Mistakes in Grammar

1
English Grammar
Part 1
1. FAULTY AGREEMENT
a. Subjects and verbs must
agree in number.
Recent discoveries about
the weather reveals that
several cycles are involved.
X
Recent discoveries about
the weather reveal that
several cycles are involved.
OK
The media was biased in its
reporting of the event. X
The media were biased in
their reporting of the event.
OK
2
b. Nouns and pronouns

must agree in number.
A student is free to express
their opinion. X
A student is free to express
his or her opinion. OK
Students are free to express
their opinions. OK
c. Pronouns must agree

with each other.
Once one has decided to
take the course, you must
keep certain policies in
mind. X
Once you have decided to
take the course, you must
keep certain policies in
mind. OK
2. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
3
A sentence consists of an
independent unit with at
least a subject and a verb.
All of these rules and
regulations should be made
aware of. X
Athletes should be made
aware of all these rules and
regulations. OK
The liquid was poured into
a glass beaker. Being a
strong acid. X
Because it was a strong
acid, the liquid was poured
into a glass beaker. OK
3. OVERLY-LONG
SENTENCES (see also #12,
comma splices )
4
A sentence should express

only one idea or a clearly
connected set of ideas.
Home care has been
expanding tremendously
over the past few years
partly due to recent
technological advances that
enable assessments and
treatments to be a part of
the home setting which at
one time could only be
performed within the
hospital environment. X
Home care has expanded
tremendously over the past
few years. This increase is
partly due to recent
technological advances that
now make more
assessments and treatments
possible in the home rather
5
than only in the hospital.

OK
4. OVERUSE OF PASSIVE
VOICE
Prefer active verbs to

passive verbs, and prefer
persons over abstract ideas
for the subjects of these
verbs.
It is through this essay that
the proposed benefits of
active exercise for Chronic
Lower Back Pain (CLBP)
will be examined. X
This essay will examine the
proposed benefits of active
exercise for Chronic Lower
Back Pain (CLBP). OK
5. FAULTY PARALLELISM
6
Building parallel elements

into a sentence adds clarity
and emphasis.
Eating huge meals,
snacking between meals,
and too little exercise can
lead to obesity. X
Eating huge meals,
snacking between meals,
and exercising too little can
lead to obesity. BETTER
Our coach is paid too much,
obese, over forty, and a
former champion wrestler.
X
Our coach is a former
champion wrestler, but now
he is overpaid, overweight,
and over forty. BETTER
6. VAGUE PRONOUNS
7
Make sure that pronouns

such as "it" and "this" refer
to something specific.
In the report it suggests
that moderate exercise is
better than no exercise at
all. X
The report suggests that
moderate exercise is better
than no exercise at all. OK
The group wanted to meet
in January, but this didn't
happen until May. X
The group wanted to meet
in January, but the
conference didn't take place
until May. OK
7. DANGLING MODIFIERS
8
Make sure that a modifying

phrase or clause has
something to modify.
By manipulating the lower
back, the pain was greatly
eased. (X--implies the pain
was doing the
manipulating)
By manipulating the lower
back, the therapist greatly
eased the pain. OK
When not going to school,
my hobbies range from
athletics to automobiles.
(X--implies the hobbies go
to school)
When I am not going to
school, my hobbies range
from athletics to
automobiles. OK
8. SQUINTING MODIFIERS
9
Make sure the modifier

clearly refers to the element
you want it to modify.
The council advises
physicians at regular
intervals to administer the
drug. X
The council advises
physicians to administer the
drug at regular intervals.
OK
At regular intervals, the
council advises physicians
to administer the drug. OK
9. MIXED OR DEAD
METAPHORS
Recognize the literal

meanings of your
metaphors; avoid clichés.
10
Like a bolt from the blue

the idea grabbed him, and it
soon took its place as one of
his hobby-horses. X
The idea excited him as
soon as he heard of it, and
it soon became an
obsession. BETTER
10. FAULTY WORD

CHOICE / FAULTY DICTION
Don't use "fancy" words for

their own sake; use a
dictionary to check words
whose meaning you are not
sure of.
Explaining the rationale for
treatment can help distil
patients' fears. X
11
Explaining the rationale for

treatment can help dispel
patients' fears. BETTER
11. WORDINESS
Don't spin empty words; use

the minimum number of
words.
It is evident that this term
is associated with much
ambiguity. Many concepts
and ideas come to mind
upon first hearing this
phrase; however, a true
grasp of its meaning is
quite difficult to establish.
Despite this ambiguity . . . X
[not worth saying -- omit]
A definition that can be
employed usefully,
according to LaPlante et al.
12
(1993), states that

"assistive technology. . . " X
LaPlante et al. (1993) state
that "assistive technology . .
. " BETTER
12. COMMA SPLICES
A comma splice is the

joining of two independent
clauses with only a comma.
Here are the rules for
avoiding them:
a. Use a period or semicolon

to separate two
independent clauses, or join
them with a coordinating
conjunction.
We started to unpack our
things, pretty soon we were
ready for the beach. X
13

things; pretty soon we were
ready for the beach. OK
things, and pretty soon we
were ready for the beach.
OK
b. Use a semicolon as well

as a conjunctive adverb to
join two independent
clauses.
Much of the literature
advocates stretching
preparatory to exercise,
however, the mechanisms
are not well understood. X
Much of the literature
advocates stretching
preparatory to exercise;
however, the mechanisms
14
are not well understood.

BETTER
These are the most common
conjunctive adverbs:
however therefore
then
therefore nevertheless
accordingly
as a result moreover
even so
rather indeed for
example
13. MISUSE OF COMMA,

SEMICOLON, AND COLON
a. Use a comma after each

item in a series of three or
more.
Many studies indicate
favourable results in
15
function, decreased pain

and range of motion. X
Many studies indicate
favourable results in
function, decreased pain,
and range of motion. OK
b. Use a comma when you

join independent clauses
with one of the seven
coordinating conjunctions
(and, or, nor, but, so, yet ,
for).
Power corrupts and
absolute power corrupts
absolutely. X
Power corrupts, and
absolute power corrupts
absolutely. OK
c. Use a semicolon when

you join independent
16
clauses without a
coordinating conjunction.
Power corrupts, absolute
power corrupts absolutely.
OK
Power corrupts; absolute
power corrupts absolutely.
BETTER
d. Do not use a comma to

separate subject and verb.
His enthusiasm for the
subject and his desire to be
of help, led him to
volunteer. X
His enthusiasm for the
subject and his desire to be
of help led him to
volunteer.OK
e. Use a colon to introduce

a list or a long or formal
17
quotation after a complete

sentence. Otherwise make
the quotation part of the
grammar of your sentence.
Strunk (1995) asserts that:
"Too many programmes are
already underfinanced" (p.
87).
Strunk (1995) asserts: "Too
many programmes are
already underfinanced" (p.
87).
Strunk's assertion (1995)
that "Too many programmes
are already underfinanced"
(p. 87) is based on
questionable assumptions.
Part 2
18
1. Sentence Fragments
Make sure each word group

you have punctuated as a
sentence contains a
grammatically complete
and independent thought
that can stand alone as an
acceptable sentence.
Incorrect (the second

sentence is the fragment):
Tests of the Shroud of Turin
have produced some
curious findings. For
example. the pollen of forty-
eight plants native to
Europe and the Middle
East.
Revised: Tests of the Shroud

of Turin have produced
19
some curious findings. For

example, the cloth contains
the pollen of forty-eight
plants native to Europe and
the Middle East.
Incorrect: Scientists report

no human deaths due to
excessive caffeine
consumption. Although
caffeine does cause
convulsions and death in
certain animals.
Revised: Scientists report

no human deaths due to
excessive caffeine
consumption, although
caffeine does cause
convulsions and death in
certain animals.
20
2. Sentence Sprawl
Too many equally weighted

phrases and clauses
produce tiresome
sentences.
Incorrect (There are no

grammatical errors here,
but the sprawling sentence
does not communicate
clearly and concisely.): The
hearing was planned for
Monday, December 2, but
not all of the witnesses
could be available, so it was
rescheduled for the
following Friday, and then
all the witnesses could
attend.
21
Revised: The hearing, which

had been planned for
Monday, December 2, was
rescheduled for the
following Friday so that all
witnesses would be able to
attend.
3. Misplaced and Dangling

Modifiers
Place modifiers near the

words they describe; be
sure the modified words
actually appear in the
sentence.
Incorrect: When writing a

proposal, an original task is
set for research.
22
Revised: When writing a

proposal, a scholar sets an
original task for research.
Incorrect: Many tourists

visit Arlington National
Cemetery, where veterans;
and military personnel are
buried every day from 9:00
a.m. until 5:00 p.m.
Revised: Every day from

