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Kent H. Lundberg
Taylor W. Barton
Abstract: The inverted-pendulum system is a favorite example system and lecture demon-
stration of students and educators in physics, dynamics, and control. This system is a simple
and valuable laboratory representation of an unstable mechanical system. This paper traces the
early history of the inverted-pendulum system, and also compares several of the early treatments
from the literature between 1960 and 1970.
100
0
50
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
0 −50
−50
−100
−100
−150
−150 −135
−135
−180
−180
Phase (deg)
−225
Phase (deg)
−225
−270
−270
−315
−315
−360
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−360 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Frequency (rad/sec)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Nyquist Diagram
Nyquist Diagram 1
4
0.8
3 0.6
0.4
2
0.2
Imaginary Axis
1
Imaginary Axis
0
−0.2
−1 −0.4
−0.6
−2
−0.8
−3
−1
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis
−4
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real Axis
Fig. 4. Nyquist plot of the loop transfer function, including
Fig. 2. Nyquist plot of the compensated loop transfer the effects of the position-compensation loop, showing
function, showing a negative encirclement of the −1 two negative encirclements of the −1 point. Since the
point. Since the system has one open-loop pole in system has two open-loop poles in the right-half plane
the right-half plane, the closed-loop system is stable. (one from the pendulum and one from the positive-
Reproduced in MATLAB from the transfer functions feedback-integrator loop), the closed-loop system is
in Roberge (1960). stable. Reproduced in MATLAB from the transfer
functions in Roberge (1960).
To stabilize the system, a compensator with transfer discusses a control scheme without position compensation.
function Then, admitting that “it is desired to have the cart return
K (αds + 1) to a given position on the floor after correcting a given
G(s) = 2 2
· initial disturbance,” a controller that stabilizes the cart
s (cs + 1) (ds + 1)
position is found.
is used, as shown in Figure 1, where the integrations Two bang-bang controllers are synthesized for the system,
are implemented using electromechanical motor-tach units one with linear switching and one with a limiting nonlin-
(that is, true integrations). The (cs + 1) term in the earity. For the linear-switching case, the control law is
denominator models the lag of these motor-tach units.
p fẋ
The second term of the compensator transfer function u = a sign θ + θ̇ ρ2 /gr + ẋb − xk
implements lead compensation to offset the integrator lag Mg
and to push the closed-loop poles into the left-half plane.
where
The Nyquist criterion is used to illustrate the stability of p
the system, as shown in Figure 2. The mechanical system fẋ /M ggr/ρ2
b= p .
was built using a plotting table and electromechanical fẋ /M g − gr/ρ2
integrators from the M.I.T. Dynamic Analysis and Control
Laboratory (described by Hall (1950)). Higdon observes
Turning to the position of the cart, Roberge notes It is interesting to note that for a damped
motor fẋ is negative, hence the coefficients
Since the major loop as developed thus far of x and ẋ are positive, indicating a positive
has a double integrator in the forward gain feedback loop around cart position. This result
path and no position feedback, drift becomes was found by linear analysis also, but only after
a problem. Drift could cause the platform to considerable head scratching.
reach the limits of travel of [the cart] and
thus control would be lost. Even if no drift 3.3 Cannon (1967)
is assumed in the loop, an initial synchro
misalignment with respect to vertical of only In his textbook, Cannon (1967) finds the equations of
one second of arc (certainly much smaller than motion of the pendulum-and-cart system to be
can be achieved in practice) would cause the
broom to reach the limits of travel in about 100 (mC + m)ẍ + mlθ̈ = f
seconds. To eliminate this problem position mlẍ + (J + ml2 )θ̈ − mglθ = 0
feedback was employed. . . The position signal
is summed with the synchro signal to form the and the transfer function from force to angle
input of the first integrator. Polarity is chosen Θ −ρ1 /lm
to cause positive feedback—if the base of the (s) = 2
F s − σo2
broom moves to the right, the synchro null
is effectively shifted towards the center of the where ρ1 = 3/(1 + 4mC /m) and
table, thus causing the broom base to move s
slightly futher to the right, and the broom 3(1 + mC /m)g
σo = .
handle tips inward. The net result is to force (1 + 4mC /m)l
the broom to fall back towards the center of
the table. The closed-loop system is stabilized using a lead com-
pensator, and illustrated using the root-locus method, as
The result of this additional feedback loop is shown in the
shown in Figure 5.
Bode plot in Figure 3 and the Nyquist plot in Figure 4.
