Modernization of Irrigation System Operations - Proceedings

Modernization of irrigation system operations: proceedings of the 5th ITIS network international meeting, Aurangabad, 28-30 October 1998
Modernization of irrigation system

operations: proceedings of the 5th ITIS
network international meeting, Aurangabad,
28-30 October 1998
The designations employed in the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory or any area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries. Opinions expressed in each paper are those of the author or authors alone and do not engage the
responsibility of FAO in any way.
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan
Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
© FAO 1999
For copies, contact:

Thierry Facon
Regional Water Management Officer
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
Tel: (662) 281 78 44
Fax: (662) 280 04 45
E-mail: Thierry.Facon@fao.org
Table of Contents
Foreword
The meeting in brief
Summary report & conclusions of the ITIS 5 Meeting
INTRODUCTION
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Development and modernization of irrigation in Maharashtra -Shri S.T. Deokule
Modernization of irrigation systems: a continuing process -Daniel Renault
The role of the World Bank & new opportunities -Hervé Plusquellec
BENCHMARK STUDIES ON MODERNIZATION
Modernization of irrigation system operational management by way of canal

automation in India -Anil B. Mandavia
Intervention analysis of an irrigation system using a structured system concept -R.

Sakthivadivel, S. Thiruvengadachari and Upali A. Amarasinghe
Canal modernization in the Indus Basin irrigation system -Gaylord V. Skogerboe,

Zaigham Habib, Kobkiat Pongput, Paul Willem Vehmeyer,and Abdul Hakeem Khan
Modern water control and management practices in irrigation:impact on performance

-Charles M. Burt and Stuart W. Styles
EXPERIENCES IN MODERNIZATION
Need for and limitations in the application of information technology to the irrigation
sector in developing countries -S.G. Shirke, A.R. Suryavanshi, A.V. Chandorkar
The Majalgaon dynamic regulation pilot project: a uniform approach to canal

modernization -R.G. Kulkarni, J.L. Deltour
The modernization efforts of the Kankai irrigation system -Suman Sijapati
Diagnostic analysis and some approachesfor improving water delivery performance in

the Bhakra canal command -N.K. Tyagi
Some experiences on modernization in irrigation system rehabilitation in Sri Lanka

-G.G.A. Godaliyadda, K.R.P.M. Mullegamgoda, A.M.U.B. Alahakoon
Modernization of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal: process and

learning-R. P. Bhandari and D. R. Pokharel
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON MODERNIZATION
Modernizing irrigation operations:spatially differentiated resource allocations -D.

Renault & I.W. Makin
The information technology-based improved management system for the Teesta

Barrage project -Biswa Sarathi Majumdar
Modernization of irrigation system operations: institutional development and physical

improvement -Indra Lal Kalu
Tertiary level irrigation system management in the Chambal command by water user
associations -K.V.G.K. Rao, R.C. Bower, Anju Gaur and N.A. Visvanatha
Training and applied research for the irrigation modernization processin developing
countries -Ahmed Benhammou
Participatory irrigation management in the Chambal command -S.N. Mundra &

A.K. Garg
Evaluation of water management in irrigated croplands -A.K. Chakraborti
An irrigation modernization training programme -Charles M. Burt & Thierry Facon
ANNEX
Agenda
List of participants

FOREWORD
Foreword
The ITIS network of about 500 professionals in irrigation (managers, designers, researchers) is an informal forum
to share and exchange experiences. The focus of the ITIS network has enlarged with time, from the application
of information techniques in irrigation systems to the modern management of those systems. Originally
supported by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) of Sri Lanka and Cemagref, the Research
Centre for Agriculture and Environmental Engineering of France, the network now also enjoys the support of
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
The fifth international ITIS network meeting was held from 28 to 30 October 1998 in Aurangabad, Maharashtra,
India, with modernization of irrigation system operations as its theme. The meeting was jointly organized by
IWMI, Cemagref, FAO and the Water & Land Management Institute (WALMI) in Maharashtra, India, and was
sponsored by IWMI, Cemagref, FAO and the International Programme for Technology & Research on Irrigation
& Drainage (IPTRID).
The proceedings of the meeting were originally edited by Daniel Renault, ITIS co-ordinator at IWMI, and
published by the ITIS network in June 1999. The meeting confirmed the necessity to modernize irrigation system
operations in the region and added to the knowledge and understanding of experiences and of the impact of
modernization accrued since the FAO expert consultation on "modernization of irrigation schemes: past
experiences and future options" held in Bangkok on 26-29 November 1996 (published as FAO Water Report 12).
The conclusions and recommendations made by the irrigation professionals gathered at the meeting represent a
significant advance in outlining strategies for successful and appropriate irrigation modernization by focusing on
the critical areas of project and programme monitoring and evaluation, understanding of capacity-building
requirements and of the interaction between the technical, organizational and institutional changes implied by the
modernization of irrigation schemes.
The meeting made an important contribution to the promotion of irrigation modernization. The publication of
the proceedings by FAO is to make the results available to a wider audience, particularly to the concerned
decision-makers, organizations and professionals of the Asian region for undertaking irrigation modernization
programmes in their own countries.
PREM NATH
ASSISTANT-DIRECTOR GENERAL
AND REGIONAL REPRESENTATIVE
OF THE FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
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Fifty irrigation professionals gathered in Aurangabad, Maharashtra State, India, between 28 and 30 October 1998
to discuss and exchange ideas concerning the modernization of irrigation system operations. Twelve countries,
and seven Indian states, were represented along with several international institutes.
This gathering was the fifth international meeting of the ITIS network, the main objective of which is to
disseminate information techniques for the improvement of irrigation performance through an exchange of ideas
between managers, researchers and decision-makers. The network is supported by the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI), headquartered in Sri Lanka, Cemagref, the French research centre for agricultural
& environmental engineering, and FAO, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations,
headquartered in Rome.
The fifth ITIS meeting was hosted by the Government of Maharashtra and organized by the ITIS network and
the Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI) of Maharashtra. The previous meetings were held in Sri
Lanka in 1993, Pakistan in 1994, Malaysia in 1996 and Morocco in 1997.
The basic assumption underlying this meeting is that the modernization of irrigation system operations is the key
to success in increasing yield and productivity in agriculture and in improving the management of limited natural
resources such as water.
Aspects of modernization in India and all over the world were examined. Participants visited the Majalgaon Pilot
Project of Dynamic Regulation, Maharashtra, where different forms of infrastructural modernization were
recently adopted, including a remote-control system for the main canal and hydraulically controlled fixed
structures for the branch canals and minors. In this project, the emphasis on flow management through more
rigorous flow control substantially improved the reliability of water supply to the farmers. The project
demonstrates how modernization can usefully combine high technology and simple, locally made structures.
The meeting was a great success - the participation of high-level professionals led to lively and thorough
exchanges of ideas and experiences. Important recent studies concerning modernization were presented and
discussed in the plenary sessions. These studies help define the directions in which the irrigation community
should move to promote effective modernization.
During the debate, the discussions avoided emphasizing the technical details of modernization, which tend to be
site-specific, and focused instead on generic and strategic actions that should be implemented to accompany
modernization efforts and therefore increase their chances of success.
Four points were investigated in group discussions which led to the following statements:
There is a need for a re-engineering process to rethink the operation of irrigation systems within a
more global framework including a clear redefinition of the service of water, the elaboration of a
consistent water management strategy at scheme level, the identification of current constraints and a
vision for the future development of the scheme.
There is a need for in-depth methods of evaluation and monitoring of the performance of pilot
projects in terms of costs and benefits to increase the general awareness on modernization. There is
also a need for rapid evaluation methods mixing diagnosis and the identification of a strategy for
modernization at project level.
There is a need to consider modernization without limiting it to the introduction of modern
hardware and software techniques, but rather as a fundamental transformation of the management of

water resources. This transformation can include changing rules and institutional structures related to
water rights, water delivery services, accountability mechanisms and incentives in addition to the
physical structures. The institutional dimension of the modernization should be well understood for
the appropriate design of physical transformation as well as for the water management strategy.
There is a strong need to include training and capacity-building to enhance the ability of irrigation
professionals to initiate, design, organize and implement modernization measures. Training is
essential to improve the skill of all professionals. In the irrigation agencies a new culture of engineers-
managers should partly replace the mono-culture of engineers-builders. Consulting firms should also
be strongly involved in the capacity-building programme for modern techniques in order to be able to
provide appropriate services, maintenance and timely repairs in case of emergency.
The final conclusion of the meeting was that a strategy for modernization should be defined consistently at state
level: the goal is to establish a framework for the best institutional arrangement, increase awareness in
modernization, upgrade the knowledge of the irrigation professionals, and define methodologies for diagnosis
and the selection of appropriate strategies of modernization at project level.
Summary report & conclusions of the ITIS 5 Meeting
Preamble
Irrigated agriculture already contributes more than one third of the food supply of the world population. In
future this contribution will further increase in order to meet the demand of a growing population during the
next millennium.
As competition with other uses of water increases dramatically, the challenge for irrigation is to produce more
with less water. This goal can only be the result of a high level of performance. It will not be possible without
considerable changes in the way water is managed throughout the basin, from the resources down to the end-
users. The increase of water productivity in the agricultural sector and the cost-effectiveness of irrigation require
changes (or adaptation) of the institutional set-up as well as of the physical infrastructure. In many situations the
first crucial improvement is to enhance the reliability of the water supply to the farmers. In other situations where
the reliability is already high, further improvement will result in increased flexibility of delivery.
The modernization of irrigation systems is, without doubt, one of the most promising strategies to meet these
challenges and targets.
The previous ITIS meeting, held in Morocco in 1997, focussed on modern techniques for canal control. The
discussions illustrated how diverse experience in canal control can be. One conclusion of the debate was that the
ITIS network should do more on modernization by looking in particular at experiences in developing countries.
This motivated the choice of convening the ITIS 5 meeting in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
Modernization is not a new issue in irrigation; many forums and meetings already have focussed on it. Therefore,
to avoid, as much as possible, an overlap with previous meetings, it was decided to address the general theme of
modernization of irrigation system operations, with an emphasis on consistent and reliable strategies to
accompany modernization interventions.
Thus the emphasis of the meeting was not on the content of modernization techniques, but on the
accompanying actions which have been shown to be crucial for its success. In that regard, four more specific
aspects were proposed for discussion:
re-engineering operations;
evaluation and monitoring of performance;
institutional approaches; and
training and capacity-building.

The venue and programme of the meeting
The meeting was hosted by the Government of Maharashtra and held at WALMI Aurangabad, from 28 to 30
October 1998. The meeting was honoured by the presence of Mr Deokule, former Secretary of Irrigation of the
Government of Maharashtra. The concluding session was chaired by Dr Chitale, High Commissioner of Water
and Irrigation of the Government of Maharashtra and former General Secretary of ICID.
Close to fifty irrigation professionals attended the meeting: 12 countries, and 7 Indian states, were represented,
along with several national and international institutes. (A list of participants is given in Annex.)
Plenary sessions were organized for the first day of the meeting and keynote speakers presented benchmark
studies on modernization. These were followed by debates organized with the participation of panel members.
The second day was devoted to a visit of the Pilot Project of Dynamic Control of Majalgaon. The irrigation
system in Majalgoan was recently modernized with a remote control system on the main canal and fixed regulated
structures (duckbill weir and baffles) on some branches and minors. This physical modernization was
accompanied by institutional reforms, the creation of water user associations and the introduction of a volumetric
tariff.
The third day was spent in group discussions focussing on the four themes mentioned above. In addition, special
interventions were delivered by experts on the evolution of the role of funding agencies in modernization and on
strategies for training and capacity-building in the field of modernization.
Highlights of the inaugural session
In his inaugural message, Er R.G. Kulkarni, Secretary of Irrigation of the Government of Maharashtra and
President of WALMI, welcomed the holding of the meeting in Maharashtra and the high-profile professionals
gathered. He expressed the wish that the meeting would identify practical solutions for modernization
interventions that should culminate in the economical and more effective allocation of water to any form of end
use.
In his welcoming message to the participants, Mr Pendse, Secretary of CADA, Government of Maharashtra,
underlined the Maharashtra Irrigation Department's pleasure at co-hosting this important event through WALMI
and suggested that these three days of deliberations would open up new possibilities, compatible with different
Indian local conditions, enabling the integration of the latest information techniques for the most efficient
management of irrigation systems.
Following the opening words of welcome by Er Suresh Shirke, Director of WALMI, Mr Ian Makin, Programme
Leader on Design and Operations at IWMI, recalled to the audience that the ITIS network has recently shifted
from a narrow focus on information techniques to the broader issues of modernization. This evolution is natural
as the challenges faced by irrigation are not confined to the technical domain but lie within a broader managerial
domain, with the goal of coping with an increasing competition for water, funds, labour and food.
In his opening statement, Thierry Facon, of FAO, stated that the modernization of irrigation system operations
has become a priority for FAO and that ITIS 5 provided a timely opportunity to move in that direction. In this
regard FAO would focus on developing performance methodologies enabling sound strategic choices for
modernization, for evaluation of decision support systems in their daily operation and management, and for the
transfer of modern control concepts. Lack of appropriate knowledge on modernization and modern techniques is
considered as one of the major hurdles. Therefore, FAO has developed a concept for training and capacity-
building on modernization. FAO wished to take the opportunity of the ITIS 5 meeting to present, for the first
time, and discuss proposals with the irrigation community.
Thierry Rieu, of Cemagref, highlighted three main aspects which make the ITIS network original compared with
others. The first is experience-sharing between managers, researchers and decision-makers. The second is the

willingness (or opportunity) to undertake irrigation management, which implies considering two systems: a water
system and an agricultural production system. The third lies in the assumption that irrigation systems are
heterogeneous, and this is becoming more and more true as the influence of the market becomes greater on
irrigation systems.
Finally, in the inaugural address of the meeting, Er S.T. Deokule, former Secretary of Irrigation of the
Government of Maharashtra and the Chief Guest at the ITIS 5th Meeting, welcomed all the participants and
delivered a vibrant plea for modernization. He recalled some of the major steps taken in the state during the last
decades in this direction (see the inaugural intervention).
Summary of the plenary sessions
Modernization in India
The first plenary session focussed on modernization in India. The first presentation was made by A.B. Mandavia
on the status of canal automation in India, with insights on existing or planned projects. The second
presentation, by Dr Sakthivadivel, reported the results of an in-depth evaluation study of the Bhadra project in
Karnataka, before, during and after rehabilitation. Papers related to these presentations are included in the
Benchmark Studies section of the proceedings.
These papers were then discussed by panel members, which led to a general discussion with the audience. Dr
Jesda, from Thailand, stated that it is now well understood that modernization should combine hardware,
software and human-ware. He further underlined that human-ware is a key factor for success, as shown by the
results from the Bhadra project. Concerning the human-ware, Mr Khalaj, from Iran, highlighted that the goal of
modern delivery systems, i.e. providing the right amount of water at the right place at the right time, is becoming
more and more difficult as the task becomes more complex. Therefore automation, as discussed by A.B.
Mandavia, is also a means to minimize human error and to be more efficient with the help of information
techniques (MIS, DSS, models, etc). The main question then is how far can we go with automation and in
particular when consideration is made of the role of water user associations. The difficult issue of the transfer of
high technology in less favourable environments was then identified by Dr Shirke, from India, as one major
problem which has to be properly addressed.
The general debate focussed first on how to set some strategic levels of intervention with two concerns: what is
the optimal size of a water user association and at what level in the network do high-tech solutions become less
effective than other solutions?
One of the difficulties mentioned during the discussion was how to properly anticipate the behaviour of the end-
users after modernization, when the service of water has been changed. The Bhadra project shows that a gap may
exist between expected and actual behaviour. The involvement of farmers in the system operation has to be
carefully discussed and planned to avoid failure.
The question of homogeneity or heterogeneity of irrigation systems is also a matter of concern. Projects based
on the concept of a structured system are appropriate for homogeneous conditions but might run into problems
where the environment is heterogeneous. This is certainly one of the lessons from the Bhadra study.
Another important question debated was: on what grounds should modernization be based and promoted by
decision-makers? A consensus may be easily obtained on the need to document modernization experiences so as
to increase the general knowledge and improve technical as well as institutional choices, but this means that at
least some projects have to be initially encouraged to generate sufficient experience. This reflects the present
situation in India, where very limited data from modernized projects is available. As a consequence, for some
time it will be necessary for modernization to get the support of decision-makers who are aware of their long-
term advantages. It is hoped that in the long term, more modernized systems will generate sufficient positive
feedback to make the decision to modernize motivated by observable success rather than encouraged by
outsiders.

One of the main conclusions of this session was that in-depth evaluations of the very few existing projects of
modernization are crucial to start building a strategy for the planning and design of future interventions and to
increase their chances of success.
Experiences in other countries
The second session focussed on experiences in other countries, with a presentation made by Professor Skogerboe
on modernization in the Indus Basin, followed by a survey of modernization in 16 projects world-wide presented
by Dr Charles Burt. Related papers are also included in the Benchmark Studies section.
Afterwards, Mr Alexander Reuyan, from the Philipines, raised his concern that modernization of water
management should be accompanied by agricultural improvements in the use of other resources to increase
yields. He also expressed his interest in seeing the rapid appraisal methodology proposed by C. Burt applied in his
country for the diagnosis of irrigation systems and a better organization of modernization interventions. This
point was also underlined by Dr Goddalyadda, from Sri Lanka, who reported his own experience of irrigation
system classification and of diagnosis for improved methods of operation. Mr J. Plantey, of ICID, insisted on the
need to have a continuing approach to modernization to cope with the ever evolving society and agricultural
sector. He suggested that modernization should redefine the mission of the manager who is responsible for the
service of common interest.
There was an agreement on the fact that information is a fundamental basis for modern management, and that
sometimes modernization is nothing but going back to the basic activities of managers. At the other end of the
spectrum of modernization, the question of high technology should be analysed less in terms of sophistication
than in terms of profitability.
The question of how the movement toward modernization should be initiated was largely addressed during the
discussion. Some believed that farmer organizations should be created first to provide the major thrust for
modernization. Some argued that organizing farmers is not obviously a good route, especially when the service is
poor, and that improvement in the service should take place while or before creating water user associations in
order to generate a win-win dynamic situation. Everyone agreed that the water user associations and the service
provider should be directly accountable to each other. Successful water user associations are often business-
oriented and rely heavily on proper legislation, well-established water rights, and efficient law enforcement.
Furthermore, local management is often successful in situations where there is a long history of rural
organizations, as in Nepal for example. It was also felt that it is not so much the size of an irrigation system
which matters but more its complexity. Large irrigation systems can always be split into subsystems and properly
analysed at that level. Obviously this is a requirement for Pakistan, which has the largest continuous irrigated
agriculture in the world.
Key interventions were also made during the meeting by Hervé Plusquellec, who presented the point of view of
a funding agency and particularly the evolution of the role of the World Bank (details are given in a paper of the
author in the proceedings). The policy of the Bank for modernization and irrigation has evolved from a site-
specific project approach in the 1960s to a comprehensive-package approach in the 1970s aiming at
simultaneously addressing many infrastructural elements (water, roads, schooling, health, etc) and on to a water-
resources management policy in the 1990s. Modernization is now seen, discussed, planned and supported by the
Bank at state (national) level. Therefore it is crucial for professionals to define consistent state strategies for
modernization before addressing site-specific projects.
Group discussion output
Working group 1: re-engineering

Chairman: P.W. Vehmeyer - Co-chairman: K.V.G.K. Rao
Statement proposed to the group: Before being thought in terms of hardware and software, the re-engineering of irrigation
system operations needs to be thought within a more global framework, including a clear redefinition of the service of water, the

elaboration of a consistent water management strategy at scheme level, the identification of current constraints and a vision for the
future development of the scheme.
The group agreed with this statement, but added that the clear redefinition of the service of water needed to be
done keeping in mind local circumstances and that not only current constraints, but also future constraints should
be taken into account. Furthermore, both the group and the plenary session agreed that re-engineering itself is
not only a question of putting hardware and software in place, but also consists in providing for an adequate
institutional set-up to manage the operations.
The group started its discussion by addressing the question of the circumstances in which an irrigation system
needs to be re-engineered. Generally there is a need to re-engineer when either the present system of operations
is malfunctioning or a change in policy is affecting the operation of the irrigation system.
A change of policy is the result of a change in the perspectives policymakers have on how the irrigation system
would be able to function in the most appropriate way. It comes forth from a change in the socio-political and
economical environment.
A particular policy brings with it certain targets for the operation of the irrigation system. Performance indicators
illustrate the way an irrigation system meets defined targets. In the case of a change in policy, the targets will also
change. Accordingly the performance of the irrigation system will fall short of the newly defined targets,
necessitating a re-engineering of the irrigation system operation.
As the statement says, the re-engineering of irrigation system operations needs to be thought of within a global
framework. Part of that global framework is an understanding of the process, which led to the requirement for
re-engineering in the first place.
One should also be aware of the different parties involved in the operations of an irrigation system and of their
respective interests. In general terms the involved parties are the policymakers, the water users and the service
providers. The point was made that re-engineering is a process, which is initiated by a change of policy coming
from the policymakers. However, it might well be that this new policy is not in the interest of the individual water
users. This needs to be recognized in the re-engineering process.
The working group elaborated on the main constraints which should be taken into account when re-engineering
an irrigation system. The first point made was that, as a result of broadening the scope of things taken into
account in re-engineering, the number of constraints also increases. The types of constraints include:
limited availability of data;

physical constraints related to the infrastructure already in place;
financial constraints for changes;
local circumstances; and
future constraints, such as salinization, water-logging and excess sediment entry into the canal system.
Finally there was some discussion about the need for the use of appropriate technology, i.e. technology which
meets the skills of the local staff. Although this is an important point for consideration, it should not be
separated from an analysis of the general interest in implementation of more modern hardware and software for
the irrigation system operations.
Working group 2: evaluation

Chairman: A.K. Chakraboti - Co-chairman: T. Rieu
Statement proposed to the group: The required efforts of modernization of irrigation are huge in terms of the command area
and of the required financial resources. It is therefore crucial to identify, for each project, the most appropriate alternative, i.e. the best
cost-effective solution. To reach this stage it is essential that awareness of the on-going modernization efforts should be increased and
disseminated at the proper scale (state, national, regional). This awareness should be based on reliable procedures of performance
evaluation and on trustworthy diagnosis.

Regarding the performance evaluation, three points were identified as important:
On a project scale it is necessary to carry out pre-, mid-term and post-evaluation of the project.
On a larger scale it is necessary to prioritize the projects for modernization and for evaluation.
To monitor performance it is necessary to start from the objectives of the modernization and focus
on the specific performance indicators that monitor the progress made in achieving these objectives:
crop productivity indicators,
water use efficiency,
hydraulic system,
financial performance and
process indicators (social, economic, management, institutionalised).
To assess irrigation systems and modernization procedures, the group felt that two main types of methods are
complementary:
Rapid Appraisal of Performance, which focuses more on the process, on system performance
indicators, and on how the overall management is organized. The method is useful in identifying the
key points of the performance that should be improved, the constraints that should be relaxed and
finally the strategy that should be pursued to modernize that particular system. It is an essential
method for the design of interventions.
In-Depth Study, which, in the particular case of modernization, aims at documenting the gains
achieved after the intervention and identifying the causes of success and failure in all processes. In-
depth study is fundamental for increasing the general knowledge concerning the modernization of
irrigation systems at the state level, and for identifying obstacles to be overcome to increase the
chances of success.
In both cases the issues of accuracy and reliability of data are fundamental to the effectiveness, though not very
simple to handle.
Rapid appraisal of performance and in-depth study should not be used at too large a scale, for many reasons.
Primarily these procedures assume a homogeneous system, and as the scale increases, an irrigation system tends
to be more heterogeneous. They have therefore to be undertaken on a small-scale basis: in-depth study on
representative areas and on a pilot-project basis and rapid appraisal of performance on each project proposed for
modernization.
These methods are complementary in the sense that rapid appraisal can be more easily duplicated within a large
project and can be related to each in-depth study to produce a good understanding of the complete project in all
its complexity and heterogeneity.
The technique for evaluation should be based on:
database creation of a selective/core/representative canal system,

adoption of information technology tools (remote sensing , geographic information survey, models)
and
concurrent evaluation (interaction with project authority).
It is essential that a global strategy emerges from the monitoring of pilot projects.
Clear objectives of modernization are required for a clear identification of the end-users' current constraints and
potentialities, and of the obstacles to be overcome.
The critical issue of the cost-effectiveness of modernization was debated in the following terms: Modernization
should increase the water productivity and sometimes generate water savings. Water savings can be used within
the irrigation sector (extension of cultivated areas, more water-demanding crops) or transferred to other sectors.

In the latter case, the question is then who will pay for the water transferred and how can the irrigation sector get
support from other sectors to fund the modernization programmes. A cost-benefit analysis should be made for
any modernization project to assess the real costs as well as the real benefits.
Working group 3: institutional approach

Chairman: GW. Skogerboe - Co-chairman: J. Plantey
Statement proposed to the group: Modernization is not only limited to the introduction of modern hardware and software
techniques, but is rather a fundamental transformation of the management of water resources. This transformation can include
changing rules and institutional structures related to water rights, water delivery services, accountability mechanisms and incentives in
addition to the physical structures. The institutional dimension of modernization should be well understood for the appropriate design
of physical transformations as well as for the water management strategy.
Given the diversity of situations and national contexts, the group felt that the first step in a modernization design
should be a situation analysis. The objective of this is to try to understand the real needs of farmers at project
level as well as to enlarge the scope to a higher level conciliating all water uses in the watershed, in accordance
with national priorities.
Strong political and legal support is required for success in modernizing irrigation schemes and systems and in
sustaining water rights in the irrigation sector. Water rights for irrigation are contested because of a perceived low
efficiency of schemes, therefore one target of modernization should be to consolidate the water rights
demonstrating an increased performance and thereby justifying the allocations to agriculture.
At scheme level, situations may be diverse depending on size; a large scheme may require some involvement of
the state, whereas a small scheme can be managed purely by the local users.
Two principles were put forward to underpin modern management of irrigation schemes: compatibility between
the collective organization and the water resource, and consolidation of water rights on the basis of a quantum.
Volumetric delivery is therefore essential. By ensuring that the deliveries are well controlled for discharge, a
simple measure of the opening duration of a gate allows for volume accounting. This might be seen as a good
alternative to, and a less cumbersome procedure than, discharge measurement.
A water tariff also motivates efficient use of water. Examples were discussed which show that farmers are
motivated where they feel responsible and assume the cost of operation and maintenance.
One strong point in an institutional approach is to clarify the concepts of price, tariff, cost and value of water.
The group unanimously agreed that it is necessary to make the physical organization compatible with the
institutional organization.
Working group 4: training and capacity-building

Chairman: T. Facon - Co-chairman: A. Benhamou
Statement proposed to the group: Capacity-building is fundamental to enhance the ability of irrigation professionals to
initiate, design, organize and implement modernization interventions. Training is essential to improve the skills of all professionals. In
the public sector a new culture of engineers-managers should partly replace the mono-culture of engineers-builders. The private sector
should focus on modern techniques to ensure appropriate service and maintenance, timely repairs and emergency interventions.
The participants in the working group fully supported the statement submitted by the meeting organizers. They
added that capacity-building for an irrigation modernization programme should also include the training of
officials of water user associations, of top-level, mid-level and field technicians and, last but not least, of farmers.
However, in view of the time available, the working group decided to limit the discussion to the training of
engineers and irrigation managers. Training of professionals from other sub-sectors might also be required when
irrigation modernization is implemented in the context of improved water resources management, which is

typically the case in a situation of water scarcity when recycling, transfer among users in a river basin and such
are required.
A large-scale modernization programme would typically require retraining of a large number of professionals and
technicians. The effectiveness of such programmes, however, may be hampered by systematic staff rotation
policies (usually three years).
A training programme for professionals should include both technical and non-technical (management, etc)
disciplines.
Dr Charles Burt, Director of the Irrigation Training & Research Centre at CalPoly, made a presentation to the
working group of the FAO proposal for an irrigation modernization training programme. FAO estimates that a
very ambitious large-scale retraining programme for engineers and managers is required now to build up
internationally the capacity to implement the needed revolution in the operation of irrigation systems. Irrigation
engineers and operators need to understand the new concepts of modernization and be trained in the required
skills to implement them practically in the field. The document presenting this programme is included in this
report. The programme is structured as a prestigious certification training-of-trainers programme expanded into
national upgrading programmes in selected regional and local training centres. It is based on active, pragmatic
methods and teaches what we already know works. An important aspect would be the teaching of a rapid
appraisal process to diagnose scheme operations, design a locally suitable modernization strategy and identify
proven workable technical and management options that can be applied locally to solve identified problems.
The working group unanimously endorsed this programme concept proposal and felt it addressed a real need.
Modernization programmes are too often associated only with automation and meet resistance. Even when
funding for training is available (in certain countries, as a rule one percent of total costs of all projects is allocated
to training), adequate pragmatic training for field staff is not available. The proposed certification system would
help create a better recognition of expertise in the modernization of irrigation systems and irrigation
management.
WALMI Aurangabad proposed itself as the training centre where the first training-of-trainers programmes could
be launched. It was suggested that other WALMI institutes in India could serve as state-level training centres.
It was emphasized that a prerequisite for the launching of such programmes would be a genuine commitment by
governments, which should be willing to make qualified staff available for trainers. The modernization concepts
need therefore to be accepted first by top-level decision-makers and managers. To this effect, the benefits for
developing countries of implementing modernization programmes should be better documented (including in
terms of improving water use efficiency, which is typically very low). FAO should also address some design
issues in the programme:
selection criteria for trainers of trainers;

association with other international bodies such as the International Commission for Irrigation and
Drainage or Global Water Partnership;
adaptation of the curriculum to regional specific circumstances and needs in regional focal
institutions (Marrakech university was suggested as a regional focal centre for North Africa and West
Africa);
training of professionals in the private sector: consulting firms, manufacturers, construction
companies; and
involvement of private companies (resource persons, equipment) in the programme.
It was noted that in certain countries such as the United States, private firms were very forthcoming in
responding to requests from training or research centres to supply them with sample equipment or materials.
The role of on-site research in modernization programmes is extremely important. Such sites could enhance
dissemination of new techniques and concepts outside of the classroom. Implemented as a small fraction of a
large programme, they could be instrumental in steering problem-solving action-oriented practical research by

research institutes and in building the capacity to implement the programmes through the targeted training of
associated staff.
Diagnostic analysis and performance evaluation methods should be used to identify the problems and orient the
design of the research and training programmes.
It was noted that, by necessity, training and research centres which depend on their customers (the irrigation
scheme managers) for the funding of their research programmes have to provide a real service to them and have
therefore developed rapid intervention methods such as rapid appraisal processes, an outgoing attitude, and carry
out in essence on-site research programmes. Centres such as WALMI in Aurangabad and IWMI in Sri Lanka also
stated that they felt that the on-site research programmes they were implementing for irrigation agencies and
projects were very helpful in gaining a knowledge of the real problems they should address.
Finally, the group noted that the number of irrigation professionals and managers who have access to e-mail and
the Internet, including in developing countries, is expanding at an increasing pace and that local and national
institutions are developing their Web sites. It was felt therefore that the time was ripe to consider realistically
modern networking methods such as e-mail and the World Wide Web as very powerful means of disseminating
knowledge and exchanging experience on irrigation modernization among the professional community to
increase the capacity for modernization and promote the transfer of technology.
It was noted that a specific discussion mailing list on modernization does not exist yet. Existing non-moderated
mailing lists such as trickle-l and irrigation-l are very useful to irrigation practitioners.
FAO announced that it was considering developing a Web site on modernization in 1999 to serve as a platform
of exchange of experiences in irrigation modernization and added that it would also consider creating an
electronic mailing list as suggested by the group.
Main conclusions
The central message which emerges from this meeting was that modernization is above all an issue of human-
ware. It is quite noteworthy to see that, although most participants to the meeting were engineers, almost every
paper and almost all questions and points of discussion dealt with institutional, development and sociological
issues and were not focussed on techniques. The issue of human-ware can be further expanded into
complementary directions.
A further message is that service-oriented management is an essential first step in modernization. This service-
oriented management requires in turn an adapted infrastructure and an appropriate strategy for operation. Finally,
modern management and operation range from refocus on traditional activities (information) to high techniques
as the situation requires.
The third important message is that modernization requires a consistent strategy at state or national level to cope
with the cost of interventions, to organize and prepare the irrigation community to overcome the challenges of
modernization, to implement the necessary institutional changes and to define and ensure the enforcement of
water rights or service rights.
These messages can be further expanded into more practical recommendations which have been fully debated
during the meeting:
build management-oriented strategies based on the service of irrigation to the agricultural production
users and to the other users;
develop strategies and techniques adapted to developing countries for the operation of irrigation
systems that will overcome the new challenges for water and heterogeneity in the delivered service;
test and disseminate methodologies for the assessment of performance and diagnosis for
modernization schemes;
create an era of re-engineering of the irrigation process to allow most engineers to move from a

purely construction skill base to one including operation and management skills; and
develop a strategy for training and capacity-building in modernization strategies, design of projects,
diagnosis and evaluation.

Development and modernization of irrigation in Maharashtra
INTRODUCTION
Er Shri S.T. Deokule

Former Secretary of Irrigation
of the Government of Maharashtra
Respected personalities on the dais, honourable guests, distinguished delegates, ladies and gentlemen,
I am very happy to have this opportunity of participating in the inauguration ceremony of the Fifth International
Network meeting on Information Techniques for Irrigation Systems focusing on the modernization of irrigation
system operations. It is heartening to note that a large number of experts of international repute are participating
in this meeting in addition to top irrigation professionals from all over India, including a large contingent of the
cream of irrigation functionaries from Maharashtra. With such a participating body of top experts, I am sure the
presentations and the discussions on the topic will result in a thorough compilation of experiences on the theme
of modernization of irrigation systems and that guidelines for reference in the matter will be formulated for use
by the world irrigation community.
I was also fortunate in attending the inauguration ceremony of WALMI, Aurangabad, in 1980 under the aegis of
the World Bank. In the last eighteen years, this institute has grown to international status, primarily due to its
faculty and facilities and also to contributions received by various visiting professors and experts from all over
the world. You will find the atmosphere here to be very congenial for deliberations in this network meeting.
In this vast country, irrigation in various forms has been practised for ages and a large number of various types of
old irrigation systems are still in operation with their own well-established irrigation practices evolved out of
experience. Furthermore, during the various five-year plans, from the first to now the ninth, a large programme
of construction of various types of irrigation systems has been undertaken and phenomenal progress has been
achieved. The ultimate potential of about 120 million hectares of irrigation, as currently assessed by various
sources in this country, is likely to be achieved in the second decade of the next century.
In each state, and even in parts of each state, there is tremendous variation in the basic environmental factors
such as rainfall pattern and intensity, ground profiles, soil types and depths, spread of rural population, and
agricultural practices, and obviously irrigation policies and practices have to be developed keeping in mind these
basic factors. The salient features of the irrigation schemes taken up for execution in the past were primarily and
obviously based on the experience of existing similar schemes in each state. However, at the beginning of
operations in these new irrigation projects, a number of problems were faced for which specific solutions were
found over time. In this continuous process of learning, in addition to the phenomenal work done by the
irrigation fraternity in this country, the contribution received from the international community has also to be
acknowledged.
Maharashtra is the leading industrialized state in India, but its current development of only 13 percent of its
irrigation potential is far below the national average of about 33 percent. The land developed so far in the state
by the large and medium-sized irrigation projects is only about 56 percent of the currently identified ultimate
potential of 4.1 million hectares. The state has a rugged terrain, and a large number of rivers originate here,
resulting in many comparatively small irrigation projects. However, the total number of dams of more than 15
metres in height built in Maharashtra is about 900, compared to 2 900 countrywide, so the state can claim to be

the leading dam builder in the country. Irrigation is a state subject and the state has a force of about 15 000
engineers and more than 120 000 men working in investigation, planning, design, construction, maintenance and
operation of the irrigation systems. The state spends Rs10 to 12 billion every year to manage some 3 million
hectares of surface irrigation. This gives an indication of the amount of work which is being done here on
irrigation development and management. The current strategy is to optimize irrigation efforts so as to provide
irrigation facilities to larger areas and to a greater number of farmers. This needs to be done at the cheapest
possible rate and refinements will have to come later. Despite all these efforts, a large percentage of the area will
remain rain-fed and subjected to the vagaries of nature.
Similarly, current efforts in the country as a whole are primarily aimed at creating additional irrigation potential
through the launching of new projects and maintenance of existing irrigation schemes. As maintenance grants
have been meagre, the accumulated effect of inadequate maintenance has been a substantial reduction in project
benefits for some of the older systems. Hence, for some older projects in the state as in the country, renovation
or rehabilitation was carried out to restore the original capabilities and in some projects extensions were made.
The modernization of irrigation systems does not mean merely an improvement of the engineering parameters
such as lining of canals or improvement and modification of structures, but also the application of a complex
combination of field disciplines to irrigated agriculture. As such, modernization has to cover not only the
engineering but also the agronomic and management aspects. The modernization of existing projects has hence
to be taken along with their restoration and rehabilitation. Detailed diagnostic analysis or performance evaluation
needs to be carried out to identify, quantify and execute the required measures.
Several individual efforts have also been made to modernize existing irrigation systems so as to achieve better
water use, after studying and thoroughly analysing the irrigation systems concerned. The Central Water
Commission of the government of India has formulated guidelines for the modernization of existing irrigation
projects. According to these guidelines, a review of such factors as hydrology, land potential, cropping patterns,
crop water requirements, physical features of the canal system, groundwater, drainage, water management and
environmental management, and economic evaluation has to be made. Required modifications have to be
identified and provided for in the modernization projects. In addition, participatory irrigation management and
operation plans for improved use of the canal system also need to be included. We propose to achieve the
synthesis of all these requirements through this workshop by the documentation and dissemination of
experiences of modernization.
For the control of canal and distribution systems, the traditional means of communication in Maharashtra
consisted of telegraph and telephone facilities installed at critical locations along the canal alignment. This system,
simple in operation, was in use for a very long period and it is only in the last decade or so that the wireless
system is progressively replacing it. Although the wireless communication system, along with centralized control,
has been used for a fairly long time for flood control, as well as for other purposes such as police or military
communications, its use for irrigation management was permitted only recently, after the relaxation of restrictions
on the use of wireless systems for civil purposes. So far, 1096 wireless network stations have been installed all
over the state and the main centres connected through satellite. Thus an effective system for flood control and
irrigation management is now available in this state.
A very ambitious programme to introduce a computerized management information system for the Maharashtra
Krishna Valley Development Corporation of the irrigation department of the government of Maharashtra has
been undertaken so that all the executives of the corporation are connected to headquarters, in order to ensure a
prompt flow of information and its analysis for use by the corporation. The hardware is in position and the
software modules for items such as project and contract management, land acquisition and personnel, financial
and water management are installed.
The western part of our state, known as the Kokan area, consists of very rugged terrain and the heavy rainfall
there during the four monsoon months allows the growing of only one rice crop, by field-to-field irrigation. A
pilot project has been started to develop a water control system in order to diversify cropping patterns in the
coastal areas of Maharashtra. This will be achieved notably through piped water distribution, right down to

individual fields.
For the existing Khadakwasla irrigation project, a canal automation project has been undertaken in collaboration
with the Department of Electronics of the central government. Once it is fully implemented, the use of
computerized information technology in irrigation water management should expand progressively.
Tomorrow you will visit the Jayakwadi Project, which is one of the largest irrigation projects in this state, with
about 400 000 hectares of irrigation potential. The project has been carried out in phases and fraught with a
number of construction and irrigation problems. Since 1970, it has been assisted by the World Bank, both
financially and through guidance in the form of expert advice and the use of various types of pilot projects,
including the pilot dynamic regulation project which will be discussed in detail in this meeting.
I have just recounted the various advances made by the progressive and dynamic irrigation department of
Maharashtra, as the state is entering an era of use of modern techniques in irrigation management. As such, this
is the most appropriate time for holding this fifth ITIS meeting here so that this innovative state and the
irrigation community as a whole may benefit immensely from the dialogue and discussions regarding the
application of information techniques in the modernization of irrigation system operations.
I wish the seminar success and thus conclude my inaugural address. Thank you.

Modernization of irrigation systems: a continuing process
Daniel Renault
ITIS Co-ordinator, IWMI
Improving irrigation water management, in order to increase productivity and minimize adverse effects such as
salinization, is one of the main contemporary issues in the agricultural sector. A considerable effort is being made
to improve irrigation operations and to reduce costs. Society in general and water user associations, particularly
where they have to bear the cost of irrigation, are demanding that irrigation become more cost-effective. Hence
water services have to be better matched with the cost of operation and maintenance.
Improving irrigation water management
Improved performance in irrigation water management can usually be achieved through three types of
interventions:
Rehabilitation, which consists of re-engineering a deficient infrastructure to return it to the original

design. Although rehabilitation usually applies to the physical infrastructure, it can also concern
institutional arrangements.
Process improvement, which consists of intervening in the process without changing the rules of the
water management. For instance, the introduction of modern techniques is a process improvement.
Modernization, which is a more complex intervention implying fundamental changes in the rules
governing water resource management. It may include interventions in the physical infrastructure as
well as in its management.
Defining modernization
For many decades, modernization has been central to the concerns of the irrigation community, but the concepts
behind it have evolved. It is now well understood that modernization is not limited to the introduction of
modern hardware and software techniques, but is rather a fundamental transformation of the management of
water resources. This transformation can include changing rules and institutional structures related to water
rights, water delivery services, accountability mechanisms and incentives, in addition to the physical structures.
A definition of modernization that captures the current general understanding was put forward during a recent
FAO consultation on modernization (Bangkok 1996):
Irrigation modernization is a process of technical and managerial upgrading (as opposed to mere rehabilitation) of irrigation schemes
combined with institutional reforms, with the objective to improve resource utilization (labour, water, economic, environmental) and
water delivery service to farms.
The need for a consistent framework for modernization
We hypothesize that success in modernization relies on internal consistency among key elements of water rights,
institutions and infrastructure, and external consistency with the multiple uses of water within the basin.
Consistency needs also to be found between the many objectives that might be assigned to modernization, such
as:

Increasing water productivity (in the context of strong competition between different types of users).
In most countries, irrigation is the largest water user, therefore an improvement of water use
efficiency is expected from the irrigation sector and a small percentage improvement releases large
quantities of water for other users.
Increasing the cost-effectiveness as funds for irrigation from national budgets dwindle and as the cost
of irrigation is increasingly borne by the end-users.
Increasing the reliability in irrigation deliveries. Farmers require a reliable water supply, i.e. as initially
planned or expected, in order to properly plan their cropping pattern, to maximize the use of other
inputs and to intervene in time with the appropriate practices. Wherever reliability is low,
modernization should first focus on how to (re)establish a reliable irrigation service to farmers.
Increasing the flexibility of deliveries. Flexibility is an important property of irrigation deliveries. With
a flexible service users can intervene and supply water to crops whenever they think it is required. An
improved level of flexibility is increasingly required as cropping patterns become more and more
diversified.
Consideration of other uses of water. Competition for water is increasing and the modernization of
irrigation cannot be undertaken without taking into account the other uses of water in the catchment
in terms of quantity as well as of quality. For example, many domestic supplies rely entirely on
irrigation water, either directly through canal supply or indirectly through groundwater recharge.
Increasing knowledge and human resources development. Managers require reliable methodologies to
analyse the main relevant features of an irrigation system for water management and for canal
operation. Therefore they need appropriate professional training and also links with applied research
institutes which explore and test alternative solutions for water management and canal operation.
Obstacles in the way of modernization
Successful modernization is not straightforward, and failure to achieve targeted performance objectives, in some
instances, requires further investigation of the underlying causes. As far as the technology is concerned,
significant hardware and software progress has been made in irrigation system operations in the past decade,
including computer facilities, information techniques, measurements, and canal control concepts. However, the
adoption of these techniques in the fields has, in general, been slower than expected. In developing countries,
irrigation managers face many constraints that may explain the gap between the available and the applied
technology, including:
Technical gaps between the requirements needed to implement the improved method (availability of
expertise, technical maintenance of equipment) and available local resources.
Financial constraints resulting from the gap between the cost of equipment for the improved method
and the gain in water savings and improved services, as water is generally not priced or charges are
low.
Social constraints. Human resources are relatively less expensive in developing economies than
alternative technological solutions. An irrigation agency, often a large employer in the area, has some
obligation to maintain local staff.
Institutional constraints. Bureaucratic centralized irrigation administrations are not well suited to
service-oriented activities.
Above all, one major bottleneck is often the lack of knowledge of possible choices for technical as well as other
modernization measures. Their respective advantages and disadvantages and their ability to fit site-specific
contexts must be further investigated and the results disseminated. This is one of the problems faced by
designers and managers when confronted with the need for modernization. This may explain poor choices in the
past which have led to disappointing results or a failure of modernization programmes.
What model for the modern irrigation enterprise?
It is clear for many that the irrigation sector in general has not reached the same level of effectiveness as other
sectors, such as the industrial and service sectors. Hence modernization can be seen as a means to create and

favour modern irrigation enterprises by introducing methodologies which have proved successful in other sectors.
There is a debate as to whether the irrigation industry would better benefit from an analogy with the industrial
production sector or with the service sector.
Those in favour of service argue that irrigation agencies have often been deficient in defining and monitoring an
appropriate service to their customers, and that this should be corrected to give more flexibility to water users in
the management of the agricultural inputs. Furthermore, the introduction of intermediate-level partners (water
user associations) between the irrigation agencies and the downstream users, highly increases the need for
clarification of the service provided at each interface and of the responsibility at each level (delivery point,
operation, maintenance, etc). Taking into account the management of the multiple uses of water within an
irrigation scheme requires clarification concerning each specific service. Lastly, the notion of service becomes
very important as soon as the water pricing policy is modified or merely introduced, where water was previously
delivered free.
All these arguments, and many others in favour of emphasizing service in a modern irrigation enterprise, are fully
valid. It does not mean, however, that we should forget about the industrial production analogy. In fact, the
product delivered to users within a water delivery system is tangible, i.e. timely inputs of water. This product is
the result of an industrial process from the source of water down to the delivery point. The quality of the
delivered service fundamentally depends on the efficiency of the industrial process. We advocate here that both
metaphors are valid. In both domains the irrigation enterprise can, and must, be improved to cope with modern
agriculture as well as with the challenges resulting from water competition and environmental protection.
The role of the engineer in irrigation system performance is interesting. The huge development of irrigation
projects in the 1960s and 1970s was made possible by the development of a strong engineering capacity. Later
on, in many irrigation departments, administration completely disregarded engineering resources, and water
management received little attention. State agencies are now often too bureaucratic rather than suffering from too
many engineers. The phase of builders-engineers, which is receding, has not always given way to managers-
engineers.
We advocate that modern enterprises in irrigation require a reengineering of their processes in order to cope with
the new challenges faced by irrigation.
Reengineering irrigation system operations
The reengineering of the irrigation operation should consist of designing the most cost-effective answer to the
redefined water service within the scheme. It should consider:
The spatial distribution of the effective demand for the water service. The service might differ
significantly with user demand, e.g. cash-crop farmers might ask for a high quality and costly service
whereas farmers with an alternative source (wells) might be satisfied with a low and cheap service.
The service might also differ because of other considerations such as hydrological hazards
(salinization, water-logging) and opportunities (recycling of water).
The spatial distribution of the physical infrastructure characteristics. The sensitivity of the canal
delivery structures, the efficiency in controlling water depth, the ease of monitoring and
implementing operation - these are some of the important features that should be considered when
designing an appropriate answer to meet the demand.
It is hypothesized here that the reengineering process should be spatially differentiated to lead to the best cost-
effective solutions possible and to cope with the effective demand. This places the concept of flexibility of water
service at the heart of modernization.
Flexibility in modernization

The concept of flexibility has long been discussed and advocated in the field of irrigation modernization. So far it
has encompassed the notion of flexibility in water deliveries as opposed to rotational and fixed deliveries. Flexible
deliveries can be proposed to users in different forms (on request, free access, etc) at a cost compared to a strict
rotational distribution.
The flexibility in water service advocated here is broad in the sense that it encompasses the spatial variability of
the service within an irrigation system. This means that the level of service might vary from one subsystem to
another, e.g. some subsystems might choose strict rotation while others might ask for a more flexible access to
water. The coexistence of different levels of service in a single system represents a technical challenge for the
managing agencies which requires a strong reengineering of the whole process of operation.
This concept of flexibility leads to abandoning the homogeneous approach of irrigation systems that has so far
prevailed. Instead, a heterogeneous approach of the demand and of the efforts (inputs) to operate irrigation
systems is sought for a closer match of water availability to demand requirements.
These thoughts on modernization are meant only to introduce some of the rapidly changing challenges faced by
the irrigation sector and to illustrate how the debate on modernization is still rich and lively. Although
modernization of irrigation systems has been the subject of many large international meetings during recent
decades - to name but a few, the 11th Congress of ICID in Grenoble in 1981, the 13th Congress of ICID in
Casablanca in 1987 and the FAO international consultations on modernization held in Bangkok in 1996 - still the
debate and discussions are continuing, e.g. the next ICID Congress in Granada in 1999 will focus partly on
modernization.
Finally what matters is to realize that modernization is a never-ending process of adapting activities to current
constraints and objectives. The agricultural and economic contexts are permanently evolving and so are the
demands from society. What was modern and up to date some decades ago might now appear to be incompatible
with current needs, and this is not only true of the technical aspects of irrigation. What might be considered new
now is the increase of the speed of adaptation required to match a society which is evolving at an ever faster
pace. Modernization is therefore a permanent and relentless process.
Modern management implies that the physical and institutional structures of management are adapted to the
current environment, respond to the needs of society and are sufficiently flexible to cope with short-term
evolutions.
We do hope that this ITIS 5 meeting in India will have contributed effectively to the debate on modern irrigation
processes and modernization of irrigation systems operation, and we also hope that we made progress on some
practical recommendations on important related matters such as: reengineering operations, evaluation and
monitoring of performance, institutional approaches, and training and capacity-building.

The role of the World Bank & new opportunities
Hervé Plusquellec
Former World Bank Irrigation Adviser
The irrigation sector has been one of the largest recipients of public investments in the developing world. Seven
percent of the World Bank lending, amounting to about 35 billion in constant US dollars, has been for irrigation.
Lending for irrigation is now in decline: the annual lending for the sub-sector and the number of irrigation
projects are about half what they were during the peak period 1975-85. Despite this decline, however, the World
Bank and the regional development banks as well have largely contributed to the expansion of irrigation and to
the share of irrigated agriculture in meeting the food needs of a rapidly increasing population during the last half-
century. However, the role of the World Bank in the modernization of irrigation has not been as valuable as one
would expect. This paper discusses the reasons for the slow progress in modernization in Bank-financed
irrigation projects and explores some new perspectives for modernization by combining institutional reforms and
physical improvements.
The evolving role of the Bank in irrigation
The world has changed tremendously over the past fifty years, and so has the Bank, in its membership,
organizational structure, operation scope and development agenda. Projects financed by the Bank are now
radically different from those financed in the 1950s, when there was little concern for policy frameworks, poverty
alleviation, environmental protection or the privatization of inputs and services. The World Bank started lending
for agriculture through large irrigation projects, in keeping with the prevailing emphasis on large infrastructure. In
the 1950s and the 1960s, the Bank did not finance rehabilitation works of existing irrigation systems.
Rehabilitation was considered the responsibility of the borrowing governments. Similarly, the Bank limited its
contribution to the construction of the main and distribution systems, assuming that the farmers would
contribute in constructing themselves the tertiary systems in addition to the on-farm development works.
Experience invalidates that hypothesis.
The food crisis in India in the mid-1960s focused attention on the need to improve food-grain productivity and
new technologies. The Bank began lending for agricultural research and extension, rural credit and the production
of high-yielding varieties and fertilizers, either directly through specific agricultural projects or as components of
irrigation projects. In the 1970s, under the presidency of Robert MacNamara, the Bank turned its energies to
alleviating poverty. Irrigation projects became overloaded with rural development programmes, such as
construction of rural roads, schools and health centres. Irrigation projects became very difficult to prepare and
implement because of the number of sub-components and agencies involved. Since 1976, the Bank's internal
regulations require that project preparation be upgraded to completion of detailed design and bidding documents
for presentation to the Board to avoid delay in implementation and to reduce the risks of cost overruns. Post
evaluations showed that many irrigation projects did not comply with this requirement and if they did, emphasis
was on the structural design of infrastructure, not on canal operation and delivery of water to the users.
By the 1980s, it became evident that faulty policies seriously affected production in many countries. It also
became apparent that competition for water was acute in many countries, water quality was seriously affected and
water-related issues could no longer be treated separately by each sub-sector. In 1993, the Board of Directors of
the Bank approved its Water Resources Management Policy, which encourages the adoption of institutional
reforms, analytical frameworks for managing water resources, water conserving technology, decentralization of
responsibilities to local governments, user participation and environmental protection. The water policy marked a

turning point in the formulation of irrigation projects, which progressively shifted from the agricultural sector to
the water sector.
In the early decades of lending for irrigation, the Bank financed specific individual projects or a group of
subprojects which were all well identified. The attention now given to the recommendations of the water policy
has contributed to shift the Bank-supported irrigation programmes to projects national or regional in scope. For
example, some projects cover the entire irrigated area of a state in India or a province in Pakistan or even the
entire multiple-year plan of a country, such as in Mexico. A "new-style" project typically includes two major
components: an institutional component supporting the creation or strengthening of water user associations and
reforms of irrigation and water agencies, and a physical component for rehabilitation or differed maintenance
work. Depending on the needs of the project, financing of environmental studies, agricultural research or support
services or creation of basin agencies are also included. The main focus is on the software recommendations of
the water policy such as the participation of users or the legal framework enabling the setting up of water rights
and water markets.
The scope and concept of modernization
The modernization of irrigation systems has different meanings depending on the background of irrigation
experts. Modernization is not necessarily the conversion of an irrigation system to the state of the art in
technology and management. It should be understood as any physical or institutional change which would
contribute to an improved service to users, to a reduced deterioration of water quality, and to a reduction of
government intervention in management.
The scope of modernization could therefore include a large range of activities:
operation of the main and distribution system through advanced water control structures and modern
operation tools;
water application at farm level through the adoption of water saving techniques;
construction technology, such as the use of geo-membranes for canal lining, use of canal lining
machinery, and prefabrication;
user participation either through transfer of management responsibilities or any other consultative
approach; and
administration and accounting.
This paper focuses on proper water control and water delivery, which are prerequisites to getting full benefit
from water saving techniques at farm level and from the implementation of institutional and policy reforms.
Application of volumetric water charges and quotas, implementation of water rights and active water markets,
and demand management are reform tools which require confidence from the users in the water delivery service,
and proper water control to provide that service.
The World Bank experience in irrigation modernization
Most of the irrigation projects supported by the Bank are gravity irrigation projects. This simply reflects the
regional distribution of projects. Most irrigation lending - 50 percent of the projects and 69 percent of the money
loaned - has occurred in Asia, where rice cultivation predominates. However, the Bank has financed sprinkler
irrigation projects in water-scarce countries such as Morocco, Jordan and Romania and in Northeast Brazil and,
on a smaller scale, drip irrigation in Cyprus and Turkey for example. The Bank has financed and continues to
finance investments for water conservation at farm level consisting of lining of tertiary canals or conversion to
low-pressure systems, for example in China, India, Chile and Mexico.
The World Bank has successfully financed irrigation projects in countries where modern design standards are the
norm, such as in North Africa. Successful transfer of water control technology in individual projects has also
been achieved in some countries which have not yet standardized their design. The Kemubu and Muda projects
in Malaysia and the Lower Klalis project in Iraq are a few examples. However, some modern water control pilot

projects have failed for various reasons:
implementation agencies should be committed at the highest level to the success of pilot projects;
pilot projects should be integrated in a long-term modernization strategy;
training should not be limited to a small project design team; training should include staff involved in
controlling the quality of the construction of pilot projects and those who will manage these projects;
water control equipment should be manufactured according to the technical norms of the original
designer; locally modified control equipment to avoid patent issues rarely works: as usual, one gets
what one pays for; and
continuity in staff of the implementation agencies as well as of the lending agencies is needed to
avoid loss of interest or change of focus.
Besides a number of modern projects mostly in water-scarce countries and a few isolated cases in other countries,
the majority of projects are based on simplistic hydraulic design standards. The complexity of unsteady flows
which are common in the operation of irrigation canals, the interaction between control structures, the impact of
rigid or unreliable water delivery on farmer behaviour, the operation of canals at less than full supply are not
always understood. The reasons for the slow adoption of modernization are extensively discussed in the World
Bank Technical Paper 246 ( see its chapter 8: The debate on modernization).
The fundamental cause for the slow rate of technology transfer identified in that paper was a lack of knowledge
of available technologies and a misunderstanding of the nature of irrigation. The recent research funded by the
World Bank on the performance of irrigation systems strongly confirmed that hypothesis. There is an immediate
need for major training in the concepts and details of the modernization of irrigation.
Adverse administrative and behavioural reasons for the adoption of modern designs are more difficult to address.
The pressure from the World Bank management to reduce the time of preparation has further increased during
the last years. The trend toward low cost rehabilitation and maintenance programmes is also not in favour of
modernization. Economic pressures on the irrigation agencies responsible for the management of irrigation
systems and contractual motivation for their consultants are still missing. Irrigation managers, engineers and
others are still adhering to outdated designs and resisting to change in many countries.
The Bank-funded research study referred to above provides well-documented evidence of the benefits of
modernization and should be a milestone in the dissemination of the advantages of modernization. That study
should widely contribute to the rejection of some unfounded myths against modernization. Modern design,
defined as a concept and not by the technology and equipment used, is not too sophisticated for developing
countries. A number of low-cost changes can be gradually introduced without affecting the economic viability of
a project. In many cases, the first step in modernization may be shifting from inadequate to rational design based
on the understanding of simple but sound hydraulic principles, for example adopting the right combination of
control structures at cross regulators and off-takes to limit the hydraulic sensitivity to inflow fluctuations.
The slow adoption of modern designs and the failure of some pilot projects should not overlook the progress
which has been made in the dissemination of knowledge about modern irrigation. The World Bank has largely
contributed to the transfer process through training courses, study tours, audio-visual programmes, conferences
and workshops. It is encouraging that some countries located in the humid tropics, an environment considered by
some experts not suitable for the adoption of arid irrigation technology, are now experimenting with new
concepts: the Magat project in the Philippines, the Majalgaon project in Maharashtra and the High Level Pehur
Canal project in Pakistan are encouraging examples of transfer of technology in countries with strong adherence
to old design manuals in the past.
A comprehensive approach to modernization: the case of Mexico
The best example of comprehensive approach to the modernization of irrigation is found in Mexico. The
Mexican government implemented a policy reform programme, including decentralization and price liberalization
of its entire economy, in the late 1980s. To date, the management of over 3.2 million hectares in 80 irrigation

districts has been transferred to 410 water user associations, and to 11 federations for the main systems. The
national irrigation agency, CNA, implemented a massive training programme of the professional, technical and
administrative staff of the water user associations and of the members of the boards of these associations. CNA
also retrained its own reduced staff to its new role of advising and supervising the associations.
The reform of the Mexican irrigation sector was not limited to the institutional aspects. With the assistance of an
international consulting firm, the CNA-designed standards were upgraded to address the problems of unsteady
flow conditions in irrigation canals and operation at less than full supply. A training programme was implemented
for CNA staff and private local consulting firms. Most remarkably, irrigation modernization was incorporated in
the curriculum of Mexico universities to prepare the next generations of irrigation engineers.
Once the management transfer in Mexico was well advanced, CNA focused on the modernization of
maintenance through the adoption of weeding chemical and biological treatment methods and the purchase of
specialized maintenance equipment.
A project currently under preparation in Mexico will break new grounds in the process of modernization of
irrigation systems with a bottom-up approach. Modernization is to be carried out at the initiative of water user
associations, which are to contribute 50 percent of the investment costs.
The success of Mexico in transfer management, widely popularized by the World Bank, has encouraged the
Turkish irrigation agency, DSI, to embark on a similar programme. As of the end of 1997, the management of
about 1.2 million hectares had been transferred to 222 associations. The World Bank is providing financial
assistance for the purchase of specialized maintenance equipment and, at pilot scale, for the conversion to drip
irrigation of about 1200 hectares at the demand of two associations which would contribute 70 percent of the
costs.
Possible scenarios for modernization
As discussed above, the formulation of irrigation projects has much evolved over the last decades. On the one
hand, there is a risk that the importance now given to overall water resource management, institutional and
regulatory systems, poverty alleviation, environmental protection and other issues during project preparation
might overshadow the technical aspects for improving canal operations and water service to users. Dealing with
all the policy issues with the challenge of currently decreasing financial resources for project preparation does not
provide an environment favourable to the modernization of irrigation systems, which require an in-depth
diagnosis of their functioning by well-trained experts as well as detailed studies of alternative solutions.
On the other hand, the "new-style" projects, which are now national or regional in scope, offer the opportunity
to shift from the project-by-project approach to a global approach to modernization through training
programmes, revision of design standards, involvement of the users in the decision process and financing of
investment costs. The World Bank strategy to promote irrigation management transfer may also give a new
impulsion to the modernization of irrigation systems. The user associations have a real interest in improving the
physical infrastructure to provide better water service to the members and to reach financial sustainability. Large
business-type associations with real decision powers on investments and water allocation policies may succeed if
properly advised on the alternative solutions for modernization.
Institutional and policy reforms should be combined with a programme of modernization of the irrigation
infrastructure. Irrigation management transfer is not an end-objective, but should be the beginning of a new era
for irrigation. Irrigation management transfer programmes should be designed with that long-term vision.