9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m.,
many tourists visit
Arlington National
Cemetery, where veterans
and military personnel are
buried.
4. Faulty Parallelism
23
Be sure you use

grammatically equal
sentence elements to
express two or more
matching ideas or items in
a series.
Incorrect: The candidate's

goals include winning the
election, a national health
program, and the
educational system.
Revised: The candidate's

goals include winning the
election, enacting a
national health program,
and improving the
educational system.
5. Unclear Pronoun
Reference
24
All pronouns must clearly

refer to definite referents
[nouns]. Use "it," 'they,"
"this," "that," "these,"
"those," and "which"
carefully to prevent
confusion.
Incorrect: Einstein was a

brilliant mathematician.
This is how he was able to
explain the universe.
Revised: Einstein, who was

a brilliant mathematician,
used his ability with
numbers to explain the
universe.
Incorrect: Because Senator

Martin is less interested in
25
the environment than in

economic development, he
sometimes neglects it.
Revised: Because of his

interest in economic
development, Senator
Martin sometimes neglects
the environment.
6. Incorrect Pronoun Case
Determine whether the

pronoun is being used as a
subject, or an object, or a
possessive in the sentence,
and select the pronoun
form to match.
Incorrect: Castro's
communist principles
inevitably led to an
26
ideological conflict between

he and President Kennedy.
Revised: Castro's
communist principles
inevitably led to an
ideological conflict between
him and President Kennedy.
Incorrect: Because strict

constructionists
recommend fidelity to the
Constitution as written, no
one objects more than them
to judicial reinterpretation.
Revised: Because strict

constructionists
recommend fidelity to the
Constitution as written, no
one objects more than they
27
[object] to judicial
reinterpretation.
7. Omitted Commas
Use commas to signal

nonrestrictive or
nonessential material, to
prevent confusion, and to
indicate relationships
among ideas and sentence
parts.
Incorrect: When it comes to

eating people differ in their
tastes.
Revised: When it comes to

eating, people differ in their
tastes.
28
Incorrect: The Huns who

were Mongolian invaded
Gaul in 451.
Revised: The Huns, who

were Mongolian, invaded
Gaul in 451.
8. Superfluous Commas
Unnecessary commas make

sentences difficult to read.
Incorrect: Field trips are

required, in several courses,
such as, botany and
geology.
Revised: Field trips are

required in several courses,
such as botany and geology.
29
Incorrect: The
term,"scientific illiteracy,"
has become almost a cliché
in educational circles.
Revised: The term

"scientific illiteracy" has
become almost a cliché in
educational circles.
9. Comma Splices
Do not link two

independent clauses with a
comma (unless you also use
a coordinating conjunction:
"and," "or," "but,"' "nor,"
"so," "yet"). Instead, use a
period or semicolon, or
rewrite the sentence.
30
Incorrect: In 1952, Japan's

gross national product was
one third that of France, by
the late 1970s, it was larger
than the GNPs of France
and Britain combined.
Revised: In 1952, Japan's

gross national product was
one third that of France. By
the late 1970s, it was larger
than the GNPs of France
and Britain combined.
Incorrect: Diseased
coronary arteries are often
surgically bypassed,
however half of all bypass
grafts fail within ten years.
Revised: Diseased coronary

arteries are often surgically
31
bypassed; however, half of

all bypass grafts fail within
ten years.
10. Apostrophe Errors
Apostrophes indicate
possession for nouns ("Jim's
hat," "several years' work")
but not for personal
pronouns ( "its," "your,"
"their," and "whose").
Apostrophes also indicate
omissions in contractions
("it's" = "it is"). In general
they are not used to
indicate plurals.
Incorrect: In the current

conflict its uncertain who's
borders their contesting.
32
Revised: In the current

conflict, it is [it's] uncertain
whose borders they are
[they're] contesting.
Incorrect: The Aztec's

ritual's of renewal
increased in frequency over
the course of time.
Revised: The Aztec's rituals

of renewal increased in
frequency over the course
of time.
11. Words Easily Confused
"Effect" is most often a

noun (the effect), and
"affect" is almost always a
verb. Other pairs commonly
confused: "lead"/ "led" and
33
"accept"/ "except." Check a

glossary of usage to find the
right choice.
Incorrect: The recession

had a negative affect on
sales.
Revised: The recession had

a negative effect on sales.
(or) The recession affected
sales negatively.
Incorrect: The laboratory

instructor choose not to
offer detailed advise.
Revised: The laboratory

instructor chose not to offer
detailed advice.
34
Part 3
Here is a list of some of the
most common errors of
grammar and spelling that I
have encountered at the
university level:
1) That pesky
apostrophe
a) Apostrophes are used

in only two situations:
i) To indicate
contraction.
(1) it’s = it is
(2) there’s = there is
(3) you’re = you are

35
(4) who’s = who is
ii) To form possessive

adjectives from nouns.
(1) To form a possessive

adjective from a singular
noun, add “apostrophe-s”:
John’s, the dog’s,
Germany’s
(2) Plural nouns ending in

“s”: place an apostrophe
after the final “s” but do not
add a second “s”: the
United States’ foreign
policy.
(3) Singular nouns ending

with “s”: Current usage
allows you to add either
36
“apostrophe-s” or an
apostrophe only. “Charles’s
kingdom” and “Charles’
kingdom” are both
acceptable. The second “s”
is pronounced even if it is
not written.
b) there vs. their vs.

they’re
i) There has two

common usages:
(1) To mean “at that point

in space or time”: Please
stop there.
(2) To indicate the

existence, nonexistence, or
quantity of someone or
something: There is no
37
hope. There is a Santa

Claus. There are fifty states
in the Union.
(3) There’s is short for

“there is.”
ii) Their means

“belonging to them.” That
is their car.
(1) That car is theirs (note

the final “s” in this usage).
(2) “Their’s” does not

exist.
iii) They’re is short for

“they are.”
c) When NOT to use an

apostrophe:
38
i) With ONE exception,

possessive pronouns do
NOT contain an apostrophe:
its, ours, theirs, yours.
(1) The ONE exception is

one’s, in the sense of
“belonging to one.”
(2) “Our’s” and “your’s”

do not exist.
ii) NEVER USE AN

APOSTROPHE TO
INDICATE THE PLURAL OF
ANYTHING.
(1) Two or more people

from Baghdad are Iraqis,
not “Iraqi’s”; two or more
39
military groups are armies,

not “army’s.”
(2) Most contemporary

writers apply this rule to
abbreviations and dates as
well.
(a) 1990s, not “1990’s.”
(b) PCs, not “PC’s”; NGOs,

not “NGO’s.”
(c) Note that most

contemporary writers no
longer use periods in
abbreviations, except for
middle initials: Winston S.
Churchill.
(d) There is not complete

agreement on the rules for
40
abbreviations and dates.

The New York Times, for
example, uses both periods
and apostrophes: “N.G.O.’s”
and “1990’s.”
(e) This is, however, a

minority position. If you
stick to the simple “no
apostrophes in plurals” rule
unless otherwise instructed,
you’ll be fine.
(3) There is only one

widely agreed-upon
exception: the plural form
of individual letters. There
are two i’s in the word
“missile.”
2) The dilemma of the

nonexistent gender-neutral
41
third-person-singular
pronoun.
a) In English, we cannot
use the gender-neutral
third-person-singular
pronoun (it/its) when
writing or speaking about a
human being.
i) Instead, our only

choices are the male
“he/him/his” and the female
“she/her.”
ii) If you are referring to

a specific individual of
known gender, this is not a
problem: Annie has lost her
marbles, Frank just spilled
his beer.
42
iii) But what if you are

referring to a member of
group consisting of both
males and females, or to a
hypothetical person who
could be either male or
female? Here we run into
awkward difficulties.
b) In informal spoken
English, we increasingly use
the third person plural
“they/them/their” to
indicate gender neutrality:
“Each student must turn in
their paper by three
o’clock.”
i) Unfortunately, this
remains COMPLETELY
UNACCEPTABLE in written
43
English. So what should we

do?
ii) The traditional rule

is to use the male pronoun
by default, unless the
members of the group in
question are known or
assumed to be female:
“Each student must turn in
his paper by three o’clock.”
c) This rule remains

grammatically acceptable,
but many people are
uncomfortable with it. What
are the other options?
i) You may reverse the

traditional rule, and use the
female pronoun unless all
of the members of the
44
group are known or

assumed to be male: “Each
student must turn in her
paper by three o’clock.”
ii) You may have it both

ways by using “she and he
(her and his, her and him)”
or “he or she (his and her,
him and her)”: “Each
student must turn in his or
her (or her or his) paper by
three o’clock.”
iii) You may make the

subject plural, in which
case the problem does not
arise. For example, both of
the following sentences are
grammatically correct and
convey the very same
information:
45
(1) “Each student must

turn in his paper by three
o’clock.”
(2) “All students must turn

in their papers by three
o’clock.”
3) Is a country or
organization an “it” or a
“they”?
a) In contemporary
American English, countries
and international
organizations are neuter
singular: Germany is
pursuing its interests.
46
b) This is also true for

countries and IOs with
plural names:
i) The United States is

implementing its new policy
towards Iraq.
ii) The United Nations is

well known for its
ineffectiveness.
iii) Trinidad and Tobago

is a country in the
Caribbean. (But: The
islands of Trinidad and
Tobago are located in the
Caribbean.)
c) Also singular: “The

