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Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101
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Original article

Effect of a carbohydrate drink on soccer skill performance following

a sport-specific training program
John O’Reilly, Stephen H. Wong*
Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
Received 7 November 2013; accepted 8 November 2013
Available online 15 December 2013

Abstract

Monitoring personal hydration status as well as examining the contents of sports beverages is crucial to improve physical performance in
soccer players. This study examined the effects of 60 minutes of soccer-specific training on skill performance, hydration status, and core
temperature (Tc) of soccer players after ingesting either a carbohydrate-containing (CHO) or a carbohydrate-free (CHO-F) drink. This study
recruited seven healthy male soccer players (age: 23
2.9 years, height: 1.7
0.04 m, mass: 62.7
6.7 kg), each of whom completed a CHO
and a CHO-F trial in a randomized crossover design. The participants underwent skill tests [Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT)] prior to
and after 60 minutes of training in a hot and humid environment (30  C, 85% relative humidity). They consumed 2 mL of fluid per/kg body mass
every 15 minutes during exercise. Blood glucose, blood lactate, and Tc were monitored throughout the exercise session. Improvement was
observed in movement time ( p ¼ 0.034) and overall LSPT performance ( p ¼ 0.031) postexercise in those consuming CHO drinks compared
with those consuming CHO-F drinks. No differences were observed in Tc or absolute and relative body mass loss between the trial groups
( p > 0.05). Urine output was greater in the CHO trial group (CHO: 0.086
0.051 L; CHO-F: 0.030
0.028 L; p ¼ 0.043). Compared with the
consumption of a CHO-F drink, that of a CHO drink during a 60-minute soccer-specific exercise session in a hot and humid climate can improve
postexercise skill performance. Additionally, Tc can be regulated efficiently by commencing training in a state of euhydration and by regular
ingestion of fluids throughout the exercise period.
Copyright Ó 2013, The Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and Fitness. Published by Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Dehydration; Football; Thermoregulation

Introduction an important role in the evaluation of players and the team. As

The game of soccer is associated with frequent intermittent
high-intensity exercise, and success in soccer depends on
various factors related to match play, including tactical,
technical, mental, and physiological characteristics of
players.1 Key elements of the game include the players’ ability
to perform repeated high-intensity work while maintaining
efficient execution of skills when in possession of the ball.2 As
soccer is a highly competitive elite-level sport, skill level plays
* Corresponding author. G08 Kwok Sports Building, The Chinese University
of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong.
E-mail address: hsswong@cuhk.edu.hk (S.H. Wong).
a result, many recent studies have focused on the measurement
of skills that are related to the performance of a soccer player.3
However, skill performance can be impaired following bouts
of brief, high-intensity exercise.4
The scientific literature has highlighted that the capacity to
exercise in the heat is limited by a critical core temperature
(Tc).5e7 In addition, heat- and exercise-induced dehydration
have been shown to impair the cardiac and thermoregulatory
responses to exercise, and the degree of impairment depends
on the percentage of dehydration.8 Previously, a loss of w2%
body mass (BM) has been shown to reduce the skill perfor-
mance of a semi-professional soccer player by 5%.9 An
investigation has also highlighted that a lack of adequate fluid

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesf.2013.11.001
1728-869X/$ - see front matter Copyright Ó 2013, The Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and Fitness. Published by Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
96 J. O’Reilly, S.H. Wong / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101
intake during exercise can precipitate a premature increase in
heart rate (HR) and Tc.10 Furthermore, dehydration has also
been highlighted to impair repeated sprint performance
following a soccer-specific exercise protocol11 and also during
a standard match play.12 Investigations in the UK have shown
that elite soccer players training in hot conditions (w33 C)
show an average sweat rate of w1.5 L/h and reach dehydra-
tion levels of w1.5e2% BM.13 Compensating the fluid loss
with a 6% carbohydrate (CHO) solution has been observed to
improve intermittent, high-intensity athletic performance in
various sports, compared with rehydrating with water.12 It has
previously been observed that when the glycogen store of a
soccer player depletes, ingesting a fluid containing CHO
during a sport-specific situation appears to better maintain the
skill performance14,15 and elicits an enhanced perceived acti-
vation profile that may impact task persistence and perfor-
mance positively,16 when compared with a placebo.
