Articles
The indefinite article is used
 Articles (the, a, an) are the small words often used before nouns
or noun groups. Articles show whether you are writing about
things that are known to both the writer and reader (definite), or
things that are not known to them both (indefinite). Articles can
also show whether you are talking about things in general or
particular things. There are two articles: the (the definite article)
and a/an(the indefinite article). Every time you use a noun, you
have to decide if you are going to use an article, and if so, which
one. Your choice is determined by the noun or noun group.
1. NOUN AND NOUN GROUPS
 Nouns are naming words; the thing doing the action of the
sentence or the thing it is being done to.
Example:
The cat is on the mat
The nouns are cat
and mat
 The article comes before the noun or before the words describing
the noun (a noun group). In the sentence below the noun group
is brown fat cat:
Example: The brown fat cat sat on the mat.
2.THE (INDEFINITE ARTICLE)
 Ask yourself: Does my reader know which specific thing I mean or is it
new?
 The is used to refer to something that is known to you and your reader.
The cat refers to a specific individual cat and both you and your
reader know which cat you are referring to. You can also use the for a
noun you have described or are just about to. In either case your
reader knows which specific thing you are referring to.
 The is used for expressions that refer to our physical environment or
other common features of our lives: the country, the sea, the future, the
universe, the weather etc. For example: I love the sea.
 The is used with superlatives because there is usually only one of the
best, biggest, etc. For example: I’m the oldest in my family.
 You can replace an article of a single or countable noun with another
determiner: her brother instead of the brother
3. A/ AN (INDEFINITE ARTICLE)
 A and an are two forms of the same word.
with single nouns to introduce something your reader is unaware
of. For instance,
A cat indicates that this is a new cat your reader has not
encountered before.
 Choosing A or An: Usually you put ‘a’ in front of nouns starting with
a consonant and ‘an’ in front of nouns starting with a vowel. This
is not determined by how you spell the word, but rather how you
pronounce the word. For instance:
o an umbrella (pronounced as a u)
o a union (pronounced as a y)
o an hour (pronounce without the h)
o a horse (pronounced with the h)
 A/an cannot be used with an adjective alone (without a
noun). It’s a good car. OR It’s good.
 A/an is always used after negative expressions (I haven’t got a car),
prepositions (Don’t go out without a hat), or after fractions (half an hour, a
quarter of a kilo)
4.SOME/ANY (INDEFINITE ARTICLE)
 Before plural and uncountable nouns, we normally express similar
meanings with some/any or no article:
 We met some American students at university.(Plural noun) I don’t have
any money. (Uncountable noun)
5. NO ARTICLE
 You can in some circumstances leave out the article the before plural nouns
(cats: John doesn’t like cats in the house) or general uncountable nouns
(happiness: Happiness is more important than money).
 No article is used to talk about things in general: Books are heavy.
 No article is used with singular proper names: Sally lives in Australia.
6. RULES AND EXCEPTIONS
 Like so many things in English, there are rules for using articles, but also
exceptions and complications for every rule. For instance, you would
put ‘the’ in front of a river name, but not a city name
 Also, never double the prepositions:
Syntactic Rules
- Dealing with the syntax of the core sentences, its transformation and Examples:
the combinations of two or more core sentences
Syntax 1. The safety of the students while on a school field trip is something for which
- the part of linguistics that studies sentence structure: teachers are responsible for.
• Word order: the sequence of words in a sentence, especially as governed by The safety of the students while on a school field trip is something
grammatical rules and as affecting meaning. for which teachers are responsible.
• Agreement – subject and verb, determiner and noun, often must agree: The safety of the students while on a school field trip is something
• How many complements which prepositions and forms (cases): which teachers are responsible for.
• Hierarchical structure – what modifies what
Syntax is not about meaning! Sentences can have no sense and still be
grammatically correct: SEQUENCE OF ADJECTIVE
- Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. – nonsense, but grammatically correct
- *Sleep ideas colorless furiously green. – grammatically incorrect  Adjectives in a series follow a definite sequence according to their
- Syntax: From Greek syntaxis from syn (together) + taxis (arrangement). meanings.
- Cf. symphony, synonym, synthesis; taxonomy, tactics
 In many languages, adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific
POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS AND PARTICLES order. Generally, the adjective order in English is:
Quantity or number, Quality or opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Color, Proper
 Ignore the rule which states that you should “never use a preposition with adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or material), Purpose or
which to end a sentence”. Put prepositions or particles where they are more qualifier
“natural,” following spoken usage i.e. you may use a preposition to end a Examples:
sentence.
1. The school’s German, first, blonde, three, tall, young, boys.
Examples: The school’s first three young, tall boy, blonde, German boys