Modernization of irrigation system operational management by way of canal automation in India
BENCHMARK STUDIES ON MODERNIZATION
Modernization of irrigation system operational management by way

of canal automation in India
Anil B. Mandavia
Chief Engineer, Management Information Systems
Sardar Saroar Narmada Nigam Limited, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Synopsis
A scientific management culture should enter the field of our irrigation system operational management: only
then the irrigation systems set up with enormous investments through the various five-year plans can be
sustained to ensure reasonable returns. In India, the introduction of systems based on information technology for
monitoring and controlling canal operations is necessary to improve water management not only at the
operational level but also at the farm level. As the farmers are the end-users, when new technology is applied,
they have to be informed during implementation of the improvements planned and of the anticipated benefits
which they may gain. Upgrading existing canal system operations needs to be done in stages as a rehabilitation
programme. It can be done in small areas which are easily and economically assessable for improvement. If
information technology is brought to an existing water resource project, restoration of the existing control
structures, canal sizing, canal lining and other related command area development activities must be completed
before taking up the automation project. The cost of canal automation on an existing irrigation project and that
on a new project cannot be compared, as the built-in constraints in the existing project not only limit the degree
of automation but also increase the cost by way of remodelling the existing canal systems. In Indian conditions
the cost of automation on the main canals can vary from Rs1 500 to Rs2 000 per hectare and that on the
secondary canals from Rs3 000 to Rs4 000 per hectare. New techniques such as on-farm irrigation scheduling are
available to predict the time and volume of water needed for the most effective irrigation. Specific amounts of
water required for crop irrigation at particular times can be derived using the soil-water plant relationship. Soil
characteristics such as infiltration rate and water-holding capacity are used in the calculation. By using soil
characteristics, moisture content and estimated evapotranspiration, the timing and quantity of water needed to
replenish the depleted soil moisture available to plants can be calculated and used to forecast the next irrigation.
These schedules are then provided to the computer centre controlling the canal conveyance and delivery system
to update the weekly and daily schedules of irrigation, which are set at the start of the season based on the
available data. Thus the requirement of the release of water into a main canal can be predicted on a scientific
basis and this will allow for a more flexible operation of the canal system. The linkage of real-time data collection
and monitoring of climate crop-soil relation parameters with the canal automation of the conveyance and
distribution system is the ultimate goal, and the use of information technology below outlet level must be given
an equal priority. The socio-economic conditions of the farmers and the scientific use of water to satisfy crop
requirements will determine the degree of success of the complete approach of implementing automation from
headwork to farm level.
Introduction
As we approach a new millennium, there are growing concerns and periodic warnings that we are moving into an
era of water scarcity. With increasing demand for food and competing use within the water sector, the pressure is
on irrigation professionals to manage water efficiently. The rallying cry is "more crop per drop". In response to

this, strategic decisions and interventions need to be made on a continuous basis. These decisions should cover
the full spectrum of the irrigation water supply system, from diversion and distribution to on-farm application
down to the crop root zone.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy; almost three quarters of the country's working population are
engaged in agriculture and about half of the gross national product is generated by agricultural production.
Agricultural growth largely depends on water, which is the prime input. Rainfall is not quite dependable or
helpful to agricultural development in India. The Indian monsoon is known for its vagaries. Almost 85 percent of
the rainfall is provided by the Southwest monsoon (June to September) and some parts of Southern India receive
rain from the Northeast monsoon (November to December) as well. Rainfall distribution is uneven with respect
to time as well as space, and frequently erratic. The mismatching of rainfall and crop-water requirements is quite
common. A large part of the country is arid and semiarid as rainfall is not sufficient to ensure even a single crop.
Furthermore, the low-rainfall areas of the country have a fairly high coefficient of variation. Droughts are
experienced quite often in one part of the country or another. Irrigation is, therefore, an inseparable part of the
welfare of Indian agriculture.
The country's population, which is now about 950 million, is expected to reach the billion mark by the turn of
the century. The production of food grains, which was around 50 million tons in the pre-plan period, has reached
about 195 million tons now and will have to be raised to 220 million tons by the year 2000. Boosting irrigated
agriculture is the only way to achieve this target.
The management of irrigation in India differs conceptually from that practised in those developed countries
where limited water is not a constraint. Good management, efficient operation and well-executed maintenance of
irrigation systems are essential to the success and sustainability of irrigated agriculture. They result in better
performance, better crop yields and sustained production. One of the key objectives in the management of an
irrigation system is to provide levels of service as agreed with the relevant government authorities and the
consumers at the minimum achievable cost.
In many parts of the world, irrigation systems are performing well below their potential. The problem of poor
irrigation performance has stimulated the interest of a whole range of development professionals. There is
unanimous agreement among them for the need to improve the operation of irrigation systems in order to
increase productivity. In most countries great importance is now placed on programmes for rehabilitation,
operation and maintenance of existing projects. However, works included in these programmes are often limited
to canal lining, land levelling, construction of additional control structures, rehabilitation of existing control
structures, improvement of access roads and to non-physical components such as staff training, improvement of
cost recovery systems and so on. Too often, not enough attention is paid to alternative approaches to irrigation
management, system operation and design.
History of irrigation in India
The history of irrigation in India can be traced back to prehistoric times, when agriculture was first practised by
mankind. The Vedas and other ancient Indian texts make frequent references to wells, tanks, canals and dams
and to the responsibility of the community for their efficient operation and maintenance. The entire landscape in
southern and central India is studded with tanks and wells, some of which were built many centuries before the
beginning of the Christian era. In North India there are equally old small canals in the upper valleys of rivers. The
character of these works was largely conditioned by the natural features of the area. In the arid and semiarid
plains of the perennial rivers of the north like the Ganges and the Indus, flood flows were diverted through
inundation canals for irrigation, while in the rain-challenged south, water had to be stored in large tanks for
domestic and agricultural use. Since the majority of the rural population subsisted on agriculture, irrigation had to
be developed for growing crops in view of the vagaries of rainfall. While the use of groundwater from shallow
wells was largely the result of individual private efforts, the surface water development for irrigation has
traditionally been the result of community or state efforts.
Irrigation development in India gained momentum after Independence. The net irrigated area in 1950-51 was

20.85 million ha, with 1.71 million ha irrigated during more than one crop season. The gross irrigated area was
22.6 million ha. The planners assigned a very high priority to irrigation in the five-year plans. As a result, giant
multipurpose and irrigation projects such as the Bhakra Nangal in Punjab, Damodar Valley in Bihar and
Hirakund in Orissa were taken up.
By the end of the seventh five-year plan, the country had an irrigation potential of 29.9 million ha under large
and medium-sized irrigation projects and 46.6 million hectares under smaller projects. By 1993-94, the irrigation
potential created under the bigger irrigation projects was 31.2 million ha, 27.1 million ha of which were in use. In
the case of the smaller irrigation projects, the potential created was 51.7 million ha, with 47.7 million ha used.
The target now is to achieve by the year 2010 the ultimate irrigation potential of 113.5 million ha from all sources
of water - 58.5 million under large and medium-sized projects and 55 million under smaller projects. This means
adding some 1.7 million ha a year to the larger irrigation projects.
With the rapid expansion of the irrigation programme since the beginning of the planned economy in the early
1950s, there was significant growth in irrigation potential. It was soon realized that the potential created was not
being fully used as farmers failed to distribute the water equitably and efficiently and to synchronize field
activities with the creation of irrigation potential at the outlet. Thus a gap developed between potential and use,
as can be seen from the table below.
Period Cumulative potential Cumulative use Gap in use of

(million ha) (million ha) potential (million ha )
1950-51 22.50 22.50 -
1979-80 56.50 52.60 4.00
1984-85 67.90 60.40 7.50
1989-90 79.50 71.00 8.50
1993-94 82.90 74.80 8.10
Efforts to minimize the gap were initiated early in the Fifth Plan, i.e. in 1974-75, by initiating a command area
development programme, with the following features:
Modernization and efficient operation of the irrigation system as well as of drainage systems beyond
the outlet serving 40ha blocks.
Construction and lining of field channels and water courses.
Land levelling and shaping.
Construction of field drains.
Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater.
Adoption and enforcement of a suitable cropping pattern.
Introduction and enforcement of warabandi (see below).
Preparation of plans for the supply of inputs, viz. credit, seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
Strengthening the existing extension, training and demonstration organizations.
Canal system operation in India
The canal system transfers water from its source(s) to one or more points of diversion downstream. Operation
deals with the movement and behaviour of water in a canal system, and relies on the principle of open channel
hydraulics. The primary function of operation is to manage the changes in flow and depth throughout the canal
system. The term `operation' refers to the hydraulic reaction in the canal pools which results from control actions.
Several methods are available which can be used to convey water downstream through a series of canal pools.
The method of operation determines how the water level varies in canal pools to satisfy the operational concept.
A canal's recovery characteristics - the speed and manner in which the canal recovers to a steady state flow after a
flow change - depend on the method of pool operation.

Conventional operation
The majority of canal systems in India are operated in a manner which is referred to as conventional operation. A
conventional operation consists of a scheduled delivery, an upstream operational concept and a constant
downstream depth operational method.
Conventional operation evolved as a practical method of satisfying irrigation needs within traditional canal system
limitations. By using delivery schedules, it essentially combines demand-based needs with supply-based operation.
The purpose of conventionally operated canals is demand-oriented, since the primary goal is to satisfy the needs
of the water users. The downstream demand for water is assessed in advance so as to schedule the supply of
water entering the canal through the headwork. Although the headwork flow is based on this schedule of
anticipated demand, the actual operation of the canal is based on the supply. Check structures are operated to
respond to upstream conditions, and the outflow from a pool reacts to the inflow.
One weakness of conventional operation is the inevitable discrepancy between forecast and actual delivery flows.
In addition, there will be always inaccuracies in checking the flow and the amount of water stored in the canal
pools. Since the canal system is not operated to react to actual demand, any such errors are transferred
downstream. The sum of all operational errors will accumulate at the far end of the canal. Tail-end water users
will often suffer from too much or too little water. To prevent shortages of water at the downstream end, excess
water must be supplied at the headwork. Most of the time, this excess ends up being wasted near the downstream
end of the system. The typical wastage in a conventionally operated canal system is about 5 to 10 percent of the
total flow.
Conventional operation involves the following basic procedure :
1. orders are submitted by the water users;

2. a water schedule is formulated;
3. flow changes are made at the head of the canal to meet the water schedule; and
4. the canal is operated manually to transfer these changes downstream, making adjustments at the
canal-side turnouts and canal check structures en route.
Water delivery practices in India
Depending on the type of schemes the water distribution system for irrigation can be different for surface
irrigation and groundwater projects. The important models of distribution of water below outlets in surface
irrigation commands developed over time in India on the basis of requirements and experience are:
1. the warabandi or osrabandi system of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh;
2. the shejpali and block systems of Maharashtra and Gujarat and satta system of Bihar; and
3. the localised system for paddy areas in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, etc.
Warabandi or osrabandi
The word warabandi originated from two vernacular words, wara and bandi, meaning `turn' and `fixation'
respectively. As such, warabandi literally means `fixation of turn' for supply of water to the farmers. Osrabandi is a
synonym of warabandi. Under this system of management, the available water, whatever its volume, is equitably
allocated to all farmers in the command irrespective of location of their holdings. The share of water is
proportional to the holding area in the outlet command and allocated in terms of time interval as a fraction of
the total hours of the week. Whereas the term warabandi is commonly used in Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan,
this system of water distribution is usually referred to as osrabandi in Uttar Pradesh.
Shejpali, block and satta systems
The main feature of these systems is that the government enters into some sort of agreement with the farmers

for supplying water to them. The farmers file applications and the government issues permits for the supply of
water and the two together constitute the agreement. The shejpali and the block systems are practised in
Maharashtra, Gujarat and parts of Karnataka, whereas the satta system was evolved and is still in use in the Sone
command area in Bihar, which is one of the oldest irrigation systems of the country. The word satta means
agreement. The satta system includes the features of both the shejpali and the block systems.
Under the shejpali system the water is distributed according to a predetermined date in each rotation. A
preliminary programme is drawn up every year depending on the availability of water. Farmers submit
applications for supply of water indicating the crops they wish to grow and the areas under them. Water is then
apportioned on the basis of the crops and the overall demand. Proportionate reductions in the irrigated area
proposed by the farmers are made if the demand is found to be higher than the water available. A schedule,
known as shejpali, fixing the turns to different farmers for the sanctioned crop area is prepared for each rotation.
The farmers at the tail-end of the command are served first, those at the head of the watercourse are served last.
The irrigation interval depends on the rate of water consumption by the crops, i.e. high water consuming crops
may be supplied water in each rotation, whereas the lighter crops on the same outlet may get irrigation on
alternate rotations. The schedule so made is notified in advance and every farmer of the command has prior
information about his turn of supply. The system is called `rigid shejpali' if the duration of supplying water to the
various fields along with the date is also recorded on the permits issued to the farmers for sanctioned areas. This
checks the tendency of the farmers to overdraw water.
Under the block system, a long-term arrangement for supply of water is done particularly on perennial crops, but
irrigation from season to season proceeds through shejpali. One third of each block is to have sugarcane and the
remaining two thirds is to be used for seasonal crops. The blocks are sanctioned for six to twelve years. There is
assured supply of water for a long period under this system and farmers therefore can go for land development
and plan their cultivation well.
The localised system for paddy areas
In most of the irrigation projects of southern and north-eastern states as well as in the states of West Bengal,
Orissa, Bihar and Jammu & Kashmir, where paddy is the main crop, the irrigation below the outlets proceeds
from one field to the other through surface flooding. The individual holdings are thus irrigated one after the other
or even more than one field is irrigated at a time. Such a method of water distribution is prevalent in many of the
outlet commands (where warabandi has not been introduced) in the Chambel Irrigation Project of Rajasthan.
However, in Tamil Nadu and some other states, the farmers have a rotational system of water distribution in the
outlet commands of some irrigation projects on one and a half days to four days basis for paddy crop and a
longer interval for other crops. In this case, the water allocation is for a specified crop in a season and penalty is
levied for deviation.
The modernization needs of irrigation system operational management in India
Although in India the major consumer of water is irrigated agriculture, the demands for various other competing
and conflicting purposes are ever increasing. Ensuring water supplies in sufficient quantity and desired quality,
properly distributed in time and space, has become a complex task. Water resource planning and management
has become multidisciplinary in nature, requiring co-ordination among various government and non-government
agencies. Making optimum use of water resources has long engaged human effort but it is only in recent times
that it has taken the form of integrated water resources development and management. Pressure on the available
water resources for conflicting uses has become so great that individual water resources projects, whether single
purpose or multipurpose, cannot be undertaken or managed with optimum benefit unless there is a broad plan
for the entire drainage area. Integrated development and management thus involves a co-ordinated and
harmonious development of the various works (existing and new) in relation to all reasonable possibilities. This
may include irrigation and drainage, generation of electrical energy, navigation, flood control, watershed
management, industrial and domestic use of water, recreation and conservation of wildlife.
Water resources development planning has traditionally been attempted at state level, as in the case of other

sectors, although it is well known that water does not obey political or administrative boundaries. Yet a river
basin or a sub-basin should be the basic hydrological unit for water resource planning. In the early stages of water
resource development, projects were formulated to serve mainly irrigation requirements or irrigation combined
with hydropower generation and some other incidental purposes. As projects were relatively few, inter-project
considerations were more or less absent and each project was considered and planned as an independent entity.
In spite of substantial growth in irrigated agriculture and consequent agricultural productivity over the years,
irrigation systems in India are still facing many problems. The root cause of the poor performance of our
irrigation systems may be the lack of scientific approach to their management. On most command areas served
by a canal, water is poorly distributed over area and time. A common shortcoming is that tail-end users are not
getting water or are getting insufficient and unreliable water. Conversely, head-end users often get too much
water, either because they have no choice or deliberately, taking water when they can and often more than
needed. Low irrigation efficiency is also attributed to changes in cropping patterns. In many cases, the cropping
pattern actually adopted by the farmers is very different from the designed cropping pattern because it is mostly
influenced by market forces, farmers' preferences, reliability of water supply and other factors. The on-farm
irrigation practice prevailing in the country also results in wastage leading to low irrigation efficiency. Most
farmers still irrigate the way their forefathers did thousands of years ago by flooding or channelling water through
parallel furrows. This gravity system, typically least expensive to install, fails to distribute water evenly. Farmers
are forced to apply an excessive amount of water to ensure that enough reaches the plants situated on higher
ground or on the far side of a field. The adoption of field-to-field irrigation adds to the problem, as does poorly
conceived irrigation scheduling.
Modernization of irrigation system operational management by way of canal automation
The overall water use efficiency of a manually operated system, exclusive of the use of any return flow, seldom
exceeds 40 percent. It is reasonable to expect an increase of the overall efficiency of about 10 percent or more
for a system with some automation. The advantages of automation are not limited to savings in operation cost
and in water. It also alleviates the risk of waterlogging and salinization. A further advantage is that it increases the
reliability and accuracy of water distribution. This contributes to the establishment of a climate of confidence
between the operating authority and the farmers, which in turn contributes to the effective organization of water
user groups and their participation in operation and maintenance activities. With automation, it may also be
possible to accurately know the volume of water delivered to individuals or groups of farmers. This makes
possible the introduction of volumetric water charges, combined or not with a system of annual volumetric
allocation. This approach is a useful tool for encouraging farmers to optimize the use of limited water allocations
and to increase productivity.
Improvements in automatic control equipment have greatly expanded the field of canal operation and control.
Automation has become a common term when discussing modern canal systems. `Automation' is defined as A
procedure or control method used to operate a water system by mechanical or electronic equipment that takes the place of human
observation, effort and decision; the condition of being automatically controlled or operated.
Automating a canal system is therefore implementing a control system that includes automatic monitoring or the
control equipment that upgrades the conventional method of canal system operation. Automation is used to
simplify and reduce or replace the decision-making process of the operators and to implement a decision. It is
increasingly used to improve the effectiveness and to reduce the cost of water supply system operations.
Automation of distribution canals becomes essential for optimum conditions. The process must not be dismissed
out of hand as too expensive. Its economics must be studied, keeping in mind that reduced on-farm costs and
water requirements, and increased yields and management capabilities, provide savings that usually will more than
make up for increased project costs. Reduction of project operation costs and water loss is also a benefit of
automation and is usually the only one considered.
Automation of a canal system should not be thought of as an end in itself, but rather as a means to better operate
that system. The true goal should be to achieve the most efficient and beneficial operation possible. Expanding

control system capabilities is one way of economically reaching this goal.
Automation can be obtained in many ways, some extremely simple, others very complex. A long crested weir
(also called duckbill or folded weir) by its very existence maintains a nearly constant water level in a canal under
variable flows. A closed pipe line system connected to a variable source such as a canal carrying excess water to
local needs, will automatically convey the exact amount of water that is withdrawn at the turnout valves.
Float-actuated mechanical devices such as the Neyrtec constant level and the improved controlled leak canal gates
are self-contained but can obtain a constant canal water level. These systems easily adjust to variable flow rates. If
they are desired to control down to the no-flow regime rather than just regulate the flow, they need to be
installed in top-level canals. They are sluggish in reaction as they receive input in sequence from each adjacent
reach to transmit a change over the whole canal length.
The objective of building and operating a canal system is to serve the farmlands, supply municipal and industrial
needs, carry storm runoff to natural drainage channels, collect water from several independent sources into a
single supply, convey water used for the generation of electrical power and supply water to fish and wildlife and
for recreation. In order to serve the above purposes as efficiently and economically as practicable, canal
operations should be tailored to meet the specific requirements of the systems.
The flexible, high-quality operation of a canal system will yield many benefits, some of which are:
increased crop production,

reduced water use,
better service to the water users,
increased power generation,
decreased power consumption,
labour savings,
less water wasted,
easier management of the water system,
improved protection of the conveyance facilities,
reduced maintenance requirements,
more accurate and equitable distribution of water,
fish and wildlife enhancement,
decreased flood damage,
less need for subsurface drainage,
better response to emergencies,
social benefits (user's satisfaction, less conflict),
environmental protection, and
improved co-ordination with power operations.
Most of these benefits result in obvious economic savings and some of them represent intangible benefits to
which it is difficult to assign a monetary value. Regardless, they all result in a better and more cost-effective water
resource project.
Present status of canal automation in India
To improve irrigation efficiency in general and to assure a reliable supply of water to users in particular, many
water resource projects in India, whether existing or new, have taken up the challenge to improve water
management by way of remote monitoring and controlling of various physical structures and parameters. In most
of the projects, it has been planned to select a segment of the existing canal system for a pilot project which will
study and analyse the benefits of improved water management systems and which can cover a larger area later on.
To describe the present status of canal automation in India, we will discuss the case studies of canal automation
on the following water resources projects:

1. the Chambal project in Madhya Pradesh,

2. the Khadakwasla project in Maharashtra,
3. the Majalgaon project in Maharashtra,
4. the RAJAD project in Rajasthan,
5. the Sardar Sarovar project in Gujarat and
6. the Tungabhadra project in Karnataka.
The Chambal project in Madhya Pradesh
The Chambal project is a multipurpose project, a joint venture of the states of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. It
is comprised of a cascade of reservoirs, i.e. the Gandhisagar reservoir in Madhya Pradesh, the Ranapratapsagar
reservoir in Rajasthan and the Jawaharsagar reservoir in Rajasthan, (with a powerhouse at the foot of each of the
reservoirs), and of a terminal barrage at Kota in Rajasthan, which has two main canals for irrigation purpose.
Total installed capacity of hydropower generation at the three dams is 386 MW. The state of Madhya Pradesh is
served by the Right Main Canal (RMC), which cuts across Rajasthan for about 130 km, then crosses over the
Parvati river and enters Madhya Pradesh with a design discharge of 110.4 cubic meters per second (cumecs) at
the Parvati aqueduct. The entire Chambal command area has been divided into seven administrative divisions,
namely Sheopur, Sabalgarh, Joura, Morena, Ambah, Gohad and Bhind.
The Chambal project was commissioned in 1961-62 with a projected irrigated area of 283 500 ha annually (85 050
ha for kharif and 198 450 ha for rabi crops). The maximum irrigation achieved so far was 188 307 hectares in
1977-78, and the minimum 124 016 ha in 1982-83. The average area under irrigation over the last fifteen years is
of 148 000 ha. Large areas at the tail-ends of the Ambah Branch, Morena Branch, Bhind Main canal and Mau
Branch canal have not received the benefit of canal irrigation since the commissioning of the project.
In the present system of operation of the Chambal canal network, the availability of water at the beginning of the
rabi season, i.e. on 15 September, is assessed. In the Chambal command area, water is allocated from crop season
to crop season, through an announcement called `Sinchai Ghosna', which is issued before or on the eve of the
crop season and contains figures of areas to be provided with water at the subdivision, block, tehsil, assembly and
branch-distributary levels. The names of the villages to be irrigated, and in each village of the channel and the
reduced distance from the heads up to which water will be provided, are also indicated. During the first fortnight,
the Right Main canal with all distributaries under its direct command, the Lower Main canal, the Morena Branch,
the Bhind Main and the Mau Branch canals are supplied with water. During the second fortnight, while they
continue to get water, the Ambah Branch canal in turn is supplied but all the direct command distributaries on
the Right Main canal are closed. During the third fortnight, the Right Main and Ambah Branch canals with all
their direct distributaries are supplied with water. The minors, sub-minors and fields get their water by
adjustments. Although the announcement is made at the start of the rabi season, it has not been possible, so far,
to really supply the allocated water and the tail-end users have always suffered. An analysis of pattern of deliveries
at the Parvati aqueduct indicates that the supplies have wide fluctuations daily, monthly and yearly, and also vary
according to the crops. Due to the unreliability of flows, many farmers are left guessing as to the quantity and
timing of the supplies they will receive.
A part of the Chambal canal system in Madhya Pradesh has been selected for a UNDP-funded pilot project, in
the Sabalgarh administrative division, and in association with the local Central Water & Power Research Station.
The Khadakwasla project in Maharashtra
The Khadakwasla irrigation project consists of three dams, viz. the Tanaji Sagar dam (Panshet dam) on the Ambi
river, the Veer Pasalkar (Warasgaon) dam on the Mose river and the Khadakwasla dam on the Mutha river. The
Khadakwasla dam is located downstream of the confluence of the Ambi and Mutha rivers, some 17 km west of
Pune city, near the village of Khadakwasla. The New Mutha Right Bank canal is a contour canal, with a design
discharge capacity of 58 cumecs. It is planned to irrigate 97 100 ha of gross command area, with 62 146 ha of
irrigated area over the district of Pune. The command is covered by 60 distributaries off-taking either directly
from the canal or from the Bhigvan branch (located about midway along the canal) and the Indapur branch in

which the New Mutha Right Bank canal tails.
The New Murtha Right Bank is a long canal, and the effect of a change made in the release of water at its head
will take time to be felt at the distributary heads downstream. A rough estimate is that it will take about 24 hours
for a change made at the head to get transmitted down to the tail. When a canal has to be run with requirements
down the line changing from day to day, operation becomes complicated for the following reasons:
1. Changes have to be made in the releases at the head of the canal in anticipation of the change of
demand (closing of running distributaries and opening of new ones) and associated travel time to the
various distributary off-takes.
2. When level changes occur down the main canal as a consequence of a change in release at its head,
the discharge into the distributaries will change. Therefore, unless close watch is kept on distributary
off-takes and gate settings are adjusted, deliveries into distributaries will not match what is planned.
The operating staff will tend to play safe and ensure that their distributaries are drawing more than
what is strictly required.
3. Gate settings at cross regulators will need to be adjusted to reduce fluctuation in water levels in the
different sections of the canal. The frequency of adjustment will depend on how releases into the
canal change to satisfy the changed demands at distributary off-takes.
The decision on the release of water into the New Mutha Right Bank canal from the reservoir is taken at the
main administrative headquarters, i.e. in Pune, which must decide whether it is appropriate to release the entire
amount of water determined based on the requirements arrived at from the operational schedule received from
the field, or to cut down on the requirements. The decision will be made in the light of the current storage
available in the reservoir and of an assessment of the likely demand and inflows in the reservoir for the rest of
the season, and of the storage that is desirable at the beginning of the next season.
The water delivery system as practised in the state of Maharashtra is known as the shejpali system. In this system,
at the beginning of the season the farmers make applications in prescribed forms for the irrigation of specific
areas. The Department of Irrigation accedes to the requests depending on the availability of water and other
relevant factors. In the shejpali irrigation delivery system, the distributary is considered as a unit, i.e. with all
minors and sub-minors if any is running for the same number of days as the distributary. The irrigation schedules
are prepared taking into account more or less uniform characteristics of the command, as it is very difficult in
practice to calculate the demand based on the condition of the various fields in the command. In the shejpali
system, the Department of Irrigation commits itself to providing adequate water at the outlet to meet the
irrigation requirement of a crop till maturity. What is adequate for the standing crop in the field is decided by the
farmer and the effectiveness of irrigation is judged by the degree to which the irrigation department is able to
fulfil its commitment to the farmer. For the success of this system, it is necessary to have reliable irrigation
supplies at least at the head of the distributaries.
The pilot project is conceived as one unit, integrating telemetry, communication, computers and decision support
software to improve system operations. It covers the operation of the New Mutha Right Bank canal and its
distributaries. Three agencies, i.e. the Department of Electronics of the central government, the Department of
Irrigation of the government of Maharashtra and CMC Ltd. are associated in the project.
The Majalgaon project in Maharashtra
The Majalgaon irrigation project is located in the Marathawada region of Maharashtra, south-east of Aurangabad,
in the valley of the Godavari river. It constitutes the downstream part of the Jayakwadi project, which is planned
to irrigate about 350 000 ha of cultivable command area. In this region, the Paithan dam on the Godavari has a
gross storage capacity of 2 950 Mcm, supplying water to the Paithan left bank and right bank canals, and the
Majalgaon dam on the Sindhphana river, with a gross storage capacity of 450 Mcm, is supplying water to the
Majalgaon right bank canal. The runoff of the Sindhphana basin is insufficient to meet the water requirements of
the Majalgaon project, and shortages are to be supplemented by additional releases from the Paithan dam.
Compared to other Indian states, Maharashtra is poorly endowed in water resources. Even with full exploitation

of the available water resources, the total area that could be brought under irrigation, including well irrigation,
would be about 34 percent of the total cultivable area. The water delivery schedule popularly known as the shejpali
system has been in practice in the state for over fifty years. In its present form, any change made at the head of a
canal to suit the changing demands down below takes a long time to be felt at the distributary. If there are
frequent changes in the demands on the distributary, the releases at the head reach must be changed accordingly,
and unless a very close watch is kept on the distributary off-takes and there are frequent gate settings
adjustments, the deliveries in the distributaries will not match what is anticipated.
To overcome the problem, the government of Maharashtra has implemented a system of volumetric water
distribution to the farmers' association on the Majalgaon project. This requires that the volumes, flows and levels
in the main and branch canals be controlled to suit the operational philosophy. Improved water control with the
help of constant water level gates, baffle distributors and remote monitoring and real-time computer-assisted
management control has been executed on the Majalgaon project.
The government of Maharashtra has introduced a pilot project to improve water control management on the
Majalgaon Right Bank canal from Km0 to Km165 in two successive phases. The first phase has covered the
entire 100km length of the canal and the entire length of its Ganga Masla branch. Technically it consists of a
combination of control and regulation techniques associated with remotely monitored computer-assisted control
on the main canal and local control using float gates, long crested weirs, baffle distributors and self-regulated
outlets on GMBC distributaries and minors.
The Majalgaon Right Bank canal has a design discharge capacity of 83 cumecs at its main head regulator. Ten
cross regulators are planned over its 100 km. The Ganga Mala branches off at about 8 km on the Majalgaon
Right Bank canal and has a designed discharge capacity of 9 cumecs. Upstream control with avio gates and baffle
distributors at the head gate of the Ganga Mala branch, along which nine duckbill weirs have been installed over
a 13km stretch for improved water control. The length of weir is about 50 m for a discharge of 9 cumecs.
The constant volume concept of operation will be used on the Majalgaon Right Bank canal. When it will be
extended beyond Km100 and the demand of irrigation water at main-head regulators will increase beyond 60
cumecs (as against a designed discharge of 83 cumecs), the canal will be operated on the concept of controlled
volume.
At each remote location, remote terminal units will be installed. Sensors will measure water level upstream and
downstream of the gate and at the centre of the pool. The gate position sensor will sense the position of each
gate in the control structure. Data will be transmitted by radio. The main control centre will be located at the
Majalgaon dam site and will have the usual hardware and software necessary for remote monitoring and control
functions.
Water will be supplied by volumetric allocation with a rotational water delivery system. User associations,
covering an area of about 200-300 ha, will receive water from the canal system and will distribute it to their
members on a rotation basis.
The second phase will be implemented on the remaining part of the Majalgaon Right Bank canal and its
distribution system, based on experience gained in the first phase. The pilot project is carried out under an Indo-
French co-operation programme in water resource management. The government of Maharashtra, in consultation
with the French consulting firm Gersar, has implemented the first phase of the project at a cost of Rs136.7
million.
The Rajasthan agricultural drainage (Rajad) project
The Chambal command area, in the south-eastern part of Rajasthan, serves an irrigated area of 229 000 ha from
storage facilities on the Chambal river and a diversion dam at Kota. The Left Main canal serves about 102 000 ha
of irrigated land and the Right Main canal 127 000 ha of irrigated land. In addition, the Right Main canal carries
water to irrigate an area in the adjacent state of Madhya Pradesh. The latter, which thus shares the water of the
Chambal river with Rajasthan, has installed a wireless radio network along the Right Main canal to monitor its

share of the water. This has proven to be a valuable tool in tracking flows along the initial 130 km of the Right
Main canal, which are in Rajasthan.
The Command Area Development (CAD) authorities of the Chambal and Indira Gandhi Naher projects aim to
have an improved sub-surface drainage and water management in the command area. An important part of water
management is the automation and remote monitoring system on the canal. The Chambal CAD authorities
recognize the value of canal automation and have initiated steps to install a voice communication radio network
that would put all parts of the command area within 20 km of a base station. The voice communication network
will consist of ten field base stations located at CAD offices throughout the command area. In addition there will
be 11 mobile units for senior staff to allow them to keep in contact with all stations when they are away from
their offices. A data communication network is also planned on the canal system to collect data related to water
levels and flow rates.
In a pilot project, four remote monitoring sites have been selected. From these, data will be transmitted to the
CAD office for monitoring and control. A head regulator gate on one of the distributaries which was of the slide
type and manually operated has been replaced by an automatic gate. To maintain constant water level in the
distributaries, duckbill weirs are planned to be installed at the location of an existing fall-cum-village road bridge
structure. The pilot project comes under an Indo-Canadian co-operative aid project and is being implemented by
the CAD authorities of the Chambal and Indira Gandhi Naher projects in consultation with Canadian experts.
The Sardar Sarovar project in Gujarat
The Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) project, currently under construction, is one of the largest multipurpose water
resource development projects in India. It will consist of a large concrete gravity dam on the Narmada river in
the state of Gujarat, a riverbed powerhouse (underground, with an installed capacity of 1200 MW), a canal-head
powerhouse (surface, with an installed capacity of 250 MW) and a widespread network of canals and drainage
channels as required to irrigate about 1.792 million ha of land out of the 3.428 million ha of the gross command
area. The command area of the project spreads over 12 districts and 62 tehsils (partially or fully) of the Gujarat
state. The canal water released from the Sardar Sarovar reservoir will pass through the 250MW canal-head
powerhouse located below the Vadgam saddle dam on the right rim of the reservoir near the Sardar Sarovar dam.
The water will then flow through four secondary ponds created by a series of rock-filled dams, which are
interconnected by open channels. These ponds provide diurnal balancing storage of the flows released through
the canal-head powerhouse to provide hydroelectric peak capacity. The 458km-long concrete-lined Narmada
Main canal will be one of the world's largest multipurpose water supply canals. It extends on the northern side
from the dam site up to the Gujarat-Rajasthan state border. The Narmada Main canal will have a design discharge
capacity of 1 134 cumecs at its head and it will taper down to 71 cumecs at the border. The canal is extended
further to irrigate parts of the Barmer and Jhalore districts of Rajasthan and also to provide domestic, municipal
and irrigation water supply. Its head regulator will control water deliveries through five 12.2 x 13.5 m radial gates.
The cross section of NMC at its head has a 73.1 m bottom width and a water depth of 7.6 m with a 2:1 inner
slope on either side. The flow velocity at the head of the canal with a designed discharge of 1 134 cumecs will be
1.69 metres per second.
The Narmada Main canal will supply water to a vast conveyance and delivery network comprised of branch
canals, distributaries, minors and sub-minors of a total length of more than 47 000 km. The canal system has
been designed to operate on the `controlled volume' concept for timely deliveries. A real-time computer-based
monitoring system and a state-of-the-art communication network will allow remote control operation of the
canal conveyance system to provide reliable and equitable distribution of water. In a 75-percent dependable year,
under full development, there will be approximately 9 million acre feet (Maf) of water delivered through this
system in Gujarat from the reservoir formed by the Sardar Sarovar dam.
From the Narmada Main, two major branch canals branch off, at Km264 and Km386, to convey water for
irrigation, domestic and municipal needs and for industrial uses. The Saurashtra Branch, which branches off at
Km264, is 104km-long and has a difference of 40 m over that length. This means that water needs to be lifted by
about 70 m to cover the command area and the entire Saurashtra region for the supply of drinking water. At

three fall sites, hydropower will be generated and used to lift water at five pumping sites. Similarly, on the
Kutchchh Branch canal, which branches off at Km386, there will be a series of falls and pumping plants to serve
the command area in Kutchchh and to cover the entire Kutchchh region for the supply of drinking water.
In a 75-percent dependable year and under full development, the Gujarat state will have approximately 9 Maf of
water to use from the Sardar Sarovar reservoir. Priority is to be given to the supply of drinking water and of
municipal water followed by industrial water and irrigation. Thus, about 1.06 Maf of water will be used for the
drinking and municipal water supply and for industrial use; 8 215 villages and 135 urban centres will receive water
for drinking purposes. About 7.94 Maf of water will be available for irrigation to cover a widespread command
area. It is planned to irrigate about 1.79 million ha of land, which means that water availability per unit area, at
the head of the main canal head regulator, will be about 55 m 3 .
The command area covered by the Kutchchh branch canal lies at a distance of about 800 km from the Sardar
Sarovar reservoir. The effect of change made in the release of water at the head of the Narmada Main canal will
take time to be felt downstream. A rough estimate is that it will take about 7 days for a change made at the head
to get transmitted down to a tail located 800 km away. The operation of the canal system becomes complicated if
operated in a conventional way, for the following reasons:
1. The canal water released from the Sardar Sarovar reservoir will pass through the 250 MW canal-head
powerhouse located below the Vadgam saddle dam on the right rim of the reservoir. As this
powerhouse is provided for hydroelectric peak requirements, it will be operated for about 8 to 10
hours a day. To provide diurnal balancing storage of flows released through the powerhouse and
water drawn into the canal system, a balancing reservoir is created upstream of the main canal head
regulator. A diurnal variation of about 3 m will be there in this reservoir, thus to control the
discharge into the main canal, the gates of the main canal head regulator will have to be operated
more frequently to take care of changes in water levels in the balancing reservoir.
2. Changes have to be made in the release not only at the head of the Narmada Main but also at the
head of the other main canals branching off it, in anticipation of changes in demand. This requires a
very close monitoring at all locations of the control structures.
3. When level changes occur down the Narmada Main canal as a consequence of a change in release at
its head, the discharge into the branch canals and hence the distribution system will change.
Therefore, unless close watch is kept on branch canal off-takes and gate settings are adjusted,
deliveries into the branch canals will not match what is planned.
4. Settings at cross regulators will need to reduce fluctuation in water levels in sections of the Narmada
Main and its branch canals. The frequency of adjustments will depend on how releases into the main
canal satisfy the changed demand downstream.
5. Pumping stations on the Saurashtra and Kutchchh branch canals can create emergency conditions
when they fail to draw their designed discharge due to either power failure or some mechanical fault
at the pumping plants. The design discharge of the Saurashtra Branch canal is 319 cumecs. When
such a heavy discharge is rejected, the water already released from the reservoir must be handled so
that it is not wasted and the main canal and respective branch canals are not overtopped.
Simultaneous gate operations of various control structures become essential in such a situation.
To overcome the above problems, the conveyance and delivery system is planned to be operated with a design
discharge capacity of up to and above 8.5 cumecs under the `controlled volume' concept. The operational plan is
designed to provide efficient, reliable and equitable water supplies to the users. The primary objectives are to:
respond quickly to changes in delivery requirements throughout the system;

minimize adverse hydraulic transients during flow changes;
provide fast response in unusual or emergency operation conditions by shortening the time between
detection, rectification and return to service;
operate the delivery system on an almost full-time basis;
make reliable deliveries of predetermined amounts of water to every service point in the command
area (a rotational water delivery system will result in not all supply points operating simultaneously);

and
achieve optimum irrigation efficiency commensurate with high agricultural production.
Operation of the Narmada canal system
Canal operation in general centres on the pivot point of the canal pool's water surface. The pivot point is the
location within a canal pool at which the depth remains constant while the water surface slope varies. The
Narmada canal system is planned to be operated on a controlled-volume basis by managing the volume of water
contained in each canal pool. There is no well-defined pivot point. The volume can be made to change to satisfy
operational criteria, allowing the pivot point to move within the pool. The water surface may sometimes rise or
fall without a pivot point, like a reservoir. Since the operation is based on volume, either flow or depth may be
used as the measured quantity. The Narmada canal system is also planned to work on the upstream operational
concept. The upstream operational concept is used when the upstream conditions or supply dictate how the
system is to be operated. As the availability of water for irrigation is limited to the availability of water in the
Sardar Sarovar reservoir, the upstream operational concept is used.
The operation of a canal system is accomplished primarily by controlling the flow through the check structure.
Flow charges which are initiated by gate movements create the translatory wave phenomenon. The Narmada
canal system is planned to be operated by the simultaneous control structure operating technique. Adjusting all
the canal check structures simultaneously can establish the new steady state flow condition in the canal system in
the shortest possible time.
The Narmada canal system is planned to be operated using the supervisory automatic control method. The
supervisory control method involves monitoring and control of the control structures from a central location
referred to as the main control centre. Monitoring is the collection of data from various sites on the canal system
and the presentation of this information for use in determining control actions. Data such as water level, gate
positions, flow and pump status are collected at each remote location, including check gate structures and
pumping plants. The information collected at all remote locations is transmitted to the control centre, where it is
analysed and presented in a suitable format. Control commands are then transmitted back to the remote sites,
creating control actions such as gate movements. Supervisory control enables control decisions to be based on
comprehensive information. A change in any portion of the system can be recognized promptly and the
appropriate control action taken. This capability maximizes the operational flexibility of a canal system.
The system is also planned to be operated on the upstream control concept. The control concept in general is
defined by the location of the information needed for control relative to the control structure. This information
can include the flow, depth or volume at one or more points in the canal system. In the case of the upstream
control concept, the control structure adjustments are based on information from upstream. The required
information could be measured by a sensor located upstream or based upon the upstream water schedule
established by the irrigation management authorities. Upstream control transfers the upstream water supply (or
inflow) downstream to points of diversion or to the end of the canal and is compatible with the upstream
operational concept.
The Narmada canal system is thus planned to be operated on the controlled volume method with an upstream
operational concept. The control action is initiated with an upstream control concept and with the supervisory
automatic control method. The simultaneous control structure operating technique will enhance the canal
operation. Based on these, for the purpose of irrigation management it is proposed to divide the 3.428 million ha
of gross command area into blocks of approximately 26 000 ha. The irrigation management data for each of the
blocks will be collected by a data collection centre, using very high frequency radio. One hundred thirty-two such
centres are planned. They will communicate data required for the regulation of branch canals to divisional
operational centres, which will be in charge of branch canals. Taking into account the limitations imposed from a
hydraulic and canal operation point of view, 15 divisional operational centres are planned. They, in turn, will
report to the main control centre, which will be in charge of the overall operation of the Narmada canal and will
be located near Gandhinagar.
The Narmada canal conveyance and delivery system of up to 8.5 cumecs designed discharge capacity has been

planned and designed to be operated on the controlled volume operational method with remote monitoring and
control system for its operation. The construction of the canal conveyance and delivery system in Phases I and II
of the project area is in full swing. The work in Phase I is about to be completed. One divisional operational
centre in Phase I of the command area will be selected to carry out the pilot project. It will cover about 100 km
in length over the canal system with some 120 flow control gates and about 0.15 million ha of irrigated area. The
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Co Ltd, in consultation with experienced consultants, will take up the task of
implementing the pilot project in the near future.
The Tungabhadra project in Karnataka
The Tungabhadra project was conceived and executed to serve the chronically drought-prone districts of Raichur
and Bellary of Karnataka, and the Anantpur and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh. To manage this project the
Tungabhadra Board was constituted by the Government of India in 1955. From the 2 300 Mm3 of water
expected to be developed by the project on average over the long term, Karnataka receives 1 515 Mm3 and
Andhra Pradesh 785 Mm3.
The Tungabhadra project involves three main canal systems, viz. on the right side (both a low-level unlined and a
high-level lined canal systems) and on left side (lined canal system), running for a total length of 750 km and
covering an irrigated area of more than 0.5 million ha.
The present canal operational procedure is based on the following principles:
1. Canal capacities are designed for average duties. If a canal serves areas of mixed crops, its capacity is
sufficient to provide authorized discharge for the seasons with the maximum requirement. In other
seasons it is operated at a reduced discharge.
2. Continuous flow is provided to the outlets so that, in principle, canals run continuously to provide a
specified discharge to the controlled outlets. If a full supply is not required, then its discharge can be
reduced.
3. Variable supply and flexibility are important operational objectives since variable discharge may be
required at any level, either to serve different localised areas in different seasons or to meet different
crop requirements within a season.
The flexibility provided in the present distribution system requires that gates at every control structure be adjusted
to respond to variable flows in the parent canal. For the system to work, it is necessary that the gate operators
perform their duties correctly and on time, and that there be no interference in the gate setting or in the flow
regime of the parent canal.
The pilot project has been executed in the state of Karnataka on the right bank high-level canal up to the
Karnataka-Andhra Pradesh state border. In this task, four agencies are associated. The Central Water
Commission of the government of India, the Tungabhadra Board, and Bharat Electronics Co Ltd, in consultation
with USAID experts, have executed the pilot project.
From the above case studies it can be noted that the Central Water Commission and the Department of
Electronics of the central government, various state governments and public- and private-sector companies have
entered programmes to improve water management on existing water resource projects by involving engineers
and scientists from various disciplines, all of them with the goal to satisfy the desire of end-users for reliable and
timely delivery of irrigation water. With the improvement in water management now being planned, it will be
possible to improve the irrigation efficiency at farm level and operational ease and flexibility at project level.
Cost aspect of canal automation in India, based on case studies
The financial and economic analysis of plans to automate irrigation canal systems implies complex technical
exercises that require the expertise of professional economists and financial analysts as well as engineers,
agronomists, land classifiers, soil scientists and other irrigation specialists. The financing of such plans, in most

cases, requires programmes and financial resources beyond the capability of water users. Financial and economic
considerations are therefore the key to the successful implementation of plans to automate irrigation canal
systems.
While financial and economic analyses are closely related, a distinction between the two is necessary. Economic
analysis is used to estimate total return on investment to society as a whole, without regard to who contributes
the resources and who obtain the benefits. The state government or the central government is interested in the
economic analysis of a canal automation project to justify disbursements. Financial analysis, on the other hand, is
used to determine the inflows and outflows of funds of project entities and of the farmers and other water users.
While economic analysis and justification may or may not be needed for a given canal automation project, its
financial feasibility is required for the successful implementation of the automation project.
Economic and financial analyses should not be limited to only the costs and benefits associated with operating
the project facilities. Improved irrigation systems and better water management by way of automated irrigation
canal systems provide each farmer with the ability to improve his on-farm management through flexible
scheduling. Cost savings to the farmer and benefits from increased crop yields, better quality of products and
ability to diversify crops must also be considered in the analysis.
The computation of the benefits of an automation project is quite complex. An automation project is undertaken
to improve irrigation systems so that they can meet enhanced operating criteria. Usually this implies increased
water volumes and improvements in conveyance, distribution and application efficiency. These, in turn, may
require the re-dimensioning of some structures and, if enough water is expected to be saved and additional land is
available nearby, may lead to an expansion of existing irrigation projects by increasing their command areas.
The decision to implement a control system should not be justified solely on tangible benefits. Intangible benefits
are significant on most canal projects. Estimating tangible benefits and properly describing intangible benefits
related to the need to upgrade a canal operation is essential when one examines the feasibility of a proposed
automation system.
Implementing automation on new projects is a comparatively simpler task than on existing projects. Built-in
constraints and limitations in existing projects must be identified, evaluated and answered on a project-by-project
basis. As these constraints are different in each project, their economic evaluation will also differ. It is not
possible to assess the cost of automation on existing projects by rule of thumb. In the case of a new project, one
can estimate a two-to-three percent cost for automation. In reality, the cost of civil, mechanical and electrical
engineering structures and components in water resources projects increases during the execution of the project,
the cost of electronic components either remains at the same level or decreases; thus, cost figures may come
down when the cost of the completed project is considered.
Improving the operation of the Mahi right bank canal
The feasibility study undertaken in March 1982 by the French consulting firm GERSAR on improving the
operation of the Mahi right bank canal concluded that it would be possible to improve the efficiency of the
system with automation. According to the study, the efficiency of the network at the time was 23 percent. The
irrigation authority proposed to introduce warabandi in the command area without any improvement in regulation.
This would increase efficiency to 28 percent. The study recommended to have "dynamic regulation" on the canal
system implemented in two stages. At the end of the first stage the efficiency of the system would increase to 34
percent and to 44 percent by the end of the second stage. The pilot project was selected to cover 100 km of the
main canal and 4 400 ha of the distribution network. The cost of automation was estimated at Rs500 per ha on
the main canal and Rs1 700 per ha on the distribution network, as of 1982.
Canal automation on the Sardar Sarovar project
The feasibility study presented in April 1990 by the Gujarat Communications & Electronics Co Ltd on a control
and communication network for the Narmada canal proposed a supervisory control system based on the
controlled volume concept. The Narmada main canal has a designed discharge capacity of 1 134 cumecs at its

head tapering down to 71 cumecs at the Gujarat-Rajasthan border and it would be operated on the automation
concept. The main canal has 42 branch canals. Most of them would have a designed discharge capacity of more
than 8.5 cumecs. Optical fibre would be the communication medium. A canal network with a designed discharge
capacity of less than 8.5 cumecs would be operated by local manual control. Information on irrigation water
demand would be sent to a data collection centre through very high frequency radio. The data collection centre
would be the terminal point at which the design discharge capacity of the canal system would be of 8.5 cumecs.
The cost of the control system, which includes the cost of the communication system up to the village service
areas, was estimated at Rs1 970 million, for a total project cost of Rs64 800 million.
As the command area of the project covers 1.863 million ha, the cost per hectare works out at Rs1057. This
figure can go up if the project authority decides to extend the canal automation to the grid with a discharging
capacity below 8.5 cumecs. It is difficult to come out with a realistic figure of the cost of canal automation until
automation has been implemented. Also, in the case of this project, the cost of civil, mechanical and electric
works incurred for the control structures is not included in the cost of canal automation, as it is a component of
the overall project cost.
The breakdown of the cost estimate of Rs1970 million is as follows:
Sr. No Description Cost (Rs million) Remark

1 Control system (computer system, 746.0 Up to 8.5 cumecs discharge
remote terminal units sensors and capacity canal system
controllers)
2 Fibre optic communication 964.0 Up to 8.5 cumecs discharge
network capacity canal system
3 VHF Communication Network 186.0 Below 8.5 cumecs discharge
capacity canal system
4 Time division multiplexing 74.0 Up to 8.5 cumecs discharge
network capacity canal system
Total 1 970.0
Dynamic regulation on the Majalgaon right bank canal
A pilot project of "dynamic regulation" has been selected for the Majalgaon right bank canal, covering 100 km in
length for the main canal, 18 km for the Ganga Massla branch canal and its distribution systems.
The initial cost estimate of the pilot project, at the 1992-93 price level, was Rs30 million plus 7.3 million French
Francs. At the conversion rate of FF1 = Rs7.5, the total estimated cost of the pilot project was Rs84.75 million.
The detail of expenditure incurred on the various components of the pilot project is as follows: Rs17.8 million
for civil engineering works, Rs28.7 million for mechanical engineering works, Rs90.1 million for electrical and
electronic components. This means a total expenditure of Rs136.6 million. The cost of dynamic regulation works
out at Rs1 663 per ha on the Majalgaon canal, Rs2 961 per ha on the Ganga Massla branch canal and Rs3 755
per ha on the Minor branch canal.
The cost of canal automation on an existing irrigation project and on a new project cannot be compared, as the
built-in constraints in an existing irrigation project will not only limit the degree of automation but also increase
the cost by way of remodelling the existing canal systems. It can be concluded that the cost of automation on a
main canal can vary from Rs1 500 to Rs2 000 per ha and that on a secondary canal from Rs3 000 to Rs4 000 per
ha.
The cost of improved water control methods depends on the degree of automation desired. Even though
supervisory control may amount to about one and a half percent of the project cost, it is not desirable to directly

employ the said technique. When new technology is applied, one must keep in mind that high technology by
itself has not been found to be very effective. It has to be matched by a proper environment and by proper user
response. A farmer can receive the maximum possible benefits if there is flexibility in water distribution in terms
of frequency, rate and duration. But this may not be practicable in our irrigation canal systems, as water has
become a scarce commodity. If we are in a position to offer reliable water supplies to the farmers for irrigation,
the goal to improve our water management plan can be considered as achieved. Water management is now
viewed as a scientific art. If, by way of automation, the irrigation management authority is in a position to offer
reliable water supplies and thereby boost the credibility of an organization, what monetary value can we assign to
credibility?
Conclusion
The management of irrigation systems has gained importance over the last five decades due to a tremendous
increase in irrigated area in India, primarily as a result of massive investments in new and existing surface
irrigation projects. There has been a growing realization of possible improvement in water management for a
more efficient use of available water resources. The potential of information technology applications for
improved irrigation system management was realized long ago, but concerted efforts on this front have only been
made in the last ten years. The use of computers, communication and information to control irrigation systems
will yield many benefits, resulting in obvious economic savings and in intangible benefits whose value cannot be
measured in monetary terms.
Rehabilitation and modernization of the existing water resource projects can be carried out under three main
headings, engineering, agronomy and administration.
The engineering side includes modernization and rehabilitation of all headwork and their replacement where they
have outlived their usefulness, and modernization of canals, canal structures, in particular the regulating devices,
provision of additional cross regulators, permanent outlets and on-farm development works such as field
channels, field drainage and land levelling.
The agronomic side includes the review of current cropping patterns, scientific assessment of crop water
requirements to upgrade the system to meet the new demand, adoption of high-yielding varieties, propagation of
proper cultural practices and so on.
The administrative side includes the consolidation of land, volumetric supply of irrigation water, changes in water
rate policy and the like.
All of this can be achieved by improved water management at farm level, keeping in mind the existing constraints
of the physical system and its operational constraints.
It is easier to plan and design a new project to be operated on the canal automation concept than to implement
that concept in existing water resource projects. Physical and operational constraints must be evaluated and based
on the impact of each constraint, the dynamic system design approach will have to be formulated to produce an
economical technical solution.
With the exception of Sardar Sarovar, on all projects where canal automation is either planned or being
implemented, it is done basically with a view to carry out the remote monitoring of the system through either
manual control or local automatic control to achieve reliability in water flows. As the systems have their own
constraints, the first step cannot be better than the one planned and it should not be treated as the final step, as
we have to achieve an irrigation efficiency of about 60 percent in times to come.
Water is no longer defined as a natural resource but as a commodity, the value of which has been recognised
both at administrative and farm levels. Unless reliability in irrigation is achieved, all other efforts to boost the
irrigated agricultural sector will not reach the required goal. With limited water resources, it is now the
responsibility of the engineers to create water which can be used on farm by reducing the operational and

conveyance losses in the system.
Inadequate water in quantity, time and space is the primary constraint on agricultural production. However, when
water reaches an outlet in an irrigation system, we cannot afford to remain despondent or indifferent to its
proper distribution. Experience teaches us that inefficient water management below outlets not only results in lag
of use, but also leads to serious legal complications due to inequity in water distribution. Normally, tail-end users
are those who do not get their legitimate share of water. Furthermore, the farmers generally irrigate their farms
with as much water as possible and as frequently as possible whenever water is available. This practice cannot be
continued when water for irrigation is insufficient. Application of more water to crops does not necessarily mean
better yields; on the contrary, it may lead to problems of waterlogging and thereby adversely affect crop yields.
There is considerable interest among farmers in technologically and economically advanced countries over the use
of personal computers to implement their own irrigation scheduling programmes. Data collection equipment
gathers necessary details about evapotranspiration, rainfall and irrigation. The irrigator selects the parameters of
allowable soil water depletion and application depth. Irrigation scheduling forecasts the date and amount of the
next irrigation, but does not check the ability of the distribution system to supply the required flow.
Though the below-par performance of an irrigation system is primarily attributed to inefficiency in water
distribution below the outlet, it is not the only factor. Problems also lie in the main system operation, and reliable
supply of water to the outlet is indeed a prior requirement for success of any management scheme below outlet.
Water conveyance could be readily made automatic from the main canal headwork for the scheduling of irrigation
at farm level. It requires linkage of the actual requirements of the irrigated crop or plant to the farm outlet as well
as to the source of supply.
Recent advances in irrigation have related irrigation scheduling to the complex climate-crop-soil relationship.
Increased knowledge of soil and plant characteristics combined with better methods of measuring soil moisture
content and estimating soil moisture depletion are available to predict with greater accuracy the time and actual
quantity of water needed for the next irrigation. The sensor element for measuring the prevailing soil moisture
content could be a commercially available instrument or even a trained technician. The information could then be
fed into an automatic data-processing digital computer which has available in its memory the information
concerning the characteristics of the soil such as its moisture-holding capacity, the type of plant and its maturity,
an estimate of evapotranspiration and many other parameters which may affect the quantity and timing of the
next irrigation. A digital computer using many reference inputs determines the irrigation schedule, which is then
provided to the computer centre controlling the canal conveyance and delivery system to update the weekly and
daily schedule of irrigation as set up at the start of the season, based on the data available then. Thus the
assessment of water needed to be released into the main canal can be forecast on a scientific basis, and this will
allow a more flexible operation of the canal system. Linkage of real-time data collection and monitoring of the
climate-, crop- and soil-related parameters with the canal automation of the conveyance and distribution system
is the ultimate goal, and use of information technology below outlet level will be assigned equal priority. The
socio-economic conditions of the farmers and the scientific use of water to satisfy crop water requirements will
determine the success of the complete approach of implementing automation from headwork to farm level.

