AMITY BUSSINESS

SCHOOL
NOIDA

Assignment on:

Biometrics

Submitted to:
Mr. Gaurav Chandiok

S
ubmitted By:-
 ALOK
(A16)

ABHIJEE
T (A 32)

Acknowledgement:

We, Alok and Abhijeet certify that we have made the project
on the topic “ Biometric “ on my own and by taking help from
the internet and books. I am thankful to my class teacher Mr
Gaurav Chandiok who encourages me to choose this topic. I have
tried my best to

make this assignment best one.

BIOMETRICS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION :
As we rapidly move towards the new millennium, Security and
access Control are becoming more important than ever before. Passwords,
though still extensively used, are fast becoming a hazard, requiring an
enhanced method of security. Positive Identification of individuals is now a
serious business considering the fact that people have to be allowed access
to areas only if they are authorized. Attendance is to be recorded in all
kinds of workplaces eliminating “buddy Punching” and “ghost workers”.
Money is to paid over “wires” - the internet obviating the need for people to
go to banks. Criminals have to be caught and proven guilty without a doubt
social and medical benefits have to be paid by the state. Newer chip
designs and supporting software, has spurred the development of solutions
based on these crucial needs beyond boundaries.
Parts of the human body - the hand, the iris/retina, the face and the
voice, all provide a means of positive verification. Commendable progress
has been made by various companies using the above parts of the human
body with various levels of success.
Although Card Based systems have been in the market for several
years now, the latest and most secure technology involves the use of the
human body - both physical and behavioral - for positive verification and
identification - known as Biometrics.

INTRODUCTION TO BIOMETRICS:

Biometric verification is an automated method whereby an

individual’s identity is confirmed by examining a unique physiological trait
or behavioral characteristic, such as a fingerprint, retina, or signature.
Physiological traits are stable physical characteristics, such as palm prints
and iris patterns. This

type of measurement is essentially unalterable.

A behavioral characteristic — such as one's signature, voice, or

keystroke dynamics — is influenced by both controllable actions and less
controllable psychological factors. Because behavioral characteristics can
change over time, the enrolled biometric reference template must be
updated each time it is used. Although behavior-based biometrics can be
less expensive and less threatening to users, physiological traits tend to
offer greater accuracy and security. In any case, both techniques provide a
significantly higher level of identification than passwords or cards alone.
Biometric traits are unique to each individual, they can be used to
prevent theft or fraud. Unlike a password or personal identification number
(pin), a biometric trait cannot be forgotten, lost, or stolen. Today there are
over 10,000 computer rooms, vaults, research labs, day care centers, blood
banks, ATMs and military installations to which access is controlled using
devices that scan an individual's unique physiological or behavioral
characteristics.
Biometric identifiers currently available or under development
include fingerprint, face recognition, keystroke dynamics, palm print,
retinal scan, iris pattern, signature, and voice pattern.
BIOMETRICS DEFINITION :

Biometrics, strictly speaking, refers to a science involving the

statistical analysis of biological characteristics. Today, the term
"biometrics" usually refers to technologies that analyze human
characteristics for security purposes.
A Biometric is a unique, measurable characteristic or trait of a
human being for automatically recognizing or verifying identity.

Biometric technologies, therefore, are concerned with the physical

parts of the human body or the personal traits of human beings. The term
"automatic" essentially means that a biometric technology must recognize
or verify a human characteristic quickly and automatically, in real time.

TYPES OF BIOMETRICS :

The most common are:

• Physical biometrics are the eye (iris and retina), face, finger
image, hand and voice (see authentication methods).

• Behavioral biometrics include typing rhythm (keystroke dynamics)

and signature.

In the security industry, biometrics are regarded as providing the

highest level of security. The methods for verifying an individual's identity
are commonly broken down into the following three stages:

Stage 1 (lowest level of security) — something you have, such as photo id.

Stage 2 (second level of security) — something you know, such as a

password to access a
 Computer or a personal identification
number (pin) to

access funds at an ATM.