1. The new chairman is someone we should look up to. However, no general formula can be written for this sequence, apart from noting that:
2. What does the criticism refer to?
o Ordinal and cardinal numerals, in that order, come immediately after
determiner;
 If you feel your writing becomes more “refined” or “elegant” by avoiding
o Inherent characteristics are closer to the noun
prepositions at the end, you may position the preposition before the relative
o Subjective judgments are farther from the noun.
pronoun which introduces the clause.
POSITION AND SEQUENCE OF ADVERBS
Examples:

1. The president is the one with whom I have to discuss this crisis.  The normal word order the adverbs come to the end of the sentence
in the following sequence: (1) adverb of manner, (2) adverb of place,
This is facetiously called “Pied Piping”, referring to the close positioning of preposition (3) adverb of time. Note that the adverbs of place and time, when
and relative pronoun. This construction may sound awkward in sentences which have used with verbs other than be, maybe repositioned elsewhere but not
a conversational tone; neither does it work with many idiomatic constructions. the adverb of manner.
Examples:
Examples:
1. He’s the one about whom we are chatting. 1. He delivered the lecture this morning excellently at the
He’s the one we were chatting about. conference.
2. That’s an insult up with which I shall not put. He delivered the lecture excellently at the conference this
That’s an insult I shall not put with. morning.
 At the conference this morning, he delivered the lecture 3. The infamous attack on the World Trade Center happened on 11th
excellently. September, 2001.
 The adverb of frequency is placed before the verb, except the verb  Or this infamous date of the terrorists’ attack. September the 11th has
be. become the common idiom in the international media.
 The name of the day precedes the date:
Example: The American occupation of the Philippines officially ended
on Thursday, the 4th July, 1946
1. Books often seem authoritative, yet are sometimes erroneous.
TIME AND SPACE ORDER IN THE SENTENCE
 The adverb of time is often proposed, i.e. put at the beginning of the
sentence The sequence of verbs in a narrative sentence should follow the time order of
the event
Example:
Example:
1. This morning, he delivered the lecture excellently at the
conference. 1. I plan to post problem words on the bulletin board so that everyone
 This initial position makes the adverb of time refer directly to the could understand read them.
same time of the main verb. A final position could make the …so that everyone could read and understand them.
reference of the adverb.
Also the sequence of nouns in a descriptive sentence should be accordance
Examples: with the space order your readers can easily follow