Intervention analysis of an irrigation system using a structured system concept
R. Sakthivadivel1 , S. Thiruvengadachari2 and Upali A. Amarasinghe 1

1 IWMI - 2 IWMI Consultant (former NRSA)
Abstract
Modernization with a structured system concept is increasingly adopted in irrigation improvement programmes in the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere
to alleviate the burden of operating the system. This paper evaluates the performance of the Bhadra reservoir project in India - before, during and after the
introduction of modernization with such a concept. The performance analysis, supported by data generated by remote-sensing techniques, office records,
field visits and farmer surveys, focused on water management, agricultural productivity and farmer participation and perceptions. The analysis of IRS IC
satellite wide field sensor data on 20 overpass dates during the rice growth cycle of the most recent rabi season proved particularly valuable to evaluate
water distribution between the distributary commands.
The concept of a structured system and equitable supply-based technology, central to the National Water Management Project intervention in the Bhadra
project, did not succeed for various reasons analysed in this paper. The analysis indicates among other factors that water use since then has increased as a
result of the cropping pattern being dominated by water-intensive crops such as rice during the rabi season. Preferential allocation to head end of
command continues and inequity sets in within the distributary commands. The tail-end water supply deprivation is partially offset by farmers practising
deficit irrigation. The kharif and rabi seasons did not come early, so there was water saving. Farmers' organization and participation in decision-making at
scheme level and water distribution at distributary level and below are very low. However, agricultural productivity has not registered a significant decline
since before the intervention of the National Water Management Project.
The absence of continuing support mechanisms by way of institutional arrangements and effective farmer participation and involvement in implementing
the operation plan has been the major cause of the decline in water management, which has slid back to quasi demand-based supply, and in productivity
per unit of water. Strong farmer involvement thus holds the key to sustainable performance.
Introduction
The structured system concept in irrigation projects is about maintaining control of the water flow through the use of proportional devices without human
intervention, intermittent water supply in the distributary canals and a systematic operation plan. The concept advocated by the World Bank (Shanan, 1992)
is being increasingly adopted in the Indian subcontinent in the rehabilitation and modernization of irrigation projects, some of which have been under
operation for more than five years after withdrawal of external aid. A holistic performance evaluation of such systems, especially of how well they have
been sustained after closure of external credit, is of great significance not only to India but also to other developing countries, given dwindling financial
allocations for irrigation operations, maintenance and management, increasing competition for water and interference by vested interests.
The structured system concept is central to the World Bank-funded National Water Management (NWM) project, which covered some 80 schemes in 11
states in India during 1988-1995. Subsequent to the NWM project, the concept was extended to the ongoing Water Resources Consolidation project in the
states of Tamil Nadu, Orissa and others. In view of its widespread adoption there is a pressing need to evaluate the adoption of the structured system
concept in improving irrigated agricultural performance. This paper attempts to evaluate the Bhadra reservoir project in the state of Karnataka, which was
one of the earliest to adopt the structured system concept under the NWM project. The main objective of this paper is to carry out a comparative analysis
of the project before, during and after the NWM project. While the main focus will be on water distribution and agricultural productivity, the analysis will
also briefly cover other relevant issues such as farmer participation, monitoring and evaluation, and training. The lessons learned could be of use for future
implementation of such projects.
The paper builds upon the 1995 evaluation by the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), which focused on water distribution, agricultural
productivity, training and farmer participation up to the 1993-94 rabi season. That study found that farmer participation had shown no significant progress
and planned farmer organizations had not been created, water distribution along the distributaries had improved, and significant improvements in
agricultural output and in the value of that output occurred after NWMP was introduced. IIMI has now revisited the project to evaluate the lingering
impact of NWMP two years after external aid stopped in 1995.
The analysis will address the following questions:
Has there been a decline in irrigated area, change in cropping pattern or in land and water productivity of rice, particularly in the tail-end
areas in recent years since external inputs stopped?
Has water management deteriorated in terms of more water being used, head-to-tail preferential allotment or use, irrigation seasons and crop
calendar changed, and the canal operation schedule being different?
What is the current status of water user associations?
A noteworthy feature of the comparative analysis is the application of satellite remote-sensing techniques to generate objective and de-aggregated
information on agricultural productivity during the rabi season, particularly on rice productivity per unit of land. Multiple-date data from the recently
launched IRS IC satellite during the 1997 rabi season also provided indications of equity and reliability of the water distribution between the distributary
commands. Ground data were obtained from office records, field visits and farmer surveys.
The comparative study argues that the successful operation of a structured system, particularly in a water-rich environment, is complex and requires realistic
planning, rigorous implementation (involving the wholehearted participation of farmers) and a mechanism for sustaining the benefits of intervention after
cessation of external aid. The conclusions are supported by a critical analysis of proposed NWM interventions for improved water management and
analysis of actual water distribution and agricultural productivity across the command area and through the years during the implementation of the NWM
project and since the cessation of aid.

The Bhadra reservoir project
The Bhadra reservoir project (Fig 1) was built between 1946 and 1966. The reservoir has a gross storage capacity of 2 025 Mm3 , a live storage of 1 608
Mm3 and a surface area of 11 200 ha. An annual withdrawal of 1 747 Mm3 (61.7 TMC), including reservoir evaporation losses, was awarded to the project
by the Krishna River Tribunal, with 1 400 Mm3 specific to the right bank canal, whose command is covered under the NWM project. The NWM project
was implemented during 1987-89 and most of the physical rehabilitation work was completed by that time. The estimated cost of the project is Rs5 500 per
ha (US$160/ha) at 1994 prices. However, external funding for operation, maintenance and management was continued up to 1995. Three periods - pre-
intervention up to 1988, intervention from 1989 to 1995 and post-intervention thereafter - are considered for analysis of the performance.
Figure 1. Location of the Bhadra project command area
The right bank canal, with a full supply discharge of 75 cumecs, commands an area of 92 360 ha and has 29 direct distributaries, which irrigate 17 050 ha.
The Anvery Branch canal, watering 6 320 ha, branches off at Km76.4 of the right bank canal. Further along, at Km103, the right bank canal bifurcates into
the Malebennur Branch, benefiting 23 710 ha, and the Davangere Branch, which waters 45 280 ha. Administratively the whole right bank canal command
area is divided into three divisions: Bhadravathi, with three subdivisions; Malebennur, with four subdivisions; and Davangere, with four subdivisions.
The annual rainfall in the command area is about 800 mm and decreases toward the tail end. Most of the rainfall is concentrated during the south-west
monsoon period of June to September. The mean monthly evapotranspiration is equal to or below rainfall during July to October, but is substantially above
it during the rest of the year. Even during the south-west monsoon period, breaks in the monsoon are frequent, necessitating supplemental irrigation. The
command area gently rolls with moderate slopes. Red soil covers 60 percent of the command area. The majority of the holdings are less than 1 ha and are
generally split into 2 or 3 segments.
The National Water Management project
The main objective of the National Water Management project was to increase productivity and farm income in the existing irrigation scheme through a
more reliable, predictable and equitable irrigation service. This would be achieved by developing the institutional capacity to plan, implement and monitor
improved operation and maintenance practices and providing low-cost infrastructure improvements to support the proposed operational plan. The
improved water management would come from more systematic canal operation, best use of available rainfall, reduction of irrigation wastage and
optimization of the cropping season particularly during the rabi season, and reduction of crops with high irrigation demands by manipulating the frequency
of irrigation.

Before the introduction of the NWM project, rice was grown wherever possible. Water availability was good in the distributaries directly branching off the
right bank canal and in the head reaches of the branch canals. Irrigation supply was very unreliable in tail reach areas, leading to cultivation of mainly
semidry crops. The cropping seasons were kharif from July to November and rabi from January to May. The NWM project aimed at a better use of water
resources by providing irrigation supply starting from May, which would enable a better use of rainfall by the kharif crops and would lower the irrigation
requirement for the rabi crop, which it would be possible to sow in November. This plan required a carryover storage of 250 Mm3 in the reservoir for
irrigation supply in May and part of June. The seasonal calendar proposed under the NWM project was kharif extending from 15 May to 15 October (153
days) and rabi between 15 November and 15 April (121 days).
The assumed cropping plan of the right bank canal command envisaged 100 percent cropping intensity in the kharif season. In the rabi season, rice was to
be excluded by releasing water to the canal intermittently during the first two months. But even with 90 percent of the area under semi-dry crops, peak
irrigation requirements in the dry season were so high that within the capacity limitations of the canal, only 75-percent intensity could be achieved. The
distribution policy, as incorporated in the staff appraisal report, envisaged that the command would be divided into four zones and every year one zone,
selected in rotation, would be left out of rabi irrigation.
Under the NWM concept, the available water resources were allocated proportionally within the command area. In principle, each farmer received his share
based on the acreage he either owned or rented, irrespective of the crops grown and irrespective of farm location.
In order to prevent the upper parts of the command from monopolizing the water withdrawal to the disadvantage of the lower command, distributaries
and lower level channels were to be so sized with proportional outlets that they would not draw more than an equitable share of the capacity of the main
canal. The NWM project proposed the establishment of a structured distribution system below the turnout from the right bank canal and branch canals in
the distributaries and minors and installation of a network of flow measurement structures at strategic locations. In Bhadra, the level of structuring was
restricted to distributary, i.e. branch canal outlets leading to distributaries were operated as non-structured (manual) systems. A scheme-level committee,
with the participation of the Irrigation Department, Command Area Development authorities, the Agriculture Department and farmers, would meet before
each irrigation season to approve the operational plan and define the rules for implementation, and again meet after each season to evaluate the operation.
Systematic linkages were to be developed between the operation-and-maintenance agency, other government agencies and farmers. Operation and
maintenance were to be strengthened by setting up a main canal operating unit with computer facilities.
The operational plan at the scheme level would be the basis for monitoring system operations. Regular reports would be submitted to the project
committee on the seasonal and annual operations (water delivery, irrigation efficiency, cropped area, farmer satisfaction) in order to evaluate performance.
The subsequent seasonal operation plan would be modified using this feedback. Thus the scheme level monitoring and evaluation would be an essential
element of NWMP intervention.
Training would cover orientation training for senior officers, training in planning for the staff of operation and maintenance units, training in design for
engineers, and implementation and operation training for scheme-level officers and field workers. Farmers would be trained to understand NWM concepts
to lead to their acceptance and create awareness of their own responsibilities. The NWM project considered farmer participation very important to the
success of a scheme operation. Effective participation was to be achieved by holding meetings with farmers to discuss NWM plans and to modify the plans
to suit specific situations, organizing a farmer committee at each outlet and higher level committees for each minor and distributary canal, and through
farmer training.
Basic data
Historic and current-season data on reservoir release and distribution in branch and distributary canals has been collected from the Bhadra Reservoir
Project offices. Agricultural productivity data in terms of total irrigated area, area under rice and other crops and rice productivity per unit of land were
obtained through the digital analysis of satellite data of the 1986-87 and subsequent rabi seasons. A satellite inventory for the 1994-95 and 1996-97 rabi
seasons which was not available at the time of the 1995 IIMI evaluation has been used in the study. This data available at pixel level can be aggregated for
any desired aerial unit such as distributary command or at branch canal level. Since crop-cutting experiment data for the 1996-97 rabi season for sample
rice plots was not available during the study, a satellite-based rice yield model was developed by normalizing the rice yield model of the 1992-93 rabi season
to the current season (Appendix 1). An additional feature of the satellite inventory of the 1996-97 season is the analysis of 20 IRS IC satellite wide-field
sensor data sets (with a repeatability of five days compared to 22 days for IRS-2A and IB) between February and June 1997. The average wide-field sensor-
based normalized difference vegetation index for each distributary command plotted against time represents the rice growth profile during the rabi season
and enables comparative analysis of rice conditions through the season and between distributary commands.
A farmer survey covering 105 farmers in seven distributaries (one each in the head and tail end of the Right Bank Canal direct command, one each in the
head and tail end of the Malebennur Branch and one each in the head, middle and tail end of the Davangere Branch) was conducted in April 1997 (Figure
1). Typically, in each distributary three villages were selected, one each in the head, middle and tail reaches; the selection of five farmers in each village was
based on village records and distributed between small and large farmers. A structured questionnaire was given to the farmers to fill in, and the data
organized in a data base for further analysis. Interaction with the water user associations has made it possible to evaluate their current status and
effectiveness.
Application of satellite remote-sensing techniques
The earliest satellite remote-sensing application for de-aggregated irrigation inventory in India was in the Bhadra project (Thiruvengadachari and
Sakthivadivel, 1997). The methodology, developed and refined since 1992, has been applied in the Bhadra project to generate de-aggregated information on
the cropping pattern and rice productivity per unit of land right up to the reach of a distributary for the rabi seasons from 1987 to 1997. An important
application is the development of a rice yield model linking the satellite-derived normalized difference vegetation index to the harvested rice yield in sample
plots. A further development is the extension of such spectral yield relationship from one year to another through radiometric normalization of satellite
data (appended). In addition to area and yield data, the spatial variability in the rice transplantation calendar could be captured through the analysis of
multiple-date satellite data through the season. Satellite remote-sensing data supported by ancillary information have been applied in a geographic
information system environment to analyse system performance and to conduct diagnostic analysis of the Bhadra irrigation project.
An important recent development is the improved capability for through-the-season analysis with wide-field sensor data of 180 m spatial resolution and
five-day revisit period since December 1995 from IRS IC and since September 1997 from IRS ID satellites. During the 1996-97 rabi season, 19 rounds of
cloud-free coverage were obtained and the normalized difference vegetation index profiles were generated and analysed for spatial homogeneity in rice
growth and health status.

The NWMP planning process: a critical analysis
The project report ventures that optimum water use would be achieved through more systematic canal operation making the best possible use of the
available rainfall and reducing irrigation wastage, optimization of the cropping season, particularly rabi, and reduction of the crop area with high irrigation
demand by manipulating irrigation frequency. This has not been completely or adequately addressed under NWMP proposals for intervention in the Bhadra
project. Significant deficiencies including unrealistic assumptions and incomplete attention to details have vitiated the planning process and led to
unsatisfactory impact during and after implementation. While equity is ensured when the water supply is proportional to the area irrespective of the crops
grown, the assumed cropping pattern helped in the determination of expected water requirements and sizing of canal capacities. The catch here is that the
assumed cropping pattern was unrealistic.
The high rainfall in the upper command (an annual rainfall of 950 mm is normal in Bhadravathi compared to 650 mm in tail-end Davangere) makes rice
the preferred crop but it leads to spatial variability in cropping pattern during the rabi season. The assumption of excluding rabi rice is doomed to fail
without strict adherence to the operational schedule of this traditional rice-growing area. Thus the more realistic assumption of a spatially varying cropping
pattern and an alternate definition of equity by changing priorities for assured water supply in the two seasons would have had better implementation
potential. A careful analysis of past cropping responses to irrigation supplies and rainfall pattern, and consultation with farmer groups, would have resulted
in a more realistic cropping pattern. The steps for achieving the farmer consensus and participation necessary for effective supply management have not
been sufficiently detailed, nor have specific funds been provided.
In order to use rainfall effectively, the canal supply needs to be variable and capable of adjustment. The NWM project, in contrast, proposed that the
branch canals be designed with a capacity equal to the sum of the capacities of off-taking distributaries (with allowance for losses), and be operated at
constant maximum flow. This would mean that if a distributary under a branch canal is closed due to lesser demand, the excess flow would just get
redistributed among other distributaries or run downstream. In either case no saving would result.
When the main canal is operated at varying flows, closing a distributary can result in saving only if there is a corresponding change in the release at the
right bank canal head regulator or by opening a closed distributary of similar capacity. This requires a tightly operated system with excellent communication
facilities and an effective decision-making system. The NWM project did not propose to develop such support mechanisms. Thus the assumption of water
saving under the project was defeated at the planning stage itself.
Effective use of rainfall and consequent reduced reservoir withdrawals were also to be achieved by advancing the kharif sowing to mid-May by providing
irrigation from storage carried over from the previous water year. This was corroborated by a simulation study showing that the carryover storage of 250
Mm3 , including storage required to meet all the evaporation losses from the reservoir, was available every year during the 1974-1984 period. The rabi
sowing correspondingly would be advanced to November, reducing crop water requirements in that season.
The operational plan proposed running the right bank canal continuously during the advanced kharif season. This would result in the withdrawal of 985
Mm3 from the reservoir. The withdrawal in the rabi season with three initial cycles of on-off operations is computed at 674 Mm3 . The annual withdrawal
would thus be 1 659 Mm3 , and with 175 Mm3 allocated to the canal and reservoir evaporation of 172 Mm3 , the total withdrawal works out at 2 006 Mm3
against an allocation of 1 747 Mm3 by the Krishna River Tribunal. Any saving would be only by operating the main canal with a varying flow and, as
mentioned earlier, this was not an effective proposition.
Comparative analysis of performance: before, during and after intervention
This section will attempt to compare the performance during and after implementation against what prevailed before 1988. The main focus will be on
water management, agricultural productivity and farmer perceptions, with lesser attention to other NWMP elements. The collapse of the guide wall at the
entrance of the right bank canal in September 1991 marks a change from the prevailing 75 percent zoning to the irrigation of the whole area in the rabi
season. Therefore the performance during the period from 1992 to 1995 is taken to represent the impact during implementation, unless otherwise specified.
The post-implementation period is considered to be after 1995.
Water management
The start of the canal operation was always delayed during the pre-intervention period; it was in time as planned during the intervention period and up to
the 1995 rabi season and advanced beyond kharif 1995 (Table 1). The actual number of days the canal was operated - as against the actual number of days
planned - also varies, especially during the post-intervention period. Substantial deviations from NWM postulates against the actual planned and operated
water distribution schedule are seen for all the three periods investigated. The advancing of the kharif season to 15 May, and consequently of the rabi season
to 15 November, as contemplated in the original proposal, was not achieved, and the seasonal calendar highly varied from year to year, more so in the
kharif season. The start of the kharif season has been delayed particularly since 1994-95 because of monsoon vagaries. The gap between the planned and
actual withdrawal from the reservoir is shown in Figure 2. Water use during the rabi season became more critical when the 25 percent zoning policy under
the NWM project was abandoned in 1992-93, and the whole right bank canal command was provided irrigation supplies. The excess water use in the rabi
season thus increased, against the computed rabi allocation of 674 Mm3 , from 19 percent in 1992-93 to more than 30 percent after 1994-95, compared to
35 percent in the pre-NWM years (Table 2). Although withdrawals during kharif were less than those stipulated in the NWM project proposals, the annual
withdrawals steadily increased between 1992-93 and 1996-97 (0 to 5 percent). The marginal decrease in excess withdrawal in 1996-97 was due to poor
rainfall in the Bhadra catchment area (the area received 1 245 mm in 1996 compared to the 1 569 mm normal rainfall), which resulted in lower reservoir
storage levels in that year. Thus the NWM objective of restricting water use within the tribunal allocation was not achieved, as water use increased as of
1992-93. The rather significant increase in water use since 1994-95 is perhaps the result of the physical deterioration of the system due to inadequate
maintenance, with more water needed to push supplies to the whole command.
Table 1. Irrigation schedule : planned and actual
No Year season Planned schedule Actual schedule

Start date No of days of canal Start date No of days of canal operation
operation
1 1986 Rabi 1 Jan 64 1 Jan 91
2 1986 Kharif 5 Jul 139 7 Jul 148
3 1987 Rabi 15 Dec 138 22 Dec 153

4 1987 Kharif 15 Jun 80 29 Jun 98
5 1988 Rabi 28 Nov 72 11 Jan 88
6 1988 Kharif 5 Jul 126 7 July 139
average Rabi 6 Jan 91 8 Jan 111
7 Kharif 8 Jul 133 9 Jul 144
8 1989 Rabi 1 Jan 94 2 Jan 125
9 1989 Kharif 15 Jun 146 16 Jun 144
10 1990 Rabi 1 Dec 110 4 Dec 129
11 1990 Kharif 5 Jun 123 12 Jun 149
average 1991 Rabi 5 Jul 102 6 Jul 161
12 Rabi 1 Dec 125 1 Dec 141
13 Kharif 25 Jun 142 27 Jun 148
14 1991 Kharif 27 Dec 123 28 Dec 100
15 1992 Kharif 26 Jun 149 26 Jun 134
16 1993 Rabi - 126 18 Dec 151
17 1993 Kharif 21 Aug 160 13 July 164
18 1994 Rabi 22 Jan 142 27 Dec 137
19 1994 Kharif 30 Jul 153 11 Jul 150
20 1995 Rabi 18 Jan - 1 Jan 161
21 1995 Kharif 92 147
22 1996 Rabi 103 158
average 1996 Kharif 124 143
1997 Rabi 118 147
Rabi 111 155
Kharif 108 145
NWMP planned Kharif: 153 days - Rabi: 121 days
Table 2. Excess withdrawals from reservoir
Year Excess withdrawal

(% planned under the NWM project)
Annual Rabi season
1986-87 1.1 35.1
1992-93 - 19.2
1993-94 4.2 21.1
1994-95 4.7 30.0
1995-96 5.2 32.0
1996-97 4.8 26.7
With reference to 1 659 Mm3 planned under NWMP for annual withdrawal, and 674 Mm3 for rabi withdrawal
Table 3. Water shares among branch canals and ratio of actual-to-nominalshare
Right bank canal Anvery Malebennur Davangere

Season Total discharge Actual Act/ Actual Act/ Actual Act/ Actual Act/
share nom share Nom share nom share nom
MCM % % % % % % % %

nominal share (as 22.6 6.5 24.4 46.5

designed by NWM
project)
Kharif
1986 767.4 19.1 85 9.6 148 25.3 104 46.0 99
1992 822.7 22.1 98 9.4 145 23.5 96 45.0 97
1993 914.6 24.4 108 9.3 143 22.5 92 43.8 94
1994 861.5 20.1 89 9.6 148 24.1 99 46.2 99
1995 856.5 26.1 115 8.2 126 23.5 96 42.2 91
1996 884.0 28.7 127 8.2 126 21.5 88 41.6 89
Rabi
1987 911.5 25.2 112 8.4 129 23.3 95 43.1 93
1993 804.4 25.1 111 8.4 129 23.6 97 42.9 92
1994 816.0 24.7 109 8.6 132 23.4 96 43.3 93
1995 876.7 20.2 89 8.9 137 21.5 88 40.4 87
1996 890.4 23.6 104 8.9 137 23.5 96 44.0 95
1997 849.2 27.2 120 8.1 125 22.4 92 41.9 90
The NWM project also postulated equity, with water delivered proportionally to the area irrigated, irrespective of the cropping pattern. Deviation from
equity is seen, with preferential deliveries to the head reaches at the expense of the tail-end portions (Table 3). The direct commands under the right bank
canal and under the Anvery Branch are drawing more than their share, with marked decrease in water receipts in Malebennur and Davangere branch canals.
The latter seems to be the main sufferer, with only a 41.9 percent allocation against 46.5 percent postulated under the NWM project and less even than in
the pre-project 1986-87 rabi season. The inequity evident even during the kharif season indicates that the higher rainfall contribution in the head reach is
not being appropriately used. The inequity between the head and tail reaches has also increased in recent years. The similarity in inequity in kharif and rabi
seasons seems to be due to the fact that the extent of rice cultivation in both seasons is similar.
In addition to preferential allocation to head-end branch canals, inequity also exists between distributaries under each branch canal, though to different
extents. The vegetation index profiles derived from IRS IC satellite wide-field sensor data of 20 overpasses throughout the 1997 rabi season enabled the
analysis of spatial and temporal homogeneity in regard to equity, adequacy and timeliness of water distribution (Figure 3). The vegetation index profiles of
the right bank canal suggest a different cropping pattern from other bank canals as they started initially with a high variability (20-100) whereas other bank
canals are within a limited range (20-40). The dispersion of the profiles within each branch canal and the highest vegetation index value reached are also
different. The tight bunching and similar magnitude and shape of profiles in the Davangere and Malebennur branch canal commands indicate better equity,
similar adequacy and timeliness, and less so in the Anvery Branch and right bank canal commands. This indicates, as shown by the high yields in Table 4,
better management in the middle and water-short tail end of the command compared to the upper part with excess water withdrawal. The data gaps in the
vegetation index profiles are due to cloud cover in wide-field sensor data coverage on the overpass dates.
It has not been possible to operate all the distributaries simultaneously at specified discharges in the kharif season because the distributaries in the upper
reaches drew higher than specified discharges and also due to the inadequate capacity of the right bank canal. The rabi operational plan calls for a strict
calendar for on-off operation of all the distributaries simultaneously with the right bank canal also following the calendar. Rabi zoning has been abandoned
since 1992-93, the canal has been operated continuously since 1994, and on/off operations of distributaries do not follow a set calendar either, implying
tacit acceptance of field realities.
A major departure in operation and maintenance is that farmers' pressures could not be withstood and this led to a changeover from supply to demand
management. There has also been reintroduction of gates at the heads of some minors in some tail-end distributaries of the Davangere branch canal,
making a departure from the structured system concept of the NWM project, indicating a tendency to correct deviations in water distribution in the upper
command by ad hoc solutions at the tail end. In spite of well-constructed measuring structures at distributary off-takes and along the right bank canal, the
monitoring of system operations has remained weak. Only three distributaries, the same every year, were covered under intensive monitoring. The
monitoring report does not highlight the difference between targeted and actual deliveries or the relative performance along the sample distributaries or the
implications of the current cropping pattern on the operation plan. The scheme-level report is also inadequate as it does not emphasize the pattern of
deliveries within the system or extent of equity. Also, the monitoring and evaluation exercise does not cover groundwater status. An indication of the
deteriorating efficiency in monitoring and evaluation was the great difficulty the authors faced in obtaining canal discharge data from the divisional offices.
While in the early years of NWM intervention, the data were compiled and documented at the division and circle offices, data for 1996-97 had not been
compiled at these offices even after the rabi season was over.

Figure 2. Comparison of actual and planned seasonal delivering through the years

Figure 3. Seasonal vegetation index profiles under different branch canals
Agricultural productivity through the years
The spatial variability in irrigation intensity, percentage of rice area, and rice yield across the canal divisions in the rabi season are shown in Table 4. The
overall irrigation intensity has increased (statistically significant at 5 percent level) from 75 percent in 1986-87 to 91 percent in 1992-93. The irrigation
intensity in the subsequent rabi seasons has declined since 1992-93 and is not significantly different from the level before the implementation of the NWM
project. The area under rice has increased (significant at 5 percent level) from 56 percent in 1986-87 to 69 percent in 1992-93. The rice area in the
subsequent rabi seasons is similar to that of 1992-93, but significantly different from the 1986-87 rabi season area. The average rice productivity per unit of
land, both during and after the intervention years, is significantly different from that of the 1986-87 rabi season. However, the average rice yield in 1996-97,
i.e. the first rabi season after the intervention period, is significantly lower than those recorded during the intervention period.
The agriculture performance in all three divisions, i.e. Bhadravathi in the head end, Malebennur division in the middle and Davanagere in the tail end,
shows more or less the same trends as that of the total command area (Table 4). For example, in the tail end Davangere canal division, the irrigation
intensity rose from 75 percent in 1986-87 to 87 percent in 1992-93 (significant only at 10 percent level). The irrigation intensity in the subsequent time
periods, for example 84 percent in 1996-97, is not significantly different (at 5 percent level) from the irrigation intensity in the 1986-87 rabi season. The rice
intensity in the tail-end section has increased from 51 percent in 1986-87 to 66 percent in 1992-93 (significant at 5 percent level) and stabilized since then.
The rice yield has significantly increased (at 5 percent level) from 3.8 tons per ha in 1986-87 to 4.4 tons per ha in 1992-93. The yields in the other time
periods during and after intervention are also significantly higher than those of the 1986-87 rabi season. The irrigation deliveries are available only at the
divisional level.
The rice productivity per unit of water diverted at the reservoir has been steadily declining through the years, from a high of 0.45 kg/m3 in the 1992-93 rabi
to a low of 0.36 kg/m3 in the 1996-97 rabi season against 0.25 kg/m3 in the 1986-87 rabi (Table 5).
Table 4. Satellite-derived crop pattern in the Bhadra command area Irrigation intensity, percentage rice area and rice
yield
1986-87 1989-90 1992-93 1993-94 1994 - 95 1996 - 97

Division Sub- Irrig. Rice Rice Irrig. Rice Rice Irrig. Rice Rice Irrig. Rice Rice Irrig. Rice Rice Irrig. Rice Rice

area yield area yield area yield area yield area yield area yield
division int. intensity int. intensity int. intensity int. intensity int. intensity int. intensity
% % (t/ha) % % (t/ha) % % (t/ha) % % (t/ha) % % (t/ha) % % (t/ha)
Bhadravathi
(RBC)
No1 95.0 60.0 2.4 53.0 21.0 4.5 88.0 61.0 3.8 95.0 64.0 4.2 83.0 52.0 4.5 73.0 57.0 4.4
No2 46.0 40.0 3.7 84.0 68.0 4.7 91.0 61.0 4.2 75.0 53.0 4.2 81.0 59.0 4.2 80.0 53.0 3.3
No3 71.0 37.0 3.4 102.0 27.0 4.2 140.0 49.0 3.8 124.0 30.0 4.6 115.0 48.0 4.7 112.0 36.0 3.2
Total 67.0 48.0 3.2 78.0 46.0 4.6 101.0 58.0 4.0 92.0 49.0 4.3 90.0 54.0 4.4 85.0 49.0 3.6
Malabennur
No1 99.0 72.0 4.3 79.0 90.0 6.1 116.0 89.0 5.8 113.0 83.0 5.6 109.0 88.0 5.8 110.0 86.0 4.5
No2 48.0 56.0 3.3 40.0 46.0 5.0 42.0 66.0 4.0 61.0 54.0 4.5 62.0 67.0 4.0 58.0 62.0 4.2
No3 74.0 59.0 4.1 55.0 60.0 6.0 80.0 73.0 4.9 77.0 75.0 5.2 71.0 84.0 5.4 78.0 79.0 4.4
No4 79.0 61.0 3.7 79.0 79.0 5.7 98.0 77.0 4.9 76.0 72.0 5.2 85.0 81.0 5.4 83.0 72.0 3.8
Total 80.0 65.0 4.1 66.0 76.0 5.9 91.0 81.0 5.3 87.0 76.0 5.3 86.0 84.0 5.5 88.0 80.0 4.3
Davanagere
No1 61.0 45.0 3.8 74.0 23.0 4.9 81.0 52.0 4.0 73.0 60.0 4.8 67.0 59.0 4.6 71.0 56.0 3.7
No2 92.0 54.0 4.0 98.0 40.0 5.2 108.0 67.0 4.5 102.0 69.0 4.6 99.0 67.0 4.6 104.0 71.0 4.6
No3 79.0 59.0 3.7 35.0 44.0 4.5 86.0 78.0 4.4 92.0 78.0 4.4 91.0 75.0 4.4 90.0 73.0 4.8
No4 65.0 42.0 3.4 68.0 35.0 5.2 72.0 63.0 4.5 69.0 74.0 4.9 73.0 71.0 4.8 69.0 73.0 3.8
Total 75.0 51.0 3.8 69.0 35.0 5.1 87.0 66.0 4.4 84.0 71.0 4.6 83.0 68.0 4.6 84.0 69.0 4.3
Command 75.0 56.0 3.8 69.0 51.0 5.4 91.0 69.0 4.7 87.0 69.0 4.9 85.0 71.0 5.0 85.0 69.0 4.2
area total
Table 5. Rice productivity through the rabi seasons
Year Rabi supply Equivalent rice Rice productivity per unit Equivalent rice Rice productivity3 per unit
area 1 of land (t/ha) production 2 of water (kg/m 3 )
(Mm3 )
(ha) (t)
1987 911.5 60 394 3.8 229 497 0.25
1993 804.4 77 612 4.7 364 776 0.45
1994 816 73 877 4.9 361 997 0.44
1995 876.7 73 364 5 366 820 0.42
1997 849.2 72 836 4.2 305 911 0.36
Computed as rice area + 0.6 x non-rice area (non-rice area water consumption is approximately 0.6 times the consumed water per unit rice
area).
Computed as equivalent rice area x rice productivity per unit of land.
Computed as equivalent rice production divided by water volume diverted at the reservoir during the rabi season.
The decrease in irrigated area and rice intensity and yield during the 1996-97 rabi season is attributable partly to low reservoir inflows and partly to greater
conveyance losses in recent years due to poor maintenance of, and damage to, irrigation structures. Field visits by the authors as well as observations
during farmer surveys, revealed broken irrigation structures in many places in the tail end. However, the decline in rice productivity per unit of land from
previous years is owing less to this than to farmers irrigating near-normal areas but at significantly lower depths of application due to conveyance losses and
to lesser reservoir withdrawal. These findings are well reflected in the wide-field sensor vegetation index profiles of different branch canals (Figure 3).
Farmers' participation and perceptions
Farmers' participation in the NWM project was extremely weak. Of the five activities proposed for farmer participation - meeting with farmers, creating a
farmer organization below each outlet, organizing a water use committee for each minor or distributary, farmer training and creation of a scheme-level
committee - none materialized with specific input from the project. However, the Bhadra Command Area Development Authority created nine village-
based farmer co-operatives between 1992 and 1994. Among these, the tail-area farmer co-operatives were relatively stronger than head-end co-operatives
in solving their water problems during the implementation of the NWM project. One such farmer co-operative, started in 1992 at Tiruchughatta at the tail
end of the eighth distributary of the Davangere Branch was doing some good work during the implementation of the NWM project. When we visited in
1997, it had become defunct, although the organization remained in name. The situation was the same for two other organizations we visited that year. The
functions of the scheme-level committee suggested under NWMP are looked after by the traditional district-level irrigation consultation committee, which
is less effective. Of the 39 members in the committee, only four are farmers; they too are nominated as political representatives and not elected directly by
the farmers of the Bhadra reservoir project. Most important, the irrigation consulting committee does not evaluate the system performance and does not
oversee NWMP activities.


The analysis of farmers' perceptions is based on the data generated using a farmer survey questionnaire. Three levels of aggregation are considered for
the analysis. The first level is reached by considering the total command area as a unit. The second level considers grouping distributaries at head, middle

and tail end respectively. The third level assembles the parcels at head, middle and tail reaches along distributaries as separate units. The results of the
analysis for the first two levels are presented in figures 4 to 7 and those for the third level analysis in figures 8 to 11.
The results presented in figures 4 to 7 depict the present condition (as of 1997) of water distribution as well as the change of performance and system
conditions before and after rehabilitation. Figure 4 presents the irrigation adequacy of present supply and change since rehabilitation for the kharif and rabi
seasons. The horizontal bars show the percentage of sampled farmers who reported "never adequate" water supplies at present and "better in the past", i.e.
before rehabilitation.
For the command as a whole, only 20 percent of the farmers reported that they never received adequate water in both irrigation seasons. However, there is
head-tail disparity in current water adequacy along the main canal. Almost 45 percent of the farmers at the tail end reported that water was never adequate,
compared to 9 percent in the middle and nearly zero percent in the head-end distributaries. Farmer perceptions of current adequacy varied significantly
depending on the location of the distributaries (Pearsons' Chi square equals 35.6 for kharif, and 21.7 for rabi, df = 4). In the command area, 40 percent of
the farmers reported that adequacy was better before rehabilitation. The percentage of farmers expressing such an opinion varied from head (25 percent) to
tail (70 percent). As in the case of current adequacy, farmer perceptions of change in adequacy since rehabilitation varied significantly depending on the
location of the distributaries (Chi square equals 18.2 for kharif and 11.8 for rabi, df = 4). This type of response in the context of water diversion into the
canal being stepped up may be due to the increase in irrigated area after rehabilitation with a high percentage of rice cultivation requiring more water.
Figure 5 presents irrigation equity and change in equity before and after rehabilitation for both kharif and rabi seasons. The horizontal bars represent the
percentage of farmers who reported "not fair" at present and "better in the past" before rehabilitation. The figure indicates that equity is not a major
problem in the head and middle reaches while it is one in the tail-end distributaries, where 23 percent of the farmers in kharif and 61 percent in rabi
reported "not fair" at present. Again, farmer perceptions of current equity varied significantly depending on the location of the distributaries (Chi square
equals 19.2 for kharif and 23.8 for rabi, df = 4) : the majority of the farmers in the head end reported either "mostly" or "sometimes fair", whereas the
majority of the farmers in the tail end reported either "sometimes" or "rarely fair". A quarter of the farmers in the command area felt that equity was better
before rehabilitation. However, this percentage was higher (57 percent for kharif and 73 percent for rabi) for the tail-end farmers. The latter perceived both
adequacy and equity as problems mainly because of change to larger areas under rice coupled with main system canal constraints in pushing sufficient water
to the tail-end distributaries.
Figure 6 presents farmer perceptions of the functional condition (current and also the change since rehabilitation) of the canals within the unit, and also at
the main system level. Uniformly from the head end to the tail end, about 60 percent of the farmers mentioned the poor condition of canals within the
unit at present, and about 40 percent of the farmers in each reach pointed to the poor functionality at present of the main system. However, with regard to
change in functionality of the system, both within the unit and in the main system, about 30 percent of the farmers in the head and middle and about 70
percent of those at the tail end reported that functionality was better for the whole system before rehabilitation. Yet again, farmer perceptions of change
since rehabilitation varied significantly depending on location of the distributaries (Chi square equals 10.1 for within unit and 19.15 for the main system, df
= 4). The main reasons for this kind of perception appear to be the mismatch between the water requirement of the irrigated area and high-intensity water-
loving crops, and the main system constraint coupled with the operational policy adopted by the irrigation agency.
Figure 7 is a representation of the frequency of conflicts at present and since rehabilitation. When water becomes inequitably shared and inadequate,
especially at the tail end, conflicts increase. About 25 percent of the farmers in the whole command reported frequent conflicts at present. However, the
proportion in the tail-reach distributaries was 48 percent. Also, 33 percent of the farmers in the command area reported that conflicts became more
frequent after rehabilitation, while 57 percent of the farmers at the tail end reported more frequent conflicts since rehabilitation. Farmer perceptions of
conflicts at present and also since rehabilitation varied significantly depending on the location of the distributaries (Chi square equals 20.7 for the present
and 12.4 for change since rehabilitation, df = 4).
From figures 8 and 9, it can be seen that while the response of farmers concerning adequacy and equity in kharif is not very different along the head,
middle and tail reaches of tail-end distributaries, there is a distinct difference in responses during rabi. Both in the middle and tail reaches more farmers
reported inadequacy and inequity than did the head-reach farmers. The inadequate and inequitable distribution of water has also given rise to conflicts
among farmers, especially within the middle and tail reaches. Though the number of farmers in each category is not adequate for a statistical analysis, the
main conclusions that can be drawn from these four figures are that there is inequity and inadequacy of water supply among field plots within the tail
distributaries and that the plots within the middle and tail reaches suffer more than those at the head reaches.
Impact of the closure of World Bank credit
The World Bank credit closed in March 1995, after incurring an expenditure of about Rs389 million against the estimated Rs196 million. The balance
works estimated at Rs7.8 million have not yet been completed. The impact of the closure of credit in regard to both financial and supervisory inputs is a
slackening in the system performance. With the closing of additional operation and maintenance funds coming from external credit, the maintenance has
become poor and structures which are broken in many places have not been rebuilt. The NWMP objective of more equitable, reliable and predictable
irrigation supplies, which could not be achieved even during the NWMP period, has shown a widening gap with actual performance in recent years. The
agricultural calendars stipulated in the NWMP proposal have not been followed; actual and planned operations were different, and the advancing of the
kharif season could not be implemented. Water use, particularly in the rabi season, is increasing, and agricultural performance (total irrigated area, area under
rice, and rice yield) has registered a decline. Tail-end deprivation, due to preferential water allocation to head-reach areas, is stressing agricultural
performance in this command. However, through deficit irrigation, tail-end farmers have maintained irrigation intensity and rice intensity. Farmers'
participation, and particularly the institution of water user associations, has declined. No new such associations have been formed and even those existing
earlier have become non-functional. Farm surveys indicate that a large majority feels that system performance was better in the past than now.
Summary of the analysis
Many interventions as contemplated in the staff appraisal report of NWMP could not be made fully operational for various reasons analysed in this paper.
In spite of these deficiencies, the agricultural performance (irrigation efficiency, rice irrigation intensity, land and water productivity) of the project
significantly improved during and after the intervention period compared to the pre-intervention period. For example, in the tail-end Davangere canal
division, the irrigation intensity rose from 75 percent in 1986-87 to 87 percent in 1992-93 and slightly declined to 84 percent in 1996-97. The rice intensity
in the tail-end section increased from 51 percent in 1986-87 to 66 percent in 1992-93 and has stabilized since then. The rice yield significantly increased,
from 3.8 tons per ha in 1986-87 to 4.4 tons per ha in 1992-93 and slightly declined to 4.3 tons per ha in 1996-97. The productivity per unit of water
delivered at the reservoir increased from .25 kg/m 3 in 1986-87 to .45 kg/ m 3 in 1992-93 and slightly declined to .36 kg/m 3 in 1996-97. Since the closure
of the World Bank loan in 1995, there has been a declining trend in all agricultural results except rice irrigation intensity. Data is not sufficient to pinpoint
whether this decline is due to the deteriorating condition of physical management systems or to a low reservoir inflow in 1996-97 or to both.

Three main factors appear to constrain the potential performance of the system. They are:
1. switching to a cropping pattern dominated by water-intensive crops such as rice during the rabi season;
2. abandoning area zoning (as envisaged by the NWM project) and irrigation of the full extent of the command during the rabi season; and
3. lack of proper institutional mechanisms such as farmer organizations and their committed involvement in operation, maintenance and
management of the system.
The management problems in a structured system are directly related to the level of structuring. Supply management, in the context of a heterogeneous
cropping pattern of different irrigation requirements, cannot succeed unless farmers organize themselves to co-ordinate water distribution below the
distributary or minor or outlet. The structured system shifts the requirement for organization and management from the operating agency to the farmers.
Thus in traditional demand-based systems such as the Bhadra project, the existence of farmer organizations at scheme level and at the appropriate sub-unit
level is necessary to the success of a structured system. There are none in the Bhadra project, where the emphasis continues to be on system rehabilitation
rather than on farmer training and organization. Farmer participation both in decision-making at scheme level and in operation and maintenance at the
distributary level needs to be given the pre-eminent role, and detailed guidelines and mechanisms need to be put in position in the early stages of
implementation itself.
The design of the structured system in the Bhadra project was constrained by limited funds provided for institutional strengthening within the system and
by the need to work within existing hydraulic system limitations. The operating procedures of the structured system did not explicitly take into account the
heavy rainfall and its spatial variability across the command area. The proposed cropping pattern was unrealistic, particularly in the context of the complete
absence of farmer acceptance and adherence to rules of operation. The involvement of farmers in planning, design and implementation becomes more
necessary and they need to be committed and motivated.
The successful operation of a structured system, in addition to social change, also requires a concomitant institutional change. In the Bhadra project, for
instance, the Karnataka Irrigation Act legalizing the localization (demand-based) system has created confusion between supply and demand management.
This confusion continued and exerted pressure on the scheme-operating agency and its operation.
Farmers' involvement and acceptance of the operation plan is essential in the recourse to supply-based technology. In the absence of a scheme-level
committee and functional farmer associations, the NWM experiment in Bhadra was bound to fail. The conflicts among the farmers continued and resulted
in undue pressures on the scheme operators, who tinkered with the operation in an ad-hoc fashion. The slide back into quasi demand-based supply and ad-
hoc functioning prevented the rigorous implementation of operational plans, resulting in less equity, reliability and predictability.
The maintenance of the system failed in view of insufficient grants and more so since it had not been transferred to the water user associations. The
farmers continued to feel that maintenance was the responsibility of the Irrigation Department, which did not have adequate funds anyway. Damage to
structures by farmers continued and no repairs were undertaken. The creation of water user associations and transfer of operation and management
responsibilities of the structured system are essential to successful operation and management activities. A strong monitoring and evaluation function would
support the review of operation plans and the necessary mechanism needs to be introduced.
In the absence of a continuing support mechanism by way of institutional arrangements and farmer participation, the Bhadra project is showing signs of
decline, with water management sliding back to quasi demand-based supply. Strong farmer involvement thus holds the key to sustainable performance.
Acknowledgements
The co-operation extended by the Bhadra project authorities in providing data and toward field visits is acknowledged. Analysis of satellite
data was conducted by the National Remote Sensing Agency in Hyderabad, India.
References
IIMI 1995. Evaluation of schemes under NWMP-II: the Bhadra scheme in Karnataka and the Sathanur scheme in Tamil Nadu, International Irrigation
Management Institute, Sri Lanka
Murthy C.S., S. Jonna, P.V. Raju, S. Thiruvengadachari & K.A. Hakeem, 1995. Paddy yield prediction in the Bhadra project command area using
remote sensing data. Asia-Pacific Remote Sensing Journal, Vol8 (No1) 79-84
Shanan L. 1992. Planning and management of irrigation systems in developing countries, Agricultural Water Management, Vol23 (No1&2) 234 pp
Thiruvengadachari S. & R. Sakthivadivel. 1997. Satellite remote sensing for assessment of irrigation system performance: a case study in India, Research
Report 9, International Irrigation Management Institute, Sri Lanka
Appendix: Satellite-based rice yield estimation in the 1996-97 rabi season
Since crop cutting experiment data (in which rice yields are estimated on the ground from statistically sampled plots) for 1996-97 were not available during
the study period, the satellite-based rice estimation model developed for the 1992-93 rabi season was updated for the 1996-97 rabi season through satellite
data normalization procedures.
The existing rice yield model, which is based on IRS satellite LISS-I sensor data of the 1992-93 rabi season, was normalized for LISS-I data of the 1996-97
rabi season by comparing the two sets of data for stationary targets whose reflectance remains unchanged. The difference in normalized difference
vegetation index value was found to be only 3 to 4 digital counts, which is not significant; hence the 1992-93 model can be used unchanged for the LISS-I
data of 1996-97. The LISS-I-based model was then normalized for LISS-III data of the same season by regressing the vegetation index of concurrent LISS-
I and LISS-II data of 7 April and 10 April 1997. The rice yield model is now normalized for the LISS-III data of 7 April 1997. However, the model based
on a single date (7 April 1997) needs to be updated for the vegetation index data of the milking stage of the rice crop, which would occur in different
calendar periods across the command area due to staggered rice transplantation.
Time composite wide-field sensor data was generated by picking the maximum vegetation index value (corresponding to the milking stage of rice) from a
set of co-registered 12 wide-field sensor data sets from mid-March to May 1997. The ratio of wide-field sensor-derived vegetation index data of 10 April
1997 to time composite normalized difference vegetation index data is computed and applied to LISS-III-derived vegetation index data, to compute the
expected peak (time composite) LISS-III vegetation index value for use in the model.

The assumption that LISS-III and wide-field sensors are equally sensitive to vegetation response was tested. The ratios of LISS-III vegetation index data of
10 April and 4 May were computed, as were the ratios of wide-field sensor data on the same dates, and both sets were regressed with each other. The slope
of regression line is 0.96, indicating equal sensitivity of LISS-III and wide-field sensors to vegetation response.
Since crop cutting experiment data for the 1996-97 rabi season was not available, the updated rice yield model was validated through farmer enquiries and
enquiries with the Bhadra Command Area Development Authority and its irrigation engineer. In an earlier study, a similar category of rice yield model of
the 1992-93 to the 1993-94 rabi seasons has however been validated against actual crop cutting experiment data of the latter season, with deviations from
predicted to actual being less than 10 percent (Murthy et al, 1995).

Canal modernization in the Indus Basin irrigation system
Gaylord V. Skogerboe 1 , Zaigham Habib1 , Kobkiat Pongput2 ,

Paul Willem Vehmeyer1 and Abdul Hakeem Khan 1
Abstract
An overview is given of modernization activities in the operation and design of the Indus Basin irrigation system
canals, in which the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has been involved. Hydrodynamic
simulations are used to check the design and plan the operation of the Chasma right bank canal, which is under
construction. The Pehur high-level canal will be the first irrigation system in Pakistan with automatic gates; the
consultant's design was checked using unsteady flow hydrodynamic simulations. A modern telecommunication
system is being installed in the Nara canal command area, and decision support systems are being developed for
the Eastern Sadiqia and Jamrao canals. Provincial programmes on selected canal commands are underway with an
area water board for the canal command and a farmers' organization for each secondary canal, with the Provincial
Irrigation & Drainage Authority providing services. Thus, there is considerable change underway on canal
operations in Pakistan. Water measurement and communication facilities are basic requirements for
modernization. Recent research on the much-used downstream gauge ratings for canal discharge regulating
structures shows that many of them require adjusted discharge ratings every few months. Thus, standard
operating procedures also need to be improved in a modernization programme. The most important ingredient in
modernization is organized farmers. Significantly greater benefits will accrue from a modernization programme
that successfully employs a combination of institutional and technical measures.
Introduction
For the past seven years, the Pakistan National Programme of IWMI has been conducting research on canal
operations. In 1993, a collaborative research programme with Cemagref was initiated having a major component
on decision support systems for improved canal operations. Two of the highly important tools provided by
Cemagref are an unsteady flow hydrodynamic model called `simulation of irrigation canals' and an irrigation
management information system which can be used by an irrigation manager to account for water distribution in
the system.
The locations of the canal command areas under investigation are shown in Figure 1. The general characteristics
of these canal command areas are listed in Table 1. The Pehur High-Level and the Chasma Right Bank canals are
under construction. The Eastern Sadiqia canal and the Jamrao canal represent average cultivable command areas
in the Indus Basin irrigation system, which covers a total of 16 million ha divided among 43 canal commands.
The Lower Swat canal has the highest water duty (1.02 l/s/ha), and the Jamrao canal has the lowest, but this will
increase to 0.4 l/s/ha, or slightly more, after completion of the Nara canal remodelling now underway.