Decrements in soccer skill performance have been observed
following a soccer-specific protocol.9,14 Furthermore, shooting
and dribbling skills were found to be impaired following 45
minutes of a modified running test when only water was
provided during designated rest periods.17 Little is known,
however, about the effect of high-intensity exercise on skill
performance of players who begin training in a normally hy-
drated state, following the ingestion of an energy drink,
compared with those ingesting an energy-free solution.
It is accepted that natural heat acclimatization is more com-
plete than artificial acclimation, as it includes other factors
beyond physiological heat adaptation, such as learning pacing
strategies. According to the recent International Olympic
Committee consensus statement,18 the level of acclimatization
can be ascertained objectively by measures such as a decrease in
Tc or a decrease in HR in response to a standard exercise protocol
in the heat. However, few studies have focused on the hydration
responses and the effect of CHO intake during exercise on
players acclimatized to and regularly competing in a very hot and
humid climate. In the past, many studies focusing on the ther-
moregulatory stress associated with soccer have been conducted
through laboratory-based simulations of soccer-specific exer-
cise,19 which significantly reduces ecological validity for such a
cohort of athletes. Although the relationship between thermo-
regulatory stress and performance during a soccer match play
has been well established through laboratory-based experi-
ments20 or running tests,2,11 little is known about the effect of an
increased Tc on skill performance following a sport-specific
field-based exercise session in a hot and humid climate.
Numerous attempts have been made to develop a measure of
soccer skill, which can be applied to assess soccer performance in
research works.21 However, many of these studies have failed to
replicate a game-type situation during scientific research and, as
such, have had limited impact on scientific literature, due to
questionable reliability and validity.22 Indeed, reliable studies
investigating the effects of various physiological factors on
soccer-specific skill in an ecologically sound environment are
quite rare. In light of this situation, the Loughborough Soccer
Passing Test (LSPT) was designed to measure accurately the
various facets of soccer skill, including passing, dribbling,
control, and decision making, all of which are central to perfor-
mance in match play.23 It is a holistic test that offers researchers
an opportunity to examine numerous aspects of soccer skill
within a dynamic context. Even though the result of the LSPT is
expressed in time, and not in distance, this passing test has a high
degree of reliability, highlighted by its extensive use in numerous
other studies investigating soccer skill performance.3,17,23e27
The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine the
effect of ingesting a CHO versus a carbohydrate-free (CHO-F)
beverage on soccer skill performance and thermoregulatory
responses of players acclimatized to heat following a sports-
specific exercise session conducted in a hot and humid envi-
ronment. Additionally, in order to monitor the dynamic
changes in exercise intensity and the effect of the beverage
content on specific blood measures, this study examined the
fluctuations in blood lactate, blood glucose, and other physi-
ological parameters during the sports-specific exercise, in a
hot and humid environment.
Methods
Seven healthy male university soccer players
[mean
standard deviation (SD): age 23
2.9 years, height
1.7
0.04 m, BM 62.7
6.7 kg] were recruited in this study.
Each player was acclimatized to the environmental conditions,
having lived and been trained in a hot and humid climate for
their entire football career. Each player was of at least uni-
versity first team standard. Participants were selected from
those playing at various outfield positions and took part in
weekly training programs and/or matches. Prior to any testing,
all participants were provided with a full description of all the
activities that would take place during the investigation.
Ethical approval was granted for all the participants by the
University Clinical Research Ethical Committee.