United States government
(or “the French
47
government,” etc.) is
pursuing its new policy.
d) HOWEVER, you must

use PLURAL pronouns and
verbs if the subject of your
sentence is the plural form
of the nationality of the
state in question: The
Japanese (Germans,
Americans, etc.) are
pursuing their interests.
4) Capitalization
a) What should be
capitalized?
i) Names of countries
or nationalities and
adjectives formed from
48
them: Albania, Albanian,

Albanians.
ii) Names of
international organizations:
the European Union, the
United Nations.
iii) Names of specific

wars: World War II, the
American Civil War.
b) What words should

not be capitalized?
i) state
ii) nation
iii) international
community
49
5) Words that do not

exist:
a) “liberalist”: a person
who believes in liberalism is
a liberal; this is also the
adjectival form.
b) The same rule applies

to “neoliberal.” That being
said, “neoliberalist” has
become increasingly
common in academic prose.
c) “nucular missle”: the

correct spelling is nuclear
missile. There are two i’s in
the word “missile.” Nuclear
is pronounced “NOO-klee-
ur”: it is the adjectival form
of the noun “nucleus.”
“Nucular” does not exist.
50
d) “deep-seeded.” As
logical as this metaphor
may seem, the correct
formulation is deep-seated.
Go figure.
6) Words properly
spelled without spaces or
hyphens:
a) multipolar and
bipolar, not “multi polar” or
“multi-polar”
b) superpower, not
“super power” or “super-
power”
c) interwar and postwar,

not “inter-war” or “post-
war”
51
d) Note that a hyphen is

used if “war” is replaced by
the name of a specific
conflict: post-Cold War.
7) Commonly confused
words
a) aid vs. aide
i) Aid: to help or to
assist (verb); assistance or
help (noun).
ii) Aide: a person who

helps or assists (assistant,
helper).
b) bloc vs. block

52
i) A group of states or
politicians is a bloc (no
“k”): Soviet bloc, voting
bloc.
ii) Building block, city

block have a “k” on the end.
c) border vs. boarder
i) The line on the map

dividing two countries is a
border (no “a”).
ii) A boarder is someone

who rents a room in
someone else’s house.
d) conscious vs.
conscience
53
i) Conscious is an
adverb meaning “aware” or
“deliberate.”
ii) Conscience is that

little nagging voice in your
head that tries to
distinguish between right
and wrong.
e) economic vs.
economical
i) Economic refers to
the economy: economic
policy, economic system.
ii) Economical means

“thrifty.” What is the most
economical way to travel
from Dartmouth to
Timbuktu?
54
f) hegemon vs.
hegemony
i) A hegemon (with no
final “y”) is the dominant
actor in a system.
“Hegemon” is
grammatically analogous to
“president” and “monarch.”
ii) Hegemony refers to

the condition of being a
hegemon, or a system in
which there exists a
hegemon. “Hegemony” is
grammatically analogous to
“presidency” and
“monarchy.”
g) lead vs. led

55
i) The past tense of the

verb “to lead” is led (with
no “a”).
ii) “Lead,” when

pronounced like “led,”
refers only to the metal
used in life jackets.
h) lose vs. loose vs. loss
i) “To lose”
(pronounced “looz”) is the
opposite of “to win.” You
are losing, you will lose, you
lost, you have lost.
ii) Loose (pronounced

“looss”) is the opposite of
“tight.” The verb form is to
loosen (a bolt, a light bulb,
etc.).
56
iii) Loss is the noun form

of the verb “to lose.” So far
this season, the Red Sox
have chalked up 10 wins
and 15 losses.
i) populous vs.
populace
i) Populous is an
adjective meaning “densely
populated.”
ii) Populace is a
collective noun meaning
“inhabitants.”
j) principle vs. principal

57
i) Principle (noun): a
rule for action or a tenet of
a body of thought.
ii) Principal: first or

most important (adjective);
chief, director, or other
person playing an
important or leading part
(noun).
k) province vs.
providence
i) A province is a part
of a country: the province of
Herzegovina.
ii) Providence means

“fate.” We go whither
providence wills us….
58
l) rogue vs. rouge
i) Rogue: outlaw. The

United States and North
Korea call each other rogue
states.
ii) Rouge: French for

“red.” Usually used to
describe a cosmetic. But
note: the Khmer Rouge, or
Red Cambodia, was a
genocidal political party
that briefly held power in
Cambodia in the 1970s.
8) Avoid slang, even

common slang that we all
use when speaking.
a) Examples of things to
avoid:
59
i) “have issues with”
ii) “a lot”
iii) “just” to mean very:

just sickening, just awful
iv) “incredible,” unless

you mean literally
unbelievable.
v) “totally not
successful”
vi) “OK”
b) Slang can be powerful

writing device when used
consciously and sparingly,
but you have to know how
to write without slang first.
60
9) Always run your

spellchecker AND
proofread your work.
Part 4
More Mistakes
Unique and Other Absolute
Modifiers
Unique means "one of a

kind." Therefore,
comparatives, superlatives,
and words like very, so, or
extremely should not be
used to modify it. If it is one
of a kind, it cannot be
compared!
61
Incorrect: He is a very
unique personality.
Correct: He is a unique
personality.
This same logic applies to

other words which reflect
some kind of absolute:
absolute, overwhelmed,
straight, opposite, right,
dead, entirely, eternal, fatal,
final, identical, infinite,
mortal, opposite, perfect,
immortal, finite, or
irrevocable.
In most cases they cannot

be modified by very and
similar words, nor can they
be used in comparisons.
62
Many times there is a

similar word which is not
absolute. For example,
instead of using the word
unique in the above
example use a similar word
that is not absolute.
Incorrect: He has a more

unique personality than
Marie.
Correct: He has a more

distinctive personality than
Marie.
Accept or Except ?
Accept means "to receive."
Except is usually a
preposition meaning "but"
63
or "leaving out." However,

except can also be a verb
meaning "to leave out."
As verbs, accept and except

are nearly antonyms, so the
difference is important!
Examples: He accepted the

gift. (He received it.)
He excepted the twins. (He

did not include them.)
Everyone except Bill. (All

but Bill.)
Can or May?
Can as an auxiliary verb

means "to be able to."
64
May as an auxiliary verb

means "to be permitted to."
Incorrect: Can we talk?

(Well, if you can say it, you
are able to talk!)
Correct: May we talk?
Correct: We may talk if you

can listen to my side.
Can't Help But
Can't help but is a

nonstandard phrase.
Use can't or cannot help

plus a gerund (verb form
plus -ing.)
65
Incorrect: I can't help but

fall in love with you.
Correct: I can't help falling

in love with you.
Using Due To
Due to means "caused by."

It should only be used if it
can be substituted with
"caused by."
It does not mean the same

as "because of."
Incorrect: The game was

postponed due to rain.
Correct: The game was

postponed because of rain.
66
Correct: The game's

postponement was due to
rain.
The wordy expression due

to the fact that should be
replaced by because or
since.
Fewer or Less?
Use fewer with objects that

can be counted one-by-one.
Use less with qualities or

quantities that cannot be
individually counted.
Incorrect: There were less

days below freezing last
winter.
67
Correct: There were fewer

days below freezing last
winter.
(Days can be counted.)
Correct: I drank less water

than she did.
(Water cannot be counted
individually here.)
When referring to time or

money, less is normally
used even with numbers.
Specific units of time or
money use fewer only in
cases where individual
items are referred to.
Examples: I have less than

an hour to do this work.
68
I have less time to this

work.
I have less money than I

need.
I have less than twenty

dollars.
He worked fewer hours than

I did.
The only occasion in which

you might say, "I have fewer
than twenty dollars," would
be when you were talking
about specific dollar bills or
coins, such as "I have fewer
than twenty silver dollars in
my collection."
69
Hopefully or I Hope?
Hopefully is an adverb
which means what it ought
to--"full of hope" or
"characterized by hope." It
normally modifies verbs.
Nonstandard English
sometimes substitutes the
word hopefully for I hope
(or some other subject with
the verb hope).
Correct: They listened

hopefully for the sound of
the rescue party.
(They listened with hope)
Incorrect: Hopefully, they

will come in time.
70
Correct: I hope they will

come in time.
Using Little, Littlest, and

Least
The word little can be used

in two different senses--
meaning "small in size" or
"small amount of."
Examples: He was still a

little boy. (small in size)
Please give me a little milk.

(small amount of)
This becomes trickier in the

comparative and superlative
because little has two
different forms.
71
If little means "small in

size," the comparative is
littler or more little, and
the superlative is littlest.
If little means "small

amount of," the
comparative is less, and the
superlative is least.
Examples: He was the

littlest boy in the class.
Please give me less milk

than he has.
He drank the least amount

of milk of anyone there.
Maybe or May Be?