Stage 3 (highest level of security) —something you do or something you

are, which comprises

physiological and/or behavioral

biometrics, including

fingerprints, voiceprints, signatures,

etc.

HOW IT WORKS:

All biometric systems operate in a similar fashion. First, the

system captures a sample of the biometric characteristic (this is known as
the enrollment process). During enrollment, some biometric systems may
require a number of samples in order to build a profile of the biometric
characteristic. Unique features are then extracted and converted by the
system into a mathematical code. This sample is then stored as the
biometric template for the enrollee. The template may reside in the
biometric system itself, or in any other form of memory storage, such as a
computer database, smart card or barcode.
In addition, the biometric system may require a trigger, or a
means of tying the template to the person. For example, a personal
identification number (pin) is keyed in to access the template, or a smart
card storing the template is inserted into a card reader. In either case, the
end user interacts with the biometric system a second time to have his or
her identity checked. a new biometric sample is then taken. This is
compared to the template. If the template and the new sample match, the
end user is granted access. This is the basic premise of biometrics — that a
person has a sample of their biometric data captured and the biometric
system decides if it matches with another sample.

Because both physical and behavioral characteristics can change

slightly over time (e.g., a finger can be scarred and a signature may change
as a person gets older), the biometric system must allow for these subtle
changes, so a threshold is set. This can take the form of an accuracy score.

In this case, comparison between the template and new sample

must exceed the system's threshold before a match is recorded. In other
words, if the new biometric sample is sufficiently similar to the previously
stored template, the system will determine that the two do in fact match.

If not, the system will not record a match and will not identify the
end user. This use of a threshold gives biometric technologies a significant
advantage over passwords, pins and id badges.

With biometrics, it doesn't matter if you forget your password or

lose your id. The use of a threshold affords a tremendous degree of
flexibility and if the comparison between the new biometric sample and the
template exceeds the state threshold, identity will be confirmed.
All biometric systems use the four-stage process of capture,
extraction, comparison, and match, but employ different methods and
techniques to deal with the human factor (stress, general health, working
and environmental conditions and time pressures all conspire to make
humans inconsistent). At the heart of the biometric system is the biometric
engine, a proprietary element that extracts and processes the biometric
data. This may apply an algorithm or an artificial neural network. It extracts
the data, creates a template, and computes whether the data from the
template and the new sample match. The following four-stage process
illustrates the way biometric systems operate:

1. Capture — a physical or behavioral sample is captured by the

system during

enrollment.
2. Extraction — unique data is extracted from the sample and a
template is created.
 3. Comparison — the template is then compared with a new sample.

4. Match/non-match — the system then decides if the features

extracted from the new

sample are a match or a non-match.

AUTHENTICATION METHODS:

Fingerprint ….

In recent years, fingerprints have rallied significant support as the

biometric technology that will probably be most widely used in the future. In
addition to general security and access control applications, fingerprint verifiers
are installed at military facilities, including the pentagon and government labs.
Although machines tend to reject over 3% of authorized users, the false accept
rate is less than one in a million. Today, the largest application of fingerprint
technology is in automated fingerprint identification systems (afis) used by police
forces throughout the U.S. and in over 30 foreign countries.

The fingerprint’s strength is its acceptance, convenience and reliability. It

takes little time and effort for somebody using a fingerprint identification device to
have his or her fingerprint scanned. Studies have also found that using
fingerprints as an identification source is the least intrusive of all biometric
techniques.
Verification of fingerprints is also fast and reliable. Users experience fewer
errors in matching when they use fingerprints versus many other biometric
methods. In addition, a fingerprint identification device can require very little
space on a desktop or in a machine. Several companies have produced capture
units smaller than a deck of cards.
One of the biggest fears of fingerprint technology is the theft of
fingerprints. Skeptics point out that latent or residual prints left on the glass of a
fingerprint scanner may be copied. However, a good fingerprint identification
device only detects live fingers and will not acknowledge fingerprint copies.