Five familiarization trials of the LSPT test were completed
by all participants 1 week prior to the main trial.23 Next, each
participant completed two main trials, separated by 7 days, in
a counterbalanced, crossover design. The trials were ran-
domized and performed outdoors in a similarly hot and humid
environment, with a wet bulb globe temperature of 30 C and
relative humidity of 80% throughout both training sessions
(measured by a sling psychrometer). Wind speed at all times
was 1.03e1.20 m/s. Each training session was conducted at
3 PM to offset any potential diurnal effects. Participants were
provided with standard breakfast and lunch on the day of each
trial and were instructed to consume at least 500 mL of water
in the 2 hours prior to each training session, to increase the
likelihood of commencing training in a euhydrated state. In
each main trial, the participants reported to the laboratory and
their baseline measurements for Tc, blood lactate, and blood
glucose were recorded. In addition, baseline BM (wearing
only shorts) was measured using a calibrated weighing scale
(Cheong Kam Scale Co., Hong Kong). To determine the initial
hydration status, each participant emptied their bladder upon
arrival to the laboratory, providing a pre-exercise urine sample
that was measured for urine specific gravity (USG) (Atago
UG-alpha; Atago Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan). Repeated BM
 J. O’Reilly, S.H. Wong / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101
measurements were taken in order to confirm similar levels of
hydration upon arrival. Each participant then proceeded to the
adjacent sports field.
After a standardized 10-minute warm-up, all participants
underwent the pretraining skill test (LSPT),23 which was used
to set the “baseline” performance values. The performance
time of the LSPT is calculated as follows: time taken to
complete each test minus the bonus time for accurate passing,
plus penalty time accrued for inaccurate passing or poor
control. The LSPT was conducted outdoors in the same
environment and location as the training session. The same
examiner conducted all the tests so as to eliminate interexa-
miner variability. The total score per player was determined in
accordance with a previous investigation.23 A 60-minute
soccer-specific training session was then conducted. Each
training session was conducted by a qualified and experienced
soccer coach. The training sessions, which were replicated on
each occasion, incorporated soccer-specific conditioning,
simulated match play, and technical exercises. HR was
measured every 5 seconds throughout each training session
(Polar Team System; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland), to
monitor the work intensity of each individual participant.
Finger-prick capillary blood samples were collected prior to,
every 15 minutes during, and immediately after the training
session to assess blood lactate and blood glucose responses
(YSI 1500; Yellow Springs, OH, USA). The Tc of the intestine
was measured using a silicon-coated pill (CorTemp Core Body
Temperature sensor, HQ Inc., Palmetto, FL, USA). The pills
were calibrated prior to the commencement of the main trial,
in accordance with techniques described previously.28 The pill
was swallowed approximately 4 hours prior to the
commencement of the training session, to ensure that it would
pass the stomach and be unaffected by swallowed hot or cold
liquids. To ensure reliability, measurements were taken in
triplicate prior to, every 15 minutes during, and immediately
after the training session.
During each training session, players completed 15 minutes
of a dynamic warm-up with and without the ball with pro-
gressive intensity, followed by 2  15 minutes of high-
intensity soccer-specific running drills with and without the
ball. The training session concluded with a 15-minute small-
sided game. Active rest periods between each segment of
the session involved slow jogging and individual ball work.
During the training session, participants were prescribed
either a commercially available 6.6% CHOeelectrolyte drink or
a CHO-F beverage, and consumed 2 mL of fluid per kg BM
every 15 minutes, in order to replicate closely the normal
Table 1
Movement, penalty, and total performance time (in seconds) for the LSPT at baseline and postexercise in the CHO-F and CHO trials.
B Post-CHO-F
Movement time 61.4
7.3 58.7
5.6
Penalty time 24.4
6.6 22.3
5.6
Total performance time 85.9
9.6 81.0
7.1
* Significantly different from post-CHO-F, p < 0.05.
B ¼ baseline; CHO ¼ carbohydrate; CHO-F ¼ carbohydrate free; LSPT ¼ Loughborough Soccer Passing Test.
97
beverage consumption volume during a regular training.29 All
drinking bottles were marked individually. Participants were not
made aware of the reason why the drinks provided varied from
one training session to another. Immediately after each training
session, the postexercise LSPT was conducted. Also, each
participant emptied their bladder to provide the postexercise
urine samples. Postexercise BM was then recorded. Sweat losses
were calculated from BM changes, corrected for fluid intake
during exercise. A fluid volume change of 1 L was assumed to be
equivalent to a change of 1 kg BM due to metabolism, and
respiratory water loss was considered negligible.