72
Maybe, the compound word,

is an adverb meaning
"perhaps" or "possibly."
May be is a verb phrase

meaning "might be" or
"could be."
Examples: Maybe I will go

out tonight.
I may be going out tonight.
To Have Plus Ought
The expressions have ought,

has ought, and had ought
are nonstandard.
73
To correct it, simply remove

the have, has, or had.
Incorrect: You had ought to

have been there.
Correct: You ought to have

been there.
Want Plus Directional

Adverbs or Prepositions
The verb want is not

supposed to be followed by
an adverb or preposition
indicating direction such as
in, out, up, off or down.
When using standard

English, complete the
sentence by including the
74
words left out of such

expressions as want in or
want down.
Incorrect: He wants out of

the contract.
Correct: He wants to get out

of the contract.
Incorrect: The cat wants in.
Correct: The cats wants to

come in.
Comma
The comma is a valuable,
useful punctuation device
because it separates the
structural elements of
sentences into manageable
segments. The rules
75
provided here are those

found in traditional
handbooks; however, in
certain rhetorical contexts
and for specific purposes,
these rules may be broken.
1. Use commas to separate

independent clauses when
they are joined by any of
these seven coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, for,
or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the
crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her
question, yet the instructor
still didn't seem to
understand.
Yesterday was her brother's
birthday, so she took him
out to dinner.
76
2. Use commas after

introductory a) clauses, b)
phrases, or c) words that
come before the main
clause.
a. Common starter words
for introductory clauses
that should be followed by a
comma include after,
although, as, because, if,
since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat

scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock
was broken, she was late for
class.
If you are ill, you ought to
see a doctor.
77
When the snow stops

falling, we'll shovel the
driveway.
However, don't put a comma

after the main clause when
a dependent (subordinate)
clause follows it (except for
cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class,

because her alarm clock
was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the
door, while I was eating.
(incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset,
although she had won the
Oscar. (correct: extreme
contrast)
78
b. Common introductory
phrases that should be
followed by a comma
include participial and
infinitive phrases, absolute
phrases, nonessential
appositive phrases, and
long prepositional phrases
(over four words).
Having finished the test, he
left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better
come early.
After the test but before
lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense
heat, we sought shelter in
the cafe.
c. Common introductory
words that should be
79
followed by a comma
include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no

harm.
Yes, the package should
arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be
satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in

the middle of a sentence to
set off clauses, phrases, and
words that are not essential
to the meaning of the
sentence. Use one comma
before to indicate the
beginning of the pause and
one at the end to indicate
the end of the pause.
80
Here are some clues to help

you decide whether the
sentence element is
essential:
If you leave out the clause,
phrase, or word, does the
sentence still make sense?
Does the clause, phrase, or
word interrupt the flow of
words in the original
sentence?
If you move the element to
a different position in the
sentence, does the sentence
still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one

or more of these questions,
then the element in
question is nonessential
and should be set off with
commas. Here are some
81
example sentences with

nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which
happens to be my birthday,
is the only day when I am
available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has
an exciting atmosphere.
The food, on the other
hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your
hard work. In this case,
however, you seem to have
over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set

off essential elements of the
sentence, such as clauses
beginning with that
(relative clauses). That
clauses after nouns are
always essential. That
82
clauses following a verb

expressing mental action
are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:

The book that I borrowed
from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of
the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a

verb expressing mental
action:
She believes that she will be
able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can
fly.
I contend that it was wrong
to mislead her.
They wished that warm
weather would finally arrive.
83
Examples of other essential

elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only
harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow
jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the
least money lost the
election.
Examples of nonessential
elements (set off by
commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is
just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow
jumpsuit, is playing in the
living room.
The Green party candidate,
who had the least money,
lost the election.
84
Apples, which are my

favorite fruit, are the main
ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning
from ear to ear, announced
that the exam would be
tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the
team, was injured in the
game.
It is up to you, Jane, to
finish.
She was, however, too tired
to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I
think, is sufficient.

three or more words,
phrases, or clauses written
in a series.
85
The Constitution
establishes the legislative,
executive, and judicial
branches of government.
The candidate promised to
lower taxes, protect the
environment, reduce crime,
and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that
the defendant, who was at
the scene of the crime, who
had a strong revenge
motive, and who had access
to the murder weapon, was
guilty of homicide.

two or more coordinate
adjectives that describe the
same noun. Be sure never
to add an extra comma
between the final adjective
86
and the noun itself or to use

commas with non-
coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are

adjectives with equal ("co"-
ordinate) status in
describing the noun;
neither adjective is
subordinate to the other.
You can decide if two
adjectives in a row are
coordinate by asking the
following questions:
Does the sentence make
sense if the adjectives are
written in reverse order?
Does the sentence make
sense if the adjectives are
written with and between
them?
87
If you answer yes to these

questions, then the
adjectives are coordinate
and should be separated by
a comma. Here are some
examples of coordinate and
non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn
child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame
house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool
shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy,
happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2)
powerful 3) summer sun
beat down on them. (1-2 are
coordinate; 2-3 are non-
coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2)
powerful, 3) oppressive sun
88
beat down on them. (Both

1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the

end of a sentence to
separate contrasted
coordinate elements or to
indicate a distinct pause or
shift.
He was merely ignorant, not
stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed
reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's
close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed
innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off

phrases at the end of the
sentence that refer back to
the beginning or middle of
89
the sentence. Such phrases

are free modifiers that can
be placed anywhere in the
sentence without causing
confusion. (If the placement
of the modifier causes
confusion, then it is not
"free" and must remain
"bound" to the word it
modifies.)
1. Nancy waved
enthusiastically at the
docking ship, laughing
joyously. (correct)
2a. Lisa waved at Nancy,
laughing joyously.
(incorrect: Who is laughing,
Lisa or Nancy?)
2b. Laughing joyously, Lisa
waved at Nancy. (correct)
90
2c. Lisa waved at Nancy,

who was laughing joyously.
(correct)
9. Use commas to set off all

geographical names, items
in dates (except the month
and day), addresses (except
the street number and
name), and titles in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets
its name from Birmingham,
England.
July 22, 1959, was a
momentous day in his life.
Who lives at 1600
Pennsylvania Avenue,
Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be
the principal speaker.
91
(When you use just the

month and the year, no
comma is necessary after
the month or year: "The
average temperatures for
July 1998 are the highest on
record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift

between the main discourse
and a quotation.
John said without emotion,
"I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered,
"to complete the
assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote,
"Workers of the world,
unite!"
11. Use commas wherever

necessary to prevent
92
possible confusion or
misreading.
To George, Harrison had
been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong

places can break a sentence
into illogical segments or
confuse readers with
unnecessary and
unexpected pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to

separate the subject from
the verb.
An eighteen-year old in
California, is now
considered an adult.
(incorrect)
The most important
attribute of a ball player, is
93
quick reflex actions.

(incorrect)
13. Don't put a comma

between the two verbs or
verb phrases in a compound
predicate.
We laid out our music and
snacks, and began to study.
(incorrect)
I turned the corner, and ran
smack into a patrol car.
(incorrect)
14. Don't put a comma

between the two nouns,
noun phrases, or noun
clauses in a compound
subject or compound object.
The music teacher from

your high school, and the
94
football coach from mine

are married. (incorrect:
compound subject)
Jeff told me that the job was
still available, and that the
manager wanted to
interview me. (incorrect:
compound object)
15. Don't put a comma after

the main clause when a
dependent (subordinate)
clause follows it (except for
cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class,

because her alarm clock
was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the
door, while I was eating.
(incorrect)
95
3. She was still quite upset,

although she had won the
Oscar. (correct: extreme
contrast).
Part 5
Sentence Variety
For short, choppy sentences

1. Coordination:
and, but, or, nor, yet, for, so
Join complete sentences,

clauses, and phrases with
coordinators:
example: Doonesbury
cartoons satirize
contemporary politics. The
victims of political
96
corruption pay no attention.

They prefer to demand that
newspapers not carry the
strip.
revision: Doonesbury
cartoons laugh at
contemporary politicians,
but the victims of political
corruption pay no attention
and prefer to demand that
newspapers not carry the
strip.
2. Subordination:
after, although, as, as if,
because, before, even if,
even though, if, if only,
rather than, since, that,
though, unless, until, when,
where, whereas, wherever,
whether, which, while
97
Link two related sentences

to each other so that one
carries the main idea and
the other is no longer a
complete sentence
(subordination). Use
connectors such as the ones
listed above to show the
relationship.
example: The campus
parking problem is getting
worse. The university is not
building any new garages.
revision: The campus
parking problem is getting
worse because the
university is not building
any new garages.
example: The US has been

overly dependent on foreign
oil for many years.
98
Alternate sources of energy

are only now being sought.
revision: Although the US
has been overly dependent
on foreign oil for many
years, alternate sources are
only now being sought.
Notice in these examples

that the location of the
clause beginning with the
dependent marker (the
connector word) is flexible.
This flexibility can be useful
in creating varied rhythmic
patterns over the course of
a paragraph. See the
section below called "For
the same pattern or rhythm
in a series of sentences."
99
For the same subject or

topic repeated in
consecutive sentences
1. Relative pronouns
which, who, whoever, whom,
that, whose
Embed one sentence inside

the other using a clause
starting with one of the
relative pronouns listed
above.
example: Indiana used to be
mainly an agricultural
state. It has recently
attracted more industry.
revision: Indiana, which
used to be mainly an
agricultural state, has
recently attracted more
industry.
100
example: One of the