Hand Geometry …..

 Currently, hand geometry is employed at over 8,000 locations, including
the Colombian legislature, San Francisco international airport, day care centers,
welfare agencies, hospitals and immigration facilities. The advantages of a palm
print are similar to the benefits of a fingerprint in terms of reliability, although
palm print readers take up more space. The most successful device, the handkey,
looks at both the top and side views of the hand using a built-in video camera and
compression algorithms. Devices that look at other hand features are also under
development by several companies, including biomet partners, palmetrics, and
btg.

Iris patterns ….

The advantage of iris scanners is that they do not require the user to focus
on a target, because the pattern of flecks on the iris are on the eye's surface. In
fact, a video image of the eye can be taken from up to three feet away, which
allows for the use of iris scanners at ATM machines. In visually impaired persons
with intact irises, the iris can still be captured and encoded with iris imaging
products that have active iris capture (e.g., the ATM application). Since cataracts
are a malady of the lens, which is behind the iris, cataracts do not affect iris
scanning in any way.

Retinal patterns …

Retinal scans are performed by directing a low-intensity infrared light

through the pupil to the blood vessel pattern on the back of the eye. Most uses of
retinal scanners involve high-security access control, since they offer one of the
lowest false reject rates (FRR) and a nearly 0% false acceptance rate (far).
However, since retinal imaging requires a clear view of the back of the eye,
cataracts can negatively impact the retinal image quality.

Voice patterns …

The appeal of voice verification is its acceptability to users. A common

concern about this biometric approach is impersonations. However, this is not a
serious problem, since the devices focus on different characteristics of speech
than people do. speech patterns are formed by a combination of physiological and
behavioral factors. Currently, voice verification is being used to control access to
medium-security offices, labs, and computer facilities. Several providers of home
confinement systems use voice verification to confirm that early parolees are at
home. while voice recognition is convenient, it is not as reliable as other biometric
techniques. A person with a cold or laryngitis, for example, may have problems
using a voice recognition system.

Facial features…

Facial verification and recognition is one of the fastest growing sectors

of the biometrics industry. Its appeal lies in the fact that it most closely resembles
the way we as humans identify one another. Most commercial efforts have been
stimulated by the fast rise in multimedia video technology that is placing more
cameras in the home and workplace. However, most developers have had
difficulty achieving high levels of performance. Nevertheless, specific applications,
such as screening welfare databases for duplicates and airport lounges for
terrorists, are likely to appear in the future.

Keystroke dynamics…

Keystroke dynamics, also called typing rhythms, analyze the way a user
types at a terminal by monitoring keyboard input 1,000 times a second. This is
analogous to the early days of the telegraph, when users identified each other by
"the fist of the sender." the advantage in the computer environment is that
neither enrollment nor verification detracts from the regular work flow. Despite its
appeal, however, efforts at commercial technology have failed.

Signatures…

Static signature capture is becoming quite popular as a replacement for

pen and paper signing in bank card, pc and delivery-service applications (e.g.,
federal express). Generally, verification devices use wired pens, pressure-sensitive
tablets, or a combination of both. Devices using wired pens are less expensive and
take up less room but are potentially less durable. To date, the financial
community has been slow to adopt automated signature verification methods for
credit cards and check applications because signatures are still too easily forged.
This keeps signature verification from being integrated into high-level security
applications.

Voice recognition…

The allure of talking to your computer. Everyone who has watched

Star Trec (Next Generation) has whitened Picard ordering tea from the computer --
“Computer Tea. Earl Gray. Hot.” Imagine drawing in CADD by saying “line from
end of. (pick) to middle of (pick). Sounds a bit too far out in space to be real? Well
the “far out” is closer than you might think. IN3 software by Command Corp. Inc
allows the AutoCAD users to define 20 voice commands (demo version). Before a
command can be recognized, a corresponding voice template must first be
created. A voice template represents energy associated with the way in which you
pronounce the command. Naturally there are variations in the way you say a
command each time it is spoken. The template refining process builds on the base
voice template to create a refined template that represents your normal range of
pronunciations.