The data were examined using a two-factor analysis of
variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures for correlated data
(SPSS version 17.0). Appropriate data checks were conducted
prior to performing the parametric tests. When differences in
data were found using the ANOVA, post hoc Bonferroni ad-
justments were used to determine where the differences
occurred. Paired sample t tests were also used to examine any
significant differences in values for skill performance and
hydration parameters between trials. All data were presented
as mean
SD of the mean. The level of significance was
accepted at p < 0.05.
Results
A significant difference was found in movement time and
total performance score between the trials, with an improved
performance occurring postexercise in those consuming CHO
compared to in those consuming CHO-F ( p < 0.05) (see Table
1). No differences were observed in the penalty time between
or within trials (see Table 1).
After correction for fluid intake and urine loss, percentage
dehydration and change in BM loss were found to be similar
across the trials ( p > 0.05) (see Table 2). Each participant
reported to the laboratory in a euhydrated condition, i.e.,
USG < 1.0200.30 No significant difference was observed in
USG values between trials in relation to pre- and post-training
hydration status (see Table 2, p > 0.05). No participant uri-
nated during the exercise. Urine excretion postexercise was
found to be greater in those ingesting CHO (see Table 2).
Results highlighted that no differences were found in Tc
values between trials at any of the measurement stages during
and after the training sessions (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes).
In both trials, Tc was increased significantly at every stage,
when compared to baseline values ( p < 0.05). Tc values
were increased initially from 0 to 15 minutes (CHO-F:
37.46e38.50 C; CHO: 37.48e38.42 C), and remained
Post-CHO p
CHO versus B CHO-F versus B CHO-F versus CHO
53.6
5.9* 0.345 0.397 0.034
18.0
5.6 0.281 0.937 0.070
71.6
7.5* 0.103 0.891 0.031
98 J. O’Reilly, S.H. Wong / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101

Table 2
BM and BM loss, sweat rate, pre- and postexercise USG, and urine collected postexercise for CHO and CHO-F trials.
CHO CHO-F p
BM pre-exercise (kg) 62.74
6.7 (53.2e71.7) 62.47
6.52 (53.2e71.7) 0.150
BM postexercise (kg) 62.06
6.66 (53e71.1) 62.00
6.43 (53.0e71.1) 0.731
BM loss (kg) 0.69
0.20 (0.54e1.01) 0.47
0.17 (0.21e0.73) 0.241
BM loss (%) 1.10
0.30 (0.87e1.56) 0.75
0.26 (0.38e1.22) 0.335
Sweat rate (L/h) 1.10
0.20 (0.73e1.32) 0.94
0.22 (0.54e1.16) 0.560
USG pre-exercise 1.0084
0.0028 1.0072
0.0030 0.421
USG postexercise 1.0129
0.0054 1.0107
0.0031 0.338
Urine excreted 0.086
0.051* 0.030
0.028 0.043
Values are expressed as mean
standard deviation, with relevant minimum and maximum values in parentheses.
* Significantly different from CHO-F, p < 0.05.
BM ¼ body mass; CHO ¼ carbohydrate; CHO-F ¼ carbohydrate free; USG ¼ urine specific gravity.

elevated and relatively stable for the remaining part of both
trials (see Fig. 1).
Following the completion of soccer-specific training,
compared to the CHO-F group (4.51
0.78 mmol/L), blood
glucose levels were significantly increased in the CHO group
(5.14
2.57 mmol/L, p ¼ 0.050) (see Fig. 2). No significant
difference existed between trials at any other time point during
the training sessions. Blood lactate levels were increased
significantly from resting levels at all measurement points in
both trials. Mean lactate levels peaked at 45 minutes in both
trials (CHO-F: 10.25
4.29 mmol/L; CHO:
8.21
3.86 mmol/L).
No significant differences in HR were observed between
trials ( p > 0.89). In both trials, HR values were increased
significantly from baseline after the first 15 minutes of exer-
cise and remained high for the duration of both soccer-specific
training sessions ( p ¼ 0.024). Throughout both training
sessions, all participants exercised within the recommended
68e85% of age-predicted maximal HR.