cameras was not packed
very well. It was damaged
during the move.
revision: The camera that
was not packed very well
was damaged during the
move.
example: The experiment

failed because of Murphy's
Law. This law states that if
something can go wrong, it
will.
revision: The experiment
failed because of Murphy's
Law, which states that if
something can go wrong, it
will.
example: Doctor Ramirez

specializes in sports
101
medicine. She helped my

cousin recover from a
basketball injury.
revision 1: Doctor Ramirez,
who specializes in sports
medicine, helped my cousin
recover from a basketball
injury.
revision 2: Doctor Ramirez,
whose specialty is sports
medicine, helped my cousin
recover from a basketball
injury.
2. Participles
Present participles end in
-ing, for example: speaking,
carrying, wearing,
dreaming.
Past participles usually end

in -ed, -en, -d, -n, or -t but
102
can be irregular, for

example: worried, eaten,
saved, seen, dealt, taught.
Eliminate a be verb (am, is,

was, were, are) and
substitute a participle.
example: Wei Xie was
surprised to get a phone
call from his sister. He was
happy to hear her voice
again.
revision 1: Wei Xie,
surprised to get a phone
call from his sister, was
happy to hear her voice
again.
revision 2: Surprised to get
a phone call from her, Wei
Xie was happy to hear his
sister's voice again.
103
3. Prepositions
about, above, across, after,
against, along, among,
around, as, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between,
by, despite, down, during,
except, for, from, in, inside,
near, next to, of, off, on,
out, over, past, to, under,
until, up, with
Turn a clause into a

prepositional phrase (a
phrase beginning with a
preposition, such as the
ones listed above).
example 1: The university
has been facing pressure to
cut its budget. It has
eliminated funding for
104
important programs. (two

independent clauses)
example 2: The university,
which has been facing
pressure to cut its budget,
has eliminated funding for
important programs.
(subject, relative clause,
predicate)
example 3: Because it has
been facing pressure to cut
its budget, the university
has eliminated funding for
important programs.
(dependent clause,
independent clause)
revised: Under pressure to
cut its budget, the
university has eliminated
funding for important
programs. (prepositional
phrase, independent clause:
105
the most concise version of

the four)
For the same pattern or

rhythm in a series of
sentences
1. Dependent markers
See the list of dependent

markers above called
"Subordination."
Put clauses and phrases

with dependent markers at
the beginning of some
sentences instead of
starting each sentence with
the subject. In this example
the structure and content of
the sentences remains the
same, but some elements
106
are moved around to vary

the rhythm.
example: The room fell
silent when the TV
newscaster reported the
story of the earthquake. We
all stopped what we were
doing. The pictures of the
quake shocked us. We could
see that large sections of
the city had been
completely destroyed.
revised: When the TV
newscaster reported the
story of the earthquake, the
room fell silent. We all
stopped what we were
doing. The pictures of the
quake shocked us because
we could see that large
sections of the city had
been completely destroyed.
107
2. Transitional words and

phrases
accordingly, after all,
afterward, also, although,
and, but, consequently,
despite, earlier, even
though, for example, for
instance, however, in
conclusion, in contrast, in
fact, in the meantime, in
the same way, indeed, just
as... so, meanwhile,
moreover, nevertheless, not
only... but also, now, on the
contrary, on the other hand,
on the whole, otherwise,
regardless, shortly,
similarly, specifically, still,
that is, then, therefore,
though, thus, yet
108
Vary the rhythm by adding

transitional words at the
beginning of some
sentences.
example: Fast food
corporations are producing
and advertising bigger
items and high-fat
combination meals. The
American population faces
a growing epidemic of
obesity.
revised: Fast food
corporations are producing
and advertising bigger
items and high-fat
combination meals.
Meanwhile, the American
population faces a growing
epidemic of obesity.
109
Vary the rhythm by

alternating short and long
sentences.
example: They visited
Canada and Alaska last
summer to find some native
American art. In Anchorage
stores they found some
excellent examples of
soapstone carvings. But
they couldn't find a dealer
selling any of the woven
wall hangings they wanted.
revised: They visited
Canada and Alaska last
summer to find some native
American art, such as
soapstone carvings and wall
hangings. Anchorage stores
had many soapstone items
available. Still, they were
disappointed to learn that
110
wall hangings, which they

had especially wanted, were
difficult to find.
Part 6
Common Faults in Sentence
Structure
Misplaced modifiers
Misplaced modifiers are

words, phrases, or clauses
that do not point clearly to
the word or words they
modify in a sentence.
1. Limiting modifiers
(only, hardly, even, almost,
nearly, just) should be
placed in front of the words
they modify. The entire
meaning of a sentence can
be changed if you place
111
these single word modifiers

next to the wrong word. e.g.
Unclear:
"The guests almost ate all
of the food." (the guests
can't "almost eat" all of the
food).
Revised:
"The guests ate almost all
of the food." (most of the
food was eaten)
2. Place modifying
phrases and clauses as
close as possible to their
headword, the word or
phrase they modify. e.g.
Unclear:
"The mayor was described
as a round, squat man with
a droopy beard weighing
60kg."
112
Revised
"The mayor was described
as a round, squat man
weighing 60kg with a
droopy beard." (60kg
describes the man, not the
beard).
3. Sentences should flow

from subject to verb to
object without lengthy
interruptions along the way.
When this happens, the
sentence becomes unclear.
e.g.
Unclear:
"Susan, after trying to
phone for a taxi, decided to
walk to the station."
Revised:
113
"After trying to phone for a

taxi, Susan decided to walk
to the station."
4. A squinting modifier is
an ambiguously placed
modifier that can modify
either the word before it or
the word after it. It is said
to be "squinting" in both
directions at the same time.
To correct a squinting
modifier, place the modifier
so that it clearly modifies
its headword. e.g.
Unclear:
"The lottery win that
everyone thought would
satisfy them totally
disillusioned them."
Revised:
114

totally satisfy them
disillusioned them." (They
were expected to be totally
satisfied.)
or
satisfy them totally
disillusioned them." (They
were totally disillusioned
with the lottery win.)
5. Infinitives ("to" + verb

such as "to be", "to go", to
eat", "to run") usually
should not be split unless
necessary in writing. e.g.
Unclear:
115
"She hoped to, by doing lots

of revision and studying,
pass the exams."
Revised:
"She hoped to pass the
exams by doing lots of
revision and studying."
6. A Dangling Modifier is
a word or phrase that does
not refer logically to any
word or word group in a
sentence. When a sentence
begins with a modifying
word, phrase or clause we
must make sure the next
thing that comes along can,
in fact, be modified by that
modifier. e.g.
Unclear:
"Born in New Zealand, it is
natural to enjoy eating
116
roast lamb." This is unclear

because "it" was not born in
New Zealand.
Revised:
"For a person born in New
Zealand, it is natural to
enjoy eating roast lamb." Or
"Born in New Zealand, I
enjoy eating roast lamb."
In the second sentence, a
subject "I" is introduced.
To correct a dangling
modifier we can
create a new subject;
Unclear:
"Using a microscope, the
wings of the butterfly were
examined."(The modifier
cannot logically modify the
word wings.)
Revised:
117
"Using a microscope, the

scientist examined the
wings of the butterfly."(The
scientist is the subject and
refers back to who is using
the microscope.)
create a dependent clause

Unclear:
"Planted in the field only a
month ago, its size
surprised the farmers."
(The first phrase cannot
logically modify the word
size.)
Revised:
"Because the turnip had
been planted in the field
only a month ago, its size
surprised the farmers."
Parallel structure
118
Parallel structure means

using grammatically
consistent words, phrases,
clauses or sentence
structures to express ideas
that have the same level of
importance. When
constructing a sentence,
use the same pattern of
words such as all -ing
words, all verbs in the past
tense, all starting with
nouns, or not changing
from the active voice to the
passive voice.
Types of Parallel Structure

1. Words and Phrases
(a) Coordinated ideas of

equal importance,
119
connected by "and", "but",

"or", or "nor".
With the -ing form of word,
e.g.
Unbalanced:
"I am looking forward to
meeting you and to hear
about your trip."
Parallel:
"I am looking forward to
meeting you and to hearing
about your trip."
The -ing is matched with
the -ing form in this
sentence.
With infinitive phrases, e.g.
Unbalanced:
"Jane likes to ski, run, skate
and swimming."
Parallel:
120
"Jane likes to ski, run and

swim." (or "Jane likes to ski,
to run and to swim.)
(Note: You can use "to"
before all the verbs in a
sentence or only before the
first one.)
(b) Compared ideas

With the -ing form of word
e.g.
Unbalanced:
"He prefers writing
assignments rather than to
sit exams."
Parallel:
"He prefers writing
assignments rather than
sitting exams."
The -ing form is paired with
another -ing form.
121
With infinitive phrases:

Parallel:
"He prefers to write
assignments rather than to
sit exams."
The infinitive is paired with
another infinitive.
With articles and

prepositions:
Parallelism requires that an
article (a, an or the) or a
preposition (by, for, to, in,
at, on, since, etc) applying
to all items in a series must,
either appear before the
first item only, or be
repeated before each item.
e.g.
Unbalanced:
A dollar, a pound, lire or
yen
122
In January, February, or in
March
Parallel:
A dollar, a pound, a lire or a
yen
In January, February or
March or (in January, in
February or in March)
(c) Correlative
expressions/ideas (such as
not only/but also, both/and,
either/or, neither/nor and
whether/or) should also be
parallel. Here, the kind of
word or part of a sentence
that follows the first
expression must be the
same as the kind following
the second. e.g.
Unbalanced:
123
"The earthquake not only

wrecked railway lines but
also the trains."
In this case, the verb
"wrecked" cannot balance
the noun "trains." The
sentence should be
rewritten so that "wrecked"
appears before "not only",
and so that nouns follow
both connectors.
Parallel:
"The earthquake wrecked
not only railway lines but
also the trains."
2. Clauses
When elements that have
the same function in a
sentence are not presented
in parallel structures, such
as changing from active to
124
passive, not matching

nouns with nouns, and not
matching verbs with verbs,
the sentence will have
faulty parallelism. e.g.
Unbalanced:
"The lecturer told the
students that they should
do a lot of study, that they
should get a lot of sleep and
to do some relaxation
exercises before the exam."
Parallel:
do a lot of study, that they
should get a lot of sleep and
that they should do some
relaxation exercises before
the exam."
or
125

do a lot of study, get a lot of
sleep and do some
relaxation exercises before
the exam."
Unbalanced:
"I will go to the library
tomorrow, returning the
book that is five days
overdue, and apologised for
holding it up."
Parallel:
"I will go to the library
tomorrow, return the book
that is five days overdue,
and apologise for holding it
up."
Lack of subject-verb
agreement
126
The correct form should be

used i.e. a singular subject
needs a singular verb and a
plural subject needs a
plural verb. E.g. "The rose
is red." "Violets are blue."
Apply the following "rules"
to avoid confusion.
1. Ignore words and
phrases that come between
the subject and verb:
e.g.."The rose, as well as
the tomatoes, is red."
Violets, as well as the sky,
are blue."
2. When the subject of a

sentence is made up of two
or more nouns or pronouns
joined by "and" a plural
verb is used:
127
e.g. "The rose and the

tomatoes are red."
"He and his friends are ... "
Note: phrases such as "as

well as", "in addition to",
and "along with" are not the
same as "and" when
inserted between the
subject and the verb. They
do not change the number
of the subject. See Example
1.
3. Singular subjects
joined by "or", "nor", "either
... or", or "neither ... nor"
take a singular verb. e.g.
"Either the student or the
teacher was lying."
128
4. If one subject is
singular and one plural, the
verb agrees with the closest
subject when two or more
subjects are joined by "or",
"nor", "either ... or", or
"neither ... nor".
e.g. "Neither the waiter nor
the chefs are aware of the
fire in the restaurant."
"Neither the waiters nor the
chef is aware of the fire in
the restaurant."
5. "It" is always followed

by a singular verb.
e.g. "It is their holiday that
will be ruined."
6. When the subject

follows the verb
(particularly in sentences
129
starting with "there is",

"there are" or "here is",
"here are", check carefully
to see that the verb agrees
with the subject. Since
"there" is never the subject,
the verb agrees with what
follows.
e.g. "There are two
questions I would like to
ask you."
"There is a long queue to
buy bread."
7. When used as subjects,

words such as "each", "each
one", "either", "neither",
"everyone", "everybody",
"anybody", "anyone",
"nobody", "somebody",
"someone" and "no one" are
130
singular and require a

singular verb.
e.g. "No one is allowed out
of their dormitories after
nine pm."
"Each of the students has to
attend a residential school.
(Even though "of the
students" (a prepositional
phrase) is plural, remember
it is "Each" which is the
singular subject.
8. Other words such as

"none", "any", "all", "more",
"most" and "some" may,
however, take either
singular or plural verbs
depending on what they are
referring to. (Is the thing
referred to countable or
not?) The phrases "of the
131
carrots" and "of the puzzle"

do affect the subject here
because they tell you
whether you are talking
about a part of one thing
(singular) or about a
number of things (plural).
e.g. "Some of the carrots
are mouldy."
"Some of the puzzle is
missing."
9. Look at the subject,

not its complement, when
deciding agreement with
linking verbs.
e.g. "The future is flat
screen televisions."
"Flat screen televisions are
the future.."
132
10. When collective

nouns refer to the group
acting as a whole such as
team, group, family, class
and committee, they require
singular verbs, and when
the group is acting as
individuals, they require
plural verbs.
e.g. "The committee is
meeting this week."
"The members of the
committee are going to
discuss fundraising
methods."
11. First person singular

subjects require singular
verbs, and first person
plural subjects require
plural verbs.
e.g. "I was busy."
133
"We were busy."

Second person subjects
require plural verbs.
e.g. "You seem busy."
Third person singular
subjects require singular
verbs, but third person
plural subjects require
plural verbs.
e.g. "He seems busy."
"They seem busy."
12. Nouns such as

"civics", "dollars",
"mathematics", "measles",
and "news" require singular
verbs.
13. Nouns such as

"scissors", "glasses",
"tweezers", "trousers", and
134
"shears" require plural

verbs.
Run on sentences, Comma
splices, Fused Sentences
A "run-on" sentence or
comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses
(sentences) are blended
into one without using
enough punctuation, such
as a semi-colon, or a comma
with a conjunction ("and",
"but", "for", "or", "nor",
"so", "yet", "which"). The
length of a sentence does
not have anything to do
with whether a sentence is
a run-on or not. It is a
structural flaw. A fused
sentence occurs when two
independent clauses are
135
joined with no punctuation.

e.g.
Incorrect:
"Howard Hughes was a
billionaire, he was also a
recluse." - comma splice
A comma is not strong
enough to hold these two
complete thoughts together.
billionaire he was also a
recluse." - fused sentence
Revised:
billionaire. He was also a
recluse." or
billionaire; he was also a
recluse." or
billionaire, and he was also
a recluse."
136
To repair run-on sentences:

place a full stop between
the two complete thoughts;
place a semi-colon between
place a comma and a
linking word (such as
"which" or "and") between
place the less important
idea in a dependent clause,
creating a complex
sentence.
Run-on sentences can

occur:
1. When an independent
clause gives an order or
directive based on what was
said in the first independent
clause: e.g.
137
Incorrect:
"The last module contains
essential facts and figures,
you should revise this in
depth for the final
examination."
Revised:
essential facts and figures.
You should revise this in
depth for the final
examination."
or
essential facts and figures;
you should revise this in
depth for the final
examination."
or
essential facts and figures,
and you should revise this
138
in depth for the final

examination."
2. When two independent

clauses are connected by a
transitional expression such
as "however", "moreover",
"nevertheless". The
transitional word must be
preceded by a semicolon
and followed by a comma.
e.g.
Incorrect:
"Bill often went to the
cinema to see a new film,
however, Jane preferred to
wait until the film came out
on video."
Revised:
cinema to see a new film;
however, Jane preferred to
139

on video."
or
cinema to see a new film.
Jane, however, preferred to
on video."
3. When the second of

two independent clauses
contains a pronoun that
connects it to the first
independent clause. e.g.
Incorrect:
"The refugees were not
spies, they were asylum
seekers."
Revised:
140

spies. They were asylum
seekers."
or
spies; they were asylum
seekers."
4. When the ideas in two

independent clauses which
are not of equal importance
are joined by a comma. e.g.
Incorrect:
"George Orwell's novel
'1984' worried people when
it was published, its
message was too grim."
Revised:
"George Orwell's novel
'1984' worried people when
it was published because its
message was too grim."
141
Part 7
Six Strategies for Solving
Gender Exclusive Pronoun
Problems
Strategy A:
Substitute a plural pronoun

for the gender exclusive
noun or pronoun.
Example:
Original Sentence:
Although a doctor is busy,
he should always answer his
patient's questions.
Problem:
142
The use of "he" overlooks

the fact that "a doctor"
could be either male or
female. Since there is no
reference to any specific
male doctor, the pronoun
"he" excludes one gender
unnecessarily.
Solution:
Substitute a plural pronoun
for "he."
Revised Sentence:
Although doctors are busy,
they should always answer
their patients' questions.
Strategy B:
Delete the gender exclusive

pronoun.
143
Example:
Original Sentence: A good
lawyer uses his analytical
ability.
Problem:
The use of "his" overlooks
the fact that "a good
lawyer" could be either
male or female. Since there
is no reference to any
specific male lawyer, the
pronoun "his" excludes one
gender unnecessarily.
Solution:
Delete the gender exclusive
pronoun..
Revised Sentence:
144
A good lawyer uses

analytical ability.
Strategy C:
Substitute a gender neutral

first or second person
pronoun for a third person
gender exclusive pronoun.
Example:
Original Sentence: A careful
student budgets her time.
Problem:
The use of "her" overlooks
the fact that "a careful
student" could be either
male or female. Since there
is no reference to any
specific female student, the
145
pronoun "her" excludes one

