Sensory Receptors and Sensations

8/30/2013
Chapter 18
Lecture Outline
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1
18.1 Sensory Receptors and

Sensations
• Sensory Receptors
– Specialized cells to detect specific stimuli
– Interoceptors - detect stimuli inside body
• Include receptors for blood pressure, blood volume,
and blood pH
• Directly involved in homeostasis, regulated by
negative feedback
– Exteroceptors - detect stimuli outside body
• Include receptors for taste, smell, vision, hearing, and
equilibrium
• Function to inform CNS about environmental state
2
Types of Sensory Receptors

• Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals.
– Taste, smell, blood pH
• Photoreceptors respond to light energy.
– Vision (light)
• Mechanoreceptors are stimulated by mechanical
forces.
– Hearing, gravity, motion, body position
• Thermoreceptors are stimulated by changes in
temperature.
• Located in the hypothalamus and skin
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How Sensation Occurs
• Detection occurs when environmental

changes, such as pressure to the fingertips or
light to the eye, stimulate sensory receptors.
• Sensation occurs when nerve impulses arrive
at the cerebral cortex of the brain.
• Perception occurs when the brain interprets
the meaning of stimuli.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Peripheral
Nervous System stimulus
sensory receptor
nerve impulses
along sensory
fiber
spinal cord
brain
Central
Nervous System
Figure 18.1 6
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• We are aware of a reflex action when sensory
information reaches the brain.
• The brain integrates this information with other
information received from other sensory receptors.
• Some receptors are free nerve endings.
• Others are specialized cells associated with
neurons.
• The plasma membrane of a sensory receptor
contains proteins that react to the stimulus.

• Sensory Transduction
– Energy from a chemical or physical stimulus is
converted into an electrical signal (nerve
impulse).
• The stronger the stimulus, the more frequent the
action potentials.
– The sensation that results depends on the part of
the brain receiving the nerve impulse.

• Integration occurs before sensory receptors
initiate nerve impulses.
– Summing up of environmental signals by sensory
receptors
– Sensory Adaptation
• Decrease in response to a stimulus (not being
consciously aware of a stimulus)
• Two possible explanations
– Sensory receptors have stopped sending impulses.
– The thalamus has filtered out the ongoing stimulus.
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18.2 Somatic Senses

• Somatic senses are those whose receptors
are associated with the skin, muscles, joints
and viscera.
• Three types of somatic sensory receptors
– Proprioceptors
– Cutaneous receptors
– Pain receptors
10
Proprioceptors
• Proprioceptors are mechanoreceptors
involved in reflex actions.
– Help maintain muscle tone
– Muscle spindles increase the degree of muscle
contraction
– Golgi tendon organs decrease the degree of
muscle contraction
– Result is proper muscle length and tension (tone)
11
Muscle Spindle
muscle spindle
2
2 muscle fiber
1
quadriceps
bundle of
muscle
muscle fibers
3 sensory neuron
to spinal cord
Golgi tendon organ
tendon
Figure 18.2 12
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Cutaneous Receptors
• Both layers of the skin contain cutaneous
receptors.
– Fine touch receptors
• Meissner corpuscles and Krause end bulbs -
fingertips, lips, palms, penis, clitoris
• Merkel disks - junction of epidermis and dermis
• Root hair plexus - free nerve endings at base of
follicles
– Allows sensation when hair is touched
13
Cutaneous Receptors
• Pressure receptors
– Pacinian corpuscles - onion-shaped, deep in
dermis
– Ruffini endings - encapsulated receptors with
complex nerve networks
• Temperature receptors - free nerve endings
– Some respond to cold; more numerous
– Some respond to warmth
14
Cutaneous Receptors in the

Human Skin
epidermis
dermis
Figure 18.3 15
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Cutaneous Receptors in the

Human Skin
epidermis
free nerve endings

(pain, heat, cold)
Meissner
corpuscles (touch)
Merkel disks (touch)
Pacinian corpuscles
(pressure)
Krause end
bulbs (touch)
Ruffini endings
(pressure)
dermis
root hair
plexus (touch)
Figure 18.3 16
Pain Receptors
• Pain receptors (or free nerve endings – nociceptors)
– Stimulated by chemicals released by damaged
tissue
– Alert us to possible danger
– Referred pain
• In some areas stimulation of internal pain receptors is
also perceived as pain from the skin.
• Most likely explanation is that impulses from internal pain
receptors also synapse in cord with neurons receiving
pain impulses from the skin.
– Ex: pain originating in heart is also referred to left arm and
shoulder
17
18.3 Senses of Taste and