Cannon observes “The behavior of coordinate x (cart
3.2 Higdon and Cannon (1963) position) during the controlled recovery is also of interest”,
but then leaves the details as an exercise for the reader:
Higdon and Cannon (1963) find the linearized equations Prob. 22.33 Design a simple auxiliary loop,
of motion to be to be added to the stick-balancing system. . .
mρ2 θ̈ = mrgθ − mrẍ whose purpose is simply to control cart po-
sition x to be zero with a leisurely speed of
M ẍ = −mrθ̈ + fẋ ẋ + fv v response (i.e., merely to keep the cart on the
premises) . . . The effectiveness of this control
where θ is the pendulum angle, x is the position of the may be demonstrated merely by (i) showing
cart, m is the pendulum mass, ρ is the pendulum radius that its characteristic equation has all stable
of gyration about the hinge line, r is the distance from roots, and (ii) writing the overall system re-
the hinge line to the pendulum center of mass, g is the sponse function for an initial x, then using
acceleration of gravity, M is the total system effective FVT to show that x(∞) is 0. (iii) As an addi-
mass, fẋ is the motor damping coefficient, fv is the voltage tional feature, IVT may be used (shrewdly) to
force coefficient, and v is the applied voltage to the motor. show that the initial velocity ẋ will be negative.
After recasting the equations of motion in normal coordi- That is, the cart corrects an x error by first
nates and examining the resulting eigenvalues, Higdon first backing up. Explain physically.
Root Locus 3.6 Siebert (1986)
15
0
cart position to angle
Θ −mls2
H(s) = (s) = 2 .
−5 X Is − mgl
Assuming the cart is driven by a motor with transfer
−10 function
X km
M (s) = (s) =
−15 V s(s + α)
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15
Real Axis
K(s)
Fig. 6. Block diagram from reference angle Θ0 to pendulum angle Θ. Adapted from Figure 6.4-3 of Siebert (1986).
ml
−km s2 − g
X I
(s) = .
Θ0 ml ml
s s3 + αs2 + (Kkm − g)s + (Kkm a − gα)
I I
Fig. 7. Closed-loop transfer function from reference angle to cart position showing the unstable pole at the origin.
Reproduced from Siebert (1986).
2009. As described in the Call for Papers (IFAC (2009)), Henry P. Kalmus. The inverted pendulum. American
the theme of the conference is Journal of Physics, 38(7):874–878, July 1970.
Kent H. Lundberg and James K. Roberge. Classical dual-
Inverted pendulum has been utilized for evalu- inverted-pendulum control. In Proceedings of the IEEE
ating all kinds of control algorithms developed Conference on Decision and Control, pages 4399–4404,
in control research field since its first success Maui, December 2003.
by Prof. Furuta in 1975. Today, inverted pen- Shozo Mori, Hiroyoshi Nishihara, and Katsuhisa Furuta.
dulum is used as the best benchmark in labo- Control of unstable mechanical systems: Control of
ratory. Control engineering education with in- pendulum. International Journal of Control, 23(5):673–
verted pendulum will be specifically addressed 692, May 1976.
by the ACE2009 program, where all kinds of Katsuhiko Ogata. Modern Control Engineering, pages
algorithms for inverted pendulum will be pro- 277–279. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1970.
posed and competed by practical experiments F. M. Phelps and J. H. Hunter. An analytical solution of
in the site. the inverted pendulum. American Journal of Physics,
As shown in this paper, this history is incomplete. 33(4):285–295, April 1965.
James K. Roberge. The mechanical seal. Bachelor’s thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, May
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In Proceedings, International Conference on Industrial ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Electronics, Control and Instrumentation, volume 3,
pages 2193–2198, Kobe, Japan, 1991. Lundberg and Roberge (2003) described the intuitive
Albert C. Hall. A generalized analogue computer for flight construction of classical controllers for single- and dual-
simulation. Transactions of the AIEE, 69:308–320, 1950. inverted-pendulum systems, based on the intuitive single-
Donald T. Higdon and Robert H. Cannon. On the inverted-pendulum controller of Siebert (1986) and the
control of unstable multiple-output mechanical systems. intuitive dual-inverted-pendulum controller as first de-
ASME Publication 63-WA-148, American Society of scribed by Roberge (1991). This intuitive dual-inverted-
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1963. pendulum control system was built and demonstrated by
IFAC. Eighth IFAC Symposium on Advances in Control Barton (2009).
Education, Call for Papers, October 2009. URL http://
ace2009.cs.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/CFP_ACE2009A.pdf.