Figure 1. Location of canal command areas in Pakistan undergoing modernization
Canal design
The Chasma Right Bank canal
The first experience in using the simulation irrigation system was over Stage 1 of the Chasma Right Bank canal,
where it was disclosed that some portions of the canal lining needed to be raised another 75 cm in order to have
sufficient freeboard. An important output of the study was the identification of operational constraints at low
flow, such as a drastic drop in velocity,
which should be avoided to ensure appropriate distribution of both water and incoming sediment along the canal.
At present, Stage III is under construction for a designed discharge of 138 cubic meters per second (cumecs). The
complete design for the canal is now on simulation, mostly to study various operating scenarios, but also to
provide the consultants with feedback regarding any required design modifications.
Table 1: General characteristics of canal command areas in Pakistan

undergoing modernization
Name of canal Province Cultivable Discharge Water

command command area, capacity, Duty,
ha cumecs l/s/ha
Upper Swat and NWFP* 131 700 51 0.60
Pehur High-Level
28
Lower Swat NWFP 53 800 55 1.02
Chasma Right Bank NWFP & Punjab 228 000 138 0.61

Fordwah Punjab 172 000 96 0.56

Eastern Sadiqia Punjab 389 000 139 0.36
Nara Main Sindh 881 000 380 0.43
Jamrao Sindh 355 000 96** 0.27
* North West Frontier Province
** This discharge rate will increase by 50 percent or more after completion of the Nara canal remodelling
Automation of the Pehur High-Level canal
The existing Upper Swat canal was designed in 1915 to divert 51 cumecs from the Swat river. Currently, the
Pehur High-Level canal is under construction to convey 28 cumecs from the Tarbela reservoir on the Indus river
to the tail of the Machai branch of the Upper Swat canal. The canal network of Pehur High-Level, tail of Machai
Branch and the downstream Maira Branch canal has been designed using automatic downstream water level
control gates. This is the first case in Pakistan of employing automatic gates in a canal.
IWMI has a contract with the Irrigation Department of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) to provide
operational support upon the commissioning of the Pehur High-Level canal. The first assignment was to use
unsteady flow models to check the consultant's design (Habib, Pongput and Skogerboe, 1996). Simulation was
used to check the remodelling of the Machai Branch. Another unsteady flow model, Canalman, developed at
Utah State University, was used for the Pehur High-Level, tail of Machai Branch and Maira Branch canal network
because this software package contains an algorithm for automatic gates. The design was subjected to a series of
severe operating conditions, which showed that, in general, the system could be expected to perform well.
However, IWMI also identified some of the operational complications involved in managing a combined system
of upstream and downstream control, as well as the increased likelihood of sediment deposition in the Maira
Branch canal. Besides the hydraulic stability provided by the automatic gates, an important feature in the
consultant's design is an escape structure with a designed discharge of 29 cumecs which is located at the
confluence of the Pehur High-Level canal and its Machai and Maira branches; this confluence reach acts as a
regulating reservoir with an overflow escape structure. This combination of automatic downstream water level
control gates and confluence reach provides excellent hydraulic stability under extreme operating conditions.
Canal operations
Discharge variability
The greatest problem faced by farmers is when there is no water during their warabandi (water turn). This is
followed by the high degree of discharge variability in the canal network. Commonly, there is a daily discharge
fluctuation of 20-30 percent, which on some days reaches 50 percent or more. For example, if a farmer receives
only half of the normal discharge rate, then probably one-third, or less, as many bunded fields can be irrigated.
Farmers are more cognizant of this problem than canal operators and irrigation managers.
Monitoring of canal discharges in Pakistan by IWMI staff, and others, has disclosed that highly significant
discharge fluctuations occur, even on a daily basis. An example is shown in Figure 2 for the Fordwah branch
canal at the head of the Chishtian subdivision, along with the Fordwah and Azim distributaries located at the tail
of the Fordwah branch canal. The ordinate scale is the coefficient of variation, C, which is the standard deviation
of a data set divided by the mean of the data set. A perfect value of C is zero. In this case, C represents the data
scatter for the delivery performance ratio, which is the ratio of the actual discharge divided by the scheduled
indent in order to evaluate the variability in delivering the target canal water supply. Values of C below 0.2 are
considered as satisfactory, which does not occur very often in Figure 2.
One reason for such large discharge fluctuations is the lack of communication between gate operators. Each
operator responds independently to changing water levels at his cross-regulator. Generally, the gate operations

result in attenuated discharge fluctuations downstream. However, there are significant differences in gate
operators, with some making less dramatic gate changes than others.
Figure 2: Reliability of water supplies at the head of the Chishtian subdivision (Fordwah branch) and
two secondary canals - kharif 1994
The Chasma Right Bank canal
The main reason for placing the design of the Chasma Right Bank canal on simulation is to reach an agreement
on how the canal will be operated when construction is completed. Stages I and II are operational, but the
longest segment, Stage III, is still under construction. The main canal and the distributary head regulators will be
operated by the federal Water & Power Development Authority. Two provinces are being served, NWFP and
Punjab, so two provincial irrigation departments are involved. There is considerable debate, particularly among
the provinces, about the day-to-day operation of that canal.
While its design is being placed on simulation, various operating scenarios are being designed. Once the design
has been checked using the simulation programme in order to establish whether any modifications are required,
then each of the operating scenarios will be tested and the results documented. These results will be presented to
decision-makers for their consideration. It is hoped that an agreement can be reached on the most appropriate
operating procedures for the Chasma Right Bank canal. There is some likelihood that the canal will later be
computer-operated; the required communication facilities (radios and walky-talkies) are already in place.
Rating flow control structures
Structure calibrations
IWMI has been collaborating with the irrigation departments in Punjab and Sindh on developing a decision
support system for the Fordwah and Eastern Sadiqia canals in south-eastern Punjab and the Jamrao canal in
Sindh province. A basic requirement is to develop discharge ratings for all of the essential flow control structures,
including headworks, cross-regulators, head regulators and outlets. Training courses have been conducted on
developing discharge ratings for these structures.
During the process of calibrating so many structures, it was discovered that quite frequently the discharge ratings
being used by provincial irrigation department staff resulted in discharge rates greater than those actually
measured using a current meter. In fact, the discrepancy was often of 15-25 percent, sometimes more. The

irrigation department ratings are based on a gauge located in the canal downstream of a flow control structure.
This is helpful for the gate operator who knows what the water level on the downstream gauge should be in
order to provide the appropriate discharge rate as specified by the irrigation managers. This situation led to an
investigation of downstream gauge ratings.
Downstream gauge ratings
In order to investigate downstream gauge ratings, data collected by IWMI field staff was used from the Eastern
Sadiqia canal in Punjab and the Jamrao canal in Sindh. In addition, data was used from the Lower Swat canal in
NWFP that had been reported by the International Sedimentation Research Institute, Pakistan, which is a
research unit of the federal Water & Power Development Authority.
Downstream gauge ratings are usually developed using the KD formula - Q =KD n - in which Q is the discharge
rate, D a flow depth, K a coefficient, and n an exponent. The exponent n will be 5/3, as in the Manning-Strickler
formula, when there is both uniform flow and the flow depth, D, represents the hydraulic radius, R. This
hydraulic radius, R, is the cross-sectional flow area, A, divided by the wetted perimeter of the cross-section, P. In
practice, the flow depth, D, is obtained by reading the gauge, G, but applying a gauge correction, ?G, so that :
D = G - ?G
and
Q = K (G - ?G) n
A unique approach was developed (Vehmeyer et al, 1998) for testing when the downstream gauge rating needs to
be adjusted. Using the Manning-Strickler formula to derive the KD formula provided the example case listed in
Table 2. Note that the value of the coefficient K is nearly the same for 21 and 22 October 1996, whereas the
discharge measurement two months later on 29 December showed a 20 percent decrease in the coefficient K.
This clearly indicates that the downstream gauge rating has changed significantly between 22 October and 29
December 1996. There were other similar examples.
Table 2. Discharge measurements at the head of the Hakra Branch canal branching off
the tail of the Eastern Sadiqia canal
Date 21/10/96 22/10/96 29/12/96

Q Cusecs 2296 1957 1065
A feet 2 950.5 849.5 658.0
P Feet 151.2 149.2 145.0
R = A/P Feet 6.29 5.69 4.54
K feet (4/3)
/s 107.3 107.8 85.6
Another important finding is that the variables ?G and n are linearly related, with n decreasing as ?G increases,
but this is a unique relationship for each channel. After much investigation regarding the gauge correction, ?G, a
procedure was derived for calculating ?G that is physically meaningful. For each current meter measurement, the
gauge correction, ?G, should be obtained by subtracting the mean hydraulic depth, D hy , from the gauge reading,
G; then, average the values of ?G. The mean hydraulic depth, D hy , is the cross-sectional flow area, A, obtained
during the current meter measurement divided by the top water surface width, W T, obtained from the current
meter tape measurements. Both the exponent, n, and the coefficient, K, should be considered as variables that
can be derived graphically from a logarithmic plot, or by regression.
A major conclusion of this investigation (Vehmeyer et al, 1998) is that the KD formula is an appropriate

technology for developing downstream gauge ratings. The discrepancies between actual discharge measurements
and the downstream gauge ratings arise from the inappropriate use of this technology. There is an absolute
necessity to periodically adjust the downstream gauge rating, every few months or longer, depending on changes
in the channel geometry due to scouring, vegetative or aquatic growth, sediment deposition or sediment removal.
The recommended procedure is to calibrate both the flow control structure and the downstream gauge at the
same time. The same current meter measurements can be used for both discharge ratings. The only additional
field work is measuring water levels and gate openings at the flow control structure during each current meter
measurement. The structure calibration can be expected to remain valid for a number of years. Thus, instead of
periodically making a current meter measurement to adjust the downstream gauge rating, the structure calibration
can be used to provide the necessary discharge rate. When the sum of the downstream gauge adjustments
exceeds the original rating by about 30 percent, a new downstream gauge rating should be developed, where the
structure calibration can be used to provide the discharge measurements.
Irrigation system communications
Telecommunication network for the Nara canal
A modern telecommunication system is being established for the total Nara canal command area, including the
Jamrao canal command area. Besides the usual telecommunications, there will be telemetered data transmission.
Some of this system is already installed, and the rest will be added in a few years. Most important, irrigation
managers throughout this large canal command will have access to real-time data regarding the flow at the heads
of the Nara and Jamrao canals, along with other important discharge regulating structures.
Improved communications for the Eastern Sadiqia canal
Under a four-year project scheduled to begin in 1999 with funding from the Royal Netherlands Embassy, IWMI
will be working with the Punjab Irrigation Department in establishing a decision support system for the Eastern
Sadiqia canal, with particular emphasis on the Hakra Branch canal that branches off its tail. About half of the
subdivisions already have a base radio station, so the others will receive similar equipment. In addition, a radio
communication station will be located at each cross-regulator. Many of the flow control structures in two
subdivisions have already been calibrated. The unsteady flow simulation model is used to calibrate the branch
canal and distributaries in the Malik subdivision and the results are placed in the IMIS programme which is being
produced for use by the irrigation managers. Then, this will be done for the Haroonabad subdivision at the head
of the Hakra Branch canal.
Institutional reforms
The Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act
Each of the four provincial assemblies passed a Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act in mid-1997,
which converts the provincial irrigation departments into PIDAs. The act is implemented under the National
Drainage Programme, whereby each province is to select one canal command for initial implementation. Besides
PIDA, the act calls for the establishment of a farmer organization for each distributary (secondary canal) served
by the selected canal, along with an area water board for the selected canal command, to be composed of
government and farmer representatives. A study has been completed by Euroconsult for implementing the act in
the Nara canal command area, which includes the Jamrao canal. Each province is completing the formulation of
rules and regulations to implement this legislation.
Farmer organizations
There are very few farmer organizations at the secondary canal level in Pakistan. The On-Farm Water
Management Directorate of the Punjab Agriculture Department has organized one small and one large
distributaries (18 000 ha) within the Eastern Sadiqia canal command area. IWMI has organized three distributaries
(6 000 ha each) in Sindh and one large distributary (18 000 ha) under the Hakra Branch of the Eastern Sadiqia

canal.
When this work began in 1994-95, there were no secondary canals in Pakistan where farmers had been organized.
Thus, there was no place where the farmers to be organized could be taken to gain practical insights. In fact, the
vast majority of professionals associated with irrigated agriculture were highly sceptical about their ability to
organize farmers. But an important lesson that has been learned is that farmers do want to be organized. In order
to achieve equitable water distribution, 132 farmer leaders have been taught how to measure water, much to their
own amazement. This has created much transparency. The objective is to achieve equitable water distribution to
each tertiary channel served by the secondary canal.
Organizing farmers on a secondary canal is not sufficient. Farmers should be organized on every secondary canal
in the canal command area. Under the proposed Dutch funding, due to begin in 1999, the On-Farm Water
Management Directorate will organize the remaining distributaries under the Hakra Branch canal. The farmers
under each distributary would be organized into a Water User Federation. Each federation would enter into a
joint management agreement with the local PIDA. IWMI will provide support to the On-Farm Water
Management Directorate in this endeavour.
The Eastern Sadiqia Canal Water Board
Under the proposed Dutch funding, the water user federations under the Hakra Branch canal would be federated
into an informal organization that would function like a water board. The details for the functioning of this
federation of federations would be formulated during the course of the project by the Punjab Irrigation and
Drainage Authority with assistance from the On-Farm Water Management Directorate and IWMI. The intent is
to learn from this model so that the lessons learned are useful for the selected canal command in each province
for implementing the PIDA Act.
Conclusions
Water measurement is a basic requirement for improving the operation of any irrigation system. In fact,
developing and updating the discharge rating for each essential flow control structure in a system should be
standard operating procedure.
Proper communication facilities are one of the more cost-effective measures for improving the performance of
an irrigation system. As a system becomes modernized, the transmission of real-time data becomes more
important.
Water measurement and communication facilities are basic ingredients required for any irrigation system
modernization programme. Modernization is undertaken to enhance service to the beneficiaries and increase the
sustainability of agricultural productivity. The most effective manner for achieving these objectives is for
irrigation agencies to provide technical assistance as a service to farmer organizations. The technical feasibility of
physical or operational interventions to improve the system must be analysed before their implementation, and
proper consideration given to the system constraints. Identifying appropriate ways of operating the system is
necessary for a reliable and equitable distribution of water in the existing, as well as the planned, irrigation
systems. This becomes even more important in modern complex irrigation systems like the Chasma Righ Bank
and Pehur High-Level canals. For these kinds of systems, operating scenarios must be carefully established.
The most important component, however, is organized farmers. Once organized in an effective manner, farmers
will demand equitable water distribution. In fact, the organization cannot be sustained unless this objective is
achieved. Also, they will have a keen interest in reducing discharge variability. The main disadvantage of
organized farmers is that they will no longer pay irrigation field staff and officials for illegally receiving water.
The main advantage is that significant increases in agricultural productivity can be expected.
A technical approach to modernization will likely be cost-effective, but significantly greater benefits will accrue
from successfully employing a combination of institutional and technical measures.

References
Habib, Zaigham; Kobkiat Pongput & Gaylord V. Skogerboe. 1996. Unsteady flow simulation of the
designed Pehur high-level canal and proposed remodeling of Machai and Maira branch canals, North West
Frontier Province, Pakistan. IIMI, Pakistan National Programme, Report No R-20, December, 147 pp
Habib, Zaigham & Marcel Kuper. 1998. Performance assessment of the water regulation and distribution
system in the Chishtian subdivision at the main and secondary canal levels. IIMI, Pakistan National Programme,
Report No R-59, July, 110 pp
Vehmeyer, Paul Willem, Raza-ur-Rehman Abbasi, Mushtaq A. Khan, Abdul Hakeem Khan & Gaylord
V. Skogerboe. 1998. Methodologies for developing downstream gauge ratings for operating canal discharge
regulating structures. IIMI, Pakistan National Programme , Report No R-48, April, 112 pp
1 Director, Systems Analyst, Associate Expert (Hydraulics) and Senior Field Research Engineer, respectively, Pakistan National Programme, International Water
Management Institute.
2 Professor, Department of Water Resources Engineering, Kasetsart University, Bangkok.

Modern water control and management practices in irrigation:

impact on performance
Charles M. Burt and Stuart W. Styles

Director and Project Manager, respectively
Irrigation Training and Research Centre (ITRC) CalPoly)
Summary
This paper describes a unique study that was conceived by Hervé Plusquellec, funded by the Research Committee of
the World Bank and managed by the International Programme for Technology Research in Irrigation and Drainage
(IPTRID). The project examined 16 irrigation projects in 10 developing countries, 15 of which have been partially
modernized in some aspects of hardware or management or both. Besides developing specific recommendations for
donor agencies interested in irrigation modernization, the project also accomplished the following:
1. A rapid appraisal process was developed to evaluate within a week an irrigation project to assess what
type of modernization it needed.
2. External performance indicators were quantified and modified. These characterize the inputs and outputs
of irrigation projects, including amounts of water, yield and economics.
3. Internal process indicators were developed and quantified for each irrigation project.
Key findings
1. The partially modernized projects did not have the chaos and anarchy that has been widely documented
in typical (non-modernized) irrigation projects. Projects with the greatest chaos (i.e. difference between
actual and stated service) tended to provide the worst water delivery service.
2. Several projects have been modernized to the point that the water conveyance operations and hardware
were able to support functional water user associations, and in turn those water user associations were
collecting sufficient water fees to pay for all or most of the operation and maintenance expenses.
3. The quality of water delivery service to individual farmers is inversely related to the number of farmers
who must co-operate in the final distribution of water.
4. Projects with only 5 turnouts per operator (vs. 20-80 turnouts per operator for other projects) tended to
provide the worst water delivery service.
5. Farmers and managers appear to be satisfied with a level of water delivery service that simply eliminates
anarchy and also provides "sufficient" water to farms. Such criteria are insufficient to support modern
field irrigation hardware and management.
6. Modernization efforts which emphasized computer programs for predicting canal gate movements and
water deliveries were generally ineffective (to say the least).
7. External performance indicators are best used in a before-after analysis on individual projects, rather than
for comparing projects.
8. Modernization needs were split between hardware, management and a combination of the two. All
projects needed improvements in both hardware and management.
9. Overall, there is a lack of understanding of modernization strategies and how to implement them.
10. Successful projects stress improved communications, focus on operational data rather than statistical data,
and require a minimum of paperwork for operators.
11. Staff who are the most eager to obtain better information and training happen to work in projects with
the best performances.
12. Simple hardware and operational changes could give immediate benefits - if people just knew about them.
There is a huge lack of awareness of how to design irrigation systems that provide good service.

13. There is a very serious shortage of trainers and consultants who can provide focused and pragmatic
training and design which properly incorporates both strategies and details of hardware and management
modernization.
14. While 15 of the 16 irrigation projects visited had some aspects of modernization, none of them could
qualify as "modernized" irrigation projects.
15. Programmes for improved irrigation scheduling for field irrigation are doomed to failure unless the water
delivery service is well controlled, reliable and flexible, which means that most such programmes are
doomed to failure.
16. Modernization is a slow and expensive process.
Project selection
Although many irrigation projects have undergone various types of rehabilitation, very few have been modernized to
any significant degree. Therefore, it was difficult to locate projects that had undergone modernization programmes.
The projects (see attachment) were selected to provide a broad range of climate, crops, control systems and
geographic conditions. Selection was sometimes done by Hervé Plusquellec or the authors; in other cases (Bhakra,
Lam Pao, Beni Amir, Cupatitzio) the local irrigation departments or World Bank staff recommended the projects.
The rapid appraisal process
This research project used a rapid appraisal process, a technique that has rarely been used in the diagnosis of
international irrigation projects. Its basic ingredients are:
1. A detailed questionnaire is developed to obtain information needed for external performance indicators
and internal process indicators (explained later).
2. A list of baseline project data (acreage, budget, crops, climate, water availability) is requested from project
authorities prior to the visit. Typical baseline data either is available or it is not. If the data does not
already exist, spending an additional three months on the site will not create the data. Baseline project
data is needed to quantify external performance indicators.
3. A 3-5 day visit by one expert is made to the project. Ideally, only one day is spent in the office to examine
system maps and to review the baseline project data that has been prepared. Most of the time is spent in
the field with engineers and operators, making observations and collecting the data needed for internal
process indicators. The field visit includes:
a. Visits to substantial lengths of the main canal, some secondary canals, tertiary canals, etc.
Observations regarding the types of structures, general conditions, operator instructions,
quality of flow and water level control, and other operational points.
b. Impromptu conversations with farmers and operators.
c. Short visits to any water user associations that may exist.
ITRC has successfully used a similar rapid appraisal process in the western United States for several years to diagnose
irrigation district modernization needs; another rapid appraisal process is used to evaluate on-farm (field) irrigation
performance. ITRC experience has shown that successful rapid appraisal programmes require evaluators with prior
training in irrigation, specific training in the techniques involved, and follow-up support and critique when the
evaluators begin their field work.
The rapid appraisal process does not eliminate the need for detailed monitoring of the water control and distribution
in a few irrigation projects. Such detailed monitoring programmes are very valuable for documenting the need for
improved control, and in convincing the sceptical and unbelieving that there are indeed water control problems.
IWMI has provided excellent documentation of Pakistani and Indonesian irrigation system performance that has
helped to raise the level of awareness of project deficiencies. However, a good experienced irrigation engineer should
not need such documentation to know that there are problems with certain designs. With a rapid appraisal procedure
as was developed with this project, a good irrigation engineer should be able to quickly assess the suitability of the
existing hardware and operational rules in a project, and to develop a plan for modernization needs. The rapid
appraisal process has a special focus on how to solve the problems through modernization that can be used world-
wide. What is amazing indeed is that there is such a lack of awareness of good design and operation principles that
the detailed monitoring by IWMI is necessary to make the case for improvement.

External performance indicators
Murray-Rust and Snellen (1993) described the framework of using performance indicators and noted two approaches
for the use of performance indicators in the field of irrigation:
1. Attempts to develop indicators that allow the performance of one system to be compared to similar
systems elsewhere.
2. The use of indicators to compare actual results with what was planned.
Because of the great differences in water availability, climate, soil fertility, topography and crop prices, the authors
believe that "external" performance indicators are primarily applicable for item (2) - to compare outputs from a
project before and after modernization. External indicators examine values such as economic output, efficiency and
relative water supply (i.e. ratios of outputs and inputs).
ICID (1995) defined several irrigation system performance indicators for international projects. Burt et al (1997)
described the detailed process needed to effectively evaluate irrigation efficiency and irrigation sagacity. Molden et al
(1998) provided a summary of recent IWMI indicator work, including values for 9 IWMI indicators for 27 different
irrigation projects. The authors recommend that several IWMI indicators be modified, and that several new ITRC
external indicators be adopted.
Figure 1 below graphically displays one of the external indicator values. This figure also introduces the concept of
confidence intervals (the vertical line segments). Confidence intervals show that we do not know values precisely;
graphs of performance indicators should indicate our level of uncertainty.
Figure 1. ITRC10 external indicator. Annual project irrigation efficiency (%)
Internal process indicators
It is absolutely necessary to understand the internal mechanisms of irrigation projects, and to provide selective
enhancement of those internal mechanisms, if irrigation project performance is to be improved. These details of
internal mechanisms are so important that investments must be based around specific actions to improve them, rather
than deciding on the framework for detail improvement only after the investment is approved. Therefore, this project
developed a new and comprehensive set of internal indicators, which, when examined as a whole, indicate how and
where irrigation investments should be targeted.
The new internal indices provide ratings to hardware, management and service throughout the whole system, an
approach which has not been used in the past. The complete picture enables one to visualize where changes are
needed, and what impact the changes would have at various levels. The new internal indicators, when combined with
the rapid appraisal process, provide an operational or modernization checklist.

A total of 31 internal process indicators were developed, most with three or four sub-indicators. Table 1 provides
information on one of the indicators, including weighting factors of the sub-indicators. The final weighted scores of
the internal process indicators were always adjusted so that the maximum (best) indicator value is 10.0, and the lowest
value 0.0.
Table 1. Sub-indicators for indicator I-1 (actual service to individual fields, based upon
traditional field irrigation methods)
No. Sub-indicator Ranking criteria Wt

I-1A Measurement of 4 - Excellent measurement and control devices, properly operated 1
volumes to field and recorded
3 - Reasonable meas. & control devices, average operation
2 - Meas. of volumes and flows - useful but poor
1 - Meas. of flows, reasonably well
0 - No measurement of volumes or flows

I-1B Flexibility to 4 - Unlimited frequency, rate, duration, but arranged by farmer within 2
field a few days
3 - Fixed frequency, rate or duration, but arranged
2 - Dictated rotation, but matches approximately crop need
1 - Rotation, but uncertain
0 - No rules
I-1C Reliability to 4 - Water always arrives with frequency, rate and duration promised. 4
field (including Volume is known
weeks available
3 - A few days delay occasionally, but very reliable in rate and
versus week duration. Volume is known
needed)
2 - Volume is unknown at field, but water arrives when about as
needed and in the right amounts
1 - Volume is unknown at field. Deliveries are fairly unreliable less

than 50 percent of the time
0 - Unreliable frequency, rate, duration, more than 50 percent of the

time. Volume is unknown
I-1D Apparent equity 4 - It appears that fields throughout the project and within tertiary 4
units all receive the same type of water
3 - Areas of the project receive the same amounts, but within an area
it is somewhat inequitable
2 - Areas of the project receive somewhat different amounts

(unintentionally), but within an area it is equitable
1 - It appears to be somewhat inequitable both between areas and

within areas
0 - It appears to be quite inequitable (differences more than 100

percent) throughout the project
The combined weights of Reliability (I-1C) and Equity (I-1D) represent 73 percent of the total score for indicator I-1.
This is because traditional field irrigation techniques are not sophisticated, and obtaining reliability and equity is
essential to avoid anarchy. Later discussions will deal with the service needs for modern field irrigation systems, where
flexibility plus accurate control and measurement of volumes to fields receive higher weightings. This will not mean
that reliability and equity are less important for future irrigation systems; it means that flexibility and control will be
more important than they are at present.
No single internal process indicator by itself is sufficient to describe a project. But when the internal indicators are
examined together and also combined with some of the external indicators, a clear image emerges about the design,
operation and management of an irrigation project. Furthermore, these indicators provide a rational basis for
developing a programme of rehabilitation and modernization that will enhance the operation, management and
outputs of an irrigation project.
Key findings
Chaos and anarchy
The partially modernized projects did not have the chaos and anarchy that has been widely documented in
unmodernized irrigation projects. Chaos (see Figure 2) is defined as a difference between stated and actual water
delivery service. Anarchy (see Figure 3) is evident through water thefts, inequities in water delivery, and vandalism.
Figure 2. Internal process indicator I-5 and Indicator I-1. Stated and actual service to individual fields.
Ratings are based on traditional irrigation requirements, not modern field irrigation systems.
Figure 2 shows that in general chaos is minimal. The level of service which is claimed by project authorities is
typically similar to what was actually seen in the field. Three (Lam Pao, Dez, Rio Yaqui Alto) of the four projects with
the lowest actual water delivery service ratings have highly over-inflated stated opinions of the service they offer. The
fourth project with a very low field service rating (Bhakra) has a moderately over-inflated opinion of its service.
Bhakra did not have modernized components. Lam Pao, Dez and Rio Yaqui Alto all had serious hardware and
operational deficiencies, even though selective elements in the projects had been modernized.

Figure 3. Internal process indicator I-9. Lack of anarchy index.
Water user associations
There are many types of water user associations. The social associations, developed for the purpose of providing
maintenance and collecting water fees, were consistently either weak or imaginary. The business-oriented associations,
hiring staff to distribute water and running the water distribution similar to a business operation, were often quite
strong. Figure 4 does not prove a cause-and-effect relationship, but it could be interpreted to show that, as the actual
service to individual fields improves, the area with active water user associations increases.
Figure 4. Actual flexibility of water delivery to fields versus percent of area with an active water user
association
Recovery of operation and maintenance expenses
Figure 5 shows that Lam Pao, Dantiwada, Bhakra, Muda, Kemubu, Rio Yaqui Alto and Cupatitzio are remarkable for
their low recovery of operation and maintenance costs. The projects with more than 50 percent recovery tend to have
active farmer involvement or dependable and somewhat timely water deliveries to fields. Only Guilan and Saldaña
appear to collect enough to pay off part of the investment costs. Figure 6 shows the wide discrepancy between
operation and maintenance costs in the various projects. Kemubu has a high operation and management expenditure
due to the high pumping costs. Coello and Saldaña both have high sand removal costs.

Figure 5. IWMI9 REV. Percentage of operation and maintenance costs recouped
Figure 6. Operation and maintenance expenditures expressed as US$ per million cubic metres (Mcm) of
beneficial use
Internal process indicator I-23 was developed to look beyond simple collection of fees for operation and maintenance.
It includes an estimate of the adequacy of operation and maintenance to sustain the present mode of operation
(which may be insufficient), and also takes a glimpse at the investment in modernization. Some of the projects are in
the middle of modernization efforts (Office du Niger, Dantiwada and Majalgaon), while others such as Coello and
Saldaña were constructed with "modern" aspects years ago and have little or no modernization budget.

Figure 7. Internal process indicator I-23. Overall project budget index.
Water delivery service and turnout density
Figure 8 below shows a trend of increased water delivery service to the fields if less farmers need to co-operate. This
figure is based on traditional field irrigation techniques, rather than on future improved irrigation methods.
Figure 8. Actual service to individual fields based on traditional irrigation methods (weighted overall)
compared to the number of farmers involved in the final stage
Operator efficiency
In large irrigation projects, the managers tended to point out how difficult it was to manage a project with large areas
of land and large numbers of fields and farmers. Such arguments seem misguided, as they were typically associated
with top-down management styles which did not break the water distribution into layers, let alone empower
employees to make decisions. The number of farmers in a project is not important if one turnout only supplies 50
farmers (e.g. Bhakra). Figure 9 shows a more meaningful index.. Seyhan, Office du Niger, Coello, Saldaña and Rio
Mayo all provided relatively good water delivery service to the field - an interesting point since their operators are
responsible for many more turnouts than their counterparts in the Asia projects.

Figure 9. Number of project operated turnouts per operator
Farmer expectations
Most field (on-farm) irrigation methods in these projects are relatively simple, and the farmers and irrigation project
staff have low expectations of the level of water delivery service needed. The initial focus on modernization is
generally on reliability and equity in Table 1.
Figure 10 shows that most of the projects are not even close to being able to accommodate pressurized field irrigation
systems. Most of the projects rate "0.0" on the scales of necessary flexibility and reliability needed for modern
systems. These factors have a more stringent rating than for traditional irrigation methods. An interesting case is Beni
Amir, which rates fairly high with traditional field irrigation methods but, with its rigid distribution system design,
simply cannot supply the necessary flexibility for modern field irrigation systems.
Figure 10. Internal process indicator I-26 sub-indicators. Ability to accommodate
pressurized field irrigation systems today
Figure 10 is intended to open discussions on what will be needed thirty years from now, because the improvements
we make today will still exist in thirty years. The authors observe the following:
By the year 2030, the world population is supposed to increase to 8 billion (from about 6 billion persons
at present). Do we really expect the food to come from modest changes in how we do things?
Field irrigation practices today are often crude.
There are tremendous yield improvements possible with better field irrigation and fertilizer practices.

The cost and time required to develop good surface irrigation systems are often much greater than the
costs to install and operate good pressurized irrigation systems. Costs to develop good surface irrigation
methods must include energy costs of moving soil for land grading, lost opportunities due to low yields,
and secondary costs due to inefficient field water usage.
Many fields in these projects are small and are located on uneven soils with mixed soil types; all of these
conditions mean that the potential for improved surface irrigation performance is lower than the potential
for sprinkler and drip/micro in some cases.
Many persons will dismiss the idea of planning for pressurized irrigation methods as being unrealistic.
Twenty years ago, the senior author also made strong arguments about how difficult, economically
unrealistic, etc, it would be to convert surface irrigation to sprinkler and drip/micro in many cases in the
United States. He further argued that surface irrigation could be improved if only certain changes were
implemented; the logic was that surface irrigation improvement was preferable to conversion of methods.
While he seriously believes that surface irrigation performance can be improved (Burt, 1995), he also
recognizes that the hardware and prices for some pressurized irrigation methods are now much better
than before. The management capabilities of some of these methods have also been refined so that, in
some cases, yields are much higher than what can be achieved with surface irrigation methods. Therefore,
in some areas of the world there has been a remarkably rapid shift to pressurized irrigation methods. Of
course, crops such as rice, alfalfa and wheat will not be converted to drip/micro in the near future.
The recent World Bank irrigation sector report for India states that there is a need for a paradigm shift to
focus on the productivity of irrigated agriculture. Marginal changes in institutions, financial management,
and technology will not be enough. In the preface of this review, the India Secretary-in-charge of the
Ministry of Water Resources concludes: "In short we must make a (second) revolution in irrigated
agriculture." While the specifics of the improved field irrigation techniques will vary with time and
location, the fact remains that, to make substantial changes in production, the water delivery systems will
need to be drastically improved.
Computer programs
There were several examples of excellent use of computers, although they were in the minority. The site
visits did provide clear evidence that many people are looking to computer models as the answer to water
control and that those people are looking in the wrong direction.
Computers can be used in many ways in irrigation projects. Some of these ways are:
1. Water ordering software. For a system that provides flexible water deliveries and already has reasonably
good control of water levels and flows in the field and a mobile field staff, a computerized water order
program can be helpful. Rio Mayo has such an application. Only a few of the other projects were
advanced to the point where they could actually receive meaningful farmer water orders. In Beni Amir,
water tracking software was being built around a very inflexible water delivery system (hardware), although
the flexible water delivery needed in the future will not be attainable unless the distribution system
(hardware) is changed.
2. Unsteady flow computer models are used to analyse the operation of a main canal for modernization.
This is generally an unwise allocation of resources - in other words, a waste of time. Generally, one can
determine the best possible canal control options through a simple rapid appraisal process if one
understands hydraulics and the control of unsteady flows. If one does not understand these principles, the
computer model will certainly not automatically provide the correct answers. Unsteady flow computer
models are best used to fine-tune automatic gate control algorithms after the big answers and strategies
have already been identified. They can also be used to determine operation rules for regulating reservoirs
and to determine rules for hourly or daily flow changes at the headworks. However, the time
commitment for modelling work can be considerable.
3. Unsteady flow simulation models can be used to predict cross regulator gate movements for real-time
operation. This is a very unwise allocation of resources - a statement which flies directly in the face of
numerous research projects on irrigation systems. A classic example of this was the use of portions of the
WASAM programme in Lam Pao, Thailand. Much better control would be achieved if the field operators
just need very simple instructions to maintain the upstream water levels within a certain range. Such a
very simple and successful procedure was observed in Dantiwada, India.

4. Computers can be used in remote monitoring operations. This is a wise usage of computers because if a
remote-monitoring system is designed properly (including the locations of sensors, software and
hardware), it can provide valuable real-time operational information to the operators. The Muda project
in Malaysia had a good use of computers for monitoring the irrigation water deliveries. The Beni Amir
project is embarking on a remote-monitoring program that has the potential to assist in operations.
5. Computers can be used to directly control canal cross regulators automatically. The only project with an
actively functioning computer control on part of it is Majalgaon. The control logic was implemented in
1997 and tested a single time before the site visit. The focus of the automation was the concept of
dynamic regulation. This concept requires the centralized computer control of all the main canal cross
regulators. The training requirements for the level of sophistication for this project are significant. This
could lead to future problems due to the frequent rotation of the engineers in India. In the western
United States, Australia and Canada simple computer controls for local, distributed control of canal gates
are quite popular and successful. This control is typically provided just at key points within the system
that need automation - as opposed to having a complete automated system at all structures. Such a
modernization strategy was not seen in the 16 projects.
Hardware vs. software
The argument of hardware vs. operation (software) needs has a simple answer: all projects have both needs. The
particular emphasis in each project will be different. Certain hardware options such as a high density of turnouts,
effective water control structures, regulating reservoirs, project-level re-circulation systems, and remote monitoring
can tremendously simplify the operation of moving water around.
Figure 11 shows the present qualities of management and hardware in terms of their ability to accommodate the
pressurized field irrigation systems tomorrow. A high rating such as the 3.5 management rating for Rio Mayo
indicates that the present management procedures are quite good for this objective. The hardware rating of 2.5 for
Rio Mayo indicates that there is still considerable room for improvement on the hardware aspect. However, the
hardware rating of 2.5 for Rio Mayo is high enough to indicate that changes in hardware would be relatively easy to
accomplish (compared to lower scores). The emphasis on modernization for this project would be hardware, with
some attention given to the management.
Figure 11. Internal process indicator I-27 sub-indicators. Present quality of management
and hardware in terms of accommodating pressurized field irrigation systems tomorrow
Lam Pao and Bhakra both have very low scores, indicating that both hardware and management need tremendous
improvement if those projects are to support modern field irrigation methods and field irrigation scheduling. In both
cases, investment in only one aspect would not achieve the desired effect.
An interesting case is Beni Amir (Morocco). It receives very low ratings, although it often scored quite high on other

previous indicators such as irrigation efficiency. The hardware and operation of Beni Amir was designed for outdated
field irrigation methods. Beni Amir has very low capacities in its distribution system and the hardware and
management are designed to only supply one field at a time in the lower level of the canal distribution system on a
rotation basis. It will require major restructuring of the thinking and key new hardware components if Beni Amir is to
be upgraded for the 21st century.
Modernization strategies
In general, project personnel and designers are thinking of components when they discuss modernization. The
components should only be chosen after good water control and operational strategies are selected. In general, there is
insufficient understanding of how to simplify water control operations and how that will impact social factors such as
anarchy and efficiency of employees.
Furthermore, few people had a vision for the future, although today's modernization programmes should be able to
service tomorrow's needs. Because modernization programmes are necessarily done in stages, we must be careful that
initial efforts do not hinder future requirements. For example, if one is interested in supporting modern field irrigation
systems, the turnouts must have the ability to provide a wide variety of measured flow rates. Drip and sprinkler
systems do not need exactly, say, 30 l/s, whereas traditional surface irrigation systems may function satisfactorily with
such a flow rate. Therefore, baffle modular distributors are an inappropriate choice for flow rate measurement and
control because they are only capable of providing incremental flow rates, and cannot be adjusted for installation or
design errors. As an additional note: observations in Office du Niger, Cupatitzio, Rio Mayo and other projects showed
that these particular structures are very sensitive to problems with improper installation (installed too high, too low or
with submerged discharge conditions) and that even today operators need intermediate flow rates.
Proper focus for employees.
In general, employee training and incentives are much higher in the projects with business-oriented water user
associations than in the other projects. Table 2 provides a glimpse of employee conditions.
Table 2. Data on internal process indicator I-24 sub-indicator values
Item Average value (0 = minimum; 4 = Coefficient of

maximum) variation
Frequency/adequacy of training of operators .57 .41
and managers
Availability of written performance rules .34 .85
Power of employees to make decisions 1.67 .43
Ability to fire employees .94 .85
Rewards for exemplary service .35 .83
Salary (relative to farm labourers) of canal 1.18 .52
operators/supervisors
The relatively low pay and lack of training and evaluation of operators may explain an interesting focus seen in some
projects. A feature of modern design and operation is often the minimization of the collection of large amounts of
data, which are used for statistics. On the other hand, modern projects tend to increase the availability of information
needed for operation. It was apparent from this research project that there is much confusion between these two
types of data.
Some irrigation projects waste much employee time by collecting meaningless data (e.g. water levels at the head of
lateral canals in non-rated canal sections), where the time would be much better spent in controlling water levels and
flows. Examples of this type of data collection occurred in Lam Pao, Cupatitzio and Rio Yaqui Alto. In Cupatitzio,
the canal operators spend most of their time inside the office filling out data forms. Coello has apparently made the
distinction between the two types of data. Operators only work with operational data; statistical data is collected,
recorded and handled by other personnel.

When dealing with the operation of a canal system, one must focus on results rather than on process. For example,
the Lam Pao management emphasizes process and requires operators to diligently record the gate positions and water
levels, when the desired result is a water level. Field operators are not allowed to take personal initiative to achieve the
desired result; they must instead follow a process. This is typical of some top-down management styles.
Figure 12 indicates that if operators have good communications (and proper instructions), water delivery service
throughout the project improves. The low score for Office du Niger reflects inequities outside of the modernization
areas.
Figure 12. Frequency of sub-main communications to the sense of inequity of deliveries throughout the
project
The thirst for knowledge
The projects with the best performances tended to have employees with a thirst for knowledge. So much is clear in
Figure 12. If management has an inflated view of its operations, there is probably a corresponding negative opinion
about the need for improvement.
Immediate results
Simple and relatively inexpensive hardware and operational changes could give some immediate benefits to every
project visited - if people only knew about them. Obviously, a system such as Beni Amir, which is under-designed and
has serious corrosion problems, cannot be converted into a flexible operation with simple fixes.
Examples of simple potential improvements were:
Re-orienting employees from statistical data collection to operations.

Focusing on results rather than process.
Using weir flow on cross regulators rather than only orifice flow.
Modification of turnout operations for improved flow control and measurement, including some physical
modifications to the turnouts.
Installation of re-circulation systems within the project to easily collect and reuse spill.
Improved voice communication and mobility of operators.
Remote monitoring of spill points, and subsequent adjustment of the headwork for the pertinent canal.
This can be done manually with radios or even over a reliable telephone network.
More frequent adjustment of flow rates at the source of a project, based on meaningful data from
throughout the project.

Qualified trainers and consultants
The biggest training need for design and operation is not about sophisticated computerized techniques. Rather, there
are major gaps in pragmatic understanding about fundamental issues of irrigation water control. These gaps in
knowledge and understanding were very evident at all levels - from senior engineers and managers to junior engineers
to operators. It was common for project engineers to be relatively well-educated (typically with BSc and sometimes
MSc degrees). While project engineers appear to understand many concepts and formulas, they are generally missing
the ability to synthesize this information. It is necessary to put all the pieces together properly - and there are a lot of
pieces to put together to come up with a simple, overall control and operation strategy.
This means that training cannot simply be a textbook exercise or a list of facts. Trainers must focus on pragmatic
aspects, such as how to apply various hydraulic principles. Trainers must also understand service-oriented irrigation
project design and management, rather than just knowing simple hydraulics. Until there is a large pool of qualified
trainers and consultants, modernization efforts will occur much slower and less efficiently than needed.
Recommended strategy for modernization
First, there is insufficient attention by all parties to the importance of the technical details of how water moves and is
controlled throughout a project, from both an operational and a hardware standpoints (these are linked). This must be
changed. Irrigation project proposals, at the onset, must clearly define:
The desired service that will be provided at all levels within the system. This requirement needs more
than a few sentences in a report. Performance-based design requires that substantial thought and
resources be dedicated to this matter.
The operational procedures which will be used to provide this desired level of service.
The hardware and irrigation project game plan that is needed to implement the proper operation.
Second, there is an insufficient pool of technical experts available who can not only make proper design and
modernization decisions (especially on the strategy and information synthesis levels), but also implement those
decisions. Pragmatic training of water professionals on an extensive scale is needed immediately.
Third, it appears that many modernization projects are under-funded with respect to the expectations. Experience in
many countries, including the United States, has shown that irrigation project improvement is both a long-term and a
costly procedure.
Fourth, there is a need for a new vision for projects:
The vision for all modernization programmes must be on the water delivery service that will be needed
thirty years from now.
Direct government contributions to operation and management activities can realistically be reduced if,
and only if, the projects are first brought up to the point where reasonable water delivery service can be
provided. This research project showed that this will require a combination of operational and hardware
modifications in all projects, with a different emphasis in each. The proper modifications, in turn, require
excellent training of consultants, engineers, managers, etc.
Water user associations of some form (parastatal or private sector) provide distinct advantages if they are
properly empowered.
Conclusion
There are very few examples of modernized irrigation projects throughout the world. This research project examined
16 projects, 15 of which have some modernization components. The authors were left with a sense of strong
optimism for the success of future irrigation modernization programmes. However, unless a massive pragmatic
training effort is soon implemented, improvements will be made very slowly.
Credits
Several individuals provided valuable contributions to this project. They include:

Hervé Plusquellec - Retired Irrigation Advisor of the World Bank. While at the Bank, Mr Plusquellec was
instrumental in defining this project and in obtaining funding from the World Bank Research Committee.
He participated in one site visit (Lam Pao) and also provided valuable editing advice for the final report.
Randall Purcell - Former Executive Director of IPTRID. IPTRID was responsible for the contracting of
the project and in convincing the Research Committee to fund it.
David Molden (Irrigation Engineer with IWMI), Daniel Renault (Irrigation Engineer with IWMI) and
François Gadelle (Senior Irrigation Engineer with IPTRID), who participated in some site visits and
provided valuable input, and Chris Perry (IWMI), who participated in the proposal stage.
All opinions and conclusions in this paper are those of the two authors, and do not necessarily represent those of the
individuals listed above or their organizations.
References
Burt, C. M. 1995. The Surface Irrigation Manual. Waterman Industries, Exeter, CA
Burt, C. M., A. J. Clemmens, T. S. Strelkoff, K. H. Solomon, R. D. Bliesner, L. A. Hardy, T. A. Howell & D.

E. Eisenhauer. 1997. Irrigation performance measures - efficiency and uniformity. Journal of irrigation and drainage
engineering. ASCE 123(6):423-442
ICID. 1995. Currently used performance indicators. Research Programme on Irrigation Performance. Contact: M. G.
Bos, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Molden, D., R. Sakthivadivel, C. J. Perry, C. de Fraiture & W. H. Kloezen. 1998. Indicators for comparing
performance of irrigated agricultural systems. IWMI Research Report 20
Murray-Rust, D. H. and W. B. Snellen. 1993. Irrigation system performance assessment and diagnosis. IWMI
Attachment: Irrigation project descriptions
Lam Pao, Dez, Iran Guilan, Seyhan, Majalgaon, Dantiwada, Bhakra, Muda,
Thailand Iran Turkey India India India Malaysia
Average service 49,338 98,500 235,000 103,135 11,283 36,600 683,000 97,000
area (ha)
"Typical year" 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.3 1.1 1.9 2.0
crop intensity
Average net farm 2.2 5.6 1.2 5.6 0.6 1.4 3.2 2.0
size (ha)
Typical field size, 0.4 5.0 0.3 3.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.0
ha
Land 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 100
consolidation on
what % of area
Percent rented 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
land
Silt level in canals 3 2 9 2 1 10 3 5
(10=high; 1=low)
Cost of land, 17,500 13,300 17,000 2,500 4,200 9,700 8,300 12,500
$US/ha
Gross income per 1,490 3,115 2,163 7,500 700 764 2,900 2,500
farm unit, $US/yr
Farm labor cost, 6 3 15 10 2 1 2 15
$US/day

Major crop Rice Wheat Rice Maize Sorghum Wheat Rice Rice
Second major Rice Sugar Cane n/a Cotton Cotton Mustard Cotton Rice
crop
Water source Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir
and wells and wells and wells
LPS/ha irrigated 2.5 3.3 1.0 1.9 0.9 0.9 0.2 1.3
Annual avg. ETo, 1,695 1,670 771 1,285 2,055 1,893 1,550 1,420
mm
Annual rainfall, 1,336 250 1,290 721 774 604 545 2,300
mm
c.v. of annual 0.16 0.39 0.15 0.33 0.22 0.45 0.45 0.14
rainfall (yr-yr)
MAIN CANALS
Is there a fixed N Y N N Y Y Y N
advance official
schedule of main
canal deliveries
for the year?
How often are 7 365 7 30 365 120 30 1
main supply
discharges re-
calculated, days?
Total length of 159 190 132 483 39 77 165 146
Main Canals, km
% lining of Main 95 90 60 100 100 100 100 0
Canal
Principal type of Manual Manual Radial Hyd. Manual Automatic Manual Manual Manual
cross regulator in Sluice AMIL, Sluice Radial Sluice Sluice Overshot
Main Canal LCW
Condition of 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 2
cross-regulators in
Main Canal
(10=horr.;1=Xlnt)
Operators live at Y N N N Y Y Y Y
each X-regulator
site
Flow CHO Rated Gate Baffle Parshall Rated Flume Flume Rated
Measurement (not Distributor Flume Gate Overshot
control) - gate
Entrance to
Secondary
SUBMAIN
CANALS
Total length of 452 560 640 2550 273 675 2000 1530
SUBMAIN
Canals in project,
km
% lining of 95 90 50 95 90 100 50 40
SUBMAIN
Canals

Type of cross Manual 90% Radial, 10% Long Manual LCW Proport. none Combin.
regulator Sluice mixed Crested Sluice Divider, a Weir,
Weir few Weirs gate
(LCW)
FARMER
Final distribution unlined; unlined; lined (50/50) unlined, pipeline, lined unlined unlined, field-
to farmer field- field-field lined lined field,
field (50/50) (10/90) (98/2) lined
(65/35) (60/40)
Water distribution Contin., Continuous/Unknown Contin., Arranged Known Known Known Contin.,
schedule to rotation Rotation (50/50 known Rotation Rotation Rotation known
farmer (60/40) rotation rotation
(60/40) (25/75)
Who makes final Farmer Farmer Farmer WUA or Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer
distribution of Farmer
water?
Average number 20.0 10.0 20.0 2.8 15.0 5.0 50.0 20.0
of farmers
involved at lowest
level
Kemubu, Beni Amir, Tadla, Office du Rio Yaqui Coello, Saldaña, Cupatitzio, Rio
Malaysia Morocco Niger Alto, Colombia Colombia Mexico Mayo,
(ODN), Dominican Mexico
Mali Republic
Average service 20,430 28,000 56,000 3,574 25,711 14,000 9,878 97,047
area (ha)
"Typical year" 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.7 1.1
crop intensity
Average net farm 0.7 3.0 3 2.5 100.0 100.0 8.2 100.0
size (ha)
Typical field size, 0.5 0.5 3 2.5 12.0 5.0 9.5 12.0
ha
Land 0 100 75 0 0 0 0 0
consolidation on
what % of area
Percent rented 0 10 0 10 85 80 1 50
land
Silt level in canals 4 6 1 3 7 10 2 2
(10=high; 1=low)
Cost of land, 10,000 12,000 n/a 8,200 8,000 6,000 4,500 1,900
$US/ha
Gross income per 2,000 2,416 1,400 1,100 60,000 179,500 2,200 40,000
farm unit, $US/yr
Farm labor cost, 15 3 2 7 8 10 6 4
$US/day
Major crop Rice Wheat Rice Pasture Rice Rice Sorghum Wheat
Second major Rice S. beets Veg. Tobacco Sorghum Pasture Lemon Corn
crop
Water source River Reservoir and wells River Reservoir River River Reservoir Reservoir
and wells

LPS/ha irrigated 1.9 0.6 2.3 1.3 1.1 2.6 2.1 0.8
Annual avg. ETo, 1,400 1,326 2,628 1,945 1,676 1,532 2,280 2,350
mm
Annual rainfall, 2,700 376 238 984 1,306 1,442 671 323
mm
c.v. of annual n/a 0.30 0.25 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.26 0.26
rainfall (yr-yr)
MAIN CANALS
Is there a fixed N N N N N N N N
advance official
schedule of main
canal deliveries
for the year?
How often are 1 1 30 120 75 365 3 5
main supply
discharges re-
calculated, days?
Total length of 105.6 42 288 33 14 69 55 245
Main Canals, km
% lining of Main 0 100 0 100 0 3 100 24
Canal
Principal type of Hyd. Hyd, LCW Manual Manual Radial Radial with Radial Manual
cross regulator in D/S Sluice Sluice plus LCW LCW plus LCW Sluice
Main Canal (AVIS)
Condition of 3 2 2 7 3 5 4 3
cross-regulators in
Main Canal
(10=horr.;1=Xlnt)
Operators live at N N N Y N N N N
each X-regulator
site
Flow Baffle Baffle Dist. Baffle none current Rated Sec., Baffle Flume
Measurement (not Dist and Dist. meter Parshall Dist.
control) - CHO
Entrance to
Secondary
SUBMAIN
CANALS
Total length of 408 240 75 91 226 93 39 1194
SUBMAIN
Canals in project,
km
% lining of 0 99 0 95 6 0 100 8
SUBMAIN
Canals
Type of cross Manual LCW various Begemann Sluice gate Sluice gate LCW with Sluice
regulator Radial Underflow gate
and gates
Sluice
FARMER

Final distribution field- unlined unlined unlined unlined Unlined unlined unlined,
to farmer field lined
(99/1)
Water distribution Contin. Variable rotation Arranged Arranged Known Known Arranged Arranged
schedule to rotation, rotation,
farmer Arranged Arranged
(20/80) (50/50)
Who makes final Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer WUA or WUA Farmer WUA
distribution of Farmer
water?
Average number 20.0 10.0 7.0 2.8 1.1 2.5 3.7 3.0
of farmers
involved at lowest
level

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EXPERIENCES IN MODERNIZATION
Need for & limitations in the application of information technology

to the irrigation sector in developing countries
Er S.G. Shirke, Director

A.R. Suryavanshi, Professor and Head, Science Faculty
A.V. Chandorkar, Professor
Water and Land Management Institute, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
Introduction
Water scarcity and competition is the main issue in developing countries as far as water resources development
and management is concerned. The per capita availability of water is decreasing day by day due to population
growth. The demand for water is rising for increased food production, further industrial development, better
standards of living, etc. The per capita availability of water in India has shrunk by 53 percent in the last 40 years,
i.e. since Independence. It is projected that it will have shrunk by 72 percent by 2025 (Engelman et al, 1993).
Agriculture is the major consumer of water in the country. The overall efficiency of irrigation projects is generally
not very satisfactory. This indicates that there is much scope to improve efficiency so that additional water is
released for irrigation as well as other purposes.
Using information technology, including the adoption of modern control in the operation and maintenance of
the irrigation system, is one of the ways to improve efficiency. The authors see the use of information technology
as computerization of water resource and irrigation management.
The government of Maharashtra has introduced the use of information technology on some of the projects with
the assistance from external agencies (World Bank, USAID, etc) and sundry experts. The details given below
point to the teething trouble any developing country may face in the initial stages of computerization. It is
however very significant that ultimately it is the use of modern information technology that will lead to the best
performance of the system.
Performance evaluation of information technique projects
The Maharashtra Minor Irrigation Project involving the construction of 90 minor irrigation projects
in the state was undertaken with assistance from USAID. A computerized information system (the
IMIS model) was developed by expatriate consultants for the management of these projects. Initially
this model was tried on two or three projects for one to two years. However, after a lot of efforts,
this model was not used to the extent desired. The consultants worked on the development of this
and another model for about three years. Basically there are two difficulties: a tremendous amount of
data is required, most of which was not easily forthcoming and necessitated special efforts to collect,
and there was a shortage of trained staff.
The Khadakwasla Project is a major irrigation project in the western part of Maharashtra. A
computerized monitoring and decision-making system called canal irrigation management system has
been partially developed and installed for this project. The system is under trial. The project at
present has problems in its carrier system. Remote monitoring cannot therefore lead to a complete

x6626e10
solution at this time. The study is still going on.