Smell
• Taste and smell are called chemical senses
because their receptors are sensitive to
molecules in the food we eat and in the air
we breathe.
• Taste cells and olfactory cells are classified
as chemoreceptors.
18
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Sense of Taste
• Taste buds contain chemoreceptors and are
located primarily in the tongue.
– Many lie along the walls of the papillae.
• Isolated taste buds are also found in the hard
palate, pharynx, epiglottis.
– Different receptors exist for salty, sour, bitter,
sweet tastes and umami.
• “Umami” receptors detect the amino acid glutamate
– Present in the flavor enhancer monsodium glutamate
(MSG)
19
How the Brain Receives Taste

Information
• Taste buds open at a taste pore.
– The taste pore is surrounded by supporting cells
and taste cells.
– Taste cells have microvilli with receptors.
– The gustatory cortex interprets as particular tastes.
– The brain appears to survey the overall pattern of
incoming impulses and takes a “weighted average”
is the perceived taste.
20
Taste Buds in Humans

tonsils epiglottis
Figure 18.4a Tongue

21
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10µm
papillae
Papillae
Figure 18.4b © Omikron/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
22

taste bud
Taste buds
Figure 18.4c © Omikron/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
23

sensory nerve fiber supporting cell taste pore
connective tissue microvilli

taste cell
Figure 18.4d One taste bud
24
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tonsils epiglottis sensory nerve fiber supporting cell taste pore
10µ
µm
papillae
taste bud connective tissue taste cell microvilli
a. Tongue b. Papillae c. Taste buds d. One taste bud

© Omikron/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Figure 18.4 25
Sense of Smell
• Sense of smell
– 80-90% of what we perceive as taste is due
actually to smell.
– Olfactory cells
• Chemoreceptors (modified neurons) are located high
in the nasal cavity.
• Olfactory cells have a tuft of olfactory cilia with
receptors for odor molecules.
26
How the Brain Receives Odor

Information
• Each olfactory cell has only one out of about
1,000 different types of receptor proteins.
• Nerve fibers lead to the olfactory bulb, an
extension of the brain.
• A single odor is composed of many different
molecules which activate a characteristic
combination of receptor proteins.
• An odor’s “signature” is interpreted by the brain.
27
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Olfactory Cell Location and Anatomy

frontal lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
olfactory bulb
olfactory epithelium
nasal cavity
odor
molecules
Figure 18.5a 28

olfactory bulb neuron olfactory tract
sensory
nerve fibers
olfactory
epithelium
supporting olfactory
cell cell
olfactory cilia of
olfactory cell
odor molecules
Figure 18.5b 29

olfactory bulb neuron olfactory tract

frontal lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
olfactory bulb
olfactory epithelium
nasal cavity
odor
sensory
molecules
nerve fibers
olfactory
epithelium
a.
supporting olfactory
cell cell
olfactory cilia of
olfactory cell
b.
odor molecules
Figure 18.5 30
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18.4 Sense of Vision

• Vision requires the work of the eyes and the
brain.
• It is believed that at least a third of the
cerebral cortex takes part in processing
visual information.
31
Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

• The eye is an elongated sphere about 2.5 cm in
diameter made of three layers.
– Sclera – outer layer, white and fibrous
• The cornea is made of transparent collagen fibers.
• The conjuctiva is a membrane that covers the sclera.
– Choroid –middle layer, darkly pigmented and vascular
• Toward the front, the choroid becomes a donut-shaped iris.
• The iris contains smooth muscle to control the size of the pupil.
32

• Choroid (continued)
– Behind the iris, the choroid thickens into the ciliary
body.
– The ciliary body contains the ciliary muscle, which
controls the lens shape for near and far vision.
– The lens divides the eye into two compartments.
• The anterior compartment is in front of the lens and is filled
with aqueous humor, a clear watery fluid.
• The posterior compartment is behind the lens.
33
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• Retina – the third layer, located in the posterior
compartment
– Filled with a clear, gelatinous material, vitrous humor
– Contains photoreceptor cells, rods and cones
– Has a special region called the fovea centralis, where
cone cells are densely packed
– Optic nerve, which takes impulses to the visual cortex,
is formed from sensory nerve fibers from the retina.
34
Function of the Lens
• Lens focuses images on the retina