Solution:
Substitute a gender neutral
first or second person word
for "her."
Revised Sentence: As a
careful student, you should
budget your time.
Strategy D:
Revise the sentence to

change its subject.
Example:
Original Sentence: A good
salesperson makes sure she
keeps her customers happy.
146
Problem:
The use of the pronoun
"she" overlooks the fact
that salespersons can be
males or female. Since
there is not reference to
any specific female
salesperson, the pronoun
"she" excludes one gender
unnecessarily.
Solution:
change its subject, thereby
eliminating the gender
exclusive pronoun.
Revised Sentence: Keeping

customers happy is an
important part of being a
good salesperson.
147
Strategy E:
Use "he or she" (never s/he

or he/she) sparingly.
Example:
Original Sentence: A
teacher's success depends
on whether she
communicates effectively.
Problem:
"she" overlooks the fact
that "a teacher" could be
either male or female. Since
there is no reference to any
specific teacher, the
pronoun "she" excludes one
Solution:
148

substitute "he or she" for
the gender exclusive
pronoun "she."
Revised Sentence: A
teacher's success depends
on whether he or she
communicates effectively.
Strategy F:
Substitute an article for the

masculine or feminine
pronoun.
Example:
Original Sentence: Every
student should bring his
text to class.
Problem:
149

"his" overlooks the
existence of both male and
female students. Since
there is no reference to any
specific male student, the
pronoun "his" excludes one
Solution:
substitute an article for
"his."
Revised Sentence: Every

student should bring the
text to class.
EXERCISE AND ANSWER

NOTES
Exercise 1
150
The basic sentence is

rendered in bold in each of
the following sentences and
the verbial (verb, copula or
copular verb) in italics.
Identify each as a verb,

copula or copular-verb
basic sentence.
(Identification is sufficient
for the purpose of this
exercise. But it is a good
idea to study the analyses in
`Exercise 1 Answers'.)
1. The altar boys were a

tough corps to join at the
age of seven.
2. Soon after I began

serving, while I was still
151
trustful, a gang was formed

among the boys to protest
against the punishments.
Exercise 1 Answers
1. The altar boys were a

tough corps to join at the
age of seven.
Copula basic sentence: The

copula were assigns a
definition, by means of the
noun-phrase complement a
corps, to the subject The
boys.
The noun-phrase
complement a corps is
described by the adjective
phrase to join at the age of
152
seven and by the adjective

tough.
The subject can be said to

be described by altar, a
noun-form acting as an
adjective. Or it can be said
that altar is part of the
compound-noun subject
The altar boys.
2. Soon after I began

serving, while I was still
trustful, a gang was formed
among the boys to protest
against the punishments.
Copula basic sentence: The

predicate-adjective phrase
formed among the boys to
protest against the
punishments is assigned by
153
the copula was as a

description of the subject a
gang. (The `gang’ was a
`formed-amongst-the-boys-
to protest-against-the
punishments’ sort of gang.)
Two adverb phrases Soon

after I began serving and
while I was still trustful
locate the time when a gang
came into being. There is
no activity in this sentence
that is either a subject's or
an object's. So this cannot
be a verb or a copular-verb
sentence:
The author of this sentence

does not claim that `the
boys formed a gang’.
154
Rather, he claims that a

gang came into being. This
subtly of meaning is
destroyed by an analysis
that tags `was formed’ as a
verb in this sentence.
Exercise 7
(i) The following sentences

all fail tests for validity in
the complex sentence.
Guess the writer's intention
in each sentence then re-
write it and underline the
basic sentence in your
revised sentence.
(ii) Reflect on why each

sentence needed to be re-
written.
155
(iii) Study the reasons (in

Answers) for re-writing.
1. Viewers have besieged

the ABC switchboard since
he went off the air last
month, taking leave to care
for a sick family member.
Were viewers besieging or
taking leave?
2. The threatened strike

could have stopped the ice-
skating show that was
headed off by a High Court
order.
Did the High Court head off
the ice-skating show?
Exercise 7 Answers
defective sentence
156
1.Viewers have besieged the

ABC switchboard since he
went off air last May, taking
leave to care for a sick
family member.
In this sentence the

present-participle phrase
taking leave to care for a
sick family member did
what present-participle
phrases do: it attached to
the verb have besieged of
the basic sentence as the
simultaneous act of the
subject Viewers. In so doing
it made the unintended
meaning that viewers were
both `besieging' and
`taking leave'. Unaware of
the characteristic habit of
present-participle phrases,
157
the writer of the original

sentence hoped it might
attach to `went off' in the
adverb phrase since he went
off the air last month. But
present-participle phrases
do not attach to adverb
phrases.
His indecision about which

of three possibilities is the
verbial functor in his
complex sentence had the
inevitable result: a
miscarriage of meaning.
The revised sentence
resolves the problem by
constraining the rogue
verbial functors into an
adverb phrase that
describes the time of the
158
act have besieged of the

subject Viewers:
verb basic sentence

Viewers have besieged the
ABC switchboard since he
went off air last May to take
leave to care for a sick
family member.
defective sentence
2. The threatened strike
skating show that was
headed off by a High Court
order.
This sentence places the

sequence that was headed
off by a High Court order
after the noun phrase ice-
skating show. There it
159
cannot but function as an

adjective phrase that
describes that noun phrase.
The description results in
the unintended meaning
that the ice-skating show
was headed off by a High
Court order. The header
that should have been part
of the adjective phrase that
describes strike.
verb basic sentence

The threatened strike that
skating show was headed
off by a High Court order.
Exercise 17
Underline the basic
sentence in the following
sentences. Strike out all
160
commas that should not be

in them. Justify each strike-
out in terms of (a) to (e):
(a) disrupts a basic

sentence ;
(b) disrupts a foreshortened
sentence;
(c) disrupts an attributing
sentence;
(d) disrupts a phrase (noun,
adjective, predicate
adjective, adverb, relative);
(e) intercedes a noun and
the adjective that describes
it.
1. The words of this Slovak

poet, Ondra Lysohorsky, are
as poignant today as they
were, when first written
more than fifty years ago.
161
2. She is absolutely right to

think that anyone who dates
him, plays into the hands of
our enemy.
Exercise 17 Answers
1. The words of the Slovak

poet, Ondra Lysohorsky, are
as poignant today as they
were when first written
more than fifty years ago.
The comma after were in

the original sentence
disrupted the predicate-
adjective phrase
(underlined) of the copula
basic sentence of this
complex sentence. In so
162
doing it disrupted a basic

sentence.
2. She is absolutely right

to think that anyone who
dates him plays into the
hands of our enemy.
The comma after him in the

original sentence disrupted
the noun phrase
(underlined) that anyone
who dates him plays into
the hands of our enemy that
specifies the content of the
copular verb is absolutely
right to think of this
complex sentence. It
thereby disrupted a basic
sentence.
163
List of English words with disputed

usage
 Aggravate - some prescriptivists
have argued that this word should
not be used in the sense of "to
annoy" or "to oppress", but only
to mean "to make worse".
However, this proscription
against "to annoy" is not rooted
in history: the "annoy" usage
occurs in English as far back as
the 17th century. Furthermore, in
Latin, from which the word was
borrowed, both meanings were
used.
o Disputed usage: It's the endless
wait for luggage that
aggravates me the most about
air travel.
o Undisputed usage: Being hit on
the head by a falling brick
aggravated my already painful
headache.
164
 Ain't - though this word is widely

used, it is considered non-
standard by some prescriptivists.
See ain't.
 Alibi - some prescriptivists argue
this cannot be used in the non-
legal sense of "an explanation or
excuse to avoid blame or justify
action." Also, use of the word
alibi as a verb is unacceptable to a
large majority of AHD4's Usage
Panel.
 Also - some prescriptivists
contend this word should not be
used to begin a sentence. AHD4
says "63 percent of the Usage
Panel found acceptable the
example The warranty covers all
power-train components. Also,
participating dealers back their
work with a free lifetime service
guarantee."
165
 Alternative - some prescriptivists

argue that alternative should be
used only when the number of
choices involved is exactly two.
 A.m./p.m. - these are Latin
abbreviations for ante merediem
("before noon") and post
merediem ("after noon"),
adverbial phrases. Some
prescriptivists argue that they
therefore should not be used in
English as nouns meaning
"morning" and "afternoon", but
this ignores ordinary
nominalization features of
English.
 Amount - some prescriptivists
argue amount should not be
substituted for number. They
recommend the use of number if
the thing referred to is countable
166
and amount only if it is

uncountable. (see less)
o Disputed usage: I was amazed
by the amount of people who
visited my website.
o Undisputed usage: The
number of people in the lift
must not exceed 10.
o Undisputed usage: I was
unimpressed by the amount of
water consumed by the
elephant.
 Enormity - frequently used as a
synonym for "enormousness",
but traditionally means "extreme
wickedness".
o Disputed usage: The enormity
of the elephant astounded me.
o Traditional usage: The
enormity of Stalin's purges
astounds me.
167
 Hopefully - some prescriptivists

argue this word should not be
used as an expression of
confidence in an outcome,
although other words such as
interestingly, frankly, and
unfortunately are unremarkably
used in a similar way. See also the
discussion of hopefully as a
dangling modifier. Other
commentators have noted that the
supposed "correct" usage of
hopefully to describe an action is
awkward and should be avoided,
as in the second example.
o Disputed usage: Hopefully I'll
get that scholarship!
o Disputed usage: He was
hopefully anticipating the
upcoming film.
 Less - some prescriptivists argue
that less should not be substituted
168
for fewer. The Merriam-Webster