Under the World Bank-aided MCIP III-R project, a pilot project of dynamic regulation on the
Majalgaon major irrigation project has been undertaken with expert assistance from GERSAR,
France. Under this project, the main canal will be operated using the controlled volume concept.
(Initially, it will be operated by the constant volume control method.) To implement dynamic
regulation, the cross regulators and head regulator have been motorized. A radio network has been
established to communicate the data to the general control centre established at the divisional
headquarters in Parali, which houses the overall control and supervisory computer equipment. One
of the branch canals, the Ganga Masala branch, is provided with duckbill weirs and baffle
distributors to be operated with the upstream control method. The work of this project is almost
completed and has been under trial for the last two years. The preliminary performance evaluation of
this project based on the experience during these two years and the experience of other information
technology projects elsewhere in the state indicates that further reduction in cost is necessary. The
project report expects that the project efficiency will increase by about six percent thanks to dynamic
regulation. However, effective maintenance to reduce seepage and strict control on the use of water,
as the canal will always remain full during the whole season, is necessary.
Reasons for the higher costs and inadequate performance of the trial projects
The results of the above case studies point to the fact that all the modern technology developed elsewhere or
recommended by expatriate consultants cannot necessarily be put to use directly under the local conditions. The
possible reasons for this are as follows:
The experts may not be altogether fully aware of the socio-economic aspect prevailing in the project
area.
It is also not unusual to find experts offering as specific solutions a generic solution to all similar
problems anywhere in the world. This, which can be termed as the solution-in-search-of-a-problem
approach is not necessarily cost effective and may lead to failure (Biswas A.K., 1996).
Possible inadequate socio-economic support for water management capacity-building. According to a
UNDP symposium (Delft, 1991), capacity-building includes a) creating an enabling environment with
appropriate policy and legal frameworks, b) institutional development including community
participation, and c) human resources development and strengthening of managerial systems.
Possible withdrawal of management input soon after the pilot project is completed or withdrawal of
expatriate support.
Steps recommended for the effective application of information technology
The appropriateness of technology plays a vital role in the ultimate success of any scheme. This encompasses a
wide range of parameters such as suitability to local conditions, acceptability by beneficiaries, economic viability
and so on. The following suggestions address these parameters to inculcate appropriateness while introducing
commercial viable information technology in irrigation projects.
Instead of adopting patchwork solutions, more emphasis should be given to institutional reforms, i.e.
changes in service definition, changes in water allocation, delivery and operation policy, changes in
legal framework, a better monitoring and evaluation system, and the introduction of the notion of
performance accountability. Any problem which demands an information technology -based solution
should be referred to the organizations or individuals located in the country to find out if they can
provide a viable solution. In case the in-country expertise is not available or able or if there is a
known technology available outside the country, then engaging an expatriate consultant can be
thought of. The selection of an expatriate consultant should be based on contribution of the
individual or organization in the concerned area. Local authorities should not act as implementing
agencies only but be involved fully in developing the solution with the external agency with the
intention that complete transfer of technology occurs in the process. Dissemination of the acquired
know-how to as many professionals as possible and replicating it in other projects should be

x6626e10
attempted.
The solution of a particular problem tried successfully elsewhere in the country should be replicated
first by making appropriate modifications before the services of any consultant are sought.
The capacity of the project-implementing personnel in terms of technical knowledge, organizational
and procedural constraints, limitations of funds, and the sustainability of the technology or project
over a long period should be considered when developing and introducing modern techniques. If a
higher intellectual input is called for to acquire proficiency in the technique or arduous duties are
involved, the implementing personnel may be suitably rewarded to maintain their motivation.
As far as possible low-cost technology using indigenous materials is to be preferred.
Finally the acceptance of any modern techniques by the beneficiaries is vital, as without their co-
operation success will remain elusive. Hence dialogue with the beneficiaries needs to be maintained
during the implementation and suitable mid-course corrections effected to make the technology
popular.
Conclusion
The application of information technology to irrigation projects is the need of the day. Procedure and workable
solutions may differ from project to project and from country to country. Modern information technology is a
useful tool to enhance efficiency provided that it is applied with appropriateness to suit reality on the ground.
References
Biswas A.K. 1996. Capacity-building for water management: some personal thoughts, in Water resources
development, Vol12, No4, 399-405
Engelman R and Lekoy Pamela. 1993. Sustaining water, population and the future, in Population action
international. Washington DC

The Majalgaon dynamic regulation pilot project: a uniform approach to canal modernization
The Majalgaon dynamic regulation pilot project:

a uniform approach to canal modernization
R.G. Kulkarni, Secretary, Irrigation Department, Maharashtra

J.L. Deltour, Société du Canal de Provence
Abstract
In India, research into improving water resource harnessing is a continuous process. One of the main focuses
has been to achieve better control of water consumption on surface irrigation schemes.
Under the impetus of the World Bank, the study and implementation of new techniques no longer targets
controlling scheme discharges but rather the actual volumes delivered to farmers. This requires enhanced
monitoring and control of hydraulic parameters throughout the scheme networks, i.e. stored volumes, flows and
levels.
A first series of full-scale experiments was successfully implemented in Maharashtra using financial backing
provided jointly by France and the World Bank. The technical options adopted for the scheme were original
insofar as they associated proven techniques, some of which are at the forefront of modern industrial technology
(centralised process control), and others much more traditional (float gates, duckbill weirs, baffle distributors).
The originality of the concept adopted resides in the fact that the entire control system for the project was
designed to provide an integrated and uniform solution.
The very positive results achieved by this pilot project have led the Maharashtra authorities to undertake a much
larger operation (over 200 000 ha) on an extension zone. Henceforth, the Majalgaon project will be an essential
reference for controlling water consumption on gravity irrigation schemes.
Introduction
No system of canal control can be designed without considering the entire irrigation network on which it is to be
installed.
Indeed, an open-channel irrigation network is a complex system of which the main canal is just one part. For
instance, a 10 000 ha irrigated area will roughly consist of:
300 km of tertiary canals (between 30 and 200 l/s flow);

100 km of secondary canals (between 200 and 1000 l/s flow);
50 km of main canal;
150 flow regulators; and
300 off-takes (on secondary or tertiary canals). To this must be added the channels which distribute
the water within the irrigation units.
In practice, networks are operated globally, i.e. each supply configuration involves operation of all the regulators
and field outlets. Steady flow conditions take time to stabilize (six hours in the case of a 10 000 ha network). Any
change in the flow conditions must therefore be scheduled in advance in order to define the adjustments to be
made at all the control points on the network.
Lastly, operation of the network has to overcome a series of constraints:

Agronomic: gravity irrigation requires a minimum flow (10 to 30 l/s) at the farm turnout. Below a
given area the flow can no longer be shared and has to be replaced by intermittent rotational supply.
The roster that is created allows individual supplies to the farm units so that their physical and crop
differences can be taken into account, although it leads to discontinuous operation over the entire
irrigation area.
Economic and technical: in view of the scattered nature and the number of structures used to control
canal discharge, total automation of the network cannot be envisaged. Operation of the latter implies
a large number of manual manoeuvres by different persons. Modifications on start-up may be
authorised to cope with impossible situations arising in the field.
Hydraulic accuracy: operation of an irrigation network translates into a sequence of flow adjustments
from upstream. In fact, with transient flow conditions, these are inaccurate. This inaccuracy adds to
the difficulty of controlling flows due to the slight head loss at the structures. The result is
accumulated errors from upstream to downstream with a falling probability of satisfaction.
There are other constraints that we shall mention for reference only, such as problems of social order, safety and
reliability of supply, scarcity, etc.
All these reasons explain why control has to be designed globally by integrating water management from the farm
turnout up to the resource. An analysis has to highlight the specific constraints which particular canals will have
to deal with, and the performances that it will have to achieve.
In the absence of an overall approach, there is a high risk of obtaining a theoretically effective control system
which in practice is unsatisfactory and does not fundamentally improve overall network efficiency.
We will use the Majalgaon irrigation area modernization pilot project to describe the application of the different
control techniques from design through to construction and initial monitoring of the system, including the tender
phase. We will also describe the control facilities at the different levels from the supply network up to the main
canal.
The Majalgaon project
The Majalgaon irrigation area is part of the Jayakwadi scheme (240 000 ha), one of the largest irrigation areas in
Maharashtra. The limited water resources have reduced the first stage irrigation area to 58 000 ha, although it is
planned to ultimately irrigate 119 000 ha.
The first phase of the scheme was financed by the World Bank and began in the 1970s. Its main components
were:
an earth dam of 454 Mm3 capacity. This is partly supplied by water from the upstream part of the
Jayakwadi area;
a main canal (the Majalgaon right bank canal) with a head discharge of 83 m 3 /s. This canal transports
water over a distance of 100 km to supply more than 50 branches or secondary canals with
discharges varying from 9 m 3 /s to less than 200 l/s. Apart from the head structure, the main canal
has nine cross regulators consisting of two or three radial gates.
networks of distribution canals which ensure that the water is transported to the irrigation units,
which vary from 5 to 40 ha.
The main and secondary canals (design discharge over 500 l/s) have been lined in order to reduce water losses.
Use of water before modernisation
In this part of India, rainfall is concentrated in irregular storms during July to October (monsoon). Rainfall
averages 600 to 700 mm per year. The farmers are able to cultivate three crops a year:
a main monsoon crop which is essentially watered by rainfall although irrigation can be required if

the rains are late and during the dry periods which may occur during this season;
a second crop from October to March (rabi season). This crop, which is essentially irrigation
supplied, makes use of the late monsoon rainfall or water stored in the ground after the monsoon;
and
the final season from February to June. This hot season requires considerable water inputs which can
only be provided by irrigation.
The type of crops may be seasonal, such as sorghum, sunflower or peanut, or perennial, such as sugarcane. A
large part of the area is cultivated during the rains, whereas the more profitable crops that require investments are
grown during the two other seasons. As a result, the crops are varied over the irrigation area due to the different
economic capacities of the farmers.
The area irrigation is operated by the Maharashtra Irrigation Department. The traditional method was based on
on / off flow, i.e. a period during which the flow was close to the design flow for the canal followed by a period
during which the canal was closed. The irrigation units were supplied proportionally by concrete structures which
allowed no room for adjustments. The stream available at the unit was shared on a rotation basis.
Figure: Majalgaon system general layout
This type of organization led to sudden changes in the flow conditions which were difficult to control. The fixed
facilities (i.e. structures contributing to flow control but without the possibility of adjustment, such as calibrated
orifices) could not allow the volumes supplied to match the demand, since the needs were not uniform in space
due to the extent of the unit sizes and the farm practices, which varied from one farmer to another.
The upshot was that the Irrigation Department decided to modernize the system.
Modernization
Aims
In order to improve supply efficiency and to thereby have sufficient water resources available at the farm, the
government of Maharashtra, on the advice of the World Bank, decided to improve the control method and
facilities used in the area. In particular, the improvements included:
the creation of water user associations at the supply level, i.e. associations grouping farmers covering
a 200 to 600 ha area;
the calculation of the volumes distributed to each association in order to bill them according to the
actual volumes consumed; and
the introduction of greater flexibility and more reliability into distribution.

Such objectives can only be achieved using an appropriate control method. This is why the control project was
developed as a pilot research and development project using French government and World bank funding. This
project covers:
Four secondary canals supplying 1 800 ha. These canals are fed by the largest scheme canal, the
Ganga Masla Branch canal, and feed the unit head structures (supplying the field outlets).
One branch (the Ganga Mala) which supplies a total of 20 secondary canals (including the four canals
mentioned above) over a length of 19 km, with 8.9 m 3 /s head flow.
The main canal, the Majargaon Right Bank canal.
Control of the supply network
The four distribution canals break down into two lined canals which supply 1500 ha and two earth canals which
supply 300 ha.
The aims of each control system on these canals were defined with the Irrigation Department to ensure accurate
measurement and adjustment of the flows while allowing operating flexibility. These terms can be more explicitly
defined as follows:
Flexibility: the supply canal has to be able to operate in any flow conditions which may be defined
based on users needs. Modifications to the flow conditions must involve the least possible number of
actual controls.
Accuracy: the canal off-takes and field outlets have to be designed to guarantee accuracy to within 5
percent. This accuracy must be maintained even if the canal flow conditions change. The canal
operator only controls or adjusts off-takes when the discharge required at this point has to be altered.
Simplicity: the method of controlling the flows has to be the same at all outlets. It has to be simple
and understandable by everyone to avoid disputes.
Reliability: the adjustment must be reliable so that farmers have confidence in canal operation and
operators; the Irrigation Department will then have more credibility for imposing rules.
To satisfy these constraints, sharing of water between the four sectors takes places as follows:
Supply canals use upstream control as described below.

All the irrigation units (chaks) are supplied with the same flow of 30 l/s. Farmers use the available
flow on a rotation basis. Sharing between the different units takes place on the basis of the supply
time. One unit receives 30 l/s for a time which is proportional to the requested volume.
All the equipment installed on the distribution networks is manufactured locally.
Upstream control
To guarantee a flexible supply, the canals must be operated at different flows corresponding to the users' needs.
The structures set up have to guarantee reliable supply even during transient flow conditions.
To do this, upstream control relies on the association of two types of equipment:
flow control devices which are only slightly sensitive to changes in canal levels and are easy to use:
baffle distributors; and
level control devices which maintain water levels within a small range when the flow carried by the
canal varies: long-crested or duckbill weirs.
Baffle distributors guarantee that the flow is controlled within ±5 percent even when the level in the canal varies
within a range from 15 cm (for structures whose design flow is less than 100 l/s), to 1.10 m (when the structure
discharge is above 5 m 3 /s).

These baffle distributors are unrelated to the downstream conditions and associate three successive flow
discharge conditions to keep the flow nearly constant when the level varies upstream of the structure.
The flow is adjusted by opening or closing small gates of different widths (the flow released is proportional to
the width of the gate), so that the required discharge is obtained through the opening of a proper combination of
gates.
Duckbill weirs are very long-crested weirs constructed downstream of flow control structures. These weirs have
a V or W shape to maximise the crest length. This configuration allows them to control the water level in the
canals. For example, the level can be kept within a range of 15 cm when the flow varies between nil and
maximum by constructing weirs with one meter crest length per 100 l/s flow.
The combined use of these two facilities gives the operator total control of the adjusted and delivered flows. The
irrigation schedule can be defined in advance based on the requirements of users and implemented by adjusting
the control facilities at the different points of the irrigation network.
Control of the Ganga Masla Branch canal
The Ganga Masla canal is a branch on the network. It supplies 20 secondary canals. The propagation time for a
flow modification between the head and the downstream end of the branch canal is two hours. It is long enough
to allow a single team equipped with a four-wheel drive vehicle and two-way radio to operate this canal.
The upstream control principle is applied on the Ganga Masla canal by using baffle distributors associated with
duckbill weirs to control the levels on the one hand, and flow limiters associated with spillways on the other. The
following structures have been constructed and installed on the canal:
7 duckbill weirs 60 to 20 m long;

a series of 20 baffle distributors to control the flows at the head of each distribution canals;
when necessary, baffle distributors have been associated with AVIO-type constant downstream level
float gates;
3 flow limiters and emergency spillways have been constructed at each reduction in the canal capacity;
and
the head structure has been fitted with a sequence of an AVIO-type gate and baffle distributors in
order to control the flow.
Most of the hydro-mechanical equipment (in particular AVIO gates, baffle distributors) has been imported from
France.
Main canal control
Upstream control cannot be used on the Majalgaon Right Bank canal in view of its size: the number of users, the
number of structures and the canal natural transit times prevent control based solely on forecasts of distribution
without risking shortages at off-takes and excess releases at the dam.
Computerized centralized control, or dynamic regulation, has therefore been used on this canal. The structures
are controlled by software installed at the general control centre. This associates anticipation (open loop) of
demand based on irrigation programmes prepared each month and real-time adjustments (closed loop) after
comparison of the volumes present in the canal with target volumes (needed to correctly supply off-takes while
maintaining a safe level in the canal).
The canal, initially designed for a discharge of 83 m 3 /s, is currently used at 50 m 3 /s. This results in over-capacity
of the canal in volume. This surplus capacity enables the control system to cope with significant differences
between the scheduled adjustments and the actual off-takes. The additional volume required is initially taken
from the water stored in the canal before the control system adjusts the settings to meet actual needs. The same
applies to the opposite situation, when the storage capacity is used for storing excess volumes of water.

These additional storage volumes authorise longer periods between successive adjustments. The system can then
operate automatically or manually (manual operation of gates) depending on the availability of the equipment.
The architecture of the remote control system comprises the following:
At regulators (10):
measurement sensors and signals;

motors to operate gates;
operation automation, operator interfaces;
two radio systems: a radio network is used for sound communications between the centre operating
staff and field staff; another radio network is used for data transmission taking place every five
minutes; and
electricity supply: a low voltage supply is backed up by batteries, the motors does not have a standby
medium-voltage supply.
At the general control centre:
all the information is displayed and processed by a computer (Vax station) which communicates with
the canal through a central terminal unit;
a computer can be used to prepare irrigation schedules, connected to the workstation via the
Ethernet;
as on the site, the centre is linked with the site through two radio systems; and
in case of emergency, a generator ensures an uninterrupted power supply to all the equipment.
System operation
Organization
Operation of the system is based on these three types of canal. The staff employed on the distribution networks
and on the Ganga Masla Branch canal before modernization have been kept on. The organization follows a cycle
which is repeated every 15 days or every month as follows:
the requirements on each unit are defined;

an irrigation programme providing a maximum of four operations per day at each point (morning,
noon, afternoon, evening) is prepared. These operations are co-ordinated between the different
points of the network;
the irrigation programme prepared provides the basis for the operation programme on the main
canal;
a water roster is set up: each evening, canal employees may request changes to the irrigation
programme for the following day; and
the water consumed by each water user association is recorded ready for invoicing.
The main canal is operated and maintained at three levels:
Three teams on each cross regulator, each one comprising a technician and an operator working to
three 8-hour shifts to monitor and if necessary operate the gates. The gates are operated
automatically from the control centre every two hours if all the equipment works and is correctly
supplied with electric power. If some fault prevents automatic operation, the operations are displayed
on a screen so that they can be executed manually.
The control centre is operated by three engineers-operators who are present at the centre during
working hours. Faults and alarms are managed through an alarm system with certain staff on call
(each operator is on call once every three weeks).
Two maintenance teams deal one with electrical and electronic equipment and the other with

electromechanical equipment.
First results
The equipment was commissioned in December 1996. Since then three missions of 15 days each by three Société
du Canal de Provence engineers have been organized to assist Irrigation Department personnel taking over the
entire system.
Problems have been solved at several levels, some examples of which are given below:
The project used local expertise as far as possible. As a result, the equipment is from different origins
and was not installed by the same company. Adjustments have improved the compatibility of the
different parts of the system.
The project was designed to cope with frequent electricity outages, and has had to adapt to lows in
the power supply (frequent drops to 170V compared with 235V announced).
Staff has had to be trained to operate the main canal from the centre using computers whereas
operation was previously under the responsibility of an engineer working in the field.
Maintenance teams have had to be trained in first-level maintenance and repair of new equipment.
Contracts with local companies are under preparation for more advanced maintenance.
With these problems behind them, the Irrigation Department has sufficient control of the system to start it
without assistance by making a few modifications to equipment, and ensure operation of the canal during an
irrigation season.
On the Ganga Masla branch canal and the supply networks, structures have been executed by applying new
construction methods to scrupulously comply with the dimensions and elevations established at the design stage.
The principles behind operation of the structures was explained to the Irrigation Department personnel and to
farmers.
After more than one year of operation, farmers are appreciative of the flexibility and accuracy which these new
systems have brought to irrigation. They are asking for an extension of the project to neighbouring networks so
that all the area can benefit from these improvements.
Conclusion
This case illustrates the synthesis which needs to be developed to install an effective canal control system. Indeed,
it will be necessary
to define the aims of the systems to be operated; these aims must take into account the theoretical
needs but must be concrete and reasonable, taking into account climatic, social, economic and
technical conditions;
to define the means to be implemented which have to be tested, adapted to the conditions of the
country, and properly understood by future users;
to ensure that the quality of work execution is sufficient not to jeopardize the success of the project;
to define the organization to be implemented; this must take into account all the participants from
the farmer to the engineer responsible for transporting water throughout the area; and
to train and then monitor operation during the first period to ensure that the system installed matches
local conditions and, if necessary, to correct imperfections.
The pilot project has demonstrated that the approach proposed can be adapted to the conditions prevailing in
India. The first results have highlighted the improved efficiency which can be expected from this approach and
motivated the Irrigation Department to pursue their efforts to reorganize the irrigation area. As a result, the
department plans to extend this method of operation to other canals on the Jayakwadi area. The second phase
envisaged will confirm and detail the organization implemented to make best use of the improvements of the
structures.


The modernization efforts of the Kankai irrigation system
Suman Sijapati
Officer in charge, Kankai Irrigation Office,
Department of Irrigation, HMG, Nepal
Abstract
The Kankai irrigation system is a large-scale 1 irrigation system in the Terai region of Nepal. During its
construction, no effort was made to involve the beneficiaries of the project and not much attention was paid to
the water management aspects. Consequently, when the project came to the operation and maintenance phase,
the system had many deficiencies. This article tries to explain some of the efforts that were made by the Kankai
Irrigation Office to modernize the system. These efforts were mainly in the institutional development and water
management aspects. The case of Kankai is a good example of how cost-effective software improvement
programmes can substantially enhance system performance of an irrigation system.
Introduction of the system
The Kankai irrigation system was developed for the purpose of irrigating 8 000 ha of agricultural land in Jhapa, a
Terai district located at the south-eastern corner of Nepal. Its command area is flanked by the Kankai river in the
east, the Khrisna river in the west, the Mahendra highway in the north and the Indian border in the south. A
detailed feasibility study of the project was completed in 1970 with the technical assistance of ADB. The
construction was carried out in two phases. The first phase was initiated in 1973 and completed in 1981 with
substantial delays and cost overruns. The second phase, to irrigate an additional 3 000 ha, started in 1980 and was
completed in 1991, bringing only 2 000 ha of land under irrigation. Thus irrigation infrastructure has been
developed for a total of 7 000 ha of land. The total cost of the project was NRs310 million, 63 percent of which
came from an Asia Development Bank loan.
The diversion structure of the system is an ogee-type, concrete weir constructed at the debouncing point of the
Kankai river. This 126m-long, 1.85m-high weir has been quite troublesome for the project since the beginning.
Immediately after the weir was built, heavy silt deposition upstream and scouring of the riverbed downstream
were observed. To prevent a possible failure of the diversion structure, the damaged launching apron was
removed and in its place a depressed concrete stilling basin was constructed just downstream of the existing
diversion weir. The structure still seems quite vulnerable as it suffers from aberration.
The canal system consists of a three-tier network of canals. The main canal length is 34 km with 74 km of
secondary canals and 110 km of tertiary canals. The first 11.5 km reach of the main canal is lined with a design
capacity of 10.15 m 3 /s; the other reaches are unlined and their capacity decreases from 7.25 to 1.75 m 3 /s.
The density of structures in the system is quite high. The canal network crosses many flashy rivers, hence many
cross drain structures (siphons) have been built in the system. Steel gates have been built at all off-take points
from the main canal and at all tertiary off-takes from secondary canals. The total number of such regulating
structures is 322. Including all other subsidiary hydraulic structures, the structural density is as high as 0.2 per ha.
The command area consists of flat land (average slope of 1/800) with fertile soil. The soil texture varies from
loamy to sandy loam. Alluvial soils exist in most parts of the command area. Brown forest soil is found in the
northern part of the command while paddy soil exists in the southern parts.

After the completion of the second phase of the project, financial assistance from ADB ceased and in 1993 the
Kankai Development Board, formed in 1973 for the implementation of the construction works, was dissolved.
Since then, the Kankai irrigation office, under the Department of Irrigation, is responsible for the operation and
maintenance of the system. Thus this office was left with many challenges of system operation and maintenance.
Need for modernization
In May 1992, some time after the project plunged into the operation and maintenance phase, at the request of
the research and training branch of the Department of Irrigation, a baseline study of the project was carried out
by the Nepal Administrative Staff College. The main conclusion of the study was that the performance of the
Kankai irrigation system was not satisfactory. The main reasons for the low performance as outlined by the study
were as follows:
1. Water distribution by the irrigation system was not equitable. Farmers, especially those at the middle
and tail reaches, were not getting timely and adequate water.
2. Participation of the farmers in decision-making in the operation and maintenance of the system was
almost non-existent. This left the farmers uninformed as to when the canal would be operated and
when it would be closed for maintenance. Moreover, the farmers lacked a sense of ownership over
the system.
3. Farmer-agency relations in matters related to the operation of the system were not cordial.
4. The respective roles and responsibilities of farmers and office staff were not well defined.
5. Except in the case of a few enthusiastic farmers, the yield rates of paddy and wheat were far below
what had been targeted.
Modernization efforts
Considering the weaknesses pointed out by the study, concerted efforts were made by the Kankai irrigation office
to modernize the system under the name of joint management from the beginning of 1993. A history of
modernization activities carried out by the Kankai irrigation office is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Modernization activities
Introductory workshop on joint management to sensitize the farmers to the aims

Jan 1993
and approach of the activities
Formation of a three-tier water user association with 145 tertiary level, 17 secondary
Apr-Nov 1993
level and one main committees
The constitution of water user associations endorsed by the farmers' general
Dec
assembly and registered at the Jhapa District Administrative Office
Training on share system and operation and management organized for main
Jan 1994
committee functionaries and chairmen of secondary level committees
The chairmen of tertiary level committees were given training on joint management,
Jun 1994
share system, operation and maintenance, and resource mobilization
Jun 1994 Flow control and measurement structures calibrated for all 77 outlets in the system
Management responsibilities of two secondary canal systems, viz. S10 and S11,
May 1995
formally handed over to the respective water user associations
Applied research on the economic use of water during pre-monsoon paddy
Mar-Jun 1997
cultivation on sample plots of the S3 canal system
Management responsibilities of three more secondary canal systems, viz. S0, S9 and
Jun 1997
S12, formally handed over to the respective water user associations
Applied research with field demonstration and training of the farmers on economic
Mar-Jun 1998 use of water during pre-monsoon paddy cultivation on sample plots of the S0 canal

system
Field training to tertiary level committee members on linkages between the different
Jun 1998
tiers of the water user associations
The activities carried out by the Kankai irrigation office are of three types: institutional development activities,
efforts towards equitable water distribution and efforts toward self-sustainability. Each of these activities is
described below.
Institutional development activities
The main change that was introduced by the joint management programme was a shift in the roles and
responsibilities of the water user associations and the Kankai irrigation office, getting the former to participate in
the operation and maintenance tasks, while the office saw itself more as a facilitator than as an implementer.
The irrigation office, in seeking the participation of the farmers, has carried out the following activities. From the
beginning of 1993, an introductory workshop on joint management was organized to make the farmers aware of
the aims and approach of the activities. Then, from April to November, with the assistance of the irrigation
management project, the formation of the organization and selection of the farmer representatives took place. By
the end of November 1993, a three-tier water user association representing the entire irrigation system with 145
tertiary level committees, 17 secondary level committees and one main committee was formed. In December of
the same year, the constitution of water user associations as endorsed by the farmers' general assembly was
registered at the Jhapa District Administrative Office. After completion of the two-year tenure as specified in the
water user associations' constitution, elections were held to elect functionaries for the second term. The election
was well attended by the users. Recently the general assembly of the users decided to extend the two-year tenure
of the functionaries to four years.
The other main input from the Kankai irrigation office has been the training of water user association
functionaries and beneficiary farmers on the share system, resource mobilization, record-keeping, and operation
and maintenance of the system.
Efforts toward equitable water distribution
The main focus of the Kankai irrigation office has been on the delivery of timely, reliable and adequate supply of
water to the farmers of the command area. The following were some of the activities carried out by the office in
that direction:
Calibration of structures. In the Kankai irrigation system, even though Parshall flumes and orifices
were already installed, they were not properly finished so were not accurate enough to provide
satisfactory flow measurement data. All off-take structures were calibrated and a system of observing
discharge measurements at the different reaches of the canal system was initiated. Gauge sticks were
painted and a process of taking readings on a regular basis was established.
Preparation of the operation schedule. The design discharge of the irrigation system is 10.6 m 3 /s,
with a duty of 1.06 l/s/ha. However, flow measurement during 1994 revealed that the maximum
discharge possible then was only 6.2 m 3 /s. Acute water shortage occurs during the pre-monsoon
season for early paddy cultivation. The water crisis is caused both by low flow (7.7 m 3 /s) in the river
and by high water requirements for early rice cultivation. (Diversion of all the water in the river into
the canal system is not possible because the water is also used for religious purposes downstream of
the diversion structure.) The water shortage is also felt during the grain-filling stage of monsoon rice
if there is no rainfall for several days.
Before the implementation of the joint management programme, "might is right" was the governing principle.
During periods of water shortage, the farmers in the head reach used as much water as they wanted and reliability
declined in the tail portions. Since many of the regulating steel gates were not working, reliability also varied with
the topography of the command area, i.e. lower level canals could steadily draw a lot of water while supply was

inadequate and unreliable in canals irrigating areas at a higher elevation. The water shortage in the tail portions of
both the main canals (S10, S11, S12) and the extension area (S15, S16, S17-20) led to a complete disregard of the
concept of equity in water distribution.
After the implementation of the programme, since the regular operation and maintenance budget would be
insufficient for the renovation of the canal system to increase its capacity, the main focus went to making the
best use of the available water. For this purpose, an annual operation schedule was developed in consultation
with the farmer representatives. In order to cope with the acute shortage during the pre-monsoon season, the
system of rotational supply every two years was adopted. Similarly, rotation of the water supply from secondary
canals is practised to handle periods of water shortage during the monsoon season.
Applied research on economical water use. Flow measurement records confirmed that the
farmers in the head reach of the Kankai irrigation system used much more water than required,
causing disparity in water availability for the farmers downstream. To remedy this situation, it was
decided to carry out research in the farmers' plots so that a comparison can be made in yield levels
between plots using traditional irrigation methods and those using the method prescribed by the
research team of the Department of Irrigation. Since water is most critical during the pre-monsoon
season, this period was selected for the research. Such applied research works were carried out twice
in Kankai, first on a trial basis in 1997, then, along with field demonstrations and training of the
farmers, in 1998.
Training on water management. Various training and field tours have also been organized for the
representatives at the various tiers of the water user associations. They have given the farmers a
better exposure to water management principles and the practice of farmers in other systems, thus
giving them the opportunity to explore and test alternative solutions in water management.
Efforts toward self-sustainability
In this direction the main work carried out by Kankai irrigation office so far is as follows:
Gradual turnover of irrigation blocks. In accordance with the present irrigation policy and
encouraged by the agency staff, the general assembly of Kankai farmers has ratified the proposal of
the main canal committee to take over the entire system except the main canal by 2001. To meet the
target, segments of the network of canals serving about 1 500 ha have to be turned over to the
respective beneficiaries' committees every year. Starting the trend of partial and gradual turnover,
canal segments of S-0, S-9, S-10, S-11, S-12 and To12, serving 300, 127, 259, 144, 385 and 28
hectares of land respectively, have already been turned over to beneficiary organizations, whose
farmers are managing all these subsystems by mobilizing local resources.
ISF collection. Strict enforcement of the irrigation service fee collection mechanism is useful not
only in raising funds but also in enhancing water use efficiency. Thus, more stress has been given to
ISF collection. The delivered irrigation service is assessed in terms of irrigated area for rice, which is
popularly grown in the entire command area, and charged on the basis of NRs100 per ha per rice
crop season.
The fee collection mechanism is slightly different in the turned-over parts of the irrigation system and in the
parts that have not been turned over. In turned-over parts, the water user groups at the lowest level collect the
irrigation service fee by themselves, whereas elsewhere, amins, collectors assigned by the Kankai irrigation office,
do the job based on the office assessment verified with the concerned water user groups.

Figure 1: Collection of the irrigation service fee over the years at Kankai
As stipulated in the irrigation policy, the farmers in turned-over systems retain 50 percent of the fees they collect.
The portions of that share going to the different tiers of the associations are determined by the associations
themselves. The existing rule for the division of the fee is as follows:
50 percent goes to the central treasury and is deposited at the end of each month;
10 percent is sent to the water user association's central committee;
2 percent of the regular dues and 10 percent of arrears are given to the individual collectors as
incentive; and
the rest (30-38 percent) is retained in the respective subcommittee's fund to be used in the operation
and maintenance of the relevant canal system.
The general trend has been of a continued increase in fee collections after the implementation of joint
management and turnover of some secondary canals to the respective water user groups. In turned-over systems,
especially S9 and To12, the respective farmer associations collect enough money to carry out cleaning and de-
silting work on their own.
Labour mobilization. As a result of the institutional development activities of the Kankai irrigation
office, the local farmers have initiated gathering other resources as well. Depending on their
requirements, the different tiers of the water user associations also mobilize labour or equivalent
cash.
At the tertiary canal level. Labour for canal maintenance work is mobilized in variable amounts on almost all tertiary
canals. The basis for such labour mobilization varies from place to place. In most cases, landholding size is the
basis. In a few cases, the basis is the number of households. The mobilization process also varies. In most cases,
farmers first decide how many labourers per household have to be assembled for the targeted works of canal
maintenance. Based on this, they get together and start the canal cleaning works. Attendance is duly recorded.
The work is done till the canal is back to fully functional status, which may take one to three days. In other
tertiary canals, such as in SoT (1-10), the whole canal stretch is divided into various segments assigned to
different groups of farmers depending on the size of their landholdings. The farmers are usually given one week
to complete the cleaning in their respective sections.
At the secondary canal level. Resources are also mobilized for canal cleaning works at secondary level. However, it is
not a regular process and it is not practised uniformly in all secondary canals. When the irrigation office had
sufficient budget for it, it used to clean the silt from the canal. Since budgetary allocations have shrunk
substantially, farmers can no longer depend on the irrigation office to get the work done in the same way. Thus,

some secondary canal committees have started mobilizing labour on their own. In secondary canals, the labour
requirements are very high. As a great many farmers are not readily available, the practice has been adopted of
collecting cash instead, either through donations or as a fee based on landholding size (NRs25/bigha or 37.5/ha).
At some places, the secondary canal committees insist on de-silting works in tertiary canals being carried out. In
1996, the S9 committee asked the tertiary level committees to clean all tertiary canals of their silt. For strict
enforcement, water was not released into the tertiary canals until they were properly cleaned. Some tertiary canals
did not receive water during the pre-monsoon season for more than a week as the respective farmers did not
clean them on time. Similarly, the S0 committee makes sure that all tertiary canals in its area are properly de-silted
before the water is delivered. In March 1998, the committee even distributed NRs500 to each of its tertiary canal
committees for meals during the labour mobilization for de-silting works.
At the central committee level. The main committee also has its own sources of raising funds, e.g. through
membership fees, fees from picnickers, renting of equipment, etc. Even though the members of water user
associations claim that they will use their own funds to do canal maintenance work if necessary, so far these funds
have been used mainly to defray administrative costs of the water user association office.
Results of modernization efforts
Even though it has proved to be a slow process, the modernization of the Kankai irrigation system through
software intervention has started showing positive results. At the process level, involvement of the beneficiaries
in decision-making is clearly visible. The water user associations' main committee meets every month to discuss
the emerging issues and take pertinent decisions. The functionaries of the association participate in decision-
making with the irrigation officials in setting work priorities and deciding on resource mobilization and allocation.
The beneficiaries at the secondary and tertiary level also meet when necessary to discuss and find solutions at
their own level. The active participation of the people in the annual general assembly to discuss the main issues
and to maintain checks and balances within the organizational structure indicates greater involvement of the
beneficiaries in system management.
Improvements can also be seen in water distribution. The decrease in the number of water-related conflicts is a
clear indicator of this. Greater acceptance by the farmers of the rules and regulations laid down in the water user
associations' constitution and of the norms set by the consensus of the farmers themselves can be considered as
the reason for the decrease. Consequently, water adequacy and reliability conditions are reported by the farmers
to have slightly improved. Reliability, it is reported, has also improved because the farmers are now well
informed, as they themselves are involved in decision-making.
Equity in water distribution has also significantly improved. It is thought to further improve after the outcome of
the applied research on economical use of water is disseminated to all the farmers. The discharge measurements
observable at the off-take structures have helped improve equity in water distribution. As the structures have
been calibrated and the designed discharge level for each canal marked on the gauge, farmers can easily see
whether they are getting their share of water or not and also whether the farmers of some other canals are taking
more water than their share.
There are also indications of the system moving toward self-sustainability and financial autonomy. Through the
process of gradual acceptance of operation and maintenance responsibility of the respective systems, the relevant
water user groups have not only shown their interest in carrying out such tasks but also their ability to do so.
1 According to the Nepalese classification, an irrigation system with a command area larger than 2 000 ha in the Terai and 500 ha in the Hills is a large-scale
irrigation system.

Diagnostic analysis and some approachesfor improving water delivery performance in the Bhakra canal command
Diagnostic analysis and some approaches

for improving water delivery performance in the Bhakra canal
command
N.K. Tyagi
Director, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal
Abstract
The modernization of an irrigation system generally aims at removing or relaxing the constraints that undermine
the performance of the system in respect of the designed objectives. It involves cost and has to be undertaken
after establishing the nature and degree of improvement required and its technical and economic feasibility.
Evaluation of the hydraulic performance of the irrigation system at the watercourse and farm levels was
undertaken in the command area of a branch canal, the Fatehabad branch of the Bhakra canal system in Haryana.
Equity (in terms of uniformity coefficient and modified inter-quartile ratio), adequacy (in terms of relative water
supply) and water productivity, which reflected both adequacy and timeliness, were evaluated.
The equity of water distribution decreased with the size of the watercourse (flow rate), and the average value of
the modified inter-quartile ratio was 1.85. With an average relative water supply value of 0.64 across watercourses
and the seasons, the system had highly deficient supply. Water productivity value was only 0.51 across
watercourses and seasons. Lower values of water productivity as compared to seasonal adequacy reflected a time
mismatch between supply and demand. Equity in water distribution along the watercourse and irrigation
efficiencies on the farm can be substantially improved through the proper design of the unit command area size
using the procedure that has been developed for this purpose. Variable time warabandi and provision of tube wells
in tail reaches would also minimize inequity. Intra-seasonal modifications in the existing water delivery schedule,
based on the simulation model, indicated a substantial improvement in water productivity. Further improvements
were possible through the provision of auxiliary storage at the head of watercourses.
Introduction
During the last few decades there has been very a rapid expansion of irrigation facilities all over the world. In
India, which has chosen irrigation development as a vehicle for time-targeted progress, the rate of irrigation
development has been the highest. At present, an area of some 51 million ha is irrigated by different sources.
Through large and medium-sized projects in several states, including Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan, the irrigation potential has grown by 70 percent or more.
Provision of irrigation facilities has raised agricultural production, has improved productivity and has brought
some sort of stability to Indian agriculture. In spite of these substantial gains, there is a growing perception that
the performance of the irrigation system has been less than satisfactory. The shortcomings that are frequently
mentioned include:
smaller than expected increase in productivity;

low irrigation intensities;
higher than anticipated costs of construction and maintenance;
inequity in water distribution; and
environmental degradation in the form of waterlogging, salinity, erosion, spread of disease, etc.

The scope for further increase in irrigation potential at a reasonable cost is not very high. Also, allowing the
present state of affairs to continue for long may have bearing on the long-term sustainability of irrigation in many
regions. The conviction is spreading that a major breakthrough in irrigated agriculture is possible only through
the modification of existing practices after diagnosing the causes through performance analysis (Government of
India, Ministry of Water Resources, 1987). Meaningful performance appraisal is possible only if there is a clear
understanding of how we define the irrigation system, its management and the objectives for which it has been
created. The vastness of the subject also makes it necessary to define the boundaries of the proposed exercise
along with anticipated outputs and future beneficiaries.
Physically, an irrigation system may include (1) capture and storage, (2) conveyance, (3) bulk distribution, (4)
delivery, (5) application and (6) removal of water from agricultural land. These physical entities, which are distinct
hydraulic levels fall under different management domains (Kellar et al, 1988). The management at hydraulic levels
1 and 2 is exclusively dealt with by irrigation project authorities such as irrigation departments or management
boards, whereas the management at hydraulic levels 5 and 6 is in the domain of farmers or of the officials of the
agriculture department. Hydraulic levels 3 and 4 fall in the intermediate zone where both irrigation department
and command area development authorities interact.
Scope of the study
This study aims at determining the scope of improving the performance of an irrigation system at hydraulic levels
4 and 5 (watercourse and farm) through structural and operational changes in the system. The need for
improvement will be established through a diagnostic analysis of the system performance. The type and nature of
the interventions will be decided on the basis of an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the system.
Project area
The project area is a part of the Bhakra canal system in Haryana and it covers about 0.28 million ha between the
latitudes 29º 00' to 30º 55' N and longitudes 73º 02' to 77º 28' E in the Ghaggar river basin, which is a part of the
Indus basin.
The Fatehabad Branch canal, which branches off the Bhakra Main Branch canal, was selected for the study. Four
pairs of watercourses (one lined and the other unlined) branching off the Gorakhpur and Khajuri distributaries in
the head reach, Adampur in the middle reach and Kutiyana and Sheranwali in the tail reach, were selected for
investigation. In addition, two watercourses on the Fatehabad distributary in the tail reach near Fatehabad were
also chosen. The salient hydraulic data for these watercourses are given in Table 1. In this irrigation command, a
three-stage water distribution system is in use. The first stage consists of main and branch canals and the second
stage has the network of distributaries and minors. The distribution network in the first two stages is owned and
operated by the state irrigation authorities. Watercourses which distribute water beyond the canal outlet constitute
the third stage, and these are owned and managed by groups of farmers. The watercourse draws water through an
adjusted proportionable module.
Table 1. Salient hydraulic data for different watercourses
Distri- Watercourse Lined/ Length Design GCA (ha)

butary No CCA unlined (m) discharge (ha)
(l/s)
Gorakhpur 5000L Lined 1 811 45.0 330 282
3275L Unlined 1 980 45.0 296 288
8758L Lined 2 010 46.4 305 288
Khajuri 9400L Unlined 1 440 28.0 177 169
11260L Unlined 1 125 19.5 139 114
Fatehabad 179415L Lined 3 800 68.0 462 408

204200L Unlined 3 300 45.6 392 273

Adampur 44000L Lined 1 500 29.7 178 185
Kutiyana 780L Lined 3 020 45.5 456 274
Sheronwali 2000R Unlined 2 850 34.6 290 195
The capacity factor (actual discharge/designed discharge) during the winter season is only 0.72 and is indicative
of inadequate supply in general.
The problems
The problems of distribution and application in the Fatehabad branch canal are representative of similar
problems on other projects in the region. Appraisal of the relevant documents, a walk through the system and
discussions with the farmers and officials of the irrigation department indicated the following problems:
Rigid irrigation water delivery schedules with almost the same frequency throughout the growing
season cannot meet crop demands.
The water supplied is scarce and the effects of scarcity are more severe in areas with highly
saline/sodic groundwater.
In unlined watercourses about one third of the area toward the tail does not get any water; this leads
to the unauthorized practice of sale of canal water.
The command areas of watercourses seem to have been fixed entirely on the basis of topography
without much consideration for the soil infiltration rate.
Diagnostic analysis of irrigation performance
Chambers (1984) has listed some of the perceptions of good performance by different disciplines and sections of
the society. An in-depth criterion of the objectives is given in Small and Svendsen (1990). Since we are limiting
our scope of performance evaluation at the hydraulic level of watercourses and farms, success can be measured
in terms of equity, adequacy and timeliness, and efficiency in application, distribution and storage on the farm.
On-farm irrigation system performance
In the present study only hydraulic performance of the field irrigation was evaluated. Graded borders are the
most common way of applying water to crops. The test borders were specified along the entire length of the
Fatehabad branch canal, in the command of selected watercourses. In general, three borders on each watercourse
with location in head, middle and tail reaches were selected. The detailed procedure prescribed by Meriam (1978)
was adopted. The application efficiency in most cases in quite high, whereas storage efficiency is low (Table 2).
Because of higher stream size, the water spreads quickly and the irrigation is terminated before the required
quantity has been diverted into the border. The distribution uniformity is also poor (less than 60 percent) in the
majority of cases. Thus there is scope for improvement in the design of water application practices.
Table 2. Field irrigation efficiency in head, middle and tail reaches of watercourses
Water Location Inflow Stream size Irrigation Land AE SE DU

Rate (l/s) (l/s/m) required slope (%) (%) (%)
(cm) (%)
Gorkahpur distributary (Ic = 0.14t 0.30 )
5000L Head 50.8 4 064 5.9 0.15 85 49 70
Middle 40.3 4 112 6.1 0.15 82 50 65
Tail 29.6 2 846 6.5 0.15 87 57 68
3275L Head 38.2 4 064 6.7 0.20 78 52 67

Middle 23.1 2 852 7.4 0.16 75 56 72

Tail 15.6 1 835 8.0 0.15 62 61 64
8738L Head 36.1 3 539 5.6 0.20 65 52 36
Middle 29.0 2 990 6.8 0.12 79 58 62
Tail 21.5 2 529 7.5 0.15 80 64 58
Adampur distributary (Ic = 0.95t )0.65
27670L Head 39.5 5.640 6.9 0.25 84 55 42

Middle 32.7 5.940 5.7 0.25 60 51 55
Tail 26.4 3.120 6.5 0.30 62 59 35
Fatheabad distributary (Ic = 0.95t )
0.65
179415L Head 65.0 9.630 7.0 0.30 80 42 90

Middle 60.7 7.490 5.5 0.35 82 48 84
Tail 51.5 6.870 6.2 0.35 80 55 59
204200L Head 30.4 4.540 6.8 0.30 81 56 54
Middle 20.3 2.550 7.1 0.30 76 71 19
Tail 16.7 2.090 8.0 0.30 79 68 27
Kutiyana distributary (Ic = 1.2t )
0.5
780L Head 39.5 5.640 5.4 0.30 92 65 30

Middle 32.7 5.940 6.2 0.25 86 68 35
Tail 26.4 3.120 4.9 0.25 96 75 61
Sheronwali distributary (Ic = 1.2 t )
0.55
2000R Head 30.5 4.760 7.5 0.20 72 78 65

Middle 20.7 3.630 6.6 0.20 67 87 49
Tail 15.8 3.200 5.8 0.20 58 74 58
AE = application efficiency; SE = storage efficiency; DU = distribution uniformity; Ic = cumulative infiltration, depth and equity
Conveyance losses at different points were measured to compute the water being supplied to different farms and
the equity, as represented by the Christiansen uniformity coefficient (Cu ), and modified inter-quartile ratio (IQR)
were computed (Table 3).
The values of C u range from 0.63 to 0.95 for different watercourses with an average value of 0.8. So, if C u were
chosen as the criterion parameter for equity, the values of equity are apparently quite high. Of course, there is a
decrease in equity as the size of the watercourse increeases. The distribution looks more non-uniform when one
computes IQR, which represents the ratio of the average depth in the most favoured quarter to the average
depth in the least favoured quarter. The IQR value at the lowest discharge of 19.5 l/s is 1.33 and it increases to
2.58 at the highest discharge of 68 l/s, with an average value of 1.85. In other words, the farms located in the
head reaches of the watercourses receive nearly twice the water supply going to the tail-end farms.
Table 3. Values of equity measures in different watercourses
Distributary Water- Design Cu IQR

course No discharge (l/s)
Gorakhpur 5000L 45.0 0.81 1.69
3275L 45.0 0.78 2.01

8758L 46.4 0.88 1.65

Khajuri 9400L 28.0 0.95 1.48
11260L 19.5 0.91 1.33
Fatehabad 179415L 68.0 0.82 2.58
204200L 45.6 0.73 2.29
Adampur 44000L 29.7 0.94 1.36
Kutiyana 780L 45.5 0.89 1.60
Sheronwali 2000R 34.6 0.63 2.53
Relative water supply
The relative water supply is the ratio between the water supplied and the demand in an irrigation unit over a
period of time. The concept is related to the available water supply, demand and management intensity in an
irrigation system. The capacity of the system to control water is determined both by physical resources and the
institutions. The degree to which capacity is actually realized is called intensity of management. By varying the
intensity, it is possible to match supply and demand. As shown by Oad and Podmore (1989), a low relative water
supply requires a more intense management.
The relative water supply varied across the watercourses, the seasons and the reaches. Watercourse 9400L
(Khajuri) and 179415L (Adampur) (Table 4) had relatively higher adequacy, with values of about 80 percent, than
watercourse 5000L (Gorakhpur) with 49 percent and 2000R (Sheronwali) with 58 percent. Watercourse 179415L
was actually drawing more water than its designed discharge due to the inaccurate installation of an adjusted
proportion module outlet. The sill level of the adjusted proportionate module was lower than provided for in the
design. Relative water supply values during the summer, when crop water requirements are partly met by rainfall,
were higher by 8-12 percent than in winter. There was marked variation in the relative water supply along the
watercourse, with values at the head exceeding those at the tail by 25 percent. For example, the average value at
the head of watercourses in winter was 0.65 as against 0.50 in the tail reach. Such large differences obviously call
for immediate remedial measures.
Table 4. Relative water supply in different watercourses
Distributary Water- Location along the watercourse Average

Course Head Middle Tail
Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
Gorakhpur 5000L 0.58 0.54 0.52 0.47 0.45 0.38 0.49
Khajuri 9400L 0.88 0.77 0.86 0.87 0.72 0.70 0.80
Fatehabad 139415L 0.72 0.65 0.61 0.52 0.54 0.46 0.58
Adampur 780L 0.83 0.72 0.80 0.64 0.71 0.55 0.71
Sheronwali 2000R 0.61 0.56 0.56 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.62
Average 0.72 0.65 0.67 0.60 0.58 0.50
L = left-hand side; R = right-hand side
Productivity of the water delivery system
Irrigation systems are meant to provide water to increase land productivity by maximizing water use. The excess
or deficit of the water supply has an impact on crop yields, though the effect varies with each stage. There are
several approaches to simulate the effect of a water supply regime (Bhirud et al, 1990; Vijayaratna, 1988); the

most elegant, which has potential for large-scale application, is due to Lenton (1984). Lenton's water delivery
performance takes into account both the adequacy and the timeliness of the water supply and essentially
represents productivity on a 0-1 scale. The potential productivity of Abernathy (1987) is similar to Lenton's
(1984) water delivery performance index and it produces a number in the range of 0 to 1 obtainable under a
given water supply regime.
The computed values of productivity are given in Table 5. There are similarities as well as differences with the
results obtained in the relative water supply analysis: the productivity of water delivery is higher in the head
reaches of all the watercourses, the average value during summer being 0.61 in the head as against 0.48 in the tail
reaches; but the relative productivity potential is higher in winter than during the summer. This may be due to
the occurrence of rain during supply periods in the summer. In such cases, the supply becomes a surplus. The
higher sensitivity to moisture of crops grown during the summer could also be the reason for the low water
productivity.
Another important difference is that, in general, the values of productivity are lower than those of seasonal
relative water supply. This implies a mismatch in time terms between supply and requirement. In other words, the
water supply is wanting in timeliness. Timeliness and reliability both carry the implications of some external
demand or need to be fulfilled. Small and Svendsen agree that in the absence of any readily identifiable distinction
between reliability and timeliness, the single concept of timeliness would be more useful. In the above analysis,
the need for improving the timeliness of water supply at different growth stages is clearly indicated.
Table 5. Water delivery performance in terms of relative productivity potential
Distributary Water- Location along the watercourse Average

Course Head Middle Tail
Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
Gorakhpur 5000L 0.49 0.53 0.44 0.50 0.36 0.41 0.45
Khajuri 9400L 0.79 0.85 0.72 0.81 0.62 0.64 0.70
Fatehabad 179415 0.59 0.59 0.52 0.55 0.43 0.45 0.51
Adampur 780L 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.71 0.61 0.56 0.41
Sheronwali 2000R 0.51 0.55 0.47 0.50 0.44 0.46 0.49
Average 0.61 0.64 0.55 0.60 0.48 0.50
Interventions for improving the performance
The problems of non-uniform and inadequate water application at the farm, inequitable distribution along the
watercourse, and rigidity of irrigation schedules that lower water productivity can, to some extent, be overcome
by making certain modifications in the system. The detailed description on how the interventions are to be
designed is given elsewhere (Tyagi et al, 1995) and cannot be reproduced here for want of space. However,
suggestions and modifications can be briefly mentioned.
Improvement in water distribution equity and efficiency. Equity in water distribution along the
watercourse and irrigation efficiency on the farm can, to a large extent, be resolved through the
proper design of the unit command area size. A model has been developed for designing an optimal
unit command area incorporating the concepts of equity, efficiency and productivity. It is validated
with data from watercourses on the Sudkan distributary. The design of watercourses by adopting the
suggested procedure led to improvement in three performance criterion parameters (equity, efficiency
and productivity), thereby clearly establishing the need and scope for modifying the existing design
standards.
Further scope for improving the water delivery performance lies in variable time warabandi from head to tail of

the watercourse or through the installation of tube wells toward the tail reach of the course. The design
procedures for these interventions need, however, to be established.
Relaxing the rigidity of the delivery schedule. It is possible to make intra-seasonal modification in
the existing rigid water delivery schedules without involving structural changes. A mathematical
model has been formulated to evaluate the different rotational and on-demand water supply
schedules with a view to suggest intra-seasonal changes. Application of the model to the Gorakhpur
distributary of the Fatehabad branch has suggested the possibility of obtaining 94 percent of on-
demand yield with intra-seasonal change in the irrigation interval after 100 days of sowing of wheat
with only 66 percent of the on-demand water requirement. The suggested model provides a rationale
and the procedure to modify water delivery schedules.
Improving timeliness. The problem of time mismatch between supply and demand may be solved
by providing auxiliary storage at the head of the watercourse and allowing for intra-seasonal
variations in water delivery schedules. A procedure has been outlined to estimate the availability of
canal water for auxiliary storage and to establish its economic feasibility. For the demand and supply
conditions obtaining in the Adampur distributary of the Fatehabad branch canal, provision of
auxiliary storage could improve wheat yields by 20 percent with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.3.
References
Bhirud, Sanjay, Tyagi, N.K. & Jaiswal, C.S. 1990. A rational approach for modifying rotational water delivery
schedules, Irrigation and drainage engineering, ASCE, Vol. 116(5): 632-644
Chambers, R. 1984. Irrigation management: ends means and opportunities. In Productivity and equity in irrigation
systems (ed. Niranjan Pant), Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi
Lenton, R.A. 1984. A note on monitoring productivity and equity in irrigation systems. In Productivity and equity in
irrigation systems, op. cit.
Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. 1990. India 1990 - A reference manual, Research and Reference
Division, Government of India, New Delhi, p 433
Oad, R. & Podmore, T.H. 1989. Irrigation management in rice-based agriculture: concept of relative water
supply. ICID Bulletin, 38(1):1-12
Small, L.E. & Svendsen, M. 1990. A framework for assessing irrigation performance, irrigation and drainage
systems, 4(4):283-312
Tyagi, N.K., Bhirud, S., Kaushal, R.K., Ambast, S. and Mishra, A.R. 1995. Improving canal water delivery
performance: some approaches, Research Bulletin No 246, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, p
69
Vijayaratna, C.M. 1986. Assessing irrigation system performance: a methodological study with application to the
Gal Oya scheme, Sri Lanka, PhD dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA

Some experiences on modernization in irrigation system

rehabilitation in Sri Lanka
Dr G.G.A. Godaliyadda 1 , K.R.P.M. Mullegamgoda 2 , A.M.U.B. Alahakoon 3

Introduction
The history of irrigation in Sri Lanka goes back more than two thousand years and over time many irrigation
systems were abandoned due to various reasons. During the British colonial rule many of the irrigation systems
were renovated to promote irrigated agriculture. After Independence the main emphasis of the government of Sri
Lanka was on agricultural development through the renovation of ancient irrigation works and resettlement of
the landless population in the dry zone. The main objectives of the development were:
to increase food production;

to provide land for the landless;
to earn or save on foreign exchange; and
to generate employment and raise the income of the farming community.
However, the renovated irrigation systems deteriorated within a couple of decades due mainly to poor
maintenance and flows being carried over the designed capacities of the canals to cater to the excessive use of
water by farmers. This has led to serious operational problems in many irrigation systems, the worse being the
inability to irrigate the planned area. During the last two decades, many irrigation systems have been rehabilitated
mainly to bring back land under cultivation as originally planned and to assure more reliable water supplies to
farm lands. However, many rehabilitation projects have not contributed much to increase water delivery and
water use efficiency through management innovations. Of course, physical rehabilitation has contributed to some
extent to increase efficiency. At the same time, it is not correct to say that there have been no modernization
efforts on physical structures or management to improve irrigation system operations in Sri Lanka.
Rehabilitation projects
The main rehabilitation projects implemented in Sri Lanka during the last few decades can be listed as follows:
1. The Tank Irrigation Modernization project 1976-1982

2. The Gal Oya Rehabilitation project 1981-1986
3. The Major Irrigation Rehabilitation project 1985-1992
4. The Irrigation System Management project 1986-1996
5. The National Irrigation Rehabilitation project 1992-1998
The Tank Irrigation Modernization project
This was the first modernization project implemented in five main irrigation systems in North Central Sri Lanka
and North Sri Lanka under World Bank funding. Even though this was the first project of this nature, it had
several innovative efforts of physical modernization to improve the operational aspects in irrigation water
delivery. The project was criticized by many as drastic changes were brought in the technological designs without
any consultation of the beneficiaries. If the objectives of the project had been known to the beneficiaries before
implementation, it might have been more successful. In this project much weight was given to modernization
design proposals for rotational water distribution within field (tertiary) canals feeding a turnout area of about 40

acres. The distributary (secondary) canals were split into several segments to facilitate the water distribution to
head and tail farms. Separate control gates for each canal segment were provided at the head end. The segments
were continued until the tail-end field canals to get them isolated from the branching-off canals. In the main
canal cross realtors with gates and in distributary canals duckbill weirs with regulators were introduced to regulate
the flow. A flow measuring device at the sluice (Parshall flume) and many measuring weirs were installed at every
off-take to improve the operational capabilities of the systems
The improved water management programme
Subsequently, using the above improved physical facilities, water management programmes were implemented in
many systems. In the Mahakanadarawa irrigation system where water management was implemented successfully,
it was possible to irrigate the entire service area with rotational water distribution within turnout areas with the
co-operation of the farmers. For some reason, though, the programme was not continued, and the success of
such innovative modernization efforts was short-lived.
The pilot project on on-demand delivery
In one of the systems, i.e. Mahakanadarawa, under the direction of the World Bank a pilot project on on-demand
delivery was introduced in a distributary canal service area. Starting from the outlet of the main canal up to the
farm outlet, underground concrete pipelines were laid and each farm was provided with a valve to get water as
and when required. Even though the project intended farmers to use water on demand, they continued to take
water as in a conventional system.
Simultaneously, a similar project was implemented in the 150ha service area of a distributary in Area H of the
Mahaweli scheme. This automated supply system consists of a reservoir, a downstream level-control gate, level
top canal, and low pressure concrete pipes supplying individual turnout valves. The principal objective was to
compare demand irrigation to conventional agency-controlled rotational irrigation. The project operated for six
seasons (three years) and interesting useful results were achieved. As in the previous case, a few years after the
study period the project reverted to conventional rotation irrigation, as did the rest of Area H. There were no
follow-up attempts to replicate such interventions even though the farmers responded positively to such methods
(Plusquellec, 1996).
Technical assessment area and dry land preparation
Under the tank irrigation modernization project, there was a very close link between the Irrigation and
Agriculture Departments from the inception. The Agriculture Department was involved in planning the cropping
pattern and calendar and applying other agronomic inputs. A technical assessment area was set up to demonstrate
various techniques in crop cultivation. Even the preparation of land with initial moisture in the soil without using
irrigation water was demonstrated. This too had been considered in the design of the tank irrigation
modernization project.
The Gal Oya Rehabilitation project
The Gal Oya irrigation system, the largest system operated and managed by the Irrigation Department of Sri
Lanka, was rehabilitated under USAID funding in the early 1980s. There was no innovative design procedure
before the implementation of the project. The rehabilitation requirements at secondary and tertiary organizations
were defined by staffers known as institutional organizers. The entire system was rehabilitated by providing the
necessary structures for better control and delivery of water. Different flow measuring devices were introduced in
Gal Oya where farmers did not feel that the devices were obstructing the flow.
Computer-aided irrigation system operation
One of the innovative efforts on system operation implemented in this project was the computer-aided water
scheduling model with a two-way communication network for daily monitoring of the water deliveries
throughout the system (Godaliyadda, 1987). The model computes the weekly irrigation requirements based on

crop water requirements according to growth stages, soil percolation rate, rainfall with application and
conveyance losses. The daily diversion requirement at major diversion points and branching-off points were
monitored and gauge readings were transmitted to the central office through telephones. Similarly the
instructions from the central office were transmitted to the field through the same arrangement.
The Major Irrigation Rehabilitation project
There was no significant difference in physical rehabilitation in relation to previous projects in systems selected
under this project. Even though this project too was funded by the World Bank, many of the innovative design
concepts in the tank irrigation modernization project were not fully adopted.
Under the direction of the World Bank, a pilot project was implemented in a distributory canal in the Rajangana
system with two structural modifications: an automatic constant downstream level gate associated with modular
distributors at the head of the distributory canal, and baffle distributors at the head of field canals. The pilot area
of 150 ha was compared with the conventional gates system. It was found that there was no significant difference
in terms of water use and crop yields. However, there are some doubts about the reliability of the data. The
operational cost of the new design was 40-percent lower that the conventional design. The feeling of both the
Irrigation Department and the farmers is that this kind of design provides greater facility in operation and
possibility in checking the quantity of water delivered to the fields (Plusquellec, 1996).
The National Irrigation Rehabilitation project
This is the largest project of all those listed above which undertook many major systems for rehabilitation under
World Bank funding. One of the features of this project was beneficiary participation on physical rehabilitation.
According to the project agreement, a voluntary beneficiary contribution of 10 percent from the overall civil cost
of the system rehabilitation was enforced.
Operation and maintenance manual
Even though there were no modernization efforts of physical rehabilitation, several improvements have been
introduced for the operation and maintenance of irrigation systems, such as the preparation of an operation and
maintenance manual for each irrigation system rehabilitated and the implementation of the after-care programme
to fully achieve the objectives of the projects on operation and maintenance.
Proposed typological approach to the modernization of irrigation system operation
The basic assumption of this approach is that irrigation systems have a heterogeneous behaviour with respect to
operation. The goal is to bridge the gap between generic recommendations and site-specific recommendations.
Generic rules are often mandated at national or regional levels and do not incorporate site-specific constraints at
present. Local managers integrate these constraints by rule of thumb (Godaliyadda, 1998).
The foreseen applications of the typology are twofold: at global, national and regional levels, as a grid for
characterizing irrigation systems as a whole and for assessing the requirements for operation; at local level, as a
grid of criteria to divide the irrigation system into more homogeneous units (subsystems) with respect to
operation. At system level, subsystems appear to have different behaviours and thus managers should distribute
efforts in a non-homogeneous way. For instance, a double-bank canal fed by a reservoir and having an
intermediate reservoir is much easier to operate than a single-bank canal fed by river diversion and having inflows
into the system. To reach the same level of performance, the second case should receive more attention and
efforts.
Four main types of irrigation systems have been identified in Sri Lanka. Under the current practice of operation,
very little improvement can be expected. Introducing new operation strategies to take into account the
opportunities offered by physical features is more promising. On a more global perspective, it is expected that
the typology will prove to be useful in resource allocations for the modernization of irrigation systems for
improved operation (Godaliyadda, 1998).