– Starts with the cornea and continues as the rays
pass through the lens and humors
• Visual accommodation
– For viewing close objects
• Lens rounds up to bring the image into focus on retina
• Lens shape is controlled by the ciliary muscle
• Ciliary muscle contracts and lens rounds up to
elasticity
• Elasticity of the lens may decrease with age
35
Anatomy of the Human Eye

sclera
choroid
retina
ciliary body
retinal blood
vessels
lens
iris
optic nerve
pupil
fovea centralis
cornea
posterior compartment anterior

filled with vitreous humor compartment
filled with
aqueous humor
retina suspensory
choroid ligament
sclera
Figure 18.6 36
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Functions of the Parts of the Eye
37
Focusing the Human Eye

ciliary muscle relaxed
lens flattened
light rays
suspensory ligament taut

Focusing on
distant object
Figure 18.7a 38

ciliary body
ciliary muscle contracted

lens rounded
suspensory ligament relaxed

Focusing on
near object
Figure 18.7b 39
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ciliary muscle relaxed
lens flattened
light rays
suspensory ligament taut

a. Focusing on
distant object
ciliary body
ciliary muscle contracted

lens rounded
b. Focusing on suspensory ligament relaxed

Figure 18.7 near object
40
Visual Pathway to the Brain

• Vision begins once light has been focused on
photoreceptors in the retina.
• Some integration occurs in the retina, where
nerve impulses begin.
• Then the optic nerve transmits the integrated
impulses to the brain.
41

• Function of photoreceptors
– Rod cells
– Visual pigment is rhodopsin
• Very sensitive to light, important for night vision
• Provide peripheral vision and the perception of
motion
42
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– Cone cells
• Located primarily in fovea centralis
• Activated by bright light
• Permits fine detail and color perception
• Three different kinds of cones
– Blue, green and red
– Different combinations of stimulation produce
different colors
43
Photoreceptors in the Eye

membrane of disk
rod cell
outer segment
cone cell
ion channels
in plasma
membrane
inner segment
cell body
nucleus
synaptic
vesicles synaptic endings
20 µ m © Lennart Nilsson, from "The Incredible Machine"
Figure 18.8
44
Photoreceptors in the Eye

ion
channels
close
light
rays
retinal
opsin
membrane Rhodopsin molecule

of disk (opsin + retinal)
Figure 18.8 45
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membrane of disk ion

channels
close
rod cell light

outer segment rays
cone cell
ion channels
in plasma
membrane
retinal
inner segment
cell body
opsin
nucleus
membrane Rhodopsin molecule
synaptic
synaptic endings of disk (opsin + retinal)
vesicles
20 µm
© Lennart Nilsson, from "The Incredible Machine"
Figure 18.8 46

• Function of the retina
– Three layers of neurons
• Layer closest to choroid contains rods and
cones.
• Middle layer is composed of bipolar cells.
• Inner layer is composed of ganglion cells.
– Sensory fibers become the optic nerve
47
Structure and Function of the Retina

retina
optic
nerve
blind
spot
Figure 18.9a Location of retina 48
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choroid
rod cell
and cone
cell layer
bipolar
cell layer
ganglion
cell layer
axons of
ganglion cells
to optic nerve light rays

Figure 18.9a 49

sclera
choroid
rod cell
and cone
cell layer
bipolar
cell layer
ganglion
cell layer
Micrograph of retina
Figure 18.9b © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
50

sclera
retina
choroid
optic
nerve
rod cell
and cone
cell layer
bipolar
cell layer
blind
spot ganglion
cell layer
a. Location of retina
axons of
ganglion cells
to optic nerve light rays b . Micrograph of retina
b: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Figure 18.9 51
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• Function of the retina
– Rod and cone cells synapse with bipolar cells
which synapse with ganglion cells.
• Axons become the optic nerve.
– Sensitivity of cones versus rods is due in part to
how directly they connect to ganglion cells.
• As many as 150 rods may synapse on the same
ganglion cell.
• Some cone cells in the fovea centralis activate only
one ganglion cell.
52

• Blind spot retina
– No rods and cones optic

nerve
where the optic nerve
exits the retina
– No vision is possible
in this area
blind
spot
Figure 18.9a Location of retina