Voice recognition:

MD Dictate is a software program that turns your spoken words into

detailed documentation by dictating into a customized speech microphone, which
is plugged into an MD Dictate equipped personal computer, your words will
instantly appear as digital documentation. Transcription costs, errors and delays
are completely eliminated.

But the advantages don't stop with simply converting your voice
into printed words … MD Dictate also has the ability to create an unlimited
number of customized templates and macros. Many health care providers
have some form of common or repetitive documentation. An MD Dictate
template allows physicians to simply "talk" their way through that
repetitive documentation, changing only the patient variables. With MD
Dictate templates, a five-minute dictation can be reduced to 5 seconds. MD
Dictate macros are used where large blocks of text are employed to
describe a patient's "normal" condition. By identifying each ofthese normal
macros with a specific phrase, reams of supporting documentation can be
added to a patient's file with a single spoken word.

Face Recognition:

Face recognition is the means by which people have recognized

one another since the beginning of civilization. Now, computers have the
ability recognize faces too. For many real-world applications, there are
benefits to using face recognition technology that cannot be provided by
any other biometric (i.e., fingerprint, iris scan). Making use of distinctive
features or characteristics of the human face, and often irrespective of
facial hair or glasses, facial scan is deployed in fields as varied as physical
access, surveillance, home PC access, and ATM access.

Technology:

Just as with finger scan and voice scan biometrics, there are various
methods by which facial scan technology recognizes people. All share certain
commonalities, such as emphasizing those sections of the face which are less
susceptible to alteration, including the upper outlines of the eye sockets, the areas
surrounding one's cheekbones, and the sides of the mouth. Most technologies are
resistant to moderate changes in hairstyle, as they do not utilize areas of the face
located near the hairline. All of the primary technologies are designed to be robust
enough to conduct 1-to-many searches, that is, to locate a single face out of a
database of thousands, even hundreds of thousands, of faces.

Hardware Requirements:

Facial scan technology works well will standard off-the-shelf PC video

capture cameras, and generally requires 320x240 resolution and at least 3-5
frames per second. More frames per second, along with higher resolution, will lead
to better performance in verification or identification scenarios. Since such
cameras can be purchased for as little as $50, and demo versions of leading
vendors' software are available for free download, facial recognition is one of the
few biometrics with which one can experiment on a very limited budget. For facial
recognition at slightly greater-than-normal distances, there is a strong correlation
between camera quality and system capabilities. An adequate video card and
sufficient processor speed are key components of a home or office facial
recognition system. For large scale, 1-to-many searches, processor speed is the
critical factor.

Facial Scan Process Flow :

As with all biometrics, 4 steps - sample capture, feature extraction,

template comparison, and matching - define the process flow of facial scan
technology. The following applies to one-to-one verification as opposed to
identification, discussed below. The sample capture will generally consist of a 20-
30 second enrollment process whereby several pictures are taken of one's face.
Ideally, the series of pictures will incorporate slightly different angles and facial
expressions, to allow for more accurate searches. After enrollment, distinctive
features - corresponding to the four primary types of face technology discussed
below - are extracted, resulting in the creation of a template. The template is
much smaller than the image from which it is drawn. Whereas quality facial
images generally require 150-300kb, the templates are approximately 1300 bytes,
or less than 1/100th the size of the original.

Authentication follows the same protocol. Assuming your audience is a

cooperative audience (as opposed to uncooperative or non-cooperative), the user
claims an identity such as a login name or a

PIN, stands or sits in front of the camera for a few seconds, and is either verified or
rejected. This comparison is based on the similarity of the newly created, "live"
template against the template or templates on file. The degree of similarity
required for verification, also known as the threshold, can be adjusted for different
personnel, PC's, time of day, and other factors.

