 – Protection Equations

Overcurrent Protection
Protection Engineers that work for utility companies design protection systems as their full time job.
There are many intricacies in this job, but for the PE exam you should only know the basics.
Transmission lines end at circuit breakers.
Transmission line impedances are about 1 ohm per mile. The impedance depends on many factors like
conductor type, spacing, length and number of conductors.
Underground transmission lines and overhead transmission lines.
Short circuits can be caused by many things like lighting, wind, corrosion, fatigue, accidental contact,
trees.
The protection system must be able to isolate the faults, clear faults and then continue normal
operation.
Transformer faults.
Primary Secondary
Transformer:
𝐼𝐴 = 0 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑃𝐻−𝐺𝑅
Phase to Ground
𝐼𝐵 = 0.577 ∗ 𝐼𝑃𝐻−𝐺𝑅 𝐼𝑏 = 0
Fault
𝐼𝐶 = 0.577 ∗ 𝐼𝑃𝐻−𝐺𝑅 𝐼𝑐 = 0
Primary Secondary
Transformer:
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻
Three-Phase
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻
Fault
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻
Primary Secondary
Transformer:
𝐼𝐴 = 0.5 ∗ 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑎 = 0
Phase to Phase
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑏 = 0.866 ∗ 𝐼3𝑃𝐻
Fault
𝐼𝐶 = 0.5 ∗ 𝐼3𝑃𝐻 𝐼𝑐 = 0.866 ∗ 𝐼3𝑃𝐻
Protective Devices
Re-closers can trip (interrupt) the flow of current and it
can also close (recconnect) the flow of current. The
Re-closers tripping operation is powered by the fault current and
closing operation Is powered by a transformer on the
source side of the re-closer.
Circuit breakers can automatically and manually
interrupt the flow of current in a circuit. Circuit
breakers trip based on a relay or signal. Circuit
Circuit Breakers
breakers are tripped from an external, independent
power source. The circuit breaker can be closed by the
same power source.
Fuses detect and trip circuits through an element that
Fuses opens based on increased heat. Fuses can not be
closed after it trips the circuit.

27
http://www.engproguides.com
Section 11.0 - Codes and Standards
Term Equation Description
National Electrical Code (NEC)
Chapter 1 Definitions, general requirements and clearances.
Chapter 2: Wiring & Protection: Identification, branch, feeders, service, OCP, grounding, surge
arresters and protective devices
Minimum Feeder Size (<600 Volts) shall be larger of:
Article 215.2 a) 125% of continuous/non-continuous loads
Wiring & Protection

b) Max load served after adjustment/correction factors


Article 220 Branch, feeder and service load calculations
Overcurrent Protection
Article 240 • Part I-VII (≤1000 Volts)
• Part VIII (>1000 Volts)
Article 250 Grounding and Bonding
Article 250.53 Grounding Electrode Installation
Article 250.122 Equipment Grounding Conductor Size TABLE
Chapter 3: Wiring Methods & Materials: Wiring methods and materials, cables, conduits, raceways,
wireways, cable trays, busways
Article 310 Conductors
Conductor ampacity rating, T, Size, Type (<2,000 Volts)
Wiring Methods

Table 310.15(B)(16-21) – Ampacities allowed per conductor size


Table 310.15
• 310.15(B)(2) – Temperature Correction Factor
• 310.15(B)(3) – Additional Conductor Correction Factor
Table 310.60 Conductor ampacity rating, T, Size, Type (>2,000 Volts)
Chapter 4: Equipment for General Use: Cords, cables, switches receptacles, panels, lighting,
switchgear, appliances, electric heating, A/C, motors, generators, transformers, resistors, reactors,
capacitors and batteries.
Motors, Motor Circuits and Controllers
• Motor Feeder - Short-Circuit and Ground Fault Protection: 430.61 - 430.63
Article 430 • Motor Disconnect: 430.101 – 430.113
• Motor Branch - Short-Circuit and Ground Fault Protection: 430.52
• Motor Overload Protection: 430.31 through 430.44
• Motor Ampacity and Motor Rating Determination: 430.6
Article 430.6 Ampacity and motor rating determination
Motors

Article 430.7 Locked rotor indicating code letters


Conductors (Single Motor)
Article 430.22
• 1.25*FLA, FLA from 430.6(A)(1) [Table 430.247-250] or 430.22(A)-(G)
Multiple motors and loads
Article 430.24
• Example on 430.28
Article 430.32 Continuous Duty Motor – Overload Protection, Thermal Protector Sizing

33
http://www.engproguides.com

Potrebbero piacerti anche