53

• From the retina to the visual cortex
– Optic nerves from each eye travel to the optic
chiasma.
– Some of the axons cross over at the optic
chiasma.
• Fibers from the right half of each retina join together
to form the right optic tract.
• Fibers from the left half of each retina join together to
form the left optic tract.
54
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• From the retina to the visual cortex
• Optic tracts travel around the hypothalamus and
most fibers synapse with nuclei in the thalamus.
– Axons from the thalamic nuclei form optic radiations
that carry impulses to the visual area.
– Right and left visual areas must communicate for us to
see entire visual field.
55
Optic Chiasma
primary visual
area of occipital
lobe
thalamic nucleus
optic tract
optic chiasma
optic nerve
Right
visual
field
Left visual
field
Figure 18.10 56
18.5 Sense of Hearing

• The ear has two sensory functions -
hearing and balance (equilibrium)
– Sensory receptors for both of these are
located in the inner ear.
– Each consists of hair cells with stereocilia
(long microvilli) that are sensitive to
mechanical stimulation.
• Mechanoreceptors
57
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Anatomy of the Ear

• The ear has three divisions
– Outer ear – consists of the pinna
• Pinna collects and funnels sounds to the auditory
canal.
• The opening of the canal is lined with fine hairs and
sweat glands.
• Modified sweat glands secrete earwax.
58
Anatomy of the Ear

• Middle ear – begins at the tympanic membrane
and ends at a bony wall with openings called oval
window and round window
– Between the tympanic membrane and oval window are
three bones, the ossicles.
• Malleus, incus and stapes
– An auditory tube extends from the middle ear to the

nasopharynx, permitting equalization of air pressure.
59
Anatomy of the Ear

• Inner ear – the only part that is fluid-filled
– Three areas
• Semicircular canals – role in equilibrium
• Vestibule – role in equilibrium
• Cochlea – role in hearing
60
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Anatomy of the Human Ear

Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear
stapes semicircular canals

incus
malleus
vestibular
nerve
pinna
cochlear
nerve
tympanic cochlea
membrane
auditory
canal
round window auditory

earlobe tube
Figure 18.11 61
Auditory Pathway to the Brain

• Through the auditory canal and middle
ear
– Process begins when sound waves enter the
auditory canal
– Tympanic membrane (ear drum) begins to vibrate
– Vibrations are amplified across the middle ear bones
– Stapes touches the oval window
– Oval window vibrates and transmits vibrations to
fluid inside the cochlea
62

• From the cochlea to the auditory cortex
– Cochlea has three fluid-filled canals
• Vestibular canal - fluid is perilymph
• Cochlear canal – fluid is endolymph
– Sense organ for hearing is called organ of Corti
– Hair cells sit on basilar membrane with stereocilia
embedded in tectorial membrane
• Tympanic canal - fluid is perilymph
63
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• From the cochlea to the auditory cortex
– When the stapes strikes the oval window membrane,
pressure waves move from the vestibular canal to
tympanic canal across basilar membrane.
– Basilar membrane moves up and down, and the
stereocilia in the tectorial membrane bend.
– Then nerve impulses begin in the cochlear nerve
and travel to the brain.
– When they reach the auditory cortex in the temporal
lobe, they are interpreted as a sound.
64

• Each part of the organ of Corti is sensitive to different
wave frequencies, or pitch.
• Near the tip, it responds to low pitches.
• Near the base, it responds to higher pitches.
• The pitch sensation depends upon which region of
the basilar membrane vibrates and which area of the
auditory complex is stimulated.
65

• Volume is a function of the amplitude of sound
waves.
– Loud noises cause fluid in the vestibular canal to
exert more pressure and the basilar membrane to
vibrate more.
– The brain interprets the increased stimulation as
volume.
66
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Mechanoreceptors for Hearing

semicircular
canals
cochlea
oval
window
stapes
round window
Figure 18.12 67

vestibular
canal
cochlear
canal
tympanic
canal
cochlear
nerve
Figure 18.12 Cochlea cross section 68

tectorial membrane
stereocilia
basilar
membrane
hair cell
tympanic
cochlear nerve canal
Spiral organ
Figure 18.12 69
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2 µm
Stereocilia
© P. Motta/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Figure 18.12 70

semicircular
canals
cochlea
oval
window
stapes
round window
vestibular
canal
cochlear
canal
tympanic
canal
cochlear
nerve
Cochlea cross section
tectorial membrane
stereocilia
basilar
membrane
hair cell
tympanic
cochlear nerve canal
Spiral organ
2 µm
Figure 18.12 Stereocilia µµ
© P. Motta/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc. 71
Rotational Equilibrium Pathway