1. De Klerk initiated reconciliation move with Mandela, when still the
prime minister of South Africa.
When still the prime minister of South Africa, De Klerk
initiated reconciliation move with Mandela.
2. De Klerk initiated reconciliation move with Mandela, while still in
prison.
De Klerk initiated reconciliation move with Mandela, while
still in prison.
SEQUENCE OF TIME WORDS
 Dates in text may take three forms. Note the absence of comma in
the second form.
Example:
1. The infamous attack on the World Trade Center happened on
September 11, 2001.
2. The infamous attack on the World Trade Center happened on
11September 2001.
Examples:
1. The new building is ultra-modern, with an integrated food court on
the second floor, mechanized multi-level parking slots in the
basement, and a revolving restaurant on the top floor.
The new building is ultra-modern, with mechanized multi-
level parking slots in the basement, an integrated food court
on the second floor and a revolving restaurant on the top
floor.
NEGATIVES
 The negatives neither and nor cause the inflected verb to come
before the subject.
Examples:
1. I did not apply for the scholarship; my friend didn’t, either.
 I did not apply for the scholarship; neither did my friend.
2. The church alone cannot instill the values its parishioners should
have; likewise, the school system cannot do it.
  The church alone cannot instill the values its parishioners should
have nor can the school system do likewise.
POSITION OF MODIFIER
 In general, modifiers must be placed as close as possible to the
word or phrase modified.
 Adjectives in English generally precede the noun modified. Some
idiomatic poetic constructions, however, position the adjective
after the noun.
Examples:
1. The brothers Grimm (the noun Grimm functioning as an
adjective)
2. The forest primeval
3. The light eternal
INTENSIFIERS – an adverb used to give force or emphasis, for
example, really - in my feet are really cold.
- are positioned before the adjective or adverb modified
Examples:
SPLIT INFINITIVES – are infinitives with an adverb positioned between
to and the verb stem – are acceptable when the adverbs are short
words.
1. The guards asked the intruder to kindly leave.
2. The judge refuses to even consider our appeal.
3. Archimedes was able to really convince the king that the crown was
not a pure gold.
In general, though split infinitives should be avoided. Adverbs of time, in
particular should not be positioned within an infinitive.
Example:
1. The DPWH wanted to immediately construct the anti-lahar dikes
The DPWH wanted to construct the anti-lahar dikes
immediately.
2. I expect to soon know the results of our probes.
I expect to know the result of our probes soon.
Some words like only are quite versatile in position, yet no two positions
would have the same meaning. Make sure that you position such word
carefully.

1. Many English books in the market are absolutely outdated. Examples:

2. Very correct behavior is now expected of civil servants after a spate
1. Only the mathematicians in the institute were kept in the dark about
of harassment charges
the true purpose of their work for the government’s weapons
3. No one can be absolutely certain about the movement of stocks.
program.
4. The hall became completely quiet when the pope spoke.
2. The mathematicians in the only institute were kept in the dark about
Unlike the other intensifiers, quite is positioned before the indefinite article. the true purpose of their work for the government’s weapons
program.
Examples: 3. The mathematicians in the institute were only kept in the dark about
the true purpose of their work for the government’s weapons
1. The séance was quite a moving experience. program.
The séance was a very moving experience 4. The mathematicians in the institute were kept in the dark only about
2. The UPCAT is quite easy the true purpose of their work for the government’s weapons
The UPCAT is quite an easy test program.
3. The UPCAT is very easy. 5. The mathematicians in the institute were kept in the dark about the
The UPCAT is a very easy test only true purpose of their work for the government’s weapons
program.
 6. The mathematicians in the institute were kept in the dark about the
true purpose of their only work for the government’s weapons
program.
7. The mathematicians in the institute were kept in the dark about the
true purpose of their work for the government’s only weapons
program.
The 2009 Copenhagen Summit is an example of how
countries have coordinated their actions to combat global
warming.
4. What does it mean for developing countries?
People in developing countries are not aware of what it
means for them.

Note the odd position of ONLY in the famous pop song with the same title:

But I have only my eyes for you (nothing else, or no other part of my body
except my eyes?)

Which in writing should be?

Reported by:
But I have my yes only for you (for no one else except you)
Karlo Rey A. Bunos
Some common phrases have become accepted even if the modifier could be
moved for greater clarity.

1. Illegal possession of firearms – possession of illegal firearms

Possession of illegal drugs, but not illegal possession of drugs
2. National language policy – policy for the national language
Although the first phrase is rarely, if at all, interpreted as language
policy which is national in scope.

EMBEDDED INTERROGATIVES
 When an interrogative sentence with an interrogative pronoun is
embedded in a declarative sentence, the subject of the interrogative
is positioned is positioned before the verb carrying the tense. If the
auxiliary verb is do, the embedded interrogative drops it and uses the
main verb.

Examples:

1. Why is the climate getting warmer?

I want to know why the climate is changing
2. Who are the culprits?
Much research is focused on who the culprits are.
3. How have countries coordinated their actions to combat global
warming?