Proposed pilot projects
Modernization operational techniques are programmed to be tested in the near future using the typological
approach in the Minipe diversion system with a 74km-long single-bank main canal and in the Kirindi Oya
reservoir system with a 20km-long double-bank main canal.
References
Godaliyadda, G.G.A. 1987. Computer application in irrigation system operation: case study from the Gay Oya
project in Sri Lanka. Commemorative volume, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, CBIP Diamond Jubilee, New
Delhi
Godaliyadda, G.G.A. 1998. Typology for irrigation system operation, generic approach and application in Sri
Lanka, PhD dissertation. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Plusquellec, Hervé. 1996. Investments and opportunities for modernization projects in Asia: past and future
needs, Proceedings of expert consultation on modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options, Bangkok
1Deputy Director, Head of Sri Lanka Irrigation Training Institute, Irrigation Department
2Deputy Director, Southern Region, Irrigation Department, Sri Lanka
3 Irrigation Engineer, Minipe Irrigation Scheme, Irrigation Department, Sri Lanka

Modernization of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal:process and learning
Modernization of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal:

process and learning
R. P. Bhandari 1 and D. R. Pokharel 2

This paper is intended to highlight the changes in the modernization of irrigation during the last decade in Nepal,
focus on observed performance, and show that there is room for improvement.
Background
The Himalayan kingdom of Nepal, landlocked between India and China, occupies an area of 147 141 km2 . The
country is divided into 75 administrative districts and five development regions (Table 1). There are three parallel
ecological zones running east to west: the Terai, the Hills and the Mountains. Nepal's resource base for
agriculture is severely limited by topographical constraints. Only about 20 percent of the total land area is under
cultivation. The predominant position occupied by agriculture in the Nepalese economy is due to the fact that
about 90 percent of the population depend on agriculture, which contributes about 43 percent of GDP and 70
percent of total export earnings at nominal prices (Agricultural Perspective Plan, 1994). Although agriculture
dominates the national economy, its contribution is rather declining. Nepal, once a rice-exporting country, has
now to import rice occasionally to meet domestic needs. The identified reasons for the poor performance of
agriculture are: inadequate provision of irrigation, production inputs, credit, market and extension of appropriate
technology to support production growth (Agricultural Perspective Plan, 1994). Among these factors, irrigation
has been identified as the key to accelerate, intensify and sustain agricultural growth (Sharma, 1994).
Table 1: Development regions & administrative districts
Development region Number of admin. districts

Eastern 16
Central 19
Western 16
Mid-Western 15
Far-Western 9
Total 75
Since time immemorial, farmer-managed irrigation systems have played a major role in the irrigated agriculture of
Nepal. Before 1951, there were only three state-run or agency-managed irrigation systems in the country (Ansari,
1995). The planned irrigation development in the country, with the establishment of a state agency (the present
Department of Irrigation), began only after 1951. At first, a lot of interventions were made in the farmer-
managed irrigation systems under the banner of modernization and some new irrigation schemes were taken up.
The mode of intervention was to take over the selected irrigation systems from farmers' management and treat
them as new schemes, thus keeping farmers completely aloof. All of the capital cost was borne by the agency and
segregation occurred between the farmers and the agency. Original farmer-managed irrigation systems became
the agency-managed irrigation systems. Even after the planned involvement of the state in irrigation
development, the irrigation development status is still led by farmer-managed irrigation systems (Table 2).
Another reality is that the present irrigated area is merely 30 percent of the total irrigable area.
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Table 2: Irrigation status
Irrigation system type Area (ha) Share (%)

Farmer-managed 406 986 38.5
Agency-assisted farmer-managed 332 130 31.5
Agency-managed 292 546 27.7
Private 23 955 2.3
Total 1 055 617 100.0
Based on record compiled by Institutional Development Support Component, DoI, July 1997
The farmer-managed irrigation systems were built, operated and maintained by the farmers themselves with little
or no help from state or outside agencies. They contribute substantially to the agricultural production of the
country, have been managed well and, in general, give better yields. Usually, their infrastructure is simple and
lacks provision for water control and management. In other words, they run on the tradition of self-help. The
agency-managed irrigation systems, on the other hand, in spite of their recurrently increasing operation and
maintenance costs, have not improved their performance. When they were taken over by the state, the old
irrigation systems were thought to have much potential for increased performance, as they were rudimentary,
lacked permanent structures, were susceptible to damage during floods and to silt problems and had high water
losses. In consequence, farmers had to contribute much labour and resources to run these systems. This led the
government to rethink its irrigation strategy. By the mid-1980s the government became aware of the importance
and strengths of the farmer-managed irrigation systems for the country's agriculture. There was also recognition
of the scope for improving the systems through their rehabilitation and the extension of irrigated area, which
would be possible by minimizing water losses and improving management efficiency. Besides, the operation and
management requirements (labour and cash) could also be reduced to a manageable level. With this realization
the strategy on irrigation development shifted to the participatory approach. With the aim of streamlining
government's efforts and investment in a sectoral approach, two specific projects, namely the World Bank/IDA
loan-funded Irrigation Line of Credit (ILC) and the Asian Development Bank loan-funded Irrigation Sector
Project, have been implemented. UNDP provided the technical assistance for both projects.
The Irrigation Line of Credit
ILC was initiated in FY1988-89 with a loan from IDA/WB. The project was launched to implement a sector
programme in irrigation development in the Western Development Region on a pilot basis. Later, the scope of
the project was extended to all three western development regions. The project was designed to support the
following types of small and medium-sized subprojects:
rehabilitation of existing farmer-managed irrigation systems (REHAB);

turnover rehabilitation of selected agency-managed irrigation systems (TO);
construction of new surface schemes (NEW); and
construction and improvement of groundwater schemes to be managed by farmer groups (GW).
ILC has now been succeeded by the Nepal Irrigation Sector project. The accomplishments under ILC are
presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Accomplishments under ILC
Subproject type No of subprojects Command area (ha)

REHAB 260 25 995
TO 25 3 119

NEW 14 4 730
GW 219* 4 210
Total 38 054
* Number of tube wells
The Irrigation Sector Project
ISP was initiated in 1989 with a loan from ADB. The original target was to provide irrigation facilities over 25
000 ha of land through the rehabilitation of existing farm-managed irrigation systems and the construction of
small and medium-sized irrigation schemes in 22 districts of the central and eastern development regions. ISP has
been succeeded by the Second Irrigation Sector project. The accomplishments under ISP are presented in Table
4.
Table 4: Accomplishments under ISP
Subproject type No of subprojects Command area (ha)

REHAB 277 46 371
NEW 99 11 211
Total 376 57 582
Objectives of ILC and ISP
The overall objectives of ILC and ISP were to substantially boost agricultural production through the
development and improvement of new and existing farmer-managed irrigation systems with the active
participation of beneficiary farmers. The specific objectives could be listed as follows:
1. establish a sector programme approach instead of the previous project-by-project approach;

2. make the programme demand-driven instead of supply-driven as in the past;
3. help develop, test and establish effective subproject selection criteria and implementation procedures
which would provide the basis for operating the sector programme; and
4. reduce the burden of the irrigation cost on the national budget, particularly for operation and
management, through increased farmers' participation to cover operation and management costs in
full as well as a share of capital costs.
Framework of intervention under ILC and ISP
Given these objectives, the projects followed specific steps in the process of intervention:
1. Selection stage: formal demand, identification, survey, appraisal.

2. Implementation stage: formation of water user associations, agreement, construction.
3. Operation and management stage: commissioning, operation and maintenance, support to agriculture.
Some of the key points for selection are as follows:
the subproject should be demanded by the farmers in writing;

it should be economically viable, producing an internal rate of return of at least 10 percent;
it should be appraised, including in aspects such as historical background, socio-economic conditions,
agricultural situation, local organization, engineering and geo-hydrology;
it should be reviewed and recommended by the regional appraisal committee; and
it should be approved by the approval co-ordination committee.

The regional appraisal committee is formed at the regional level and has four members:
Regional Irrigation Director Chairperson

Regional Agriculture Director Member
Regional Manager, Agriculture Development Member
Bank
Regional Director, National Planning Member
Commission
The approval co-ordination committee is formed at the central level and has five members:
Representative, Ministry of Water Resources Chairperson

Deputy Director General, Department of Member
Irrigation
Representative, Ministry of Agriculture Member
Representative, Agriculture Development Bank Member
Representative, National Planning Commission Member
The formation of the two committees intends to involve the line agencies and the planning agency in scrutinizing
the process of irrigation development that will lead to the selection of the best potential subprojects.
Some of the key points for implementation are as follows:
After the approval of the subproject the farmers are supposed to form a water user association,
which has a written constitution and is registered to receive legal status.
The water user association signs a formal agreement on cost sharing (its participation varying between
7 and 25 percent of total cost through contributions in cash and kind), on the construction work
execution process, on operation and maintenance responsibility, etc, with the Department of
Irrigation.
The construction proceeds as per the previously signed agreement. The water user association part
has to be completed by the association, whereas the remaining part will be executed through either
the association or a local contractor or both, depending on the nature and volume of the work;
The construction supervision is the joint responsibility of the Department of Irrigation and the water
user association.
Some of the key points for the operation and management stage are as follows: after completion of the
construction work, commissioning work starts with joint inspection and recommendation for further
consideration if some improvement works remain to be done; then it is the duty of the water user association to
operate and maintain the system and approach other line agencies for agricultural support.
Key findings from ILC and ISP
Some of the key findings from the evaluation of ILC and ISP processes and performance are discussed below.
Selection criteria.
Economic viability and users' requests were the main parameters considered for the selection of a subproject.
The main drawback of the selection criteria was artificially inflated requests and inflation of the command area.
Organization.
Users' involvement showed in good construction quality control and a deepening sense of ownership. But in
some cases, farmers' organizations faltered over problems of low-quality construction or of the contracting of

business to elite farmer leaders or the people they favour. There have also been cases of farmers' organizations
shifting their focus from system management to contracting, and conflicts arising over money matters.
Participation.
The cost-sharing arrangements, as per the agreed memoranda, in many cases were compensated for by the
contractor, or some elite leaders who could capitalize from the construction business directly or indirectly.
Design of facilities.
The project movers did a very good job in listening to farmers and taking their ideas into consideration.
Headworks were properly placed, canal alignments usually followed existing lines, and turnouts were placed
where the users needed them. In other words, the design of the facilities matched the needs. But the technology
used could not be considered as simple as the capability of the users. Several systems used gated regulators that
proved difficult to maintain. Many regulators became immovable due to lack of lubrication. Stone masonry lining
was the most used lining and has proved difficult for farmers to maintain, as this requires skilled labour and cash
resources. Most systems were over-designed and incorporated technology which is not easy to operate and
manage. Too much lining was used. Not enough time was spent on determining the best places for lining based
on seepage losses.
Follow-up.
After construction was done, there has been a lack of follow-up activities, leading to dissension within the water
user associations. In some cases, registration was felt important to receive programme assistance and later nothing
more was heard about it.
Operation and maintenance.
As described in the subheading of design, the technology used for modernizing the farmer-managed irrigation
systems is not simple, given the farmers' original lack of modern technological know-how and sophistication. The
quality of de-silting and embankment improvement works carried out by the users was not good, but there was
hardly any indication of proper maintenance of the newly added structures.
Cost effectiveness.
The projects did little to save costs. The reasons might be that little time was spent educating the farmers, that
there were no rewards encouraging agency staffers to save money and, perhaps more important, that the farmers'
contribution may have been borne by contractors or a few elite farmer leaders.
Water delivery performance.
In most cases, the water delivery is good. The reasons might be the good quality of the works and the existence
of the newly constructed facilities.
Co-ordination with other line agencies.
Very little progress has been made, despite the formal presence of related line agencies through the provision of
the regional appraisal and approval co-ordination committees.
Lessons learned
The irrigation sector programme took advantage of the strengths of the existing farmer-managed irrigation
systems, such as strong organization and sense of ownership and ability to mobilize resources for operation and
maintenance. But it could not capitalize fully on these strengths by providing user-friendly facilities with the least
possible physical intervention.

The procedural framework for modernizing numerous farmer-managed irrigation schemes scattered throughout
the country has been tested in the main, but there is room for improvement in execution. Control over the
recurring and serious problems of artificially inflated user requests and inflation of the command area is
indispensable to reach the programme goal.
The intended objective to change the traditional supply-driven programme to demand-driven has been partially
achieved. The demand forms in many cases are coerced by the agency staff or contractors or elite farmer leaders,
leading to a demand-created programme. In other words, on paper the demand is as per the set criteria and in the
specified formats and sizes but the farmers themselves are still unaware of their own demands and of whatever
else is happening within their irrigation system.
The tendency to build much more than is needed puts a question mark over the cost effectiveness of the
programme. Besides, budgetary allocation on a district basis may not be the best way to select a cost-effective
subproject and give it priority in implementation.
The long-term sustainability of the programme is in question, as the farmers do not demonstrate the skills
necessary to maintain new structures or the ability to mobilize cash resources to purchase the materials required
for maintenance.
Conclusion
The initial performance of the new strategy in modernizing farmer-managed irrigation systems shows
encouraging signs as far as the procedural framework is concerned for such a great number of systems. Still, the
formula "users' participation in agency programmes" should be reversed to "agency's participation in users'
programmes" as the farmer-managed irrigation systems are the main users and the need for modernization is
theirs rather than the state's.
For this, sufficient time should be given to the real users to learn about the programmes, to become familiar with
the objectives and the conditions of support of their systems and to let them come up with genuine demands of
their own.
References
Ansari N. 1995. Improving support services to farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal, National seminar on
improving support services to farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal, RTDB/IIMI, Kathmandu
Gurung M. B. 1992. Concept, procedure & strategy of participatory management programmes for large
irrigation projects under ILC financing, WRID, National workshop on participatory management in agency-
managed irrigation systems in Nepal, DoI /IIMI, Kathmandu
Hemchuri et al. 1993. Evaluation report of the ILC programme in the Western Development Region,
RTB/DoI, Kathmandu
Hemchuri et al. 1995. Evaluation study of the ISP, RTDB /DoI, Kathmandu
Nepal Agriculture Perspective Plan. 1995. APROSC & John Mellor Associates
Pokharel A. K. 1995. Improving support services to farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal, National
Seminar, RTDB/IIMI, Kathmandu
Sharma et al. 1995. Impact evaluation of Sinkalama & ILC programmes, National seminar on improving
support services to farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal, RTDB/IIMI, Kathmandu
Sharma et al. 1997. Development of participatory managed irrigation systems: lessons learnt from ISP,
Workshop Proceedings: Evaluation of IMT process & performance, RTDB/IIMI, Kathmandu

Shukla et al. 1997. Participatory irrigation management in Nepal, Department of Irrigation, Kathmandu
Singh et al. 1997. Irrigation management transfer in the ILC pilot project, Workshop Proceedings: Evaluation of
IMT process & performance, RTDB/IIMI, Kathmandu.
1 Irrigation Engineer, Research & Technology Development Branch, Department of Irrigation, Katmandu, Nepal
2 Acting Chief, District Irrigation Office, Syanja, Nepal

Modernizing irrigation operations:spatially differentiated resource allocations
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON MODERNIZATION
Modernizing irrigation operations:

spatially differentiated resource allocations
D. Renault & I.W. Makin

Irrigation Specialist, and Head of Design and Operations Programme, respectively, IWMI
Abstract
Modernization of irrigation implies interventions in different components of system management. This paper focuses on
operations and proposes a methodology for an improved assessment of irrigation canal behaviour and the environment in
which operations take place. An underlying assumption is that irrigation systems are generally heterogeneous and therefore
the allocation of operational resources should be matched to the spatial distribution of management requirements.
A descriptive model of irrigation systems is presented by defining three domains. First, the cause, frequency of occurrence
and magnitude of perturbations to the flow regime are considered as the perturbation domain. Second, the behaviour of
the physical system when subject to perturbation is considered as the sensitivity domain. Third, the impact of system
operations on agricultural yields is examined in the vulnerability domain, which enables the development of the
specifications of a required water service.
Combining the vulnerability and sensitivity domains makes the definition of the precision with which systems must be
operated possible. The inclusion of the perturbation domain allows for the specification of the required mode of operation
to be implemented to achieve the required water service, including specification of the required frequency of intervention.
The whole provides scope for the definition of the demand for operation at a spatially de-aggregated level.
Introduction
Irrigation modernization is increasingly recognized as a fundamental transformation in the management of water resources
within agricultural areas. Such transformations may include improved structures, physical or institutional or both; rules and
water rights; water delivery services; accountability mechanisms and incentives. In this paper we address how
modernization provides an opportunity to redefine and update operational procedures within irrigation schemes. By
incorporating broader perspectives and paying attention in particular to the spatial distribution of significant variables, this
paper defines new approaches to the allocation of operation resources. The critical step, i.e. the means by which to obtain
and manage the resources, is not addressed here.
The objective of this paper is an improved methodology for evaluation of the resource demands for effective canal
operations to enable more cost-effective operational management. The basis of the proposed approach is whether or not
operational requirements are homogeneously distributed throughout the entire scheme. If not, we would argue, operations
require different responses in different sections of the scheme.
Demand for operational resources consists primarily in answering the following questions:
What mode of operation?

What degree of precision?
With what frequency of checking and intervention?
What monitoring system is required?
The need to re-evaluate and update approaches to operations is given impetus by the tremendous changes that have
occurred in the irrigation sector over the last few decades. These result from increasing competition for both water and
financial resources and also growing concern over the environment and health impact of irrigation. Water management is

no longer narrowly focused but must embrace a broad perspective including water quality, conjunctive management,
multiple uses of irrigation waters, a watershed perspective, new water rights and priorities for distribution. A traditional
quantitative and rather uniform management system for irrigation schemes is no longer sufficient to address current issues.
Furthermore, these trends will continue and system operators will have to develop more cost-effective operational plans to
satisfy the increasingly influential users-payers.
As opportunities to develop new areas are increasingly restricted, many existing irrigation schemes are, or will in the near
future be, undergoing major changes, either physical or institutional, or both. It is necessary to scrutinize the basic
irrigation activities, operation and maintenance, in order to ensure that the new systems are economically sustainable.
Canal operations in technical literature
Canal operation and flow control techniques are well documented, particularly for system design analysis - Zimbelman
D.D. (1987), Paudyal and Loof (1988), Plusquellec H. (1988), Plusquellec H. et al (1994), RIC (1997). However, there are
few published studies on how managers should operate existing systems, evaluate the operational requirements or allocate
resources and effort to optimize system performance. In many schemes, a mixture of rule of thumb and local experience is
the basis for operational decision-making. There is no standardized base for retention of operational experience and, due
to senior staff rotation, there is a risk of permanent loss of knowledge if such information is not formally recorded in an
understandable form.
Any renewed approach to canal operations must bridge the gap between on-site management and official plans for
operation and maintenance, and other such operational guides. These guide manuals are increasingly required by authorities
and funding agencies at the completion of structural works (new projects or rehabilitation). However, unless it is
recognized that the operational framework cannot be fully planned at design stage and that finetuning over some years of
practice is a fundamental requirement (Uittenbogaard and Kuiper, 1993), it is proposed that an adaptive or learning process
is preferable to strictly prescriptive approaches (Handbook, 1990; Skogerboe and Merkley, 1996).
Operations in the irrigation process
Operations are the manipulation of physical structures in the irrigation system to implement management decisions about
water allocation, schedules of delivery and distribution. Operations are also the routine actions taken to minimize the
impact of perturbations by maintaining steady or quasi-steady state water profiles in the system and to prevent overtopping
at peak discharges.
Operations are routinely required to implement distribution decisions and, as a consequence, the terms are sometimes
confused, even though they are fundamentally different. To clarify the thinking, technical irrigation management implies
three levels of decisions - allocation, scheduling and distribution - and one level of implementation - operations.
Operations and types of irrigation systems
It is self-evident that irrigation systems are not identical in regard to their operational requirements. Some are highly
automated and, although this requires larger investments in construction, they often need fewer human and financial
resources for day-to-day operation. Other systems are manually controlled and require full and intensive operations during
irrigation. We can classify the irrigation systems as:
Fully operated systems, where all structures (intake-outlets-cross-regulators) require regular and routine operation
during irrigation, (setting on-off, setting and monitoring);
Non-operated systems, generally operating on the proportional distribution principle, common in India and
Pakistan. Fixed dividing structures ensure an equitable distribution of water. No operations are required to
adjust the on-going flow within the structured system (Shanan, 1992).
Minimal operation systems, such as those equipped with modules and combined with automatic or fixed
regulators. Interventions are generally limited to on-off operations and flow regulation is achieved by control
modules or baffles.
This classification of control systems is essentially valid only for intermediate level canals such as distributaries. Main canal
systems and field canals are generally fully regulated. We can therefore conclude that whatever control technique in the
intermediate distribution system, major irrigation systems include (at least) portions with gates that must be operated.
The basic assumption of heterogeneity and the spatial analysis

Technical manuals for irrigation operations, in general, implicitly assume homogeneity: first, homogeneity in the
requirements for operation and therefore homogeneity in the distribution of operational efforts. In many cases this
assumption simply does not hold true. Rather, the basic assumption in operating an irrigation system should be that the
scheme is heterogeneous, unless it can be clearly shown to be homogeneous.
There is limited literature on the heterogeneity in irrigation. One very noteworthy approach, proposed by Ng Poh-Hok
(1987), for the design of an irrigation system uses the concepts of irrigation form and irrigation context. Poh-Hok
proposed that these must match in order to be successful. He considered the assumption of heterogeneity, a generic term
regrouping variability, uncertainty, diversity and complexity, before presenting a conceptual model of irrigation as a
consistent aggregation of elementary homogeneous units. These elementary units were defined as a socio-geographic unit,
homogeneous in form and context.
Steiner and Walter (1993) considered the spatial variability of all factors influencing irrigation management, such as the
physical characteristics of the context, the quality of infrastructure, etc. These authors later on focused exclusively on the
level of spatial variability of climate and simulated the consequences of different allocation schedules.
Consideration of heterogeneity also underpinned the methodology developed for water management on a large scale for
the Bhakra system in Haryana, India, by Schakel and Bastiaansen (1997). Irrigation management throughout an area of 1.2
million ha was de-aggregated considering 67 homogeneous geo-hydrological units.
The assumption of heterogeneity in the physical characteristics, the context and therefore of demands for operation is fully
recognized here. It is proposed that this assumption is valid not only for large-scale systems but also for smaller ones, of
say, one thousand hectares. Therefore the analysis of demand for operational resources should start with a spatial analysis
leading to partitioning systems into elementary units with homogeneous characteristics, for convenience's sake called
subsystems.
An important consideration is the link between heterogeneity and equity. It is clear that the justification of the widespread
application of the assumption of homogeneity is partly related to the goal of achieving equity within a system. This goal
should not be ignored in any new approach to operations. Without care, the introduction of the heterogeneity concept may
conflict with equity: for example, considering the value of crop per area could lead to reinforcing existing inequity by
providing better service to already well-served users.
Methodology
Open-surface canals are subject to modification of flow characteristics (discharge-water depth) resulting from scheduled
and unscheduled events. In the usual operational mode the management objective is to maintain steady state conditions
when such events occur. The methodology developed here aims to characterize the frequency and magnitude of
perturbation events likely to occur in a subsystem. The frequency of change in the distribution pattern defines the
perturbation domain. By characterizing the physical properties of the irrigation structures and evaluating the behaviour of
canal systems when operated or affected by perturbations, the sensitivity domain is defined. Finally, the analysis of the
impact of operation on agricultural yields, on the environment and on the watershed makes it possible to define the
vulnerability domain.
Analysis of the vulnerability domain makes the definition of the required water service possible. Considering the required
water service performance and combining this with sensitivity analysis of the infrastructure enables the specification of the
precision of water depth control required. The mode of canal operation required is defined by the combination of the
vulnerability and perturbation domains. Finally the perturbation domain determines the required minimum frequency of
system observation and regulation.
The approach can be viewed as a series of overlays of spatially distributed variables, illustrated in Figure1 (appended).
Although defined by technical considerations, the process must be sociologically acceptable and also fit the defined
objectives of the irrigation scheme.
Opportunities and constraints for water service
The vulnerability domain
Vulnerability is a generic term employed here to describe opportunities and constraints or impact of operation at different
scales of space and time. Vulnerability of an irrigated area can be seen as the propensity to be positively or negatively
affected by irrigation operations. For instance, a highly vulnerable area would be a unit in which impact and side effects of

low-quality operations are high (sensitive crops, areas without drainage facilities). Inversely, low vulnerability areas are
those in which impacts and consequences of low-quality operation are either temporally or permanently dampened (paddy
fields can stand interruption of water supply for short periods). Vulnerability goes beyond the confines of water for crops
and includes consideration of larger-scale water management. Finally vulnerability leads to the estimation of requirements
for water service, as both are proportionate.
Some of the wider aspects of water management that define the vulnerability domain are:
Water quality. Modern agricultural methods and scarcity of fresh water result in irrigation having to deal with
water loaded with chemicals (pesticides, nutrients) and other pollutants. Acknowledgement of the importance
of water quality is one of the main challenges for current irrigated agriculture, with implications for both
surface and groundwater. Many shallow aquifers are important for domestic supply. These often receive some
recharge from dry season percolation from irrigated areas representing simultaneously a gift - an additional
source - and a threat - pollution. In situations of this kind, managers will have to consider both uses and arrive
at an effective compromise.
Recycling of irrigation water. Drainage flows from irrigated areas can be important assets in water management.
Losses in one place become inputs for other areas. The presence of such recycling can substantially ease the
upstream management problem by allowing less precision in distribution, knowing that any surplus will not be
lost. Return-flow systems - drainage and surplus irrigation are channelled back to the irrigation network itself -
represent an opportunity for managers to store positive perturbations, for example to harvest rainfall.
Water harvesting and conjunctive management. Water harvesting during rainfall is an important opportunity for water
management, and specific operation procedures may be designed to maximize harvesting while preventing
overtopping. Conjunctive use of water (surface, groundwater and rainfall) can provide additional flexibility to
farmers. Groundwater is frequently used to compensate for rigidity or low performance in the surface water
delivery system. Areas lacking access to additional supplies from groundwater deserve greater attention than
areas where pumping facilities can compensate for inadequate or unreliable deliveries.
Soil and water salinity and water logging. The rise in soil and water salinity, the increase in waterlogged areas, are
environmental hazards of great importance in arid regions. They represent a severe threat to irrigation
schemes. It is clear that operation of irrigation systems must take into consideration the spatial distribution of
these hazards in order to provide a selective and adapted service of water. In practice, solutions are relatively
site-specific and generic guidelines are difficult to derive. But, as a principle, partitioning of the irrigated area
should distinguish areas where freshwater has to be provided and areas in which excessive percolation should
be avoided to prevent saline groundwater from rising.
Multiple uses of water. In many irrigation schemes, water is used not only for crops but also for many other
purposes including domestic water supply, environmental uses, fisheries, perennial vegetation and hydropower.
Rules for multipurpose systems operations are complex because of potential conflicts in setting targets for the
different uses and also, on occasion, by the lack of suitable accounting procedures. Multiple use of water will
be increasingly integrated in management concerns, whether these uses are considered at design time or not. A
first step in the management of multiple uses is to define consistent water and productivity accounting
procedures, as proposed by Molden (1997).
Water rights, equity and priorities in distribution. Water distribution priorities may be based on rights and established
uses. However, in systems experiencing water shortages these priorities should define a policy to share limited
water among shareholders. Priorities may be defined on the value of crops (high/low), soil water-holding
capacity, etc. As the mission of irrigated agriculture changes from subsistence to more highly productive
agriculture, it may be necessary sometimes to revise previous policies. It may become necessary to avoid
penalizing highly sensitive or high-value crops in case of shortage. In many cases, distribution policies should
be rethought and, where appropriate, changed to enable new operational strategies.
Health impact. Despite the positive effects of irrigation on the economy and income of farmers, there is no
doubt that, in some circumstances, it also has a negative impact on the health of communities through vector-
borne diseases. The maintenance of water in canals for long periods can affect the reproductive cycle of
disease vectors. The link between system operations and community health can be strong. The
recommendations of health experts are converging on a desire for more variability in canal flow regimes to,
for example, reduce mosquito breeding (Hunter et al, 1993). However, there is a clear conflict between the
requirements of the health sector for fluctuations in water depths, and the irrigation management objective of
stable water profiles. New techniques of operation may be required where mosquito breeding is related to
irrigation practices.
The position within the system. The impact of operations on the command area is evidently greater for structures
located toward the head of the canal system. Therefore location is included in the analysis of vulnerability.

Water service and irrigation performance indicators
The spatial characteristics of the vulnerability domain can be converted into specific water service targets and measured
with water supply performance indicators (Bos M.G., 1988). Adequacy, efficiency, dependability, timeliness and equity are
the common indicators of performance (Molden and Gates, 1990). Flexibility of access to water and reliability of deliveries
are important criteria of performance that should be considered.
Performance indicators for operation can be derived from the vulnerability domain considering both water deliveries for
irrigated crops and water management in a broad perspective. In the analysis presented here, only the primary indicators
are considered, namely adequacy, efficiency and timeliness. Performance targets are expressed as tolerances with respect to
the target discharge rate as shown in equation 1.
(1)
Equation 1 shows that discharge at a given location should be maintained within the two limits, i.e. target discharge -z %
or +y%.
z is the tolerance factor related to adequacy, reflecting the capacity of the command area to
accommodate water shortage and incorporating concern over deliveries. This factor (z) will vary as
the period considered changes: a relatively high tolerance may be stipulated for a short period (days,
weeks), although the tolerance becomes smaller as the period considered is extended (month,
season).
y is the tolerance factor for efficiency and reflects the capacity of a subsystem to accept surplus water
(positive perturbation). As for the (z) factor, the permissible tolerance of (y) is a function of time
and of the physical characteristics of the subsystem, such as the opportunities for return-flows, re-
use, etc.
A similar relationship can be developed considering the time of delivery, equation 2.
(2)
in which
u reflects the maximum acceptable delay in water delivery and

v expresses the maximum allowable advance in delivery without water loss.
The perturbation domain
Free surface irrigation systems are hydraulically complex. In general, system operations are reduced to controlling water
levels at cross-regulators in an attempt to maintain stable water levels at off-take structures. However, steady water level
profiles seldom occur in irrigation systems due to variations at the upstream boundaries of the system (perturbations of
intake flow rate) and also the effects of operational interventions themselves. Hence operation is a never-ending challenge
as adjustments are made to bring the system to the intended steady conditions in spite of the perturbations.
A perturbation at a given location is defined as a change to the on-going discharge. Such change arises from two sources,
first, planned changes in the delivery, and second, unexpected or transient changes. Unexpected or transient perturbations
are more difficult to manage precisely because they are unexpected and effective control depends on early detection
(degree of information).
Management of unexpected perturbations
When a perturbation occurs in a canal, the effects travel both up and downstream from the location at which the
perturbation is created. However, the main impact is noticed downstream. For analysis, the perturbation domain is divided
into two parts: generation, and propagation, also expressed as the active and reactive processes.
The active process can be analysed in three constituent parts: the causes of perturbations such as return flows, illicit
operation of structures, and drift in the setting of regulators; the frequency of occurrence; and the magnitude of the

perturbations experienced:
Causes of perturbations are to a large extent determined by the network properties of the system (source of
supply; hydraulic layout; interconnections with other networks such as drainage, unregulated return flows, etc).
These properties are described more fully by Renault and Goddyaladda (1999). However, a second source of
perturbations is the operation of the irrigation regulation system itself. Off-take and regulator operations
generate transient conditions in the network which may translate upstream from the branch channels if the
submerged flow occurs at the division from the main. In such cases the sensitivity of off-takes is the major
determinant of the propagation of the transient (Renault and Hemakumara, 1997). Perturbations may also be
generated at the off-take due to deliberate or accidental modification of the flow section, either because of
changes in gate setting or of trapped debris. Perturbations are also generated by unscheduled operation of
structures for unauthorized withdrawals, flow rejection or over-tapping. Table 1 (appended) summarizes the
major components and properties causing perturbations.
Position in the network, to some extent, controls the frequency of occurrence of transients and partially
explains the well-known head vs. tail issue in irrigation. In this analysis, the occurrence and magnitude of
perturbations occurring at any given point depend on the number and behaviour of upstream structures
(cross-structures and off-takes). Generally, the more numerous and the greater the sensitivity of upstream
cross-regulators, then the greater the magnitude and frequency of perturbations. Inversely, for systems with
sensitive off-take structures, perturbations generated in the head reaches will be attenuated by upstream off-
takes and the lower off-takes will see smaller transients.
Water service considerations: perturbations are expected whenever a change in the distribution takes place.
Therefore, the distribution policy (on demand, supply-based, free access) is a key determinant of the frequency
of perturbations. The greater the flexibility of the delivery service provided, the higher the frequency of
changes in discharges in the canal system. Proper consideration of the impact of service flexibility is essential
to identify the specific operation modes and structure characteristics required for acceptable performance.
The sensitivity domain
Sensitivity describes the ratio of output to input of a particular process. In the context of irrigation, sensitivity analysis
describes the behaviour of structures during the propagation of transient conditions (the reactive process). The behaviour
of delivery structures, such as off-takes and outlets, in response to water level perturbations in the parent channel is the
delivery sensitivity, described by the ratio of the relative off-take discharge (dq/q) to the change in upstream water level (?
H US ), equation 3.
(3)
All irrigation structures (off-takes, regulators, canal reaches) have a distinct sensitivity. A comprehensive analysis of the
sensitivity of irrigation off-takes leads to the identification of several indicators defining delivery and conveyance impact,
including up and downstream translation of transients, and water level changes due to hydraulic conditions and adjustment
of structures (Renault and Hemakumara, 1997). The relative sensitivity of regulator and off-take combinations has been
studied in depth (Albinson, 1986). The rationale for sensitivity analysis is that more sensitive structure groups must be
monitored and operated with greater care than less sensitive groups.
An important consideration for canal operations is the sensitivity of structures and their impact on the propagation or
attenuation of transient flows that enter the canal system. In the absence of operational interventions the evolution of
perturbations through the subsystem defines a decay curve integrating the conveyance sensitivity of the reaches and
associated regulators and off-takes. Systems with sensitive structures tend to attenuate the transient flows by diverting
surplus through off-takes, less sensitive structures propagate the perturbation downstream (Renault, 1999a).
Converting water service objectives to operational targets
A study of the domains discussed above enables the specification of requirements for operational interventions in a specific
subsystem. By converting tolerance for discharge variations to a tolerance on water depth, the frequency and precision of
control interventions can be specified. The link between operation and irrigation performance is established through
generic dependency below:

The first relation indicates that the required precision of structure operations is the product of the tolerance on delivery
and the sensitivity of the structure. The second relation defines the mode and the frequency with which the system should
be operated in view of the type, frequency and magnitude of perturbations the system is subject to.
Control of water levels along the canal is the result of the combined effects of the hydraulic properties of the canal section,
regulator characteristics and periodic operational manipulation of cross-regulator structures. The precision with which
target water levels are controlled at cross-regulators (?H) is an indicator of operational performance directly influenced by
management. Conversely, the extension of influence of cross-regulators, the backwater curve, is controlled by the physical
characteristics of the reach and discharge rate.
In an analysis of the demand for operations, the determination of the precision of control can be assessed quantitatively.
Given a target of water service, defined by tolerance factors (equation 1), and considering the delivery sensitivity (equation
3) the required precision of operations can be determined as:
(4)
in which
y or z are substituted for _ when considering adequacy or efficiency. In this case, (y) and (z) are specified
as a tolerance in linear dimension rather than a percentage deviation.
S is the sensitivity of the structure
?H US is the required precision of control of water level.
The required operational precision is proportional to the specified tolerance and inversely proportional to the delivery
sensitivity. Therefore, an off-take of low sensitivity (0.5 m -1 ) would require a precision equal to twice the tolerance in
discharge expressed in relative terms. Thus if the tolerance on adequacy or efficiency is set as _10%, then the subsystem
may be operated with a precision of _20cm. Equation 4 is valid for a single structure; however, similar relationships can be
determined at system level linking system sensitivity indicators, the required precision of control, and operational
performance (Renault , 1999b).
In general, evaluation of the requirements for operational inputs requires a qualitative approach with the goal of clearly
identifying the significant properties strongly influencing potential operational strategies in each subsystem. These
properties may include, for example, opportunities for recycling losses or the vulnerability within the system. Ultimately,
these properties can be combined to classify the demand for operation as low, medium or high demand.
Case study of the Kirindi Oya irrigation settlement project in Sri Lanka
The proposed methodology is illustrated using the Kirindi Oya Irrigation and Settlement project, one of the largest
agricultural development programmes in Sri Lanka. The system was completed in 1987.
Scheme summary
Kirindi Oya has two different command areas, which can be subdivided into four subsystems:
The Old Ellegala command area that existed prior to the development of the new system. The Ellegala zone is
in a flat alluvial area covering about 4 000 ha. Water is delivered to the area from an interconnected system of
five old tanks, a diversion structure (anicut) across the Kirindi Oya and also from the new project. The area
has priority in water allocations. It can be subdivided into two subsystems, the Left Bank Old, 2 850 ha, and
the Right Bank Old, 1 150 ha.
The new command area was completed in 1987. This command is in slightly undulating topography located
upstream and on both sides of the alluvial plain of the Ellegala system. The new command is served by two

subsystems:
the Right Bank New canal, delivering to five newly developed subcommands (Tracts 1, 2, 5, 6 and
7), totalling 3 300 ha and a reservoir (Bandagiriya) and the associated command area at the tail of
the main canal. The Bandagiriya command receives scheduled deliveries from the Kirindi Oya area
and surplus flows from the tail of the main canal.
the Left Bank New canal, whose command area is fully developed in tracts 1 and 2, and partly
developed in tract 3 with a command area totalling 1 835 ha.
Climate. The climate is classified as tropical humid with two seasons: a wet season between October and
February-March (maha) and a dry season from April to September (yala). The average seasonal rainfall is 750
mm in maha and 240 mm in yala. Annual evapotranspiration is approximately 2000 mm.
Water resources and water management. Water for agriculture is derived from direct rainfall on paddy
fields and releases from the system reservoirs. The main reservoir (Lunugamwehera, 200 Mcm) was developed
to extend irrigation to the new command areas and to secure irrigation for a double crop in the old Ellagala
command. An important characteristic is the cascade of tanks in the system that enables capture of run-off,
overflows and drainage from upstream areas. These captured flows are collected and stored in downstream
reservoirs and used for irrigation at a later stage of the season. The Kirindi Oya project is the last water user
before the river discharges in the ocean and therefore water savings in this scheme are true savings as defined
by Seckler (1996).
Crops. High-yielding varieties of rice are grown over the entire project area during the maha season. However,
during the yala season, only the Ellagala area is routinely cultivated for rice; the new command is only
cultivated when water availability is high. Some other field crops are grown on uplands in the new area during
yala.
Improving system performance
Due to a perceived mismatch between available resources and potential uses of water, the entire extent of the new
command has not been fully developed. Even though development is not complete, cropping intensity in the irrigated areas
has not reached the expected levels but has remained at about 178 percent (increased from 140 percent) in the Ellagala area
and only 108 percent in the new commands. Current operational strategies are largely based on overflow practices, which
result in large water losses from the command areas where recycling is not feasible.
Schemes in coastal areas, such as Kirindi Oya, should seek to maximize effective water use, as water not used is lost to the
sea. It can be shown that irrigation intensity at the project can be raised to 200 percent in both new and old areas provided
a global efficiency of 43 percent is obtained (Renault, 1997). To achieve this level of efficiency, operational resources must
be allocated effectively. Such allocations of resources depend on accurate assessments of the required levels of operational
control. The analysis of operational requirements at the project addresses two aspects: the water service required at the
command area, and the management of the operation of reservoirs. In addition, specific operational procedures should be
evaluated to improve the management of rainfall, aiming to harvest and store as much rainfall in reservoirs and paddy
fields as possible.
An analysis of the demand for operation at the Kirindi Oya project is presented here, based on the framework proposed
above, examining in turn the vulnerability, perturbation and sensitivity domains of the system.
Vulnerability domain. Water is quite abundant and annual average resources (local rainfall plus reservoir inflows) are
sufficient to sustain two crops a year provided the system is operated effectively (Renault, 1997). The maha rainfall is
reasonably dependable, however the yala rainfall is less so. There are no major salinity or waterlogging problems in the area.
The existence of the cascade system with several tanks makes it possible for the scheme to be very efficient in harvesting
rainfall. During the maha season, the cascade tanks should be operated at the lowest level possible to maximize storage
capacity. This requires the direct supply from the main reservoir, and drainage return flows from new command areas
should be restricted.
Single bank or contour canals are common in Sri Lanka. One characteristic is the potential to capture run-off from lateral
watersheds. The Right Bank Old canal is a contour canal and this opportunity could be combined with the storage capacity
of three intermediate reservoirs during rainy periods. Some parts of the Left Bank New canal are also of the single-bank
type.
Water management. The potential to recycle drainage or spilled water from command areas is one criterion that divides the
entire scheme into two categories. All tracts on the Left Bank New canal and tracts 1 and 2 of the Right Bank New canal

drain to tanks supplying the old area. Conversely tracts 5, 6 and 7 of the Right Bank New canal drain to a lagoon and
ultimately to the sea, resulting in large water losses. Drainage flows from that canal subsystem largely return straight to the
main river channel and on to the ocean, with little opportunity to recycle the losses.
The Left Bank Old command area is characterized by a widespread interconnection between drainage and irrigation
networks due to the flat topography. It is almost impossible to define precise command areas for small outlets (Mallet,
1996) or to specify the hydraulic characteristics of channels or structures. Surplus flows at one point become inputs
elsewhere and therefore, in the terminology developed by Renault and Godaliyadda (1999), this unit is classified as a
return-flow system. The Left Bank Old subsystem must therefore be managed as a single unit, considering several entry
points to the network such as tank outlets and canal inlets, a number of drainage outlets to the river and the ocean. To
increase the efficiency of water use, all drainage outlets should be monitored to avoid excessive losses. An effective
feedback control system is essential to enable proper control of the inlets of the subsystem.
There is no conjunctive use in the area, pumping from the river, drainage and irrigation canals are restricted to small-scale
gardening enterprises.
Multiple use of water is important in the project area. However, there are no major conflicts between irrigation and the
other uses of water, such as domestic supply, bathing, homesteads, gardens and perennial vegetation, environmental uses
(wetlands, wildlife habitat), tourism (lagoons and national parks) and fisheries. Irrigation is the major user of water,
representing more than 90 percent of water use in the basin. Availability of water for irrigation ensures availability for other
uses. There are no specific health-related issues.
Agriculture. Paddy cultivation is relatively less vulnerable to variations in water supply than other field crops, due to the
buffer effect of the flooded paddy field. As the area is mainly cultivated for paddy rice in both seasons, the area can be
considered as homogeneous and of low vulnerability. This is an important characteristic for tracts where recycling is not
feasible, as it may allow implementation of strategies to reduce overflows. Special consideration may be required for the
new areas where some farmers are cultivating other field crops that will be more vulnerable to water shortages. Soils in the
Ellagala area are heavier than in the new command areas. Although this has some implications for water allocation and
drainage flows (percolation rates are estimated at 3mm/d and 6mm/d respectively, IIMI, 1994), it has little impact on
operational strategy, or on system efficiency, as the dominant criterion is the ability to recycle water.
Water rights and equity. In theory, all farmers at the project have equal water rights. In practice, farmers of the old areas have
established a powerful position and are able to impose allocations of water in their favour. Records of cropping intensity
show that the Ellagala area has averaged 178 percent whilst the new areas have achieved an average of only 108 percent
(Renault, 1997). The Ellagala area also obtains irrigation supplies in advance of the new areas, contrary to an effective
water savings policy. Under these conditions, any attempt to improve water management must secure 200 percent irrigation
intensity to farmers in the Ellagala subsystem before attempting to implement any changes of supply to the new area.
Environment. The area surrounding the project has several facets of environmental and wildlife importance: the entire area is
a recognized wetland sanctuary of importance to migrating birds; the Bundala National Park is to the south-west of the
scheme. The lagoons in the park are partly supplied by water draining from the right bank new canal area. Fortunately there
are no conflicts between improved irrigation management and existing environmental concerns: improved water
management in irrigated areas will extend the period of water in tanks and will reduce fresh water inflows to the lagoons,
which are felt as a hazard at present.
Water service and performance indicators. In subsystems with no opportunities for the recycling of excess flows, the tolerance on
deliveries (equation 1) must be minimized and a feedback link between drainage flows and inlet settings should be
established. In areas where recycling is possible, the delivery tolerance can be less strict. However, a feedback loop control
is required to maximize potential storage in downstream tanks.
Perturbation domain. Analysis of the perturbation domain focused on the occurrence and magnitude of external and
internally generated perturbations. The upstream boundary conditions of each subsystem are homogeneous; all systems are
supplied from the main reservoir or tanks and are regulated by manually operated gates. The anicut supplying the Ellagala
area is now supplied, indirectly, from the main reservoir.
Lateral flows. The Right Bank New canal is a double-bank canal and therefore not greatly influenced by rainfall. The Left
Bank Old canal is also a double-bank channel. Parts of the Left Bank New and the entire Right Bank Old canals are
single-bank and therefore susceptible to be affected by large perturbations during periods of rainfall.

Position in the system. Field observations have confirmed that the Left Bank New and Right Bank New canals are subject to
an increasing range of water level fluctuations between head and tail locations. The range variation of water level at
selected off-takes during maha 1993 in the Left Bank New canal increased from 65 mm at head to 90 mm in the middle
reaches to 110 mm at the tail. Observations on the Right Bank New canal show a similar trend; records for six seasons
indicate average increases from 75 mm at head to 120mm at the tail.
Users. Discipline varies between the systems. In the old system, there are few problems of discipline, probably as a result of
the relatively reliable water supply. In the new system, farmers must contend with shortages of water to the extent that
some local people have not been able to establish themselves as farmers and have had to seek other employment. Even
those who have been able to establish themselves as farmers have less influence in decision-making regarding allocations of
water. As a result, unauthorized operations of gates and harmful interventions at cross-structures do occur. System
managers have coped with these problems by issuing more water than theoretically required to the main canal. The lack of
discipline may be a serious constraint to increased precision in operations aimed at improved efficiency. The strategy
should be to achieve highly reliable supplies in all areas.
The Left Bank New canal illustrates the impact of unreliability of supplies. Although built to the same design and at the
same time as the Right Bank New canal, its structures are in poor condition compared to the latter's. Many gates are
broken or missing at cross-regulators after only twelve years of operation. One cause may be the relatively high delivery
sensitivity along this canal, causing farmers to make unilateral interventions when supplies are inadequate.
Operational procedures. To improve economy of water use in command areas with no opportunity to recycle drainage flows,
managers will have to adopt more effective procedures than the existing overflow method of management. Two alternative
procedures might be considered, first a strategy of progressive reduction of deliveries, second, the introduction of
rotational delivery. Progressive adjustment to reduce downstream drainage discharges would impose permanent and
progressive modifications of inflows (deliveries). This option would require precise operation and methods to fine-tune
deliveries so as to minimize inflows while avoiding the drying-up of downstream field units. Ultimately this method would
result in a minimum steady state discharge. Rotational operations, either an on/off schedule or with alternating high and
low discharges, will result in frequent fluctuations in canal discharges, requiring greater supervision of the whole system.
The sensitivity domain
Offtake sensitivity. The sensitivity of off-takes clearly distinguishes different subsystems at the Kirindi Oya
project. Along the Right Bank New canal, the off-takes are relatively insensitive (average S = 0.46) and
homogeneous (CV = 0.1). However, along the Left Bank New and Right Bank Old canals, the off-takes are
sensitive (average = 2 and 2.2 respectively) and fairly inhomogeneous (CV = 0.4 and 0.96 respectively). This
means that the same level of precision in water depth will generate discharge deviations four times greater in
the latter two canals than in the Right Bank New canal.
Regulators and reaches. Three situations can be distinguished with regard to the regulation of water levels in
the main channels:
not regulated: for example, the Right Bank Old canal is effectively not regulated, as the density of
regulators is very low and most existing structures are no longer functional;
poorly regulated: the Left Bank New canal has adequate provision of regulators but the existing
condition is poor, with gates missing or inoperable; and
well regulated: the Right Bank New canal is well equipped for regulation and regulators are in
good shape.
Spatial variation of operational demands. The operational requirements to achieve specified levels of water delivery service and
acceptable levels of water use economy at the project are analysed for daily operation of water releases and regulation of
the canal systems. Requirements for improved scheme operations related to the scheduling and tank management-rainfall
harvesting tasks are not addressed here.
Considering four classes of operational requirements, varying from low demand to very high demand (D1, D2, D3 and
D4), five subsystems were identified. An evaluation of the characteristics of the demand for operations in each is
summarized in Table 2. Although the ranking used here may be subject to discussion, the identification of significant
operational features of each subsystem allows for a spatially differentiated allocation of management resources, Figure 2.
The next step would be to determine what allocation of resources would be required to match the demand. It seems clear
that the number of operators required will vary from area to area to match the operational demand in order to improve the
overall efficiency of the system.