Discussion
Results of this study highlight an improvement in both
movement time and overall passing skill performance post-
exercise when a CHO beverage was consumed during exer-
cise, compared with when a CHO-F beverage was consumed.
This investigation also suggests that when fluid intake is
prescribed, habitually acclimatized players can maintain or
slightly improve their subsequent soccer skill performance
following intermittent soccer-specific exercise in a hot envi-
ronment, when compared to baseline scores.
It has been well established in various hydration guidelines
that dehydration reflected by a 2% drop in BM has a negative
effect on various modes of exercise performance,31 including
soccer.9 In addition, considerable decrements in soccer-
specific performance variables were evident when moderate
fluid loss corresponding to w2% BM occurred in active male
players.32 Therefore, the improvement of skill performance
levels in the current study can be attributable, in some part, to
the fact that BM loss and percentage dehydration were kept

Fig. 1. Core temperature values at specific time points prior to, during, and
after exercise. * Significantly different from baseline value (time ‘0’) in both Fig. 2. Blood glucose values at specific time points prior to, during, and after
CHO-F and CHO trials ( p  0.05). CHO ¼ carbohydrate; CHO- exercise. * Significantly increased value when compared with CHO-F
F ¼ carbohydrate free. ( p ¼ 0.050). CHO ¼ carbohydrate; CHO-F ¼ carbohydrate free.
 J. O’Reilly, S.H. Wong / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101
within normal ranges. Moreover, implementation of prudent
strategies encouraging adequate fluid intake during training
and match play may minimize significant performance dec-
rements during a competitive soccer match that may otherwise
occur.
Research has indicated that a higher blood glucose level
can better maintain the functioning of the central nervous
system (CNS) and therefore lower the level of central fatigue
mediators such as serotonin.33 In the current study, post-
exercise plasma glucose levels in the CHO trial
(5.14
2.57 mmol/L) were significantly higher than the
resting values and were also significantly higher than those in
the CHO-F trial (4.51
0.78 mmol/L) at the final time point.
This is in agreement with the findings of previous studies,15
where plasma glucose levels were shown to be significantly
greater in a CHOeelectrolyte trial after soccer-specific exer-
cise, when compared to a placebo drink. Based on current and
previous findings,15 although glucose levels in either trial did
not reach hypoglycemic values at any point (<3 mmol/L), it is
reasonable to suggest that replacing fluids lost during a soccer-
specific exercise session with a CHO-F beverage may affect
the neuromuscular junction and/or the CNS adversely.
Furthermore, increase in glucose level in the CHO trial toward
the end of exercise may have contributed to a higher rate of
CHO oxidation and, hence, the improved overall score during
the post-CHO performance test.
To date, no study has attempted to determine whether there
is a dose effect of CHO concentration on fluid retention. A
previous study has found, however, that a beverage containing
glucose alone produced significantly greater urine loss than
any of three other beverages that contained electrolytes.34 The
CHO trial in the current study showed a significantly larger
urine production postexercise when compared to the CHO-F
trial ( p ¼ 0.043), which adds to the uncertainty surrounding
the fluid retention properties of CHO sports beverages.
Although multiple CHO substrates facilitate fluid uptake, their
role in the retention of fluid, once inside the body, remains
unclear. Additionally, however, it should be noted that the
validity and reliability of preepost changes in urine parame-
ters have been questioned by some researchers in recent
times,35 and this is an issue worthy of further investigation.