One variant of this process is the use of facial scan technology in forensics.
Biometric templates taken from static photographs (mug shots) of known
criminals are stored in large databases. These records are searched, 1-to-many, to
determine if the detainee is using an alias when being booked.
Verification vs. Identification
The system designs for facial scan verification vs. identification differ in a
number of ways. The primary difference is that identification does not require a
claimed identity. Instead of employing a PIN or user name, then delivering
confirmation or denial of the claim, identification systems attempt to answer the
question "Who am I?" If there are only a handful of enrollees in the database, this
requirement is not terribly demanding; as databases grow very large, into the tens
and hundreds of thousands, this task becomes much more difficult. The system
may only be able to narrow the database to a number of likely candidates, then
require human intervention at the final verification stages.

A second variable in identification is the dynamic between the target subjects and
capture device. In verification, one assumes a cooperative audience, one
comprised of subjects who are motivated to use the system correctly. Facial scan
systems, depending on the

exact type of implementation, may also have to be optimized for non-cooperative

and uncooperative subjects. Non-cooperative subjects are unaware that a
biometric system is in place, or don't care, and make no effort to either be
recognized or to avoid recognition. Uncooperative subjects actively avoid
recognition, and may use disguises or take evasive measures. Facial scan
technologies are much more capable of identifying cooperative subjects, and are
almost entirely incapable of identifying uncooperative subjects.

FACE RECOGNITION AT A GLANCE

Accurate Accuracy rivals best fingerprint systems (AFIS).

Cost Effective Pure software that uses low cost, off-the-shelf hardware.

Passive Requires no user participation.

High User
Non-invasive, simple and hands-free.
Acceptance

Human-Readable
Keeps a time/date stamped facial image of every event.
Audit Trail

Often Only Suitable For applications such as combating ID fraud, continuous

Biometric monitoring for information security, surveillance and other
 law enforcement programs.

Uses Existing Can work from existing images, does not require new
Databases enrollment.

Humans are adept at recognizing faces and hence, in case of

Human Backup
system downtime, a human can be used as a backup.

Comparing the Primary Facial Scan Technologies:

The four primary methods employed by facial scan vendors to identify and verify
subjects include

. eigenfaces

. feature analysis

. neural network

. automatic face processing

Some types of facial scan technology are more suitable than others for
applications such as forensics, network access, and surveillance."Eigenface,"
roughly translated as "one's own face," is a technology patented at MIT which
utilizes two dimensional, global grayscale images representing distinctive
characteristics of a facial image. Variations of Eigen face are frequently used as
the basis of other face recognition methods.
 As suggested by the graphic, distinctive characteristics of the
entire face are highlighted for use in future authentication. The vast
majority of faces can be reconstructed by combining features of
approximately 100-125 eigenfaces. Upon enrollment, the subject's
eigenface is mapped to a series of numbers (coefficients). For 1-to-1
authentication, in which the image is being used to verify a claimed
identity, one's "live" template is compared against the enrolled template to
determine coefficient variation. The degree of variance from the template,
of course, will determine acceptance or rejection. For 1-to-many
identification, the same principle applies, but with a much larger
comparison set. Like all facial recognition technology, eigenface technology
is best utilized in well-lit, frontal image capture situations.
Feature analysis is perhaps the most widely utilized facial recognition
technology. This technology is related to Eigenface, but is more capable of
accommodating changes in appearance or facial aspect (smiling vs. frowning, for
example). Visionics, a prominent facial recognition company, uses Local Feature
Analysis (LFA), which can be summarized as an "irreducible set of building
elements." LFA utilizes dozens of features from different regions of the face, and
also incorporates the relative location of these features. The extracted (very
small) features are building blocks, and both the type of blocks and their
arrangement are used to identify/verify. It anticipates that the slight movement of
a feature located near one's mouth will be accompanied by relatively similar
movement of adjacent features. Since feature analysis is not a global
representation of the face, it can accommodate angles up to approximately 25° in
the horizontal plane, and approximately 15° in the vertical plane. Of course, a
straight-ahead video image from

a distance of three feet will be the most accurate. Feature analysis is robust
enough to perform 1-1 or 1-many searches.