Conclusions
The case study of Kirindi Oya illustrates the existence of heterogeneity of requirements for operational resources, even
within a medium-sized, mono-cropped irrigation system. The analysis is based on an overlay process considering three
operational domains: vulnerability, sensitivity and perturbation.
System managers can address heterogeneity of operational demands through two different strategies. They may accept the
reality of spatially variable operational requirements and allocate resources accordingly. Alternatively, the effects of spatial
variability can be minimized by interventions in the physical system. In either case it is expected that the improved
evaluation of the spatial variability of demands for operation will be useful in the design of:
more cost-effective strategies and procedures for operation, leading to a better use of available means; and
priorities for the rehabilitation or modernization of physical infrastructure.
References
Albinson, B. 1986. Designing and operating guidelines for structured irrigation networks. Fourth draft. Irrigation II
Division, South Asia Projects Department
Bakker et al. 1998. Multiple use of water in irrigated areas: a case study from Sri Lanka. IWMI-SWIM Research
Publication
Bos, M. G., Murray-Rust, D. H., Merrey, D. J., Johnson, H. G. & W.B. Snellen. 1994. Methodologies for assessing
performance of irrigation and drainage management. Irrigation and drainage systems, 7(4):231-261
Handbook 1990. Louis Berger Intnl. Inc. and Water & Power Consultancy Services (India) Ltd. 1990. Handbook on
irrigation system operation practices. Water Resources Management and Training Project. Irrigation Management and Training
Program. Technical Report No33
Hunter J.M., Rey L., Chu K.Y., Adekolu-John E.O. & K.E. Mot. 1993. Parasitic diseases in water resources
development. The need for inter-sectoral negotiation. WHO, Geneva
Mallet Thibault. 1996. Geographic information system for water management in a cascade system, Kirindi Oya, Sri
Lanka. Internal report
Molden, D.J. & T.K. Gates. 1990. Performance measures for evaluation of irrigation-water-delivery systems. 804-823, in
Journal of irrigation and drainage engineering. Vol116, No6. Nov/Dec 1990
Molden D.J. 1997. Accounting for water use and productivity. SWIM Paper 1. International Irrigation Management
Institute, Colombo
Ng Poh-Kok. 1987, Irrigation design: a conceptual framework, pp 61-78, in Proceedings of the Asian regional symposium on
irrigation design for management. 16-18 Feb 1987, Kandy, Sri Lanka
Paudyal G.N. & R. Loof. 1988. Improvement of irrigation system operation. Research Report 211: Agricultural, Land and
Water Development Programme, Division of Water Resources and Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
Plusquellec Hervé. 1988. Improving the operation of canal irrigation systems. An audio-visual presentation. World Bank
Plusquellec H.L., C.M. Burt & H.W. Wolter. 1994. Modern water control in irrigation. Concepts, issues, and
applications. World Bank Technical Paper 246. Irrigation and Drainage Series. World Bank
Renault Daniel. 1997. Technical background for KOISP 200. Internal IWMI note
Renault, Daniel & H.M. Hemakumara. 1997. Irrigation off-takes sensitivity analysis. Fourth international ITIS network
meeting on modern techniques for manual operation of irrigation canals, Marrakesh, 25-27 Apr 1997. Proceedings. D. Renault (Ed) IMMI.
Pp.74-84
Renault D. & Godaliyadda C.G.A. 1999. Typology for irrigation systems operation. IWMI Research Report 29

Renault, Daniel. 1999a. Aggregated hydraulic sensitivity indicators for irrigation system behaviour. Agricultural water
management (forthcoming)
Renault, Daniel. 1999 b. Sensitivity, control and performance of irrigation systems. Journal of irrigation and drainage
engineering. Vol125 No3
RIC. 1997. Regulation of canals: state of the art of research and applications. Proceedings of the international workshop held in Apr
1997, Marrakesh, Morroco
Shanan, Leslie. 1992. Planning and management of irrigation systems in developing countries. Agricultural Water
Management (Oct 1992) 22(1+2). The Netherlands: Elsevier
Schakel J.K. & Bastiaansen W. 1997. Regional water and salt balances obtained from GIS and hydrological models. in
ITIS Newsletter Nov 1997 Vol4, No1. IIMI.
Skogerboe, Gaylord V. & Gary P. Merkley. 1996. Irrigation maintenance and operations learning process. Water Resources
Publications, LLC:USA
Steiner, Roy A. & Michael F. Walter. 1993. The effect of allocation schedules on the performance of irrigation systems
with different levels of spatial diversity and temporal variability. In Agricultural water management, 23: 213-224. Elsevier
Science Publishers BV
Uittenbogaard, G.O. & N.R. Kuiper. Improved operation strategies in India. Paper presented at the Asian regional
symposium on maintenance and operation of irrigation/drainage schemes for improved performance held in Beijing,
People's Republic of China, 24-27 May 1993. HR Wallingford
Zimbelman, Darell D. 1987. Planning, operation, rehabilitation and automation of irrigation water delivery systems. Proceedings of
the symposium sponsored by the Irrigation and Drainage Division of ASCE, Portland, Oregon, 28-30 Jul 1987. Zimbelman
D.D. (Ed). ASCE. 381pp
Table 1. Components and properties significant for unexpected perturbation generation

(adapted from Renault and Goddyaladda, 1998)
Component Related properties Partition of criterion

for operation
Source · Fluctuations of source Reservoir River diversion Canal branch Canal series
supply diversion diversion
· Degree of control
Return flow Non return flow
Layout · Variability of on-line Single bank canal Double bank canal
Lateral flows discharge with runoff Without runoff
Runoff ditches No ditches
Off-takes · Upward sensitivity for Low Medium High
conveyance
· Sensitivity to setting
Regulators · Sensitivity to setting Low Medium High
User · Illicit operation Discipline No discipline

Figure 1. Overlay process for mapping distribution of efforts for canal operation
Figure 2. Spatial evaluation of the demand for operation at the Kirindi Oya Irrigation and Settlement project
Table 2. Evaluation of the demand for operation per subsystem in KOISP
SUBSYSTEM Tracts 1 & 2 of Left Bank Left Bank Right Bank Old Tracts 5 & 6/7 of
Right Bank New Old New right bank new
canal

Class of demand D1 D2 D3 D4 D4
LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY HIGH VERY HIGH
VULNERABILITY Recycled, Return-flow Recycled, Non recycled, Non recycled,
(1) lumped & de- RF lumped & de- de-aggregated de-aggregated
aggregated lumped aggregated system, system, improved
Water management system system system improved operational
operational procedure
procedure
WATER SERVICE Adequacy Adequacy Option1 precise Option1 precise
Water supply allowed to allowed to adequacy adequacy
performance (2) fluctuate fluctuate TOL Q = ?5 % TOL Q = ? 5 %
TOL Q = _ 20 TOL Q = ?20 Option 2
% % TOL Q = ?10 %
SENSITIVITY of LOW HIGH but VERY HIGH VERY HIGH LOW
STRUCTURES Sensitivity for compensate 2 2.2 0.46
delivery by RF
= 0.46
propagates
perturbations
PRECISION < 40 cm 10 cm as an ?10 cm ? 2.2 cm ? 10 cm for option
of water depth TOO LARGE indication IRREALISTIC 1
control (estimated) ?20 cm for option
1
PERTURBATIONS LOW LOW MEDIUM HIGH probability HIGH probability
probability & probability & probability & magnitude & magnitude
magnitude magnitude linked to
· because of · because of
· the high absence of water improved
sensitivity of depth control operational
the off-takes procedures
· during rainfall
· some single episodes
bank canal
sections · because of
improved
operational
procedures
Indications for · Allow · Lumped · Frequent Nota: A specific · Precise control
operational modes, fluctuations approach checking to control project will of level
procedures and minimize have to be
frequency · Periodic · feedback impact of designed for Right · high frequent
adjustment of control from sensitivity Bank Old canal adjustments
inflow from tank drainage including some
balance · Periodic rehabilitation or · loop control
adjustment modernization from downstream
from tank works drainages
balance
· Rainfall
harvesting
whenever STO
exits
Type of control Lumped low- De- Lumped low De-aggregated De-aggregated
suggested frequency FBC aggregated frequency high-frequency high frequency
from tank FBC from FBC from FBC from FBC from drainage
balance drainage tank balance drainage outlets outlets
outlets

1. The agricultural and environmental aspects do not partition the scheme (mono crop minor concerns)
2. The tolerance for time is irrelevant here as deliveries are continuous
FBC: feedback control -

The information technology-based improved management system for the Teesta Barrage project
The information technology-based improved management system

for the Teesta Barrage project
Biswa Sarathi Majumdar

CMC Ltd, Pune, India
Abstract
The Teesta Barrage project is a large multipurpose water resources project in the state of West Bengal, India. The
project covers aspects of irrigation, flood control and power generation. Currently an improved management
system is being developed for efficient operation of the scheme. The information technology-based improved
management system covers the aspects of annual and seasonal planning, integrated operation of the barrages,
scheduling of the operation of one of the main canals and the corresponding distribution network and improved
manual control of the barrage and canal operation. The IT-based system will use the real-time data of inflow into
the barrages, canal flow and rainfall from selected remote locations. The management system, which includes
both a radio-based and an electronic data communication network covering the office of the controlling
authority, the field office, barrage locations and identified field locations, is scheduled to be commissioned before
the monsoon of 1999.
Introduction
The Teesta Barrage project comprises multiple interconnected barrages and corresponding main canals branching
off them and covering a very large area. The target area on completion of all the stages of the planned
development will be of a little more than 0.9 million ha, covering the entire northern part of the state of West
Bengal. A main conveyance system of about 200 km in length with a distribution network of a few thousand
kilometres is planned to cover the entire command area.
Characteristics and representation of the system
The barrages
The Teesta barrage across the river of the same name is one of the many barrages of the interconnected barrage
system of the Teesta Multipurpose scheme.
The Mahananda barrage across the Mahananda river receives diverted flow from the river through the Teesta-
Mahananda Link canal. The Mahananda Main canal branching off the right bank of the barrage conveys the flow
diverted through the link canal to irrigate a limited command area (of about 50 000 ha) and generate hydroelectric
power through an in-line power plant. The Mahananda Main canal in turn links the barrage with the Dauk
barrage. Construction of the main canal system to cover areas beyond the Tangon river is in progress.
The conveyance system and distribution network
The conveyance system comprises the following main canals:
1. the Teesta-Jaldhaka Main canal off-taking from the left bank of the Teesta barrage;
2. the Teesta-Mahananda Link canal off-taking from the right bank of the Teesta barrage;
3. the Mahananda Main canal off-taking from the right bank of the Mahananda barrage;
4. the Dauk Nagar Main canal; and

5. the Nagar Tangon Main canal.
A diagram of the main canals is presented on the next page. The distribution network planned for each of the
main canals comprises distributary, minor, sub-minor, outlets and other watercourses in the outlet commands.
The Teesta-Mahananda Link canal
The Teesta-Mahananda link canal is meant to divert the flow from the Teesta river to the Mahananda. This flow
is further conveyed through the Mahananda Main canal on the right bank of the Mahananda barrage. The link
canal also irrigates an area of about 40 000 ha through ten distributaries and augments supplies to an established
run-of-the-river irrigation scheme. The length of the Teesta Mahananda Main canal is about 25 km.
Characteristics of the general command area
The annual rainfall in the Teesta command varies from about 3 000 mm in the head reach to 700 mm in the tail
end of the southern part of the command, with an average of 1 650 mm. The general slope of the command area
is gradual and oriented south. The soil throughout the command area is predominantly either sandy or clayey
loam. The effective depth of soil varies from 0.6 m to 2.4 m. The predominant crop during kharif (monsoon) is
paddy, and wheat is the major crop grown in the rabi (winter) season.

Figure 1. Diagram of the main canals in the Teesta Barrage project
Operation of the present system
The scheme has been operated in the last few years to provide irrigation to the developed portion of the Teesta-
Mahananda Link Canal command area. The diversion of flow to the Mahananda barrage for further conveyance
through the Mahananda Main canal for hydropower generation started at the end of the 1998 monsoon.
The scheme was designed to use the available flow at the Teesta barrage for catering to the requirements of
irrigation in the project command and for hydropower generation. The use of the Mahananda river flow is
limited to fulfilling the agreed share of the state of Bihar. The barrages are also used to regulate flood flows in a
limited manner. The conveyance and distribution systems were designed on the basis of peak irrigation
requirements in the immediate post-monsoon period and rotational canal operation was envisaged. The state
policy assigns first priority to irrigation supplies, and fulfilment of the requirements of hydropower generation is

limited to the adequacy of inflow at the Teesta barrage (only during the monsoon season).
Flow availability at the Teesta barrage site
Teesta is a perennial river. The catchment area up to the barrage site across the Teesta is of about 8 500 km2.
Preliminary estimates of the availability of flow indicate a lean season of six months duration (November to
April). The variation of flow availability at the Teesta barrage site between the lean season and the monsoon
months is significant. However, there is not much variation in flow from December to March.
Barrage operation
At present, the barrages are operated according to the method formulated by the Irrigation & Waterways
Directorate of the government of West Bengal. The method focuses on the ability to divert maximum flows
through the main canals for fulfilling irrigation and hydropower requirements, keeping in view the structural
safety of the barrage and feasible flood regulation, based on data, information or warnings received from the
upstream gauging station at short notice (about one hour).
Irrigation requirements
About 150-percent cropping intensity has been considered throughout the entire command area in the design of
the scheme. Traditionally farmers grow paddy in the vast tract of land covered by the scheme command area.
Indicative figures suggest that paddy is cultivated in about two thirds of the command area during the kharif
season and pulses are cultivated in about 10 percent of the command area during the rabi season. The present
cropping intensity in the rabi season is much lower than that in the kharif season. Perennial and hot-weather crops
have an insignificant coverage. The estimation of demand for irrigation is made on the basis of duty prescribed
according to accepted departmental norms.
Hydropower generation
Three in-line hydropower generation stations, in series, have been planned on the Mahananda Main canal. One
hydropower station has so far been commissioned. The remaining two power stations are at different stages of
construction. Each station has three turbines with a capacity to generate 22.5 MW and a corresponding flow
requirement of 330 cumecs (three turbines with a discharge capacity of 110 cumecs each). Initial analysis indicates
that the flow requirement for hydropower generation can be fulfilled only during the monsoon months, i.e. June
to September, and that there is a reasonable probability of meeting the requirement in October.
Variation of demand, spatial and temporal
The large command area implies spatial variation in soil characteristics, topography and rainfall pattern. It is likely
that there would be variation in soil characteristics both at local level (outlet level) and at the subcommand level
(individual main canal commands) contributing to spatial variation in demand. The variation of demand during
the monsoon can be significant, owing to varying rainfall across the command, especially as the tail end of the
command receives significantly less rain than the head reach.
In the case of the rabi season, demand is unlikely to fluctuate because of the rainfall situation in the command
area. Most of the rainfall in this region occurs during the monsoon months. The demand variation in rabi would
be attributable to actual cropping patterns and the period of sowing.
The demand of water for hydropower generation would be a constant component of the total demand for water.
The state policy assigns first priority to the fulfilment of irrigation requirements. Supplies for hydropower
generation are made on the basis of the actual availability of flow and demand for hydropower generation is most
likely to be fulfilled during the period of high availability, i.e. the monsoon months of June to September.
Allocation and distribution of flow

With the focus on construction of the main canals and the distribution network, the operation is limited to
feasible flood regulation at the Teesta and Mahananda barrages and operation of the Teesta-Mahananda Link
canal to provide irrigation supplies to the area commanded by the link canal and to the diversion of the flow to
the Mahananda for further conveyance through the Mahananda Main canal for hydropower generation.
As part of the ongoing efforts to develop an information technology-based system, a decision framework is being
evolved to effectively operate the scheme to cater to likely situations, especially that of low availability at the
Teesta barrage, keeping in mind the aspects of equity and sustainability. The decision framework would also help
devise suitable ways for responding to changes in the climatic conditions, depending on whether or not rain falls
in certain parts of the command.
The communication system
The present communication facilities available are limited to Department of Telecommunications telephones at
the field offices and in the offices of the project and subproject administrators. The communication facilities
available at the barrage sites are inadequate for continuous monitoring and control of operation by the project
authority. Feedback about operation problems, emergency maintenance or repair needs, or required changes in
canal operation because of rainfall in a particular subcommand, cannot be received in time from the field, making
it impossible to intervene or guide the field operators in further action.
System operation: improvements proposed
System-wide planning, long term and short term
For the main canals, it is possible to plan specific allocations for individual seasons on the basis of expected
availability and most effective deliveries for irrigation. Two distinctly different approaches are being worked on
for the winter and monsoon seasons. Planning of operation of the scheme in the kharif season would be based
on the requirement of meeting varying irrigation demand for paddy, the dominant kharif crop, and fulfilment of
hydropower generation requirements and other statutory obligations and commitments. Short-term adjustments
would be possible by taking into account the occurrence of rainfall in the command area. Rabi or hot weather
season planning would take into account the limited availability of the Teesta river throughout the season and
would help decide on the number of turns and the suitable dates for starting the individual turns of canal
operation and their duration. Planning for both the rabi and the kharif seasons would be the most effective use of
available river flows, keeping in mind equity and other system-specific constraints.
Integrated operation of barrages
The operation of the barrages in the kharif season would focus on feasible flood regulation, keeping in mind
structural safety and the diversion of the required flow through the main canals. A system of integrated operation
of the Teesta and Mahananda barrages during the lean season is being designed with the objective of managing
the available flows to maximize power generation with a high degree of assurance after assigning first priority to
the fulfilment of irrigation requirements.
Scheduling of canal operations
The approach toward improved scheduling of canal operations focuses on their effectiveness in fulfilling the
irrigation requirements across the command area and supplies for hydropower generation. The proposed system
will also ensure operation rescheduling in the shortest possible time to respond to climatic changes in the
command area or to variations of inflow at the barrages. A decision framework for the allocation and distribution
of flow in case of deficit availability will be evolved. This will be used to manage flows effectively.
Monitoring and control operation - barrages and canal system
The improved system used for monitoring the operation of the scheme would rely on the radio-based voice and
data communication networks. The voice communication network would cover the barrage locations, remote

sites along the Teesta-Mahananda Link canal, field offices and the central control station located in the
administrative office of the project. The data communication network would cover the barrage locations,
identified sites along the Teesta-Mahananda Link canal and a few rain-gauge stations in that canal command.
While the telemetry system would provide barrage pond level, canal flow level and rainfall data, the voice
communication network would be used to obtain information on gate positions and other queries.
The barrages will continue to be operated by manual control on the basis of details worked out by the Directorate
of Irrigation and Waterways. The control strategy for the operation of the Teesta-Mahananda Link canal is being
worked out. All necessary instructions for the control of canal and barrage operations and changes required from
time to time will be communicated over the voice communication network as required.
Summary and conclusion
The information technology-based improved management system for the Teesta-Mahananda link canal being
developed for the Teesta Multipurpose Water Resources project in West Bengal by CMC Ltd is a comprehensive
management system. The IT-based system covers integrated operation of the barrages, long-term and short-term
plans of operation, scheduling of the operation of the main system and of the distribution network, and
improved monitoring and control for proper implementation of planned operations. The improved monitoring
and control system will also help in effecting required changes in response to changes in river flow availability or
the rainfall situation in the command area. The IT-based system under development will rely on state-of-the-art
technology. It would be easy to customize for implementation in any other project with similar components, and
could be integrated in regional or river basin-level management systems. The present project includes
components of user training and limited implementation support.

Modernization of irrigation system operations: institutional development and physical improvement
Modernization of irrigation system operations:

institutional development and physical improvement
Indra Lal Kalu

Team Leader, TA Team ( CADI/APTEC), IMT Project
Introduction
Improving irrigation system performance is now perceived as a more pressing need than developing new irrigated
areas, after large budgetary allocations have gone for decades into expanding irrigated acreage. In most developing
countries, investment in irrigation has not produced the expected results. The actual irrigated area turns out to be
much smaller and crop yield and cropping intensity fails to increase appreciably. Whether to further invest while
hoping for the best has become questioned. Instead, planners have started to give priority to the improvement of
existing irrigation systems. In Nepal, several irrigation systems managed by farmers for centuries perform better
in terms of crop yield, equity and farmers' satisfaction than most agency-managed systems. Also, the irrigation
service fee (water tax) collected by the latter is very low, resulting in reduced budgetary allocations for operation
and maintenance. This, in turn, has caused deferred maintenance and reduced irrigated areas.
How to break out of this vicious circle is a common concern for both planners and concerned officials. Some
advocate improving management; others emphasize physical improvement. Various approaches have been
implemented in Nepal. Some experiences on the modernization of irrigation system operation are presented in
this paper.
The modernization approach
Modernization has been felt as a need at all times. Yet, modernization is different things to different people. An
FAO conference defined it thus:
"Irrigation modernization is a process of technical and managerial upgrading (as opposed to mere rehabilitation) of irrigation schemes
combined with institutional reforms, if required, with the objective to improve resource utilization (labour, water, economic,
environment) and water delivery service to farms."
In the same line, Perry (1995) grouped three basic elements for successful irrigation performance: defined water
rights; an infrastructure capable of providing service as embodied in the water rights; and assigned responsibilities
for all aspects of system operation.
But in the early 1970s and 1980s, these concepts were not acted upon and several irrigation development projects
were implemented, including command area development, with the belief that physical improvements would
automatically lead to better performance. Various improvement works like rehabilitation and development of the
physical system, construction of tertiary or field channels, drains, service canals and link roads to markets were
undertaken. But as soon as the projects were completed, operation and maintenance were neglected and the
system soon reverted to the conditions prevailing before the projects were started. In some projects, field
channels were demolished, gates were stolen or broken, drainage ditches were again converted to fields, the
systems were ruined and became dysfunctional. For instance, in the first stage of the Sunsari-Morang project, in
all outlets gates were fixed and a complex five-day rotational water distribution policy was recommended, but the
farmers used to the free use of water did not co-operate and broke or damaged the gates (Singh).

Similarly, in the Marchwar lift irrigation project, proportional distributors were introduced to comply with the
farmers' practice in adjacent chatis mauja, the old acclaimed farmer-run irrigation system in Nepal. At some outlets,
capacity was less than 5 l/s, which farmers did not find useful to soak their paddy fields for land preparation, so
they started to breach the canal (Euro Consult/East Consult). In the design of the structure, beneficiary farmers
were hardly consulted, and the design reflected the engineers' wishful thinking rather than the farmers' needs;
besides, operation rules were not properly taught to the farmers or even to the staff. Although most of the
physical improvements did improve performance, few were accepted and the others were demolished or broken.
To improve irrigation management, the Department of Irrigation has implemented irrigation management
transfer projects with financial support from the Asian Development Bank and USAID and under cost-sharing
arrangements with the water user associations. Molden and Makin (1997) consider management transfer in itself
as modernization in that it is a means to attain enhanced system objectives.
The project seeks to establish sustainable and effective rehabilitation and improvement of the physical system.
Once a branch or main canal is rehabilitated, it is turned over to the local water user association. The detailed
implementation procedure in Phase I is presented in Figure 1 (appended).
In the second and third phases, rehabilitation activities play a major role and involve significant costs. The
rehabilitation is provided as an incentive for water user groups to undertake management responsibilities. The
basic purpose of rehabilitation is to bring the system back to functional status so that the farmers can operate,
maintain and manage it themselves. In order to be demand-driven and cost-effective, the water user association
has to bear 26 percent of the total rehabilitation cost. A subproject management committee is formed, with some
six water user association representatives under the chairmanship of the project manager, to partake in planning,
design, tender, construction supervision and the water user association's contribution mobilization activities. The
subproject management committee members assist the project staff in the march toward physical improvement.
The project office prepares a detailed design and estimate of the proposed work, the committee members and the
staff prioritize the works and classify them under the following subcategories:
1. Emergency and flood damage repair

2. Essential structure maintenance
3. Catch-up maintenance
4. System improvement
5. System (hydraulic) calibration
6. Service roads and field-to-market roads.
The estimated cost is fixed within the budget and then the members of the subproject management committee
are given the choice to choose works for water user association contributions. In principle, contributions
proportionate to irrigated landholdings are recommended. Then a memorandum of agreement and action plan
are signed by the project manager and the water user association, based on which the activities are carried out.
The action plan covers institutional development activities such as the various training programmes related to
capability-building, e.g. water management, resource generation and record-keeping.
During the construction, the subproject management committee members are authorized to supervise the work,
control quality and make recommendations in committee meetings. The impact of management transfer in one
system is presented below.
Management transfer at the Panchakanya Irrigation System
The Panchakanya Irrigation System is a small (600 ha) gravity irrigation system fed by a spring. Due to deferred
maintenance, the canal lining had broken at many places and heavy seepage used to occur and, because of
dysfunctional gates, water control was not effective. The silting of the spring reduced the discharge in the source.
Although the system was designed to irrigate 600 ha, it irrigated 267 ha only.
After the implementation of the irrigation management transfer policy in 1995, a water user association was
democratically formed in two tiers, as shown in Table 1. A subproject management committee was also formed

to represent the association for project implementation works such as signing the memorandum of agreement
and the action plan, and decision-making on rehabilitation works.
Table 1 : Organization levels and number of members in the Panchakanya subproject
Level No Members at each level Total members

Main committee 1 13 13
Branch committee 9 5 45
To remedy the above-mentioned problems, clear the silt at the spring and improve the lining in the main canal,
gates to control water delivery were installed by the office and earthwork was carried out by the water user
association. Likewise, gauge plates were fixed upstream and downstream of cross regulators to monitor the flow
in the canal. These gauges were calibrated and water measurement tables were prepared. The association
nominated two of its members for water delivery, other representatives were trained to measure water by
observing water depth in the gauges, and a manual describing canal operation plans was provided for the
distribution of water under three water availability scenarios. A manual on canal maintenance was also provided
and guidance on operation and management expenditure at Panchakanya was prepared and given to the water
use association for the collection of an irrigation service fee. Various members of the association were trained on
share system administration, canal operation and management, quality control and construction supervision, water
measurement, record keeping and gender awareness. After the completion of rehabilitation works, the
Panchakanya irrigation project was formally handed over to the water user association on 28 Nov 1998. Since
then, the association has amended its constitution to increase resources, increased the irrigation service fee from
NRs75/ha for paddy to NRs150/ha, and started to collect a Rs50/ha labour fee for maintenance instead of
calling for labour contributions.
The general assembly also approved the request of the previously excluded tail-end farmers to become share
members by contributing Rs500/ha as an appreciation fee to irrigate the area in lieu of the association's
contribution done in the main canal improvement. These farmers then renovated almost two kilometres of canal
by themselves. Now the association collects a general membership fee, a share membership fee and fees from
official visitors. The present resource collection status of the water user association is given in Table 2.
Table 2 : Resource collection status
S. No Item Amount (NRs)

1 General membership fee @ NRs10/head 6 280
2 Share membership fee @ NRs30/ha 3 830
3 Labour fee @ NRs150/ha 61 075
4 Irrigation source fee
a) NRs150/ha for paddy 39 543
b) NRs75/ha for other crops 2 504
5 Income from sale of junk 22 680
6 Balance carried over 46 280
7 Visitor fee 4 055
Total 186 248
Since the transfer of management, the water user association has been operating the system. By May 1998, its
members had cleared the source and cleaned the main canal at the cost of NRs12 655. Improvement after
implementation ( Neupane and Uprety, 1997) is as follows:

Table 3 : Impact of IMTP activity in the Panchakanya irrigation system
Item Before After

Water availability 750 lps 1200 lps
Irrigation cycle 12 days 3 days
Water duty 5 - 30 lps/ha 3.16 lps/ha
Project convenience efficiency 26% 51%
Actual irrigated area 267 ha 442 ha
(planned to extend to 600 ha)
After learning water measurement techniques, the association started to distribute water in proportion to the
purchased share, thereby compelling farmers to report their actual irrigated area to report actual irrigated area. It
also started keeping records of actual irrigated crop areas for each branch or outlet to allocate water. As the water
supply is reduced in March-April for early rice, the association issues permits to grow early rice in limited areas.
The association seems to have accepted the improvement. It is now requesting the project office to demarcate
the water source in order to fix water rights and do additional canal lining in the remaining portion of the tail. It
has also requested to be provided with a detailed map showing branch canals to facilitate fee collection.
Looking at the progress made by the water user association in Panchakanya, it can be said that farmers readily
accept simple rehabilitation works which they feel are needed. The association's involvement and commitment
from the beginning compel them to undertake management transfer and better manage the system. Adequate
capability build-up training should be provided, particularly on water measurement, to let farmers realize the
importance of water for the control of canal operation. And an adequate time period should be provided for
project implementation.
Summary and conclusion
The modernization of irrigation systems is essential to improve system performance. Before introducing new
technology, its adequacy and practicality should be tested and users' preferences known. Institutional
development (e.g. knowledge and skill) of the users should be advanced along with physical improvement to
make the improvement sustainable and lasting.
References
Singh A.M. Water management at the Manichauri Secondary Canal Command, Sunsari Morang Irrigation
Project, Biratnagar
Euro Consult/East Consult. 1996. A review on functionality of outlets, Marchwar Lift Irrigation Project
Neupane, R.R.S. & Uprety, D.P. 1998. Panchkanya irrigation subproject system: toward a complete turnover
to WUA
Molden, D.J. & Makin I.W. 1997. Institutional change in support of modernization and management transfer,
in Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options, RAP publication 1997/22, FAO
Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options, RAP publication 1997/22, FAO
Perry, C. J. 1995. Determinants of function and dysfunction in irrigation performance and implications for
performance improvement, Water resources development, Vol11, No1
Figure 1. Irrigation management transfer implementation procedures for Nepal's Irrigation

Management Transfer project



Tertiary level irrigation system management in the Chambal command by water user associations
Tertiary level irrigation system management in the Chambal

command by water user associations
K.V.G.K. Rao, R.C. Bower, Anju Gaur and N.A. Visvanatha

RAJAD Project, CAD Building, and UMA Eng. Ltd
Abstract
The canal irrigation system in India suffers from low performance leading to low levels of service that inhibit
efficient use of land and water and optimal agricultural productivity. This in turn leads to dissatisfaction and
resistance to pay seemingly reasonable water charges for an unreliable and inequitable service. Poor maintenance
of canal networks, inequitable distribution of water, inefficient water conveyance and delivery, excess water
application and inadequate and inefficient drainage are causing extensive waterlogging and silt build-ups. Large-
scale water and drainage management initiatives are needed to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production,
as well as a sense of ownership among the farming community if irrigated agriculture is to prosper.
This paper describes the first-of-its-kind experience of the Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage (RAJAD) research
project in the implementation of a tertiary-level irrigation system management in the Chambal command. Such
management is designed to develop, demonstrate and evaluate improved and integrated water, land and crop
management procedures in order to achieve optimum production with the participation of the farmers. The
programme has a multidisciplinary approach. It integrates irrigation management and agronomy, agricultural
extension and social development activities.
The management of the irrigation system at the tertiary level is taking place in an irrigated command area of
about 600 ha serving nearly 300 farmers. Farmers are partners in planning, implementation and management and
they have formed their own water user association. The management goals are: assurance of a reliable water
supply to the farms; adoption of a system of equitable water distribution, appropriate irrigation scheduling and
efficient irrigation practices; operation and maintenance of the system by the beneficiary farmers; and creation of
community awareness of the activities needed for sustained agricultural production.
Introduction
The sustainability of irrigated agriculture in India is in jeopardy due to the low performance of irrigation systems,
which leads to an inefficient use of land and water and to an agricultural production much below potential. Due
to unreliable and inequitable irrigation services, indiscipline in the use of canal water has become rampant among
farmers and has resulted in resistance to pay seemingly reasonable water charges. Participatory irrigation
management and water management by user associations in which the farmers are the managers and the
government agencies are the service providers are felt to be the vehicles to bring about a sense of ownership
among the farming community. Only within this context will the goal of improved efficiency of land and water
use for sustainable crop production be achieved. A success would in turn constitute a model of integrated water
and agricultural management for the region. The underlying concepts are as old as the irrigation systems built and
operated by private entities in India. However, the large-scale investments in irrigation projects funded by the
government and the formation of village-level administrative agencies such as the panchayat system in the 1950s in
effect made the farmers dependent on the government agencies to operate and maintain the irrigation systems.
Until recently, there was no legislation, either at federal or state level, that enabled the formation of participatory
irrigation management policies and the establishment of water user associations in irrigated lands. Several such
associations in the Chambal command have now been created through administrative measures, although the

required legislation is still under formulation. Due to inadequate infrastructure, the use of irrigated areas has
gradually decreased and problems of waterlogging and soil salinity are making it difficult for the farmers to
irrigate their land properly. The development of participatory management and water user groups is considered
essential to protect the existing investments and sustain agricultural production to meet the demands of an ever
increasing population.
The Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage research project, sponsored by the Canadian International Development
Agency, has introduced, on a pilot basis, irrigation system management as part of an Integrated Water and
Agriculture Management (IWAM) strategy in the irrigated Chambal command area of Rajasthan. The objective of
this paper is to discuss the experience and achievements of the project.
Irrigation management in the Chambal project
The Chambal project in south-east Rajasthan is a river storage scheme. Three upstream hydroelectric projects
release water after power generation to the Kota barrage, where the irrigation system takes off to irrigate 229 000
ha in Rajasthan and an equal area in Madhya Pradesh. In the Chambal project, water is conveyed from the
reservoir to the farms through a network of unlined canals. The main canal supplies water to the distributaries,
which, in turn, supply the minor canals. The minors in the Chambal command are the starting point of the
tertiary distribution system. Farm outlets which receive water from the minors have no standard operation
procedure. Flood irrigation is practised by drawing water from the respective watercourses. The system cannot
provide water to the farming communities in the command area in a timely and equitable way, as head-end
farmers naturally get preferential water supply over tail-end farmers.
Since the start of irrigation in the early 1960s, the Chambal project has experienced inequitable distribution of
water, inefficient irrigation delivery, excess water application and seepage losses from the extensive unlined canal
network and poor drainage system. This has resulted in low water-use efficiency and land degradation due to
waterlogging and soil salinity. Drainage improvements have been going on since the early 1980s through on-farm
development programmes which have sought to install a surface drainage network. However, the problem of
inequitable water distribution is far from being solved, due primarily to the deteriorating conditions of the supply
network and to increasing waterlogging and salinity.
The Rajasthan drainage project is introducing large-scale horizontal subsurface drainage systems in the critically
waterlogged and saline lands, thus initiating tertiary-level solutions to the irrigation water management issues in
the pilot-scale IWAM model.
The Integrated Water and Agriculture Management programme
IWAM is a multidisciplinary programme aimed at improving and optimizing agricultural production by making
efficient use of the available water and land resources with full participation of farmers. It is a systemic approach
to irrigation and agricultural management which takes into account the cropping pattern and the various
ecological and socio-economic aspects. It involves scientific planning and implementation of practices for
irrigation supply and distribution, on-farm application, and management of water, including appropriate drainage
and maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems.
The IWAM pilot project is planned for implementation in a 600ha irrigated area served by the Nimoda minor
within the command area of the Chitawa distributary in the Chambal project. Key activities include:
rehabilitation of the minor;

development of appropriate irrigation practices and irrigation scheduling using model farmers to
demonstrate improved on-farm water use efficiency;
strengthening of farmer education programmes by organizing farmers' meetings, training camps, field
displays, participation of farm women and mass awareness campaigns;
development of a participatory approach to the overall water management through the organization
of outlet committees and water user associations; and
development of a sustainable maintenance programme involving the water user associations.

Implementation status
IWAM field activities started in 1994 with system identification and implementation of pilot programmes to study
the existing irrigation, crop and on-farm water practices, and the impact of modified irrigation methods and
irrigation scheduling on farming operations and agricultural production. Farmers were involved at every stage of
planning and implementation. The Nimoda minor selected for the pilot programme was found to be in a very
much degraded condition, with broken structures and banks and a lot of vegetation on the bed and sides. The
existing conveyance efficiency was only about 40 percent. Out of the design discharge of 330 l/s, much of the
flow was lost as leakage and seepage and the rest irrigated mostly head and middle-reach farms. Tail-end farms
are mostly single-cropped and depend on drain water for irrigation. Any improvement in on-farm water
management must start with the rehabilitation of the minor.
System improvement model. The main considerations in the rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage systems are
timeliness, reliability and sufficiency of on-farm irrigation water, equitable water distribution, and capital
investment and maintenance requirements. A unique implementation model was developed in which the funds
for system rehabilitation would be advanced to the water user associations. The associations would contribute
labour and manage the rehabilitation of the system. Advisory services, technical assistance and regulatory help
would be provided by the Command Area Development Authority and the engineering consultant, the Canadian
executing agency. Following this model, the modalities of rehabilitating initially a portion of the minor and
ancillary structures were being worked out in the spring of 1998.
Options were considered for rehabilitation, such as renovation as earthen minor, reconstruction as CC-lined
minor, or pipe minor. These options would improve the conveyance efficiency of the distribution system to 60,
80 and 90 percent respectively against the existing 40 percent. The water user association finally opted for CC
lining of the minor on the basis of financial feasibility and social acceptance.
The infrastructure of the Nimoda minor has been handed over to the association by the irrigation department
through a memorandum of understanding and the association is eligible to execute works on the minor through
special grants made available under any scheme of the state or central government or international agency. The
following typical functions of the association on irrigation water management are:
acquire irrigation supplies for the minor;

prepare an irrigation schedule at the beginning of each growing season with delivery schedules for
the respective outlets branching out of the minor, equitable distribution of available water supply in
the minor canal and appropriate cropping patterns on the basis of available water and agricultural and
agronomic management practices;
arrange for irrigation by maintaining the irrigation and drainage system within the jurisdiction of the
water user association and by keeping regular communication links with the irrigation and agriculture
departments of the state over technical matters;
collect water service and other operation and maintenance fees;
maintain financial accounting; and
solve conflicts arising from system operation and maintenance.
Sensitizing farmers. Two initiatives, participatory rural appraisal and participatory planning, were organized at
grassroots level in the IWAM implementation area. They resulted in the creation of an atmosphere of mutual
understanding between farmers and officials, which led to the formation of a water user association at the minor
level and of informal working groups at outlet level. Participatory rural appraisal is a methodology to get to know
the existing situation by understanding farmers' views, interacting with the villagers and developing rapport with
them. Participatory planning consists in forming an institution at grassroots level with the objective of providing
an opportunity for the farmers to discuss problems and find ways to solve them. These two initiatives worked as
catalysts in accelerating farmers' understanding and interest and in the formation of outlet committees and a
water user association.
Formation of outlet committees. Farmers drawing water from a common watercourse are organized into an outlet

committee. This is an informal organization with a voluntary membership. Outlet committees have been formed
in all 25 outlets of the minor. The outlet committees are responsible for:
maintenance of the respective watercourse, field drains and subsurface drainage system installed on
their land;
implementation of the rotational or warabandi system of irrigating their fields and establishment of an
equitable water distribution;
monitoring of irrigation methods, such as border irrigation which is practised at present;
weed management by composting aquatic weeds at the farm level; and
development of a working relationship with the water user association at the minor level.
Formulation of a water user association. The water user association is the basic organizational unit for achieving truly
participatory irrigation management. However, lack of financial support, absence of legal framework and of
training requirements have been recognized as the limitations for the development of water user associations. In
1993, the RAJAD project provided the seed money for the first association to manage water supplies. The
association is located at the head end of the Arnetha distributary. It has attained a legal standing and manages the
water supplies within its jurisdiction. For the IWAM pilot project, another water user association was formed for
the Nimoda minor, with the participation of about 300 members. Although the association is a registered entity
under the Co-operative Society Act of the state, it has no legal standing per se. Nonetheless, it started operating
under a memorandum of understanding with the irrigation department specifying its roles and responsibilities.
The composition of the executive committee and the running of the association follow the guidelines for
participatory irrigation management provided by the state and central governments. At present, the association's
executive committee, the outlet committee representatives and the irrigation department are developing a
working relationship so that the association can manage the resources and implement structural improvements
under the IWAM initiative.
The financial sustainability of the water user association operation is a matter of concern at this point. The
unduly low rate structure of irrigation water charges would challenge its financial viability in the short term until
more realistic rates are collected from the farmers. Initially, the association would pay about 10 percent of the
implementation costs. As the initial costs of rehabilitation of the system are disproportionately high owing to the
major differed maintenance needs of the system, a low contribution from the association would appear
reasonable. This is consistent with the general concepts of the World Bank-financed schemes in the state. For
regular maintenance of the system, the water user association would contribute 30 percent of the costs while the
remaining 70 percent would be funded by the state.
Training of members of a water user association. Training is necessary to make a water user association effective. It will
help its members to have an awareness of and commitment to co-operative water and resource management;
develop the operation and maintenance requirements of the irrigation system, including sound financial
management of the resource; familiarize themselves with relevant farmer organizations and forthcoming
conventions; gather information and develop a communication strategy; and develop water allocation plans for
optimum agricultural production. Together with autonomous functioning, a few years of lead time are needed for
a new water user association to be functional and stable.
On-farm irrigation and agriculture management. Field trials on border strip irrigation and water balance experiments
were conducted on selected areas to demonstrate the benefits of improved irrigation and agricultural practices to
the farmers living there. The findings were disseminated through the agricultural extension department for
adoption by the farmers in other parts of the Chambal command area. The following are some of the on-farm
management recommendations based on the field trials:
Wastage of water can be reduced to 40-60 percent by providing control gates at the head end of
watercourses.
Conveyance efficiency can be improved by about 20 percent by periodic maintenance of
watercourses, cleaning, strengthening of banks, lining in vulnerable reaches and maintaining farm

road crossings.
Border strip irrigation. A rate of 4 l/s per metre-width for a 150m-long border strip reduces the
irrigation requirements by 30 to 50 percent and also enhances crop yield by about 12 percent. The
recommended border width is 6 m and the required stream size for border irrigation for a typical
field length of 100 m is about 18 l/s.
Demonstrated advantages during the field trials include land levelling, better application of irrigation water, a
reduction in waterlogging, and effective and efficient disposal of surface drainage. Agricultural production has
improved by choosing the appropriate crop varieties, fertilizer doses, crop spacing and the application of
herbicides.
Verifiable indicators. The following indicators are projected based on RAJAD achievements to date in sensitizing
the farmers, setting up outlet committees and organizing a water user association at the minor level:
Farmers would have a reliable water supply upon completion of the deferred maintenance
requirements.
A system of equitable water distribution could be developed by training the outlet committees and
the water user association and by having regular communication between them, the other farmers and
the staff of the irrigation and agriculture departments.
An appropriate irrigation schedule corresponding to the cropping pattern could be developed and
adopted for the various watercourses.
Operation and maintenance of the system by the beneficiaries could be developed following the
establishment of appropriate water charges and the training of farmers.
Improved irrigation efficiency could be achieved by judiciously following irrigation practices such as
the recommended border strips width and the cut-off ratio, and reduction of tail-end water and spills
from the watercourses and individual farms.
Proper functioning of the outlet committees and the water user association would create the
community awareness needed for overall improvements in agricultural production in the IWAM area
which, in turn, would extend to several areas within the Chambal project.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the funding assistance of the Canadian International Development Agency and the
co-operation and support of the government of Rajasthan.
References
Annual report 1995-96. Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India
RAJAD. 1997. A note on approach paper for Integrated water and agricultural management
RAJAD. 1997. Designs and estimates for reconstruction models of Nimoda Minor. RAJAD TR 900-11
Gaur Anju, B.L. Verma, J.A. Millette & Sewa Ram. 1995. Integrated water management: a new RAJAD
initiative. Presented at National Drainage Seminar, May 1995 and published in Subsurface drainage of irrigated lands in
India, an ICID-CIID publication, 1996
Gaur Anju, D. Srivastava, J.A. Millette & N.A.Visvanatha. 1996. Integrated water management opportunities
in the irrigated agriculture of the Chambal command area of Rajasthan. In Proceedings of the Canadian Water
Resources Association, CANCID Workshop, Quebec, Canada, Jun 1996
Hooja R., R.C. Bower & S.N. Mundra (ed.). 1997. Irrigation agriculture and social development


Training and applied research for the irrigation modernization processin developing countries
Training and applied research for the irrigation modernization

process
in developing countries
Ahmed Benhammou
Faculty of Science, Semlalia, Morocco
Abstract
Most developing countries belong to semiarid regions. Those with the most limited water resources are in the
Middle East and northern and southern Africa. In these countries, the water supply for agriculture, domestic and
industrial use, as well as for environmental use, has kept pace neither with population nor with economic growth.
Given that most of these countries devote 60 to 90 percent of their water to irrigation, water conservation in the
agricultural sector is considered as a major option for the future.
The case of the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) is important to investigate. The three
countries receive an average rainfall of about 275 billion m 3 per year. Only 37.2 billion m 3 is usable with existing
technology, and irrigation consumes most of it (87 percent). The index of exploitation (the ratio of exploited to
potential resources) is less than .3.
Although irrigation has been practised for centuries in many regions of North Africa, La Grande Hydraulique is the
biggest agricultural development since Independence. The related projects have increased the region's agricultural
output but not without some negative effects:
Excessive irrigation has led to water-logging by raising the water table.

Eutrophication and salinization are becoming important.
Inappropriate management of watersheds has led to silting of reservoirs built at huge cost.
Therefore, the focus of irrigation modernization should be on demand management, with conservation and
increased water-use efficiency as the main policy objectives. Such a strategy would be less costly than new
infrastructures and society at large would benefit much sooner. Although increasing efficiency is commendable,
additional water sources will inevitably have to be tapped.
Irrigation modernization in developing countries is a process which must incorporate new design procedures and
new equipment with a clear vision of future operations. It must integrate training and applied research as key
elements to improve the productivity of investment and to protect the environment.
Training topics
Hydraulic engineering
River and canals engineering

Hydro-computing
Hydrology engineering
Surface and groundwater hydrology

Training and applied research for the irrigation modernization processin developing countries
Water and environmental resource management
Technological equipment
Communication networks
Instrumentation and measurement devices
Automatic control of irrigation canals
Control of irrigation systems
Applied research themes
Research priorities should cover three categories: technical, socio-economic and environmental, and institutional
studies.
Technical studies
Irrigation techniques appropriate for water scarcity

Aquifer hydraulics and potentials
Mathematics modelling and computational hydraulics
Development of end-use irrigation technologies appropriate to conditions in developing countries,
etc
Socio-economic and environmental studies
Improvement of water productivity

Analysis of the social and environmental impact of modern irrigation technologies.
Institutional studies
Flexibility of services
Improved design for water utilities
Investment in water-saving technologies, etc
The development of modern irrigation systems in developing countries can be facilitated by the co-ordination of
different actions provided by international organizations, national governments, the private sector, academic
institutions and local populations. Specific programmes with clear actions could act decisively to support
continuing training and applied research in the field of modernization of irrigation systems.

Participatory irrigation management in the Chambal command
S.N. Mundra
Senior Advisor, HRD RAJAD Project, Kota
A.K. Garg
Area Development Commissioner, CAD Chambal, Kota
Abstract
The idea that farmers should participate in irrigation management has grown in India since the mid-1980s.
Irrigation management has become a matter of concern for planners, engineers, farmers and politicians.
Experience all over the world shows that farmers are potential managers who can manage their own affairs
effectively if they are properly organized. The need for farmers' participation in irrigation management is
recognized by the government of Rajasthan and pioneer efforts are being made to answer it.
These efforts were initiated in the Chambal command area to ensure farmers' participation in irrigation
management in 1993-94. Thirty-two water user associations were registered between 1993 and 1996, with positive
results at Arnetha, Kuwarti and Barot. By the end of 1997 there were 62 such associations active in the
command. This paper presents the methodological approach followed in the formation of these associations,
which includes people's participation in planning, formation of outlet committees and registration of water user
associations, training of members in operational and functional aspects, and dissemination of know-how on on-
farm water management.
As a result of this approach, positive signals are seen in the efficient management of irrigation water in the
Chambal command area. One group has managed to reduce water use by 32 days while the area under cultivation
increased from 272 ha to 322 ha, an 11.84 percent increase. Another group repaired a 5km stretch of canal road
and three main cuts in the minor by pouring in 14 tractor-loads of earth by their own resources. This success
inspired other groups to undertake civil work for lining and cleaning a stretch of about 4 km along a minor. This
experiment resulted in savings on costs and better quality of the work. A total of 2 025 km of watercourses have
been cleaned by the water user associations in the command. A training programme on farm water management
was organized and 1 800 farmers including women were trained in improved irrigation technology.
It can be concluded from all this that there is growing participation of the people in the Chambal command area
and that a sense of competition is developing among the water user associations over the management of their
minors. This case study may serve as a source of motivation for other commands in the country.
Introduction
Increased farmer participation in irrigation is part of a world-wide trend of devolution in natural resource
management. Experience shows that farmers all over the world are potential managers who, when properly
organized, are able to manage their own affairs. Participatory irrigation management is increasingly viewed as a
means to improve the performance of irrigation investments. Beginning in the 1980s, there have been large-scale
programmes to turn over irrigation management from government agencies to organized water user groups in a
number of countries, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Senegal, Madagascar, Colombia and Mexico.
The idea that farmers should participate in irrigation management has grown in India since the mid-1980s. It has

been driven by the need for a higher return from the massive funds invested in irrigation, which plays a major
role in increasing agricultural production. The concepts of farmer participation and farmer organization are not
well understood and are not used in the same way by all. They must be discussed, tested in the field and
standardized.
Farmer participation in the prevailing system of irrigation management in Rajasthan takes place at two distinct
water distribution levels. One is above the outlets, i.e. the canal distribution network, which is managed by the
irrigation department or the command area development in co-ordination with the district level committee
consisting of district collectors, executive engineers for irrigation, public representatives and representatives of
water users, etc. (The Command Area Development (CAD) schemes are governed by a CAD Authority which is
under an area development commissioner and of which chief engineers, officers from the Departments of
Agriculture, groundwater, drinking water, forestry, education, health etc, collectors, members of Parliament and
of local assemblies as well as elected Panchayat members and farmer representatives are members.) The other is
below the outlet, meaning that distribution among farmers is left to them to manage.
In June 1993, the government's irrigation department reconstituted the water distribution committees. These are
headed by a divisional commissioner for large and medium-sized projects covering two or more districts, a
district collector for large and medium-sized projects covering one district, and a sub-district official for minor
irrigation projects.
These committees meet before the crop season starts. In the command area development projects, in addition to
the CAD Authority, there are project-level water management and water regulation committees under area
development commissioners and water management committees with representation of farmers and officers of
various disciplines and wings of the command area development. The CAD committees meet three or four times
each crop season.
Generally, in water distribution committee meetings, the following decisions are taken after making an assessment
of the available water in the reservoir: number of watering rounds; time, date and period of opening of the canal;
suggested cropping pattern; and, for the larger systems, grouping of canals for rotational running and setting of
dates for the running of each group.
After a canal is opened, there is generally no supervision from the irrigation department to check and regulate
watering, except in the Bhakra, Gang & CAD-IGNP canal systems. In the Chambal command development area
project, some attempts at regulation have been made. However, in some projects, the farmers distribute water
among themselves in an organized manner at levels below the outlet.
In February 1994, the government of Rajasthan formed a high-level committee to suggest ways and means for
increasing the effective and creative participation of farmers in water distribution at various levels. A report was
prepared by that committee covering the present status of farmer involvement and the need for the formation of
a water user association. The report proposed amendments to the irrigation act and rules, as well as
implementation steps. Farmer participation in water management in large, medium-sized and small projects other
than the IGNP and Chambal projects is restricted, to the extent that farmers are merely informed about the
quantity of water available at the source and the likely amount to be provided in the ensuing crop season, which
helps them decide on which crops to grow.
Participatory irrigation management
Participatory irrigation management is not a new concept. There are instances of locally managed irrigation
systems which are centuries-old in Northern India, in the Atlas mountain range of North Africa and in the
semiarid regions of Pakistan. The subak system of Indonesia also comes to mind. However, in the present
context, these systems exist in isolation. Once government willingness is there, such systems do have the
capability to encompass a wide area and catch the fancy of the participants.
In the irrigation sector, the trend is clearly toward reducing the role of government in operation and maintenance.
Portions of the systems are being turned over to associations of farmers to manage, in some countries on a pilot

basis, in others, on a large scale. In India, the appropriate division of management responsibility between the
users and the agency varies. The transfer can be at the level of a distributary (15 000-25 000 ha) or of a minor (up
to 500 ha), or it can be done in stages. There are no predetermined norms for the association of farmers, which
are to be governed by their own by-laws.
The trend of farmer participation in the management of the Chambal command
The Chambal irrigation project is one of the large interstate irrigation and power projects built in India soon after
Independence. Its construction started in 1953 and water for irrigation became available as of 1960. The gross
project area in Rajasthan is of 485 000 ha, compared with a cultivable command area of 229 000 ha. The total
length of branches, distributaries, etc in the project is 2 342 km.
In the beginning, to get the farmers to use irrigation water, it was decided to provide it at their own convenience
rather than on a rotation basis. The farmers irrigated their fields by carrying water by katcha watercourses along
field boundaries without making provision for drainage. Field-to-field irrigation was not introduced. Soon this
became a curse as farmers did not allow any type of warabandi to be introduced.
After 1975, while going along with the full package of on-farm development including the realignment of field
boundaries and watercourses, provision of field drains and field paths, land shaping and so on, the Chambal
officials endeavoured again to introduce warabandi, but in practice only "parchies" are issued to farmers in the 95
000 hectares of the command area informing them about their turn for drawing water.
In the Chambal command area, the interaction between the staff and the catchment committee was quite regular
and reasonably effective in the late 1970s when on-farm development works were done by the staff based on
bank loans that the farmers had to repay. During that period, no catchment committees were formed, but in 1993
those were revived. However these committees are normally operational only till the on-farm construction work
is completed.
In the Chambal project, efforts at demonstrating improvements in water management and the organizing of
agriculture extension field days as well as campaigns to popularize subsurface drainage and such, somehow started
off a round of creation of water user associations. This was somewhat surprising because the area had been
known for its difficult farmers, and for extremes in water indiscipline. It was also an area where warabandi did not
exist and getting water to the tails assumed crisis proportions every year. Nonetheless, farmers did get together to
form water user associations. The first, at Arnetha, registered in 1992, reduced the number of days of watering
from 79 to 47 while the area irrigated went from 680 acres to 805 acres. This trend has been sustained since then.
Other activities like integrated pest management, digging of compost pits, tree plantation, weeding out canals,
improving outlets and earthwork in canals, appointing group leaders for each outlet and fixing of a 24-hours-a-
day seven-days-a-week warabandi schedule of water distribution from each watercourse, repairing gates at outlets,
building roads, lining watercourses, etc, were taken up by the water user associations formed in the Chambal
project. Thirty-two of these have so far been registered as co-operative societies and 30 more are in the process
of being registered. In May 1996 the Chambal command area project also issued guidelines about how irrigation
water management co-operative societies could be formed and get registered. These guidelines were based on a
number of consultations with farmers and members of water user groups. The list of activities which the farmers
and officers jointly thought appropriate for such societies is as follows:
1. Just and equitable distribution of irrigation water and management for better water use.
2. Management and maintenance of the water distribution system.
3. Determination of the cropping pattern as per availability of water.
4. Recovery and collection of irrigation revenue.
5. Organization of training in irrigation water management and adoption of appropriate techniques.
6. Arrangement of agricultural inputs.
7. Resolution of disputes related to irrigation management.
8. Demonstrations and training in the latest agricultural technologies.
9. Repair of pacca channels, adoption of sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation or border irrigation, etc.

10. Making available agriculture and plant protection equipment.

11. Other production-related programmes such as marketing, processing, storage and others that the
grouping considers appropriate to undertake.
Keeping in mind the fact that the Chambal farmers were creating water user associations which had already taken
up many activities, and without insisting upon the deferred maintenance of canal rehabilitation works being done
first as was the case in the pilot projects mentioned above, the World Bank agreed to have three water user
associations of the Chambal project involved in as many pilot area development projects, in order to collaborate
with the Chambal command engineers in designing the canal rehabilitation and improvement works and then
execute the work. This is now underway. A memorandum of understanding between the associations and the
Chambal command project was drafted.
In the command area, many experiments are made by various water user associations. In one of them, each
member has pledged one day of labour a month to the association, either by providing a family member or a
servant to do the work or by paying the association to hire a labourer for a day. In another case, the association
made available a certain amount of money for fuel for the engineers to use an earthmoving machinery to clean
and maintain a canal (the fuel cost is about one third of the machine operating costs) and then the members
stood and supervised the work along with the engineers. Elsewhere, where some work was to be done by the
government but it would have taken too long to get the machines over to the site, the water user association
hired private machines and got the work done on the understanding that the government would reimburse the
cost. The associations have also contributed funds as matching assistance for DRDA works under various
programmes like Apna Gaon Apna Kam, United Funds, or even Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, to take up watercourse
or canal lining (most Chambal canals and all the watercourses are unlined) or dirt-road works which they
consider useful.
Some leaders of water user associations have been championing participatory irrigation management and have
proved more than equal to the task of facing off scepticism about the practical applicability of participatory
irrigation management which farmers and irrigation and agriculture staffers alike were expressing at the October
1996 Udaipur area conference on the topic. In various seminars and workshops, they also have made valuable
suggestions on possible policy and procedural changes and even legislative amendments which need to be
considered by the government.
Since training funds for participatory irrigation management have become available from the Ministry of Water
Resources through either WAPCOS or the Rajasthan Land Development Corporation or in the Chambal Kota
project area through the Canadian International Development Agency-funded Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage
research project, even ordinary members of the Chambal water user associations have been exposed to short
irrigation management workshops, and selected farmers and officers are sent out for field visits-cum-training in
Gujarat and Haryana.
The Chambal model for organizing water user associations
In the Chambal command area, consensus has emerged for organizing water user groups under the Co-operative
Act. Therefore, a streamlined procedure has been laid for the organization of the programme. The various
extension functionaries have been required to fully understand the spirit of participatory management and its
directives before embarking upon the action plan.
One water user society has been formed for a single hydrological unit, which in the case of Chambal is a minor.
In a normal situation, one minor with an average of 15 outlets has a command area of 500 ha and covers 200-
300 farming families. The agriculture supervisors are the ex-officio secretaries of the proposed societies. Four
basic steps have been followed in the Chambal command area in the formation of water user associations:
people's participation planning and orientation;

registration of water user societies;
training of office bearers of the societies in the operational and functional aspects; and

dissemination of know-how on on-farm water management technology.

Evaluation of water management in irrigated croplands
A.K. Chakraborti
Water Resources Group, National Remote Sensing Agency
Hyderabad, India
Abstract
Declining investment in the irrigation sector, increasing environmental concerns and long gestation period in
turning the irrigation potential into a functional system are shifting the focus to improving existing irrigation
systems rather than creating more potential. System performance monitoring, evaluation and diagnostic analysis
are the keys to an improved irrigation management. One of the system performance monitoring matrices is to
evaluate water demand and supplies in the irrigation system and identify the water deficit and surplus areas for
corrective measures. Satellite remote sensing provides a tool to arrive at crop acreage and net irrigation water
requirements at canal level for each crop season and thus meet the system performance monitoring criteria. A
case study is cited on how to use this modern information technology tool.
Introduction
Approach
Cropping systems are planned based on available soil, climate and water resources to obtain maximum
production. Management of water supplies for irrigation is one of the most critical water-related problems
especially in arid and semiarid agricultural lands. The objective of efficient and sustainable water management in
an irrigated cropland is to ensure optimum linkage between water availability and water demand. This is best
done by matching demand for water in terms of crop water requirements and available water supplies in time and
in the required quantity.
Remote sensing and geographic information system data requirements
Application of remote sensing techniques has the potential to provide irrigation command resource inventory.
The following information can be extracted from remote sensing data for any canal system:
Crop types, acreage, condition and yield.

