CELL CYCLE

and
CELL DIVISION
Prepared by: Ms. Remelyn I. de Ramos

STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f
Learning Objectives
The learners should be able to:
1. Characterize the phases of the cell cycle an their
control points
2. Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6
3. Discuss crossing over and recombination in meiosis
4. Explain the significance or application of
mitosis/meiosis
5. Identify disorders and diseases that result from the
malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle
The Cell Cycle
• An orderly sequence of stages that takes place
from the time a eukaryotic cell divides to the time
the resulting daughter cells also divides.
• Two phases:
• Interphase- consists of a number of stages
• Mitotic stage- where mitosis and cytokinesis occurs.
 Three stages of interphase
1. G1
-first gap of cell growth, before DNA
replication
-most cells are busy undergoing
metabolic activities
-cells increase in volume by taking in
water and nutrients and building new
cytoplasmic materials and organelles
2. S
-time of synthesis (DNA replication)
-at the end of S phase, the DNA is
already doubled
3. G2
-second gap where cell prepares to
divide
-active RNA and protein synthesis
occur
-important organelles playing a crucial
role is synthesized
Checkpoint
-a critical point in the cell
cycle where “stop” and “go
ahead” signals can regulate
the Cell Cycle

Three major checkpoints:

• G1
• G2
• Metaphase
 The G1 Checkpoint – the Restriction Point
• Ensures that the cell is large enough to
divide and that enough nutrients are
available to support the resulting daughter
cells
• Checks for: cell size, nutrients, growth
factors, DNA damage

Cell large enough and Damaged DNA/ Cell

DNA is not damaged not large enough/
lacking nutrients, etc.

Proceed to S stage Exit the Cell Cycle and switch to a non-

dividing state (G0); or Apoptosis
(Programmed Cell Death)
*Go signal is given by kinase
 The G2 Checkpoint
• Ensures that DNA
replication in S phase
has been successfully
completed
• Checks for cell size and
DNA replication

DNA replicated DNA replicated

properly damaged

Apoptosis/
Proceed to M stage
Programmed Cell
Death
The Metaphase Checkpoint

• Ensures that all

chromosomes are
attached to the
mitotic spindle by a
kinetochore
• Cycle stops if
chromosomes are
not properly
attached
WHO GIVES THE GO SIGNAL?
Kinase
• a protein which activates
or deactivates another
protein by
phosphorylating them
• Give the “go-ahead”
signals at G1 and G2
checkpoints
• Needs activation from
cyclin
• “Cyclin-dependent
kinases” or CDK
 CDK, the non-cyclin
part of MPF persists Cyclins accumulate during
in the cell as an the G1, S, and G2 phases
inactive form until it
associates with new
cyclin molecules
synthesized during
the interphase of the
next round of the
Cell Cycle

Later in mitosis, MPF

switches itself off by
initiating a process
which lead to the
destruction of cyclin

MPF (mitosis promoting factor)
functions by phosphorylating key
proteins in the mitotic sequence
G2 checkpoint
-enough cyclin is available
to form MPF complexes
(aggregation of CDK and cyclin)
which initiate mitosis
 THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CELL CYCLE
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all
daughter cells receive the same complement of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the
time when molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular
activity
• Cell Cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication
and mitosis occur only when conditions are favorable and the
process is working correctly
• The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that
can be adjusted by external stimuli (i.e. chemical messages).
CELL DIVISION
• Involves the
distribution of
identical genetic
material or DNA to
daughter cells
• Functions in
reproduction,
growth, and repair
• Mitosis – body cells
• Meiosis- sex cells
MITOSIS
• The process by which
the nucleus divides to
produce two new nuclei

• Results in two daughter

cells that are genetically
identical to each other
and to the parental cell
from which they came
 -protein complexes -a highly constricted region
associated with the to which the spindle
centromeric regions of attaches
chromosomes. -cannot bind microtubules
-main role is to bind -main role is to provide sites
microtubules of the spindle for kinetochores
bundle and depolarize them
during cell division
COUNTING CHROMOSOMES AND CHROMATIDS
 METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE
PROPHASE
• The preparatory stage
• Centrioles move towards
opposite slides of the
nucleus
• Indistinct chromosomes
begin to condense into
visible threads
• By late prophase,
chromosomes are more
compacted and can be
clearly discerned as much
shorter and rod-like
structures
 PROPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE
METAPHASE
• When chromosomes become
arranged so that their
centromeres become aligned in
one place, halfway between the
two spindle poles