In Neural Network Mapping technology, favored by Miros, features

from both faces - the enrollment and verification face - vote on whether there is a
match. Neural networks employ an algorithm to determine the similarity of the
unique global features of live versus enrolled or reference faces, using as much of
the facial image as possible. An incorrect vote, i.e. a false match, prompts the
matching algorithm to modify the weight it gives to certain facial features. This
method, theoretically, leads to an increased ability to identify faces in difficult
conditions. As with all

primary technologies, neural network facial recognition can do 1-1 or 1-many.

Automatic Face Processing (AFP) is a more rudimentary technology,

using distances and distance ratios between easily acquired features such as
eyes, end of nose, and corners of mouth. Though overall not as robust as
eigenfaces, feature analysis, or neural network, AFP may be more effective in
dimly lit, frontal image capture situations.

Applications:

Identification (one-to-many searching): To determine someone's identity in

identification mode, Face recognition system quickly computes the degree of
overlap between the live faceprint and those associated with known individuals
stored in a database of facial images. It can return a list of possible individuals
ordered in diminishing score (yielding resembling images), or it can simply return
the identity of the subject (the top match) and an associated Confidence level.
 Verification (one-to-one matching): In verification mode, the face print can
be stored on a smart card or in a computerized record. Face recognition system
simply matches the live print to the stored one--if the confidence score exceeds a
certain threshold, then the match is successful and identity is verified. One

application include Customer ID verification at ATMs, kiosks and PC networks.

Monitoring: Using face detection and face recognition capabilities, Face

recognition system can follow the presence and position of a person in the field of
view.

Surveillance: Face recognition system can find human faces anywhere in

the field of view and at any distance, and it can continuously track them and crop
them out of the scene, matching the face against a watch list. Totally hands off,
continuously and in real-time. The surveillance market is a perfect fit to the
human face biometric. No other biometric can provide the passive, non-intrusive
and cost effective performance that face does for the surveillance market.
Examples of customers within this market include security departments of
casinos, international airports, military bases, retail point-of-sale and government
buildings. These security customers have the need to identify known deviants or
terrorists before trouble occurs.

Limited size storage devices: Face recognition system can compress a face
print to as low as 84 bytes for use in smart cards, bar codes and other limited size
storage devices.

ID Solutions: Identity fraud involved identity theft, duplicate aliases and

fictitious identities. Identity fraud in any form starts when an individual receives
multiple ID documents (driver's licenses, passports, visas, national ID's, etc) under
assumed identities.

This is possible because in most countries the so-called breeder documents such
as birth certificates are very easy to fake. (In the US alone, there are nearly
10,000 different forms of acceptable birth certificates.) Databases may contain
facial photographs - the information required to prevent duplication. However, in
practice, it is impossible for a human to search over millions of photos to find
those duplicates.

Face recognition system eliminates identity fraud at is source by checking for

duplicates and aliases, quickly, reliably and automatically. It is the only biometric
solution that can be human operator and that returns a result in real-time.

Criminal Investigation:

Often times, law enforcement officials have no more than a facial image to
link a suspect to a particular crime or previous event. Up to now, database
searches were limited to textual entries (i.e., name, social security number, birth
date, etc.) leaving room for error and oversight. By conducting searches against
facial images, face recognition systems yields instant results, verifying the identity
of a suspect instantly and checking through millions of records for possible
matches quickly, automatically and reliably. No other technology gives law
enforcement the ability to identify suspects without their active participation. No
other technology is as widely used by local law enforcement and in secure internet
booking systems.

Border control is other useful application for face recognition systems.

Online authentication:

Our service provides the most secure and easiest-to-use method to verify
user IDs with the least amount of capital outlay, integration effort, administration,
maintenance and risk. Applications include:

• Online banking and accounting.