Soil types, soil salinity and alkalinity, waterlogging.
Main land use and land cover.
Besides this, other basic information needs to be collected from an irrigation project or an operation manual to
create a database in geographic information system platforms:
Irrigation command area boundary, gross command area and cultivable command area, hierarchic
system of canal networks, canal control points.
Crop seasons, crop calendar, cropping pattern, cropping intensity, pattern of cropland holdings, crop
cutting experiment plots.
Water supplies in canals, water withdrawal from groundwater, rainfall amount and spatial distribution
in the irrigation command during the crop season.
Tools for evaluation

The following three steps are required:
1. Estimation of crop areas. This is done by multiple-date satellite-based digital estimates of the main
land-use and land-cover classes, including crop types and acreage. To evaluate the accuracy and
reliability of satellite-derived information, a comparison can be made with similar information
obtained from the agricultural census abstracts kept by the government departments.
2. Estimation of irrigation water requirements. Monthly crop water requirements for all the main crops
using daily pan-evaporation data and crop coefficient values during the various growth stages to
calculate the water requirements of each crop.
3. Use of efficiency factors for water conveyance, field applications. Total irrigation water requirements
are estimated by adding up monthly demand for irrigation requirements for all crops during all the
crop seasons (rainy season, winter and summer).
Assessment of water availability
The estimation of the irrigation water available from canals is straightforward. Daily flows into canals are totalled
up to give monthly and annual supplies. The total groundwater draft is estimated from the tube-well or dug-well
inventory data, by adopting suitable norms for dug wells and wells fitted with pump sets. Irrigation tanks and
ponds are also sources of irrigation in the command area. Satellite data provide a very precise picture of the water
spread of tanks and of the area irrigated by each tank. With this information, and following established norms,
the total water available from tanks and ponds for irrigation can be arrived at.
Expected results
Satellite data thus provide spatial information about the main crop types and crop area estimates which are used
to assess total irrigation water requirements as described above. They also provide information for the irrigation
cropland inventory classified by source, i.e. canal, well or tank. Monthly canal supplies are then compared with
total monthly demand to identify any surplus or deficit in any segment of the irrigation command on a canal
system basis. A similar comparison is made between supply from all irrigation sources (canals, wells and tanks)
and the total demand estimated from all the crops, irrespective of source of irrigation in the command area, on a
monthly, seasonal or annual basis.
A diagnostic analysis can be made based on the above procedure to know precisely:
percentage of the water demand per crop;

total water demand in the irrigation command;
period of high water demand for irrigation water;
pattern of canal water releases (surplus or deficit) with respect to crop water demand;
designed cropland versus actual crop area, crop by crop; and
any deviation in the designed cropping pattern.
Ultimately, remote sensing and geographic information techniques help in the evaluation of the irrigation system
performance and in redefining guidelines to improve water use efficiency and crop productivity on a sustainable
basis.
Case study
Study area and satellite data
Study area Geographical co-ordinates Satellite data used

17 minors of the 28o 9'20" - 28o 21' 57" N Lat. IRS-1B LISS II/3.10.1992
Mahendragarh canal - for kharif season
distributary in Haryana State 76o 4'23" - 76o 13' 7"E. Long. IRS-1B LISS-II / 6.3.1993
- for rabi season

Topography: gentle slope Major crops & duration (days) of total growing period
Kharif Guar 115 Bajra 90
Annual rainfall average: 446
mm Rabi Wheat 135 Mustard 145
Method applied
For each of the 17 minors of Mahendragarh distributary, crop acreage is estimated from the IRS-1B LISS-II
satellite image-derived irrigation command land use-land cover and crop classification maps for both the rainy
and the winter crop seasons, known in India as kharif and rabi. Following FAO guidelines, crop coefficient
factors (Kc) are selected for each of four main crops and their monthly water requirements are calculated based
on crop consumptive use (ET mm/d) multiplied by Kc (per month). The monthly net irrigation requirement for
each of the four main crops is calculated. The monthly and seasonal net irrigation water requirements for each
canal minor are then arrived at by multiplying monthly net irrigation water requirements with satellite data-
derived crop acreage. The irrigation efficiency of a canal system depends on the type of channel, material used
and its discharge. Since all the canals are lined, canal delivery efficiency is taken as 0.93 and the field channel
efficiency as 0.80. Field data of the irrigation water supply (canal and tube well) and satellite data-based net
irrigation water requirements are used to arrive at the net irrigation water deficit or surplus in each of the canal
minor command areas in both kharif and rabi seasons of the year 1992-1993 (see Table 1 for the kharif season as a
typical example).
Result
This study indicates that there exists deficiency of water for irrigation in all minors but four during the kharif
season and five during the rabi season. Water deficiency varies from 6 to 57 percent of total crop water
requirement during the kharif season and 0.7 to 48 percent during the rabi season. As an illustration, the irrigation
water requirement and canal supplies of the Deroli minor during kharif and rabi seasons are shown in Figures 1a
and 1b. The data obviously indicates the necessity of more canal supplies. Total crop water requirement, canal
supplies and tube-well supplies (seasonal and yearly) are shown in Figure 1c. It is seen that crop water
requirements are mainly met with the tube-well supplies only. The canal supply is very modest. However, few
canal minors have adequate water supply during both seasons, due to extensive tube-well irrigation in these areas.
Conclusion
The average agreement between satellite-derived crop acreage and ground information (government records) is of
the order of -7.8 percent to + 10.6 percent. The net irrigation water requirement estimation from satellite data,
when compared with irrigation water supplies (canal and tube well), shows large-scale deficiencies, which will
ultimately affect the crop yield. Crop yield estimation, which also can be done using satellite data through the
normalized difference vegetation index values of crops and field information of CCE data, would validate the
effect of water deficiencies on crop yield at de-aggregated level across the irrigation command.
References
Dastane N. G. 1975. Effective rainfall in agriculture. Irrigation & Drainage paper No24, FAO, Rome, 64 pp
Doorenbos J and Puritt W.O. 1977. Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. Irrigation & Drainage
paper No24, FAO, Rome
Food and Agriculture Organization. Irrigation water management training manual No3
Ministry of Irrigation, Government of India. 1984. A guide for estimating irrigation water requirements.
Technical series (revised). Water Management Division, New Delhi, 144 pp
Prasad, V.H., Chakraborti, A.K. & Nayak, T.R. 1996. Irrigation command area inventory and assessment of

water requirements using IRS-1B satellite data, Journal of Indian society of remote sensing, Vol24, No2, p 85-96
Table 1. Assessment of net irrigation water deficit/surplus during kharif season in

Mahendragarh district in Haryana, India
Sl.No Name of July August September October Total kharif season Deficit/Surplus
minor (-) (+)
MWR MCS MWR MCS MWR MCS MWR MCS KWR KCS KWS Ha-m %

1 Lawan 38.297 9.716 8.484 0.719 138.958 0.000 114.808 7.356 300.548 17.791 198.778 -83.98 -27.9
2 Jhuk 21.045 0.211 4.662 0.000 67.690 0.000 49.952 0.000 143.350 0.211 121.323 -21.82 -15.2
3 Bucholi 16.132 9.306 3.574 0.000 42.482 0.000 26.869 16.774 90.057 26.080 108.300 45.32 50.9
4 Dewas 7.937 5.793 1.758 0.000 42.236 0.000 42.401 18.916 94.332 24.709 80.196 10.57 11.2
5 Bhandor 26.820 2.394 5.942 0.000 84.843 0.000 61.681 9.102 179.286 11.496 106.929 -60.86 -33.9
6 Deroli 9.075 1.593 2.010 0.000 24.880 0.000 15.007 4.187 50.973 5.780 26.047 -19.15 -37.6
7 Dholi 28.245 0.000 6.257 0.000 70.753 0.000 41.775 0.000 147.030 0.000 63.746 -83.28 -56.6
8 Sisot 29.387 2.185 6.511 0.000 102.645 0.000 81.090 1.893 219.632 4.078 131.604 -83.95 -38.2
9 Zerpur 31.666 4.187 7.015 0.000 73.279 0.000 36.196 3.641 148.156 7.828 74.028 -66.30 -44.8
10 Khatodra 20.118 1.365 4.457 0.000 57.825 0.000 38.474 1.183 120.874 2.549 80.882 -37.44 -31.0
11 Khaira 13.687 2.185 3.032 0.000 34.149 0.000 18.176 1.893 69.045 4.078 53.464 -11.50 -16.7
12 Jatwas 22.966 1.930 5.088 0.000 80.282 0.000 63.200 1.675 171.536 3.605 156.280 -11.65 -6.8
13 Nimbhera 12.943 0.000 2.867 0.000 54.839 0.000 48.732 0.000 119.382 0.000 98.703 -20.68 -17.3
14 CCI 12.134 0.342 2.688 0.000 40.187 0.000 30.512 0.000 85.520 0.342 85.680 0.50 0.6
15 Jonawas 19.517 0.291 4.324 0.000 55.255 0.000 38.375 0.255 117.470 0.546 88.422 -28.50 -24.3
16 Nihlawas 10.797 0.328 2.392 0.000 33.662 0.000 24.432 0.291 71.282 0.619 66.488 -4.18 -5.9
17 CC2 20.333 0.380 4.505 0.000 61.107 0.000 44.496 0.000 130.441 0.380 136.403 6.34 4.9
Satellite data-derived information Irrigation water supply information:
MWR: Monthly irrigation water requirement (Ha- MCS: Monthly supply of irrigation water through
m) canals (Ha-m)
KWR: Kharif season total irrigation water KCS : Kharif season irrigation water through canal
requirement (Ha-m) (Ha-m)
KWS : Kharif season irrigation water from tube
wells (Ha-m)

An irrigation modernization training programme
Charles M. Burt
Director, Irrigation Training and Research Centre (ITRC) , CalPoly
Thierry Facon
Water Management Officer, FAO, Bangkok
Background
The preface of the 1998 India Water Resources Management Irrigation Sector Report (World Bank, 1998) by Arun
Kumar, Secretary-in-charge at the Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of India, states that "what is
needed is a total revolution in irrigation agriculture ... with much more focus on the improvement of the
performance of existing irrigation facilities and provision of a client-focused irrigation service".
There are two important parts to this statement. First, the statement is optimistic because it assumes that
performances can be dramatically improved. Once one arrives at this level of understanding (that the present
performance is low, and that it is indeed possible to make positive changes), the modernization battle is half won.
Second, the statement places irrigation into the realm of service-oriented utilities - a remarkable departure from
traditional irrigation project design and operation criteria which are incapable of supporting modern field
irrigation.
The same preface also calls for a "paradigm shift in emphasis ... toward improving the performance of existing
irrigation agriculture" and stresses that "A Second Revolution in Irrigation Agriculture is required now."
To go beyond exhortations, and to actually implement the needed changes in the field, people need to know
specifically what to do and how to do it. The devil is in the details of modernization programmes - only with
appropriate modernization actions will satisfactory and rapid progress be made.
Previous authors have identified improved training as an essential yet missing ingredient that is required for this
"second revolution" to be successful. The World Bank Technical Paper No 246, Modern Water Control in Irrigation
(Plusquellec et al, 1994), states that
"The fundamental cause for the slow rate of technology transfer ... is a lack of knowledge of available
technologies and a misunderstanding of the nature in irrigation, in particular ... a lack of sufficient training at all
levels, from the university to the field."
In the 1996 Bangkok expert consultation on modernization of irrigation schemes, Wolter and Burt (1997)
identified the type of water delivery service that will be needed to meet future demands. They state that
"Modernization is understood as a process of change from supply-oriented to service-oriented irrigation", and
that pragmatic training is seriously lacking at present. In the same consultation, Burt (1997) stated that in addition
to having the correct vision for modernization, education is needed. The FAO point of view on modernization
was articulated at the ITIS 4 conference, held in Marrakech, Morocco (Facon, 1997). In its proposed Action Plan,
training is listed as one of three key elements for modernization.
At the ITIS 5 conference, Burt and Styles (1998) presented the results of an IPTRID/World Bank study of
irrigation performance in 16 projects throughout the world. Good modernization programmes are rare, but the

projects with partial and appropriate modernization perform better than traditional irrigation projects. Even in
those projects with some aspects of modernization, there is a clear lack of practical and focused training. This
lack of training is identified by the study as a key bottleneck to the rapid and appropriate modernization of
irrigation projects. The IPTRID/World Bank study also notes that many of the important concepts which should
be covered in training are universal - that is, they span all projects regardless of climate, culture and nationality.
The IPTRID/World Bank study of irrigation performance documented the large disparities between the water
delivery service that is needed and the water delivery service that exists, even in partially modernized irrigation
projects. In each of the 16 projects basic hardware and operational changes could be made that would
immediately improve project performance in terms of efficiency, cost recovery or yields. Unfortunately, these
opportunities were seldom recognized. Appropriate training will empower engineers and designers to recognize
the potentials for improvement, and to know what solutions are available.
In short, there is a tremendous need for improving the performance of irrigation systems to meet the food needs
of the future and various economic and environmental goals, there is clear evidence that modernization can
successfully provide improved performance, and that rapid and appropriate modernization will only occur is there
is an explosion in pragmatic training.
This proposal calls for the training of the engineering leadership that will galvanize the armies of the second
irrigation revolution. Without excellent leaders who are well versed in modern tactics, well-intentioned
revolutions fail, generally with a tremendous waste of personal effort and financial resources as well as
environmental degradation. To develop the leadership cadre, FAO is proposing an Irrigation Modernization
Training Programme which would consist of two parts: an initial training-of-the-trainers programme, as a
premier post-graduate finishing programme for outstanding candidates; and a national upgrading programme.
This would be a national or regional training programme for design and operating engineers on the concepts and
details of irrigation system modernization. This project would nurture a world-wide cadre of specialists with a
common vocabulary and common concepts and solutions. When combined with a technical support network,
this cadre would provide the dynamic leadership and technical know-how to make the major irrigation changes
that are needed.
The proposal is ambitious, but ambitious and unconventional actions are necessary. This training programme
should be considered more important than any single construction or rehabilitation project - and should be
funded accordingly.
The following sections provide a general outline of the concept, a draft curriculum outline of the training-of-the-
trainers programme, and a skeleton outline of the main topics for the national upgrading programme.
Outline of the proposed irrigation modernization training programme
Objective
The objective of the programme will be to empower engineers in interested projects and nations to improve the
performance of irrigation projects through modernization. A good modern design requires a thought process that
starts with the definition of the desired level of water delivery service at all levels throughout the irrigation
system. It then makes full use of advanced concepts in hydraulic engineering, agronomic science, irrigation
engineering, economics and social science to identify the simplest components and a workable solution.
Modernization is a complete process and is not to be confused with merely installing new physical components in
a system such as a canal lining or automatic gates.
This empowerment of engineers will occur through increased awareness and knowledge of specific design and
operation details that are not commonly understood. It will be accomplished by developing a high-quality cadre
of well-trained and visionary engineers who understand the purposes and means of implementing successful
modernization programmes in irrigation projects. To accomplish this, the framework and initial training plan cum
curriculum must be developed for a standardized, pragmatic national upgrading programme.

Uniqueness
This programme will be unique among training programmes. It will emphasize pragmatic training that focuses on
proven concepts of modernization which require common sense and basic engineer skills. It will be an active
rather than a passive teaching programme. Participants will visit irrigation projects and conduct critical analyses
of those irrigation projects through a unique rapid appraisal process (Burt and Styles, 1998). This will help the
students digest the technical facts and principles learned in the classroom and laboratory. The future trainers will
be the cream of the crop. Trainers must have demonstrated skills in motivation, innovation and synthesis as well
as knowledge of technical details. Certification as a trainer in this programme would be quite prestigious. This
programme would develop, expand and sustain badly needed in-country expertise in the new concepts and
technologies of modernization.
Programme steps
The programme steps are as follows:
1. Political and financial (in kind or direct) support will be secured from leading states and countries.
2. Participating countries will nominate highly qualified and motivated individuals who will receive
training in the prestigious training-of-the-trainers programme. For the first programme, these highly
qualified individuals must have the following qualifications:
a. Minimum of BSc in engineering with an emphasis on irrigation or hydraulics. This is non-
traditional, as trainers are typically selected from within the ranks of academia and have
advanced degrees. However, many of the most innovative and motivated engineers do not
fit that typical mould. This programme will benefit from a mix of individuals with
different backgrounds.
b. Interest in teaching or training. Experience is desirable but not necessary.
c. Evidence of innovation and the ability to synthesize facts into strategies. This programme
will show the trainers how to revolutionize the design and operation of irrigation projects
through modernization. Therefore, the nominees must be very open to new ideas and be
real thinkers and not merely have a high position due to reasons of tenure, politics or age.
d. Several years of practical experience in the design or operation of canals.
e. Familiarity with the existing designs and operations of canals in the candidate's region of
origin.
f. For the very first group, good English communication skills will be required. This will
include both written and verbal proficiency, as evidenced by a TOEFL score of 450 or
greater (a score of 550 is generally required for admission to a university in the United
States). For subsequent groups, classes will be available in other languages.
g. Excellent communication skills in the candidate's native language(s).
h. A written commitment from the sponsoring organization that the individual will be
available for training on a half-time basis for a minimum of four years after the candidate
successfully completes the training-of-the-trainers programme.
3. Concurrently with items 1 and 2, the first regional focal institution(s) will be identified. CalPoly ITRC
will work with personnel at the regional focal institution(s) to provide essential teaching aids for the
programme. At this time, the final curriculum for the training-of-the-trainers programme will also be
completed. Presenters or resource persons from the international community at large will be
identified to supplement CalPoly ITRC staff in providing the training.
4. The first group of potential trainers will be selected. This group will have 25 persons.
5. The first group of potential trainers will receive training. This will consist of:
a. A first level of training for three weeks in the regional focal institution.
b. Examination will be given to the trainees. This examination will test them on
understanding of details, as well as ability to synthesize information. The top 12 trainees
will be selected for participation in the next phase of the programme.
c. The top 12 trainees will receive overseas training for 7.5 weeks, to consist of:

Advanced training at the Water Delivery Facility of the CalPoly ITRC.

Visits to two irrigation projects in the United States that are undergoing
modernization. In each project, participants will conduct a rapid appraisal
process exercise.
Visits to two irrigation projects in less developed countries. These project will
have selective aspects of modernization. Again, the participants will conduct a
rapid appraisal of each project.
d. Return to the regional focal institution(s). Participants will jointly visit one irrigation
project near their regional training hubs. They will individually conduct rapid appraisal of
the project, and individually prepare recommendations for modernization (two weeks
altogether). This will test their ability to synthesize ideas as well as their comprehension of
the technical details that have been presented. Their submitted appraisals will be graded
and evaluated by the instructors. All participants who demonstrate an ability to conduct a
good rapid appraisal process (including the ability to synthesize information) will continue
to the final step. It is hoped that the earlier (step b) qualification examination will insure
that all of the 12 participants will demonstrate a good performance; however, this is a final
quality control step to verify that the remaining participants are indeed of the highest
calibre.
e. Participants will individually develop a lesson plan and provide a two-hour training
session on one aspect of modernization to the instructors and to the other participants.
The instructors and other participants will coach each individual on improved
communication techniques.
f. The individuals will receive certificates from CalPoly ITRC and FAO acknowledging their
status as qualified trainers.
6. The qualified trainers will work with CalPoly ITRC, FAO and the regional hubs to define the training
plan, curriculum and teaching aids which they will use in the national upgrading programme. This
programme will target design and operation engineers, as well as university faculty. It is anticipated
that the national upgrading programme will include the following:
a. Multiple locations for each group of trainees.
b. Three sessions for each group of 20 trainees, to be accomplished over a three-month
period. The three sessions will consist of:
Session A - three weeks' initial training using classroom and simple laboratory
equipment.
Session B - two weeks, consisting of one week to conduct a rapid appraisal
process in the field and one week to review the process and lessons learned.
Session C - a one-day final review and question-and-answer session after
students have had a chance to study, followed by a four-hour examination.
Candidates who successfully pass the examination will receive a certificate of training in the concepts
of irrigation system modernization.
Because these 20 trainees will not be required to be fluent in English, teaching aids and study material
and examinations must first be translated into the local languages.
7. The qualified trainers will begin training students in the national upgrading programmes.
8. They will also provide input to modifications for the second training-of-the-trainers programme, and
a second group of potential trainers will begin a new training-of-the-trainers programme.
9. Both programmes will be evaluated and revised.
10. The programme will be expanded to other states or countries or regions with support from a wider
variety of international organizations. An improved certification programme will be defined. This may
involve regional universities, ICID, country training centres, etc. CalPoly ITRC will remain an overall
resource. Training materials will be translated into local languages for both the training-of-the-
trainers and the national upgrading programmes.

11. Additional technical training will be given to the qualified trainers. This training will broaden their
understanding of various design and operation issues. Although they will not teach this detailed
content in their courses, the additional skills will enable them to teach and synthesize ideas even
better.
Time frame
The proposed time frame is as follows:
Start date End date Step

10/98 6/99 1. Support secured from leader states, countries and international donor
agencies
6/99 8/99 2. Nomination of trainer candidates
3/99 8/99 3. Regional training hubs identified; curriculum finalized for the training of
the trainers (T-T)
9/99 9/99 Trainer candidates selected
10/99 12/99 5. First T-T programme

1/00 6/00 Define national upgrading programme; modify the T-T programme
6/00 11/00 7. & 8. Begin the national upgrading programme; second T-T programme
Ongoing 9. Programme revision
6/01 - 10. Expand programme to other countries and regions
Ongoing 11. Additional training for qualified trainers
Anticipated numbers of trainees
This programme will have a major impact because it is designed to be expanded, and because the quality of
instruction will be kept very high. The table below indicates the possible progress of training. It assumes that each
national upgrading programme class will be taught by two trainers, with four national upgrading programme
classes per year for each group of two trainers. Each class will have 20 students. The table below assumes that ten
qualified trainers will graduate from each T-T programme. It also assumes an attrition rate of 50 percent of the
qualified trainers after two years of teaching by any single individual.
Year Number of trainers Number of national Number of students Total number of

completing the upgrading trained in year students trained to
training (including trainers & date
programme classes trainer prospects)
1999 10 0 25 25
2000 20 20 450 475
2001 20 40 850 1 325
2002 20 50 1050 2 375
2003 20 60 1250 3 625
Focal institutions and organizations
This programme is meant to begin a revolution in the training procedures related to the modernization of
irrigation projects. As such, it will eventually involve almost every organization related to irrigation world-wide. In
the initial steps, possible focal institutions and organizations are listed in the table below.

Function Organization
Lead international support agency FAO
Focal technical reference institution CalPoly ITRC
Possible regional focal institutions Aurangabad WALMI, India; Kasetsart Univ.,
Thailand; Marrakech, Morocco; IMTA, Mexico
National counterparts for certification ICID
Oversight committee various
Basic content of the training programmes
Draft curriculum outlines are provided on later pages for both the training-of-the-trainers programme and the
national upgrading programme. Both have the same topics, but the former will cover the subjects in more depth
and time, and also include out-of-country visits. Neither course will use differential equations, partial differential
equations, or calculus - teaching of the important concepts does not require this level of mathematics.
The training programmes will be designed to cover material which is not traditionally taught, or will teach some
material in a new way. The World Bank/IPTRID study by Burt and Styles (1998) clearly determines that
pragmatic concepts of modernization are not well understood in irrigation projects. Examples of basic topics to
be covered are:
the concepts of water delivery service;

how to simplify design and operation by breaking an irrigation project into layers;
hydraulic principles of unsteady flow and how they relate to operation;
concepts of canal control;
specific hardware for making operation easy and effective;
developing modernization strategies;
rapid appraisal process;
water ordering procedures;
irrigation efficiency and water balances; and
design of broad-crested weirs for flow measurement.
The initial training programmes will emphasize fundamental concepts which are the foundation of modernization
programmes. There are many other topics which are also important and which must be covered in future classes
after the foundation is built. Example topics are:
unsteady flow computer modelling;

tuning of gate controller constants;
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition design and equipment selection;
computation of complete water balances for a project; and
rules and regulations for water user associations.
These advanced topics generally require about one to three weeks each to be taught - as well as excellent
computer facilities. The initial training programmes will be able to briefly cover these topics, but not in sufficient
detail that the trainees will have any skills in them. The immediate need is the development of the more
fundamental foundations for modernization programmes.
Conventional modernization programmes often focus on standard civil engineering efforts such as canal lining
and replacement of deteriorated structures - these are not what is meant when one discusses the type of
modernization programmes necessary for the second revolution. Such traditional topics can be and have been
taught for many years in almost all countries. Modernization training will discuss whether or not the deteriorated
structures are of the correct hydraulic design to provide the desired level of service, and whether or not a new
type of structure should replace the old deteriorated structures. With regard to canal lining, a modernization

programme would examine what capacities are required to provide the desired level of service and reliability, the
new turnout density requirements, the new water surface levels in the canal which are required to minimize
turnout flow fluctuations, etc. Therefore, examples of topics which will not be covered include concrete mixes,
traditional concrete lining design and construction techniques, surveying or corrosion protection.
References
Burt, C.M. 1997. Modern water control and management practices in irrigation: methodology and criteria for
evaluating the impact on performance. in Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options. RAP
Publication 1997/22. Water Report 12. FAO. pp 89-102
Burt, C.M. & S.W. Styles. 1998. Modern water control and management practices in irrigation: impact on
performance. Proceedings of ITIS5 (Fifth International Network Meeting). 28-30 October. Aurangabad,
Maharashtra, India
Facon, T.G. 1997. Perspectives in canal operation modernization: the FAO point of view. Proceedings of ITIS
4, Fourth International ITIS Network Meeting. Information Techniques for Irrigation Systems, 25-27 Apr,
Marrakech, Morocco. pp 177-192
Plusquellec, H., C. Burt & H.W. Wolter. 1994. Modern water control in irrigation - concepts, issues and
applications. World Bank Technical Paper No. 246. Irrigation and Drainage Series. 98 pp
Wolter, H.W. & C. Burt. 1997. Concepts of modernization. in Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and
future options. RAP Publication 1997/22. Water Report 12. FAO. pp 65-88
World Bank. 1998. India - Water resources management sector review. Report on the Irrigation Sector. Rural
Development Unit, South Asia Region with Ministry of Water Resources, GoI. 139 pp
Appendix: Training of the trainers - a draft curriculum outline

Facilities and equipment required at the regional focal institutions
To start the programme, the facility and equipment requirements will be minimal. These will include:
Scientific calculators for all participants

Good slide projectors with carousels, and screens
White boards and chalk boards
A projector for a computer display onto a large screen
Appropriate slides, handouts, and reference notes. ITRC has already developed a considerable
starting core of backup material for its classes for US engineers.
A small outdoor facility with a flow rate of 1 CFS that can be varied. A channel approximately 200'
long is needed, in which can be constructed the following:
a simple flash-board weir (adjustable),
a long crested weir,
an undershot (adjustable) gate, and
a combination gate with both an adjustable undershot plus side flash-boards.
Topics to be taught at the regional focal institutions (3 weeks)
The following topics will be taught at the Regional Focal Institutions. These are essentially the same topics that
will be taught in the National Upgrading Programme. The difference will be that the Trainers will also spend 7.5
additional weeks (including travel) visiting overseas projects, will receive training at the CalPoly ITRC Water
Delivery Facility, and go through a more rigorous testing process. The first 3 weeks of class will include the

following:
The Nature and Importance of Good Water Delivery Service
1. The nature of modernization

a. What it is
b. How it differs from traditional irrigation improvement projects
c. Why it is desperately needed
2. Documented status of existing irrigation projects world-wide - actual versus attainable
a. Efficiency
b. Yields
c. Chaos and anarchy
d. Environmental impact
3. Concept of water delivery service
a. Understanding an irrigation system as a series of layers.
1. The layers include (i) main canal, (ii) secondary canals, (iii) tertiary canals, etc.
down to field level.
2. Each layer receives water from the upstream layer with some degree of service
and provides water to the next downstream layer with some degree of service
b. What level of service is required on-farm
1. Basic concepts of ET, soil water holding capacities, root zone development
2. Fundamental differences between rice and upland crops
3. Rice irrigation - special requirements at the start of the irrigation season
4. Planting schedules and realities
5. Components of on-farm (field) irrigation efficiency and how they are impacted
by the water delivery service
6. Water delivery service and its relationship to anarchy or the lack of it
7. What is required if farmers are expected to pay for water
c. What feedback is inherently required to provide good service at the different levels
4. Components of water delivery service
a. Reliability. This is the first essential ingredient, but by itself it is insufficient to
revolutionize irrigation
b. Volume during a crop season
c. Equity
d. Flexibility
Frequency
Rate
Duration
e. Consistency and accuracy
5. Delivery schedules for all levels within a system.
a. Random availability
b. Pre-arranged rotation schedules of various types
c. Modified rotation schedules
d. Arranged deliveries
e. Demand deliveries
6. The level of service provided by existing projects
a. Results from World Bank/IPTRID study
b. Internal Process Indicators

1. Concept
2. Specific indicators
3. How to quantify the indicators for a specific project.
7. Setting priorities for improvement of service.
a. How one layer affects the performance of the next layer (review)
b. Cases in which a downstream layer may have better internal process indicators than
upstream layers
c. Selecting what to do first (a preview)
Hydraulic Principles
There are a number of hydraulic principles which need to be clearly understood before one can learn about
control. These include:
1. Regime flow
a. Where it is needed
b. How changing channel conditions affect system performance
c. What is needed to properly divide flows and distribute them
2. The nature of unsteady flow in modern systems
a. Typical wave travel times
b. Normal depths vs. depths in channels with control structures
c. Wedge storage variations
d. Predicting travel times of waves
e. How flow changes arrive at various points throughout a system
f. What does an internal "flow balance" really mean?
3. Using weirs and orifices as water level control structures
a. Weirs
1. Using weirs as control structures rather than as water measurement structures
2. Various weir designs and their hydraulics
a. Flash-boards
b. Long-crested weirs
3. How weirs respond to unsteady flow
b. Undershot (orifice) flow
1. Using undershot gates as control structures rather than as water measurement
structures
2. Various designs and their hydraulics
3. How undershot gates respond to unsteady flow
4. Using weirs and orifices as flow rate control structures
a. Weir response to unsteady flow
1. Upstream condition changes
2. Downstream condition changes
3. Accuracy of flow measurement
4. Accuracy of flow control
5. Accuracy of volumetric measurement
b. Undershot (orifice) response to unsteady flow
5. Relationship between canal and turnout designs
a. Relative importance of upstream water level or flow rate changes
b. Relative importance of downstream water level changes

c. Designing the canal/turnout system as a unit rather than just designing a "turnout"
6. Gated vs. non-gated systems
a. Documented performance of non-gated systems
b. Documented performance of gated systems
c. Why traditional gated systems are so difficult to manage, and how to avoid such problems
7. The basics of classical control concepts
a. Upstream control
1. Design requirements
2. Management requirements
3. Risk factors
b. Downstream control
1. Types of downstream control
a. Level top canals
b. Control points at downstream end
c. Bival
2. Design requirements
3. Risk factor
4. Management requirements
c. Combination control
d. Mixed control
8. Flow rate measurement
a. Where it is needed in a modern system, and what is done with the information and how
often it is used
1. Upstream control systems
2. Downstream control systems
b. Where it is not needed
c. Accuracy requirements
d. Difference between flow rate and volumetric measurement
e. Difference between measurement and control
9. Basic strategies of operation and design
a. Spread the problems throughout the project or isolate them and deal with them
b. Options with groundwater
c. Options for systems with re-circulation capabilities vs. those without them
Basic Concepts of Cross Regulator Control Hardware
The basic concepts which will be covered include:
a. Traditional designs for undershot - advantages and disadvantages of each, and small details which
have a tremendous effect on their performance
1. Sluice gates
2. Radial gates
b. Traditional designs for overshot - advantages and disadvantages of each, and small details which have
a tremendous affect on their performance
1. Flash-boards
2. Long crested weirs
3. Hinged gates
c. Operation

1. Mechanical advantages, no motor

2. Motorized but manual
3. Hydraulic gates
4. Automated
a. Hydraulic
b. Electric
d. Movement
1. Local manual
2. Local automatic
3. Distributed control
4. Remote manual
5. Remote automatic
6. Synchronized control
Canals with upstream water level control
Because the vast majority of modernization projects will use upstream control, the modernization class will
emphasize this form of control rather than other concepts such as downstream control and constant volume
control. Those topics will be introduced, but with considerably less detail.
The majority of recent technical papers which have been published on canal automation deal with theoretical
studies of downstream control and various forms of enhanced supervisory control. However, such schemes are
few and far between in the actual world of irrigation applications, and most of the studies are theoretical rather
than documentation of actual successful working, large-scale projects.
Example topics under upstream water level control:
a. Check structure design

1. Purpose of the structures
2. Types of structures
a. Manual adjustable structures
b. Completely static structures
c. Automatic structures
Hydraulic
* Begemann
* AMIL
Electrical (to be discussed in more detail later)
* Types of gates
Overflow
Underflow
* Control strategy
Littleman concept and limitations

Gates in sequence
PI control
b. Locating and sizing check structures

1. Effect on turnout flow rates; trade-off between turnout automation and main canal
improvement
2. Effect on canal bank stability and rodents
3. Effect on lag time for deliveries
c. Bifurcation points - available choices for control
d. Flow rate control and measurement designs for large turnouts
1. Rated sections
2. Flumes
3. Weirs
4. Calibrated check structures
e. Manual operation of upstream control
1. Information requirements
2. Sequence of operations by typical operators - top to bottom or bottom to top
3. Communications and mobility requirements
4. Consequences of various actions by operators or recipients of service
5. Where flow rates must be controlled and measured
f. Differences in performance between automated vs. manual system
1. Amount of spill
2. Response time within the system
3. Equity, reliability, flexibility
4. Operator requirements
g. Turnout designs for small flows (0.5-25 CFS), including ease of installation, design requirements,
advantages and disadvantages, flow measurement, vs. flow control
1. Romijn gates
2. Semi-modules
3. Various ungated units
4. Meter gates
a. Calibrated - various types
b. With downstream flow measurement
5. Distributor modules
6. Review of flow and volumetric measurement options for each device
h. Regulating reservoirs
1. Locations
2. Sizing
3. Control into and out of reservoirs
4. Operations
i. Canal sizing criteria
1. Traditional canal sizing rules
2. Demand theory (Clement)
3. Documented studies with flexible systems
4. Special considerations in sizing for minimal control requirements and poor maintenance -
the Office du Niger example
5. Access, borrow pits, and other details
j. Selective use of pipelines at the lower ends of projects
1. Advantages and disadvantages
2. Sizing
3. Control and measurement of flows
4. Types of pipelines

k. Required data collection and communications

l. Options for responsibilities of operators
m. Classical mistakes in modernization programmes with upstream control, and how to avoid them
n. Where to begin with the automation of a manually operated system. Example situations and trainee
diagnosis
o. Computer models - where they do and do not fit
p. Turnout density
q. Roads and access
r. Maintenance equipment vs. construction equipment
Training at CalPoly ITRC Water Delivery Facility (2.5 weeks)
This facility has working demonstrations of almost all types of upstream and downstream control hardware, as
well as a wide assortment of flow measurement equipment. It also has excellent equipment and facilities to teach
about pumps and SCADA systems. ITRC also has sufficient computers for training the group on some
specialized topics such as water balances.
The following topics will be covered there:
Review of Principles and Hardware (1 day)
a. Wave travel time

b. Manual operation of an upstream controlled canal
c. Upstream control hardware - advantages, disadvantages, and design notes for various items
Downstream Control (0.5 day)
a. Review of the basic idea of downstream control

b. Hardware for level top pools
c. Hardware for other types - all computerized.
d. Pool sizing
e. Sensitivity and risk
f. Selective implementation of downstream control within a project
Basics of pump recirculation plants (0.5 days)
a. KW-Hr requirements
b. Locations
c. Design
SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (2.5 days)
a. What it is and why it might be used

b. Costs
c. Equipment requirements in the field
d. Equipment in the office
e. Communication requirements
f. Software
g. Best uses and worst uses
h. Best locations and worst locations
i. Vandalism
j. Power supply
k. Logistical and technical support needs
l. Examples of successful programmes
m. Examples of failures

n. Recommended steps to take if SCADA is used
Use of computer models to calibrate PI control algorithms (0.5 day)
This will be a demonstration with some hands-on experience. However, there will be insufficient time to develop
expertise on this topic.
Flow Measurement and Control in Canals and Off-takes (2.5 days)
This will emphasize how to design broad-crested weirs, as well as options with meter gates for turnouts
Irrigation Efficiency and Water Balances (2 days)
Because many modernization programmes have goals related to improving irrigation efficiency, this topic must be
covered. ITRC has conducted water balances and efficiency studies in numerous conditions, and has ample
demonstration materials.
Topics to cover include:
a. Irrigation Efficiency definition

b. Differences between field and project efficiencies
c. Developing a water balance
1. Components
2. Quantifying the components
3. Combining the components
4. Confidence intervals
Rapid Appraisal Process (2 days)
The RAP used developed by CalPoly ITRC will be explained. The use of RAP, including background
computations and developing conclusions and recommendations, will be covered.
Field visits in the USA (2 weeks including travel)
Two irrigation districts will be visited in the U.S. An RAP will be conducted on each. Both districts will be
undergoing some type of modernization, and both will primarily be gravity (canal) systems. Possible choices will
be Imperial Irrigation District (200 000 ha, all canals, in an area of no rainfall and no downstream users and no
rice), and Glenn-Colusa Irrigation District (about 100 000 ha, in an area with considerable winter rainfall,
primarily rice, and mainly unlined canals).
Each district will be visited for 2-3 days, followed by 2 days of trainee discussion and computations and
development of recommendations. The 2 days of discussion will be held in a town near the irrigation districts, so
that rapid visits may be made to structures in question, or to talk again with district employees.
Field visits in other countries (3 weeks inc. travel)
Two irrigation projects will be visited in less developed countries. Two possible projects are Dantiwada in India
and Rio Mayo in Mexico. Both projects are beginning the modernization process and have very different
characteristics. Both projects have been examined in the World Bank/IPTRID study. Rio Mayo has active but
imperfect water user associations, and has made tremendous progress in the last ten years. Dantiwada has farmers
who are generally satisfied, and is attempting new water delivery schedules and the installation of new control
structures. Again, trainees will conduct an RAP of each project, and there will be several days of discussion for
each.
RAP of a local project

Trainees will conduct a RAP at a project near their local/regional training centre. This will be facilitated by the
local/regional training centre, but the trainees will conduct this RAP without an instructor in attendance.
Following the field work, they will then quantify external and internal process indicators, as well as make
recommendations for project improvement. Their performance will be evaluated and graded by the primary
instructors. This is the final place in the programme at which participants are evaluated for competence as criteria
for completing the remainder of the programme.
Lesson Plan
Each trainee will prepare and execute a two-hour lesson plan on some aspect of modernization. This will be
presented to the primary instructors, the other participants, and to any local engineers who may wish to attend.
The lesson plan will be evaluated and graded by the primary instructors. Positive feedback will be provided to
trainees.
Certification
The qualifying trainees will receive certificates from CalPoly ITRC and FAO acknowledging their successful
completion of the rigorous programme, and their status as Qualified Trainers.
Skeleton outline of the National Upgrading Programme (NUP)
The topics of NUP will be identical to those covered under the Training-of-the-Trainers programme. However,
they will not be convered in as much detail. It is anticipated that each session will be taught by a team of two
Trainers. Each session will have 20 students, which is sufficiently small for the Trainers to provide individual
attention to students.
Session A topics - (three weeks at a Regional Training Centre)
The nature importance of good water delivery service

Hydraulic principles
Basic concepts of cross regulator control hardware
Canals with upstream control
Downstream control
Pump re-circulation
SCADA
Irrigation Efficiency and Water Balances
Rapid Appraisal Processes (RAP)
Session B (2 weeks)
The first week will consist of a Rapid Appraisal Process (RAP) conducted at a local irrigation project. All
students will travel as a group throughout the irrigation project and fill out the forms, conduct interviews, collect
data, etc. The second week will be spent at the Regional Training Centre reviewing RAP, developing external and
internal process indicators, and constructing recommendations for how a modernization programme might
proceed.
Session C (2 days)
Between session B and session C, students will return to their homes where they will have a chance to review the
material from sessions A and B. Approximately 1 month later, they will regroup for session C for a one-day
review and question-and-answer period. Following this, they will have a 4 hour examination of principles and
concepts.
Certificate

Those who successfully pass the 4-hour examination and who have attended the complete sessions will be
awarded a certificate of completion of Training in Concepts of Irrigation System Modernization.

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ANNEX
Agenda
Wed 28 Oct
09:00 - 10:00 Registration

10:00 - 11:00 Inaugural session
Er Suresh Shirke
Director, WALMI
Mr Ian Makin
Research Leader, Design & Operations, IWMI
Mr Thierry Facon
Technical Officer, Water Resources
Development & Management Service, FAO
Mr Thierry Rieu
Head of Irrigation Division, Cemagref
Er S.T. Deokule
Former Secretary of Irrigation, Maharashtra, India
11:00 - 11:30 Tea break
11:30 - 11:45 Introduction to ITIS 5
Dr Daniel Renault
Wed 28 Oct SESSION 1 MODERNIZATION IN INDIA
CHAIRMAN Ian Makin, IWMI
Panel members Dr Jesda - Thailand; Mr Khalaj - Iran; Dr

Shirke - India
11:45 - 12:15 Modernization of irrigation system operation Mr A.B.
management by way of canal automation in Mandavia
India
Chief Engineer
Sardar Sarovar
Narmada Nigam
Ltd
12:15 - 12:45 Evaluation of the Bhadra system rehabilitation Dr R.
programme (Kartanaka) Sakthivadivel

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Senior Irrigation
Specialist
IWMI
12:45 - 13:30 Panel discussion
Wed 28 Oct SESSION 2 MODERNIZATION AROUND THE WORLD
CHAIRMAN Thierry Facon, FAO
Panel members Mr Alexander Reuyan - Philippines; Dr

Goddalyadda - Sri Lanka; M. J. Plantey -
France
14:30 - 15:00 Canal modernization in the Indus Basin Prof G.
irrigation system Skogerboe
Director, IWMI
Pakistan
15:00 - 15:30 Modern water control and management Dr Charles M.
practices in irrigation: impact on performance Burt
Director, ITRC
(CAL. POLY)
15:30 - 16:15 Panel discussion
Wed 28 Oct SESSION PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT IN MODERN

3 IRRIGATION
CHAIRMAN Daniel Renault, IWMI
16:45 - 17:00 Role of water user associations and policy Hervé Plusquellec
to support modernization programmes Former World Bank
Senior Irrigation
Advisor
17:00 - 17:45 Participatory management activities in Er S.G. Shirke
Maharashtra Director, WALMI
17:45 - 18:15 Presentation of the Majalgaon Er A.B.

modernization project and introduction to Mahendrakar
the field visit Irrigation Department
Thu 29 Oct FIELD VISIT

7:00 - 19:00 Field visit to the Majalgaon project

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Fri 30 Oct WORKING GROUP SESSION
Chairman Co-chairman
G1 Engineering P.W. Vehmeyer K.V.G.K. Rao
G2 Evaluation A.K. Chakraboti T. Rieu
G3 Institutional approach G.W.E. Skogerboe J. Plantey
G4 Training and capacity-building T. Facon A. Benhamou
9:00 - 12:30 Working group discussions
AFTERNOON PLENARY SESSION
13:30 - 15:30 Presentation of the groups' conclusions
CHAIRMAN Ian Makin, IWMI
CONCLUDING SESSION
CHAIRMAN Dr M.A. Chitale, Maharashtra Water & Irrigation Commission,

Former Secretary General of ICID
16:00 18:00 Special interventions
Special interventions Subjects

WALMI Activities at WALMI, Aurangabad (Video)
Herve Plusquellec Toward an agenda in irrigation modernization
Former Senior World Bank Advisor
Thierry Facon, FAO Irrigation modernization in training programmes
17:00 17:30 Synthesis, conclusion and closure of the workshop
M. Daniel Renault Synthesis

M. Thierry Rieu Concluding words and perspectives
(on behalf of ITIS Network)
Er S.G. Shirke Concluding words
Director, WALMI

x6626e23
Er S.T. Deokule Concluding speech

Chief Guest
Dr M.A. Chitale Presidential address
ICID
Prof A.R. Suryavanshi Vote of thanks

x6626e24
List of participants
FRANCE
M. Jacques Plantey
Director Technical Division
Société du Canal de Provence
B.P. 100 13090 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1
Phone: (33)(0) 442667000
Fax: (33)(0) 442667080
M. Pierre Rousset
Head of the Engineering Department
Societe du Canal de Provence
B.P. 100 13090 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1
Phone: (33)(0) 442667069
Fax: (33)(0) 442667087
E-mail: scplngenierie@compuserve.com
M. Thierry Rieu
Head Irri. Laboratory, Camagref
361 rue JF Breton BP 5095, 34033
Montpellier Cedex 1
Phone: 33(0) 467046351
Fax: 33(0) 467635795
E-mail: thierry.rieu@cemagref.fr
INDIA
Er S.C. Awasthy
Sr. Jt. Commissioner
Ministry of Water Resources
New Delhi
Phone: 011-3383518, 0129-211631
Fax: 011-3382256
Er S.T. Deokule
Principal Secretary I. D. (Retd)
Flat No. 2, Shamgokul Jogeshwari(E)
Mumbai 400060, Maharashtra
Phone: 8216002, 8318473
Fax: 8737151
Er V.V. Gaikwad
Chief Engineer (SP)
Maharashtra Krishna Khore Corp
Pune, Maharashtra

x6626e24
Phone: 0212-620130
Fax: 0212-367927
Dr B. Guruprem
Deputy Secretary Irr. & CAD Dept
Irrigation and CAD Department
Andhra Pradesh Secretariat
Hyderabad 500022, Andra Pradesh
Phone: 040-233897, 040-523493
Fax: 040-523511
E-mail: gruprem@sdl.vsnl.net.in
Er A. A. Jawalekar
Chief Engineer
Irrigation Department
Sinchan Bhavan, Jalna Road
Aurangabad 431005, Maharashtra
Mr Ashok Karwa
Managing Director
Mechatronics Systems Pvt. Ltd
481/C Shaniwarpeth, 4 th Floor
Shreepal, Chembers
Pune 410030, Maharashtra
Phone: 451496/491530
Fax: 0212-458272
E-mail: bright@pn2.vsnl.net.in
Er A.B. Mahendrakar
C.E. & Chief Administrator
CAD, Irrigation Department
Cada Bhavan, Garkheda
Phone: 0240-334026, 331823
Fax: 0240-331592
Mr B.S. Majumdar
R. Manager (BD) Systems Integration
CMC Ltd
Bhale Est., 15A Bombay-Pune Road
Phone: 91-212-310924, 310948 310940
Fax: 91-212-317593
E-mail: punwrsi@pn2.vsnl.net.in
Mr A.B. Mandavia
Chief Engineer (MIS)
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd
Block No. 12, First Floor
New Sachivalaya
Gandhi Nagar 382010, Gujarat
Phone: (02712) 23044, 25376
Fax: (02712) 23056

x6626e24
Er C.S. Modak
Superintendent Engineer
Pune Irrigation Circle
Sinchan Bhavan, Barne Road
Phone: 0212-626941
Fax: 0212-626289
Mr S.N. Mundra
Sr. Advisor H.R.D.
CADA, Mowr. Rajad Project
P.B. 112, New Grain Mondi, CAD Bldg
Kota, Rajasthan
Phone: 91-0744-428704, 428625
Fax: 91-0744-428709
E-mail: rajad@jpl.vsnl.net.in
Mr K.K. Narang
Director (I& CAD)
Planning Commission
Yojana Bhavan, New Delhi
Phone: 3356118 Ext. 2245, 3175481
Fax: 3717681, 372549
E-mail: narang@yojana.delhi.nic.in
Er M.V. Patil
S.E., C.D.O. (ED) Nasik
C.D.O. Nasik
Dindori Road Nasik-4
Nasik 422004, Maharashtra
Phone: 0253-530849
Fax: 0253-530849
Er C.M. Punde
Superintending Engineer
Beed Irrigation Project Circle
Sinchan Bhavan, Parli Vaijnath
Maharashtra
Er B.A. Puri
Executive Engineer
Khadakwasla Irrigation Division
Phone: 0212-627062(0), 0212-666-280(R)
Dr K.V.G.K. Rao
Research Manager
CADA, Mowr
PB No112, New Grain Mandi CAD Bldg
Kota, Rajasthan
Phone: 91-0744-428704, 91-0744-428625
Fax: 91-0744-428709
E-mail: rajad@jp1.vsnl.net.in

x6626e24
Er S.N. Sahastrabudhe
Executive Director
Vidarbha Irrigation Development Corp
Sinchan Bhavan, Civil Lines
Nagpur 440001, Maharashtra
Dr B.M. Sahni
Professor and Head
Water & Land Management Institute
Post Box No. 504, Kanchanwadi
Phone: 334158/Ext. 221
Fax: 0240-331836
E-mail: walmi@bom4.vsnl.net.in
Er S.G. Shirke
Director
Water & Land Management Institute
Post Box No. 504, Kanchanwadi
Phone: 331021, 331158
Fax: 0240-331836
E-mail: walmi@bom4.vsnl.net.in
Er H.K. Tonape
Superintending Engineer
Bhima Canal Circle
Sinchan Bhavan, Opp. Solapur Club
Solapur 413003, Maharashtra
Phone: 312781, 312227
Fax: 0217-311778
Er N.D. Vadnere
Chief Engineer
Phone: 0212-620505, 368259
Dr N.A. Visvanatha
Canadian Team Leader
RAJAD Project
P.O. Box 112, New Grain Mandi CAD Bldg., Kota, Rajasthan
Phone: 91-0744-428704
Fax: 91-0744-428709
IRAN
Mr S. Kharaj
Deputy and Dy. Tech. Advi. To Director
Moe Liaison Office Ministry of Energy
World Bank Project
53 Homayon Street, Tehran

x6626e24
Phone: 98-21-889-7080
Fax: 98-21-8897122
Mr F. Kebriti
Ministry of Energy Irri. And Drainage
53 Homayon Street Vali-E-Asr Avenue
Tehran
Phone: 98-21-8865101
Fax: 98-21-889-7122, 659666
MALAYSIA
Mr Ir. Ng. Suiwan

IADP Project, Pulau Pinang
Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Block A Jalan Jelawat, Seberang Jaya
13700 Perai, Pulau Penang
Phone: 604-3907804 (direct)
Fax: 604-3907803
E-mail: nsw@iadppg.moa.my
MOROCCO
Mr Oulhaj Ahmed
I.A.V. Hassan II Agdal Institute
6202 Agdal Rabat-Institute
Rabat 6202 Agda
Phone: (212) (0) 777-175, 212-7-77-93-19
Prof Ahmed Benhammou

Professor
Universite Cadi Ayyad
Faculte Des Sciences Semlalia
B.P. S. 15, 40000 Marrakech
Phone: (+212) 4437552
Fax: (+212) 4437552 (IDEM)
E-mail: benhamou@open.net.ma
NEPAL
Mr Ram Prasad Bhandari

Engineer
Research & Technology Dev. Branch
Department of Irrigation
GPO 8975, ECP 5354
Kathmandu
Phone: 977-1-926548
Fax: 977-1-527985
E-mail: cadi@lalitpur.wlink.com.np
Mr Dev Raj Pokharel

Engineer

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Dist. Irrigation Office, H.M. Govt.

Kathmandu
Phone: 417442
Er Indra Lal Kalu

Team Leader
Ta Team (CADI/APTEC) IMPT Project
GPO 8975, E.PC 887, Kathmandu
Phone: 977-1-527895
Fax: 977-1-527895
E-mail: cadi@wlink.com.np
Mr Suman Sijapati
Officer in Charge
Kankai Irrigation Office
P.O. Box 2167, Kathmandu
Phone: 977-1-532800
E-mail: bbbasnet@bbbasnet.wlink.com.np
PAKISTAN
Mr Hakeem Khan
Field Research Engineer
IIMI-Pakistan
12 Km Multan Road, Chowk, Thokar
Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700
Phone: 92-42-5410050
Fax: 92-42-5410054
Mr Gaylord Skogerboe
Director
IIMI - Pakistan
12 km Multan Road
Chowk Thokar Niaz
Baig, Lahore 53700
Phone: 92-42-5410050
Fax: 92-42-5410054
E-mail: skogerboe@cgiar.org
Mr Paul Willem Vehmeyer

Associate Expert
IIMI-Pakistan
12 km Multan Road, Chowk Thokar
Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700
Phone: 92-42-5410050
Fax: 92-42-5410054
E-mail: p.vehmeyer@cgiar.org
PHILIPPINES
Mr Alexander A. Reuyan
NIA Project Manager
Nat. Irrig. Admin., Marasbars

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Tacloban City 6500

Phone: 0063-53-323-2408
Fax: 0063-53-323-4085
SRI LANKA
Mr A.M.U.B. Alahakoon
Irrigation Engineer
Minipe Division
Irrigation Engineer's Office
Hasalaka
Phone: 055-57205
Dr G.G.A. Godaliyadda
Deputy Director of Irrigation
Sri Lanka Irrigation Training Institute
Galgamuwa
Phone: 037-53018, 037-53049
Fax: 037-53018
Mr Ian Makin
Research Leader, Design and Operation
IIMI
127 Sunil Mawatha Pelawatte
P.O. Box 2075, Bataramulla
Phone: 94-1-869080
Fax: 94-1-866854
E-mail: makin@cgnet.com
Er K.R.P.M. Mullegamgoda
Deputy Director of Irrigation (S.R.)
Debarawawa, Tissamaharama
Phone: 047-37246/37070
Fax: 047-37070
Mr S.G.K. Nawaratne
Chief Engineer (Water Management)
Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
P.O. Box 02, Digana Official Village
Rajawella
Phone-fax: 94-8-374289
E-mail: dams@slt.lk
Dr Daniel Renault
IRRI Specialist/ITIS Coordinator
IIMI
Bataramulla, P.O. Box 2075
Phone-fax: 94-1-866854
E-mail: d.renault@cgnet.com

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Dr R.S. Sakthivadivel
Sr. Irrigation Specialist
IIMI
Bataramulla
Phone: 94-1-869480
Fax: 94-1-866854
E-mail: r.sakthivadivel@cgnet.com
THAILAND
Prof Jesda Kaewkulaya

Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Kasetsart University
Kamphaengsaen Campus
Nakhon Pathom 73140
Phone: (++662) 281-7844 ext. 298
Fax: (++662) 2800445
E-mail: klaus.siegert@fao.org
UNITED STATES
Dr Charles M. Burt
Director
Irrigation Training and Research Centre
California Poly. State University
San Lujis Obispo
California 93407
Phone: 805-756-2379
E-mail: cburt@calpoly.edu
M. Hervé Plusquellec
Consultant
3257 A Sutton Place
Washington DC 20016
Phone: (202) 966-5956
Fax: (202) 966-5601
E-mail: hplusquellec@worldbank.org
FAO
M. Thierry Facon
Water Management Officer
FAO-RAP
Bangkok 10200
Phone: 662 2817844 ext. 156
Fax: 662 2800445
E-mail: thierry.facon@fao.org
Dr Klaus Siegert
Water Resources Development Officer

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FAO-RAP
Bangkok 10200
Phone: 662 2817844 ext. 298
Fax: 662 2800445
E-mail: klaus.siegert@fao.org

Modernization of Irrigation System Operations - Proceedings

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Modernization of irrigation system operations: proceedings of the 5th ITIS network international meeting, Aurangabad, 28-30 October 1998

Modernization of irrigation system

All rights reserved.

For copies, contact:

The meeting in brief

Summary report & conclusions of the ITIS 5 Meeting

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e00.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:22 PM]

Development and modernization of irrigation in Maharashtra -Shri S.T. Deokule

Modernization of irrigation systems: a continuing process -Daniel Renault

BENCHMARK STUDIES ON MODERNIZATION

Modernization of irrigation system operational management by way of canal

Intervention analysis of an irrigation system using a structured system concept -R.

Canal modernization in the Indus Basin irrigation system -Gaylord V. Skogerboe,

Modern water control and management practices in irrigation:impact on performance

The Majalgaon dynamic regulation pilot project: a uniform approach to canal

The modernization efforts of the Kankai irrigation system -Suman Sijapati

Diagnostic analysis and some approachesfor improving water delivery performance in

Some experiences on modernization in irrigation system rehabilitation in Sri Lanka

Modernization of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal: process and

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON MODERNIZATION

Modernizing irrigation operations:spatially differentiated resource allocations -D.

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Renault & I.W. Makin

The information technology-based improved management system for the Teesta

Modernization of irrigation system operations: institutional development and physical

Participatory irrigation management in the Chambal command -S.N. Mundra &

Evaluation of water management in irrigated croplands -A.K. Chakraborti

An irrigation modernization training programme -Charles M. Burt & Thierry Facon

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e01.htm#P2_13[12/15/2018 11:10:41 PM]

The meeting in brief

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e02.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:53 PM]

Summary report & conclusions of the ITIS 5 Meeting

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e02.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:53 PM]

The venue and programme of the meeting

Highlights of the inaugural session

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Summary of the plenary sessions

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Experiences in other countries

Group discussion output

Working group 1: re-engineering

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e02.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:53 PM]

limited availability of data;

Working group 2: evaluation

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e02.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:53 PM]

Regarding the performance evaluation, three points were identified as important:

The technique for evaluation should be based on:

database creation of a selective/core/representative canal system,

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Working group 3: institutional approach

Working group 4: training and capacity-building

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selection criteria for trainers of trainers;

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e02.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:10:53 PM]

Development and modernization of irrigation in Maharashtra

Er Shri S.T. Deokule

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e03.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:11:04 PM]

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e03.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:11:04 PM]

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6626E/x6626e03.htm#TopOfPage[12/15/2018 11:11:04 PM]

Modernization of irrigation systems: a continuing process