When engaged in exercise, the body is constantly working
to maintain a temperature close to the normal resting value of
approximately 37 C. Soccer is an endurance activity of
varying intensities, and as such, it presents a considerable
thermoregulatory challenge. Research has reported a range of
results from positive36 to negative,37 or unchanged,38 inter-
mittent exercise performance as a result of exposure to heat. In
the current study, the mean Tc was found to increase after 15
minutes and remained significantly increased from baseline for
the duration of the exercise, which is in agreement with a
previous study examining a soccer match play.39 In the current
study, the mean values of Tc remained under 39 C throughout,
with the highest value being attained at the 15-minute time
point in both trials. This suggests that the thermoregulatory
responses were able to adjust efficiently to the initial increase
in Tc and ensure that soccer-specific activity could continue at
99
a level below the critical point of fatigue during prolonged
exercise (w40e40.5 C). Previous results have indicated that
for a soccer-specific training session at a slightly lower work
intensity (136
7 bpm) in a similar environmental tempera-
ture to the current study (32
3 C), European soccer players
exhibit an average sweat rate of 1.46 L/h,13 while participants
in the current study exercised at a higher mean HR (CHO:
146
8.2; CHO-F: 148
12.4 bpm), yet averaged a lower
sweat rate. However, the HR exhibited by the participants of
this study was within the range of average work intensity for a
soccer match play, which has previously been estimated as
approximately w70e80% of the maximum aerobic power.1 It
is also noteworthy that humidity in the current study was
significantly higher, at w80% versus w20% in the previous
study. This suggests that although the fluid-provision strategy
in the current study was predetermined, South-East Asian
soccer players acclimatized in a hot and humid climate may
have more efficient thermoregulatory responses than their
counterparts in Europe. Further study is needed to clarify this
issue and perhaps investigate the need for more regionalized
hydration guidelines for soccer players on a global scale.
The maximum temperature threshold, above which mor-
tality is observed to increase, has been reported to be
approximately in the range of 28e30 C.40 However, this study
demonstrated that Tc can be maintained within safe limits, i.e.,
at <40 C, when dehydration levels are maintained at lower
than w2% BM. This will increase the likelihood that soccer
training/matches can continue in hot and humid conditions
without putting the safety of the player in jeopardy. The use of
Tc pills in this investigation allowed the measurement of in-
testinal temperatures in a sport-specific setting. Previously,
opportunities to carry out similar research have been limited
by time delays in the measurement of rectal temperature. The
international standard (ISO7243) for occupational heat expo-
sure highlights that a hot environment with conditions beyond
thermal comfort can exert a strongly negative influence on
human capacity to perform intense physical activity. When
competing in the heat, athletes in sports such as soccer can
detect changes in afferent feedback from the periphery inter-
preted by the CNS, thereby manipulating the perception of
effort and thus adjusting exercise intensity.41 Minimizing
significant changes in Tc using appropriate hydration strate-
gies may help delay or even remove the onset of a pacing
strategy in soccer competition or training.
Owing to the ecological validity and sport-specific nature
of the current study, its findings can be useful for numerous
practical applications. The soccer-skill level appears to
improve with the ingestion of a CHO drink when compared to
ingesting a CHO-F drink, and the glucose level may play an
important role in this process. The information gained from
this study can assist the sports science team to prepare their
players more appropriately for soccer performance by
ensuring that they arrive for training or competition in a
euhydrated condition and subsequently follow a fluid intake
strategy that helps maintain their hydration status within a
level where performance decrements are less likely. This study
has also clearly identified manageable methods to monitor
100 J. O’Reilly, S.H. Wong / Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 11 (2013) 95e101
important physiological parameters successfully during
soccer-specific activities. Additionally, individual player
thermoregulation can be controlled with regular fluid intake
(of CHO or CHO-F), even in hot and humid conditionsda key
finding that should be applied to a real-life setting. It is
therefore recommended that players are afforded ample op-
portunity to be rehydrated, but it should not be assumed that
individual athletes, when left to their own devices, will auto-
matically consume the appropriate amount of fluid.42
In conclusion, the consumption of a CHO drink during a
soccer-specific exercise session in a hot and humid climate led
to an improvement in overall soccer skill performance post-
exercise, when compared with the ingestion of a CHO-F drink.
Furthermore, when dehydration is kept to within 2% BM loss,
Tc is not affected adversely by soccer-specific exercise.
Conflicts of interest
All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to sincerely thank all the partici-
pants who gave up their time to take part in the study. In
addition, they would like to thank Drs Wendy Huang and
Dr. Yajun Chen who assisted with data collection and made
important contributions to this research.
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