• Online stock trading

• Business-to-business brokering of valuable products on the Web

• Online financial services

 • Online insurance service

• Online verification for e-commerce and home workers

How can hospitals be sure that only authorized people can access patient records
or prescribe drugs online? Passwords alone are inadequate.

Online learning and testing is growing quickly. Using passwords to determine the
identity of the user will not prevent someone else from taking the test.

Finger prints recognition:

In north America, one of the first successful uses of fingerprints for

identification was by e. henry in 1901 to stop the railway workers from
double collecting pay.
The henry system derives from the pattern of ridges; concentrically
patterning the hands, toes, feet and in this case, fingers.
The classic method of inking and rolling fingers on a print card produces
a pattern unique to each individual digit.
According to the bundeskriminalamt (bka); no two individuals have
identical ridge patterns, ridge patterns are not inheritable, ridge patterns
are formed in the embryo, ridge patterns never change in life, and after
death may only change as a result of decomposition. in life, ridge patterns
are only changed by accident, injury, burns, disease or other unnatural
causes.
Identification from fingerprints requires the differentiation of
uninterrupted papillary ridge contours followed by the mapping of anatomic
marks or interruptions of the same ridges.
Papillary ridge patterns : loop, arch, whorl, tented arch, double loop,
central pocket loop and accidental.
The most common three are illustrated below. ( the `loop´ has 1 delta and
the lines between the center of the loop and the delta must show. the
`whorl' has 2 deltas and the lines between the deltas must be clear. the
`arch' has no deltas.)
 All the above patterns can be discerned by the naked eye and can give a
binning or indexing of the resulting databases. the computer can by vector
analysis of the change of direction of the ridge lines, achieve what the trained eye
naturally sees.
Errors can occur if this step is omitted by a computer finger print program
or afis (automatic fingerprint identification).
Anatomic characteristics occur because the papillary ridges are not
continuous. each change of direction, bifurcation, interruption or enclosure
produces anatomic characteristics (minutia in law enforcement). these
characteristics may not be readily available to the human eye but are easily
tracked by the computer.

The papillary ridge area is sometimes referred to as the pattern area. Each
papillary ridge pattern produces a different pattern area shape.
The center of the finger image, reflecting the pattern area; is referred to as the
core point. This allows for registering the image to compensate for aspect changes
caused by uncooperative users giving side images for example.
The two parallel inner ridges that diverge to surround the pattern area are
called type lines. They may not be continuous and due to the limitation of some
sensors, they also may appear fragmented.
The point of initial bifurcation, or other anatomic feature at the point of
divergence of two type lines, is called the delta. Usually it is placed directly in
front of the type line bifurcation.
Now by drawing a line from the delta to the core point, the number of ridge
intersections within the pattern area gives a ridge count.
Computer tomography can augment the above with the following either
relative to above mentioned points or independently in x-y space.

The anatomic characteristics have an orientation or direction. a vector

analysis of the direction change of the ridge lines can produce an average
that reflects this orientation .

The distance between ridge lines and anatomic feature give a length to
the vector produced by orientating the anatomic characteristics. this is
dependent on the sensor reproducing repeatable results independent of
pressure spread or melting of the ridgelines.
The resultant orientation and vectors can be overlaid in x-y to give a
template.

Templates produced from anatomic features independent of pattern and

curvature can be erroneous as different patterns can have the same anatomic
characteristic points. No two fingerprints are identical because of pattern and the
number of the anatomic characteristics but anatomic characteristics alone are too
small subset to rely on.

ADVANTAGES:

Vascular pattern scanners can be found in testing at major military

installations and is being considered by some established companies in the
security industry and multi-outlet retailers. Advantages over its counterparts,
including the great difficulty in emulating another person's vein structure, and not
having to worry about any external injuries .Effects of ageing, heart attacks, and
medical problems with one's arteries on the scans has yet to be determined fully.
It also requires a large amount of space to mount the device is that the entire
hand can be scanned which may restrict its usability.