Dictionary notes "The traditional
view is that less applies to matters
of degree, value, or amount and
modifies collective nouns, mass
nouns, or nouns denoting an
abstract whole while fewer applies
to matters of number and
modifies plural nouns. Less has
been used to modify plural nouns
since the days of King Alfred and
the usage, though roundly
decried, appears to be increasing.
Less is more likely than fewer to
modify plural nouns when
distances, sums of money, and a
few fixed phrases are involved
<less than 100 miles> <an
investment of less than $2000>
<in 25 words or less> and as
likely as fewer to modify periods
of time <in less (or fewer) than
four hours>"
169
o Disputed usage: This lane 12

items or less.
o Undisputed usage: We had
fewer players on the team this
season.
o Undisputed usage: There is less
water in the tank now.
 Like and as. The preposition like
is often misused as a conjunction
when only as would be
appropriate.
o Undisputed usage. He is an
American as am I.
o Undisputed usage. He is an
American like me.
o Undisputed usage. It looks as if
this play will be a flop.
o Undisputed usage. This play
looks like a flop.
o Disputed usage. He is an
American like I am.
170
o Disputed usage. It looks like

this play will be a flop.
 Literally - some prescriptivists
argue literally should not be used
as a mere emphatic, unless the
thing to which it refers is actually
true. It is used to disambiguate a
possible metaphorical
interpretation of a phrase. The
Merriam-Webster dictionary
doesn't condemn the second use
which means "in effect" or
"virtually", but says "the use is
pure hyperbole intended to gain
emphasis, but it often appears in
contexts where no additional
emphasis is necessary."
o Disputed usage: The party
literally went with a bang. (No
it didn't, unless there was an
actual explosion).
171
o Undisputed usage: He literally

painted the town red; he was
the council painter and
decorator.
 Momentarily - traditionally
means "for a moment", but is
often used disputedly to mean "in
a moment". It is often used by
those who want to inflate their
speech. Most dictionaries,
including M-W and AHD, include
a definition meaning "in a
moment", although the AHD4 has
a usage note indicating that 59%
of their usage panel disapproves
of this usage.
o Disputed usage: Your feature
presentation will begin
momentarily. (use "soon"
instead)
172
o Disputed usage: I will call you

momentarily, after I utilize the
sanitary facilities.
o Undisputed usage: The flash
from the atom bomb
momentarily lit up the night
sky.
 Not - some prescriptivists argue
not shouldn't conclude a sentence.
Others note that such usage is old
enough and has been utilized by
many of the best writers in the
English language.
o Disputed usage: I would think
not.
 Presently - traditionally means
"after a short period of time",
and this is the usage most
frequent in British English. In
American English, it most
commonly means "currently" or
"at the present time."
173
o Disputed usage: I am presently

reading Wikipedia.
o Undisputed usage: I will be
finished with that activity
presently.
 Refute - the traditional meaning
is "disprove" or "dispel with
reasoned arguments". It is now
often used a mere synonym for
"deny".
 Relatively- Literally meaning
"compared to," some now use the
word to mean "moderately" or
"somewhat."
o Disputed usage: That man was
relatively annoying.
o Undisputed usage: Though
relatively harmless when
compared to
dimethylmercury, mercury
(II) oxide is still quite toxic.
174
 Than - subject of a longstanding

dispute as to its status as a
preposition or conjunction; see
than.
 Thusly - thusly was originally
coined by educated writers to
make fun of uneducated persons
trying to sound genteel. Thusly,
however, diffused into popular
usage. Some people accept it as an
adverb in its own right, while
others believe thus should be used
in all cases.
 Unique some prescriptivists argue
that unique only means "sole" or
"unequaled", but most
dictionaries give a third meaning:
"unusual", which can be qualified
by very or somewhat, as in "The
theme of the party was somewhat
unique"; see comparison.
175
 Who - some prescriptivists argue

that "who" should be used only
as a subject pronoun, the
corresponding object pronoun
being "whom". Strictly speaking,
using who instead of whom is
substituting a subjective pronoun
for an objective pronoun and
hence is the same as using she
instead of her (e.g., I talked to she
today.). Most people never use
whom in spoken English and
instead use who for all cases.
Some, however, still do use whom
in their everyday speech and
might recognize the use of who in
its place as substandard.
o Undisputed usage: Who is
talking to you?
o Disputed usage: Who are you
talking to?
o Undisputed usage: To whom
are you talking?
176
o Disputed usage: To who are

you talking?
 Accept and except. While they
both sound the same (or at least
similar), except is a preposition
that means "apart from", while
accept is a verb that means "agree
with", "take in" or "receive".
Except is also rarely used as a
verb, meaning to leave out.
o Standard: We accept all major
credit cards, except Diners
Club.
o Standard: Men are fools...
present company excepted!
(Which means "present
company excluded")
o Non-standard: I had trouble
making friends with them; I
never felt excepted.
o Non-standard: We all went
swimming, accept for Jack.
177
 Acute and chronic. Acute means

"sharp", as an acute illness is one
that rapidly worsens and reaches
a crisis. A chronic illness may also
be a severe one, but it is long-
lasting or lingering.
o Standard: She was treated with
epinephrine during an acute
asthma attack.
o Standard: It is not a terminal
illness, but it does cause
chronic pain.
o Non-standard: I have suffered
from acute asthma for twenty
years.
 Affect and effect. The verb affect
means "to influence something",
and the noun effect (noun) means
"the result of". Effect can also be
a somewhat formal verb that
means "to cause [something] to
be", while affect as a noun has a
178
technical meaning in psychology:

an emotion or subjectively
experienced feeling.
o Standard. This poem affected
me so much that I cried.
o Standard. Temperature has an
effect on reaction spontaneity.
o Standard. The dynamite
effected the wall's collapse.
o Standard. He seemed
completely devoid of affect.
o Non-standard. The rain
effected our plans for the day.
o Non-standard. We tried
appeasing the rain gods, but
without affect.
 Barbaric and barbarous.
Barbaric applies to the culture of
barbarians and can be positive
("barbaric splendor"); barbarous
applies to the behavior of
barbarians and is negative
179
("barbarous cruelty"). A barbaric

ceremony would be a ceremony
celebrated by barbarians and
might be beautiful; a barbarous
ceremony would a ceremony, not
necessarily involving barbarians,
celebrated in a cruel or
destructive way.
 Cant and can't. There are several
meanings for the word cant
(without an apostrophe);
however, none of them is "unable
to". One meaning of cant is "a
kind of slang or jargon spoken by
a particular group of people".
Can't is a contraction of cannot.
o Standard: I can't understand
the dialogue in this book
because it's written in cant.
o Non-standard: I cant swim;
I've never taken lessons.
180
 Flounder and Founder. To

flounder is to be clumsy, confused,
indecisive or to flop around like a
fish out of water. A flounder is
also a type of flatfish. To founder
is to fill with water and sink.
o Standard: The ship is damaged
and may founder.
o Standard: She was floundering
on the balance beam.
o Non-standard: The ship is
damaged and may flounder.
 Flout and flaunt. One flouts a rule
or law by flagrantly ignoring it.
One flaunts something by
showing it off.
o Standard: If you've got it,
flaunt it.
o Standard: He continually
flouted the speed limit.
o Non-standard: If you've got it,
flout it.
181
o Non-standard: He continually
flaunted the speed limit.
 Infamous and Famous. To be
famous is to be widely-known.
Infamous is to be of exceedingly
ill repute (it derives not from
fame, but from infamy).
o Standard: Adolf Hitler was an
infamous dictator.
o Standard: John Wayne was a
famous actor.
o Non-standard: John Wayne
was an infamous actor.
 It's and its. It's is a contraction
that replaces it is or it has (see
apostrophe). Its is the possessive
pronoun corresponding to it, in
the same way that his
corresponds to he. In standard
written English, possessive nouns
take an apostrophe, but
possessive pronouns do not.
182
o Standard: It's time to eat!

o Standard: My cell phone has
poor reception because its
antenna is broken.
o Standard: It's been nice getting
to meet you.
o Non-standard: Its good to be
the king.
o Non-standard: The bicycle tire
had lost all it's pressure.
 Lay (lay, laid, laid, laying) and lie
(lie, lay, lain, lying) are often used
synonymously. Lay is a transitive
verb, meaning that it takes an
object. "To lay something" means
to place something. Lie, on the
other hand, is intransitive and
means to recline (and also to tell
untruths, but in this case the verb
is regular and causes no
confusion). The distinction
between these related verbs is
183
further blurred by the fact that

past tense of lie is lay. A quick test
is to see if the word in question
could be replaced with recline; if
it can, Standard English requires
lie.
o Standard: I lay my husband's
work clothes out for him every
morning. Yesterday I decided
to see if he paid