• Three semicircular canals are arranged so that one is in
each dimension of space.
• Each semicircular canal has an enlarged base called an
ampulla.
– Each ampulla contains hair cells with stereocilia embedded in a
cupula.
• As fluid within a canal flows and bends a cupula, stereocilia
are bent; this changes the pattern of impulses carried in
vestibular nerve to cerebellum and cerebrum.
– Brain uses this information to make postural corrections
72
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Gravitational Equilibrium Pathway

• Depends on utricle and saccule
– Utricle is sensitive to horizontal movements of the head.
– Saccule is sensitive to vertical movements of the head.
– Both contain hair cells with stereocilia embedded in an otolithic
membrane.
• Large central cilium called the kinetocilium
• Calcium carbonate granules (otoliths) rest on otolithic membrane
– When head or body moves in horizontal or vertical plane, the
otoliths are displaced and the otolithic membrane sags, bending
stereocilia.
73
Mechanoreceptors for Equilibrium

receptorin
semicircular ampulla
canals
vestibular
ampullae nerve
cochlea
liquid
cupula
stereocilia
hair cell
supporting cell
vestibular nerve
flow of liquid
Figure 18.13a Rotational equilibrium: receptorsin ampullae of semicircular canal

74

liquid
utricle
saccule
otoliths
otolithic
membrane
hair cell
supporting
cell
vestibular
nerve
flow of otolithic
membrane
kinocilium
stereocilia
Figure 18.13b Gravitational equilibrium: receptorsin utricle and saccule of vestibule

75
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receptorin liquid
semicircular ampulla
canals
vestibular
ampullae nerve
cochlea
utricle
saccule
liquid
cupula
otoliths
stereocilia
otolithic
hair cell
membrane
hair cell
supporting cell
supporting
vestibular nerve cell
vestibular
nerve
flow of liquid
flow of otolithic
membrane
kinocilium
stereocilia
Figure 18.13 a. Rotational equilibrium: receptorsin ampullae of semicircular canal b . Gravitational equilibrium: receptorsin utricle and saccule of vestibule
76
18.7 Disorders that Affect the Senses

Disorders of Taste and Smell
• Sense of smell begins to decline after age 60.
• Some people born without sense of smell
(anosmia).
• Other factors can contribute to a decrease in ability
to taste and/or smell.
– Upper respiratory infections
– Allergies
– Exposure to certain drugs or chemicals (including tobacco
smoke)
– Brain trauma
77
Disorders of the Eye

• Color blindness and problems with visual
focus are two common abnormalities of the
eye.
• More serious disorders can result in
blindness.
78
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Color Blindness
• Complete colorblindness is rare.
– In most instances a particular cone is lacking or
deficient in number.
• Red-green colorblindness is the most
common type.
– X-linked recessive trait
– 5-8% of males
– 0.5% of females
79
Testing for Color Blindness

Figure 18.14 80
Visual Focus
• Nearsightedness
– Can see close objects better than distant ones
– Eye is elongated so image is brought to point
focus in front of the retina
– Corrected by concave lenses which diverge light
rays so point focus is farther back
81
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Visual Focus
• Farsightedness
– Can see distant objects better than close ones
– Eye is shortened so image is brought to point
focus behind the lens
– Corrected by convex lenses to increase bending
of light rays so point focus is farther forward
82
Visual Focus
• Astigmatism
– The cornea or lens is uneven, producing a fuzzy
image.
– The light rays are not evenly focused on the
retina.
– This can be corrected by wearing an unevenly
ground lens to compensate for the uneven
cornea.
83
Corrective Abnormalities of the Eye

and Possible Corrective Lenses
normal
eyeball
Long eyeball; rays focus in front of Concave lens allows subject

retina when viewing distant objects. to see distant objects.
Nearsightedness
Figure 18.15a 84
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normal
eyeball
Short eyeball; rays focus behind Convex lens allows subject

retina when viewing close objects. to see close objects.
Farsightedness
Figure 18.15b 85