• Long axes of the chromosomes

are 90 degrees to the spindle
axis

• Plane of alignment is called the

“metaphase plate”

• Cycle stops if chromosomes are

not properly attached to the
mitotic spindle
 PROPHASE METAPHASE TELOPHASE
ANAPHASE

• Initiated by the separation of

sister chromatids at their
junction point at the
centromere

• Daughter chromosomes
then move towards the
poles
 PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE

• When daughter
chromosomes complete
their migration to the poles

• Two sets of progeny

chromosomes are
assembled into two-groups
at opposite ends of the cell
 PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE

• Chromosomes uncoil and

assume their extended form
during interphase

• A nuclear membrane then

forms around each
chromosome group and the
spindle microtubules
disappear.

• The nucleolus reforms

COUNTING CHROMOSOMES AND CHROMATIDS
 Late
Prophase

Late
Telophase
MEIOSIS
• Reduces the amount of
genetic information
• Produces haploid
gametes
• Involves two successive
divisions of a diploid
nucleus
• Formation of gametes
(sperm cell, egg cell)
• Meiosis I (Reduction
Division)
• Meiosis II (Equational
Division)
Terms to remember:
Homologous chromosomes-
approximately same size and
contains DNA that codes for the
same genes at the same region

Synapsis- pairing of
homologous chromosomes

Crossing over- the process of

physical exchange of a
chromosome region
 I I I I
II II II II
The first meiotic division results in reducing the number
of chromosomes (reduction division).
Prophase I
• Subdivided into five substages:
Metaphase I
• The spindle apparatus is
completely formed and the
microtubules are attached
to the centromere regions
of the homologues
• The synapsed tetrad are
found aligned at the
metaphase plate instead of
only replicated
chromosomes
Anaphase I
• Chromosomes in each
tetrad separate and
migrate toward the
opposite poles.
• Sister chromatids (dyads)
remain attached at their
respective centromere
regions
Telophase I
• The dyad complete their
migration to the poles.
• New nuclear membrane may
form
• In most species, cytokinesis
follows producing two
daughter cells
• Each has a nucleus
containing only one set of
chromosomes (haploid level)
in a replicated form
Second Meiotic Division
• Events are quite similar to Mitotic division
• Difference lies in the number of chromosomes that each
daughter cell receives
• Number is reduced to half in meiosis
Prophase II
• Dyads contract

Metaphase II
• The centromeres are
directed to the equatorial
plate and then divide
Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids (Monads) move
away from each other and migrate
towards the opposite poles of the
spindle fiber

Telophase II
• Monads are at the poles forming
two groups of chromosomes
• Nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes
• Cytokinesis follows
• Chromosomes uncoil and extend
CYTOKINESIS
• Two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter
cells
• Animals
• Occurs by the formation of a constriction (called cleavage or
cell furrow)in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells are
formed
• Plants
• Constriction is not evident for most plant cell
• Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assembled
between two nuclei to form a cell plate.
• Each side of the plate is coated with a cell wall that eventually
forms the two progeny cells
 Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Requires one nuclear division Requires two nuclear divisions
Chromosomes do not synapse nor Chromosomes synapse and cross
cross over over
Centromeres dissolve in mitotic Centromeres survive Anaphase I
anaphase
Preserves chromosome number Halves chromosome number
Produces two daughter nuclei Produces four daughter nuclei
Produces daughter cells Produces daughter cells
genetically identical to parent and genetically different from parent
to each other and each other
Used for asexual reproduction and Used only for sexual reproduction
growth
Zhivotovsky & Orrenius (2010). Cell cycle and cell death in disease: past, present, and future
Disorders and diseases from malfunction
of the cell during the cell cycle
Next meeting: Reporting
Each group is allowed 12 minutes to report

Group 1: Cancer
Group 2: Down Syndrome
Group 3: Alzheimer’s
Group 4: Parkinson’s Disease
Group 5: Myocardial Infarction