Uneven cornea; Uneven lens allows subject

Rays do not focus evenly. to see objects clearly.
Astigmatism
Figure 18.15c 86

and Possible Corrective Lenses Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
normal
eyeball
Long eyeball; rays focus in front of Concave lens allows subject

retina when viewing distant objects. to see distant objects.
a. Nearsightedness
normal
eyeball
Short eyeball; rays focus behind Convex lens allows subject

retina when viewing close objects. to see close objects.
b.Farsightedness
Uneven cornea; Uneven lens allows subject

Rays do not focus evenly. to see objects clearly.
Figure 18.15 c. Astigmatism 87
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Common Causes of Blindness

• Retinal Disorders
– Diabetic retinopathy - capillaries to the retina may
become damaged
• Hemorrhages and blocked vessels can occur
– Macular degeneration - cones are destroyed

because thickened choroid vessels no longer
function
– Retinal detachment - following trauma, the retina
is torn or separated from the choroid
88
Common Causes of Blindness

• Glaucoma
– Fluid builds up in the eye because the drainage
system fails
– Causes an increase in pressure
– Nerve fibers associated with peripheral vision are
destroyed due to pressure
• Cataracts
– Cloudy spots on lens, eventually cover whole lens
– Risk factors - exposure to UV light, diabetes, heavy
alcohol consumption, smoking
89
Cataract in a Human Eye
Figure 18.16 90
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Disorders of Hearing and

Equilibrium
• Hearing loss can develop gradually or suddenly
and has many potential causes.
– One in three people over age 60 have hearing loss.
– The middle ear is subject to infections that can lead
to impairment if not properly treated.
– The first signs are problems understanding
conversation with background noise.
– Hearing problems may begin around age 20.
• Mobility of ossicles decreases with age.
91

Equilibrium
• Sudden Deafness
– Usually occurs in only one ear
– Causes include infections, trauma, and side
effects of some drugs
– Sometimes resolves itself
• Deafness at Birth
– Genetic disorders
– German measles or mumps virus infecting
mother during pregnancy
92

Equilibrium
• Disorders of equilibrium
– Vertigo
• Feeling that a person or the environment is moving
when no motion is occurring
• Can be caused by problems in the brain or inner ear
• Benign positional vertigo (BPV) due to particles in
semicircular canals
93
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Equilibrium
– Meniere’s Disease
• Caused by an increased fluid volume in the inner
ear
• Characterized by vertigo, a feeling of fullness in
affected ear(s), tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and
hearing loss
94
32

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See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures

18.1 Sensory Receptors and

Types of Sensory Receptors

How Sensation Occurs

• Detection occurs when environmental

How Sensation Occurs

How Sensation Occurs

How Sensation Occurs

18.2 Somatic Senses

Cutaneous Receptors in the

Cutaneous Receptors in the

free nerve endings

Merkel disks (touch)

18.3 Senses of Taste and

How the Brain Receives Taste

Taste Buds in Humans

Figure 18.4a Tongue

Taste Buds in Humans

Taste Buds in Humans

Taste Buds in Humans

sensory nerve fiber supporting cell taste pore

connective tissue microvilli

Taste Buds in Humans

tonsils epiglottis sensory nerve fiber supporting cell taste pore

taste bud connective tissue taste cell microvilli

a. Tongue b. Papillae c. Taste buds d. One taste bud

How the Brain Receives Odor

Olfactory Cell Location and Anatomy

Olfactory Cell Location and Anatomy

olfactory bulb neuron olfactory tract

Olfactory Cell Location and Anatomy

olfactory bulb neuron olfactory tract

18.4 Sense of Vision

Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

Function of the Lens

• Lens focuses images on the retina

Anatomy of the Human Eye

posterior compartment anterior

Functions of the Parts of the Eye

Focusing the Human Eye

ciliary muscle relaxed

suspensory ligament taut

Focusing the Human Eye

ciliary muscle contracted

suspensory ligament relaxed

Focusing the Human Eye

ciliary muscle relaxed

suspensory ligament taut

ciliary muscle contracted

b. Focusing on suspensory ligament relaxed

Visual Pathway to the Brain

Visual Pathway to the Brain

Visual Pathway to the Brain

Photoreceptors in the Eye

Photoreceptors in the Eye

membrane Rhodopsin molecule

membrane of disk ion

rod cell light

Visual Pathway to the Brain

Structure and Function of the Retina

Figure 18.9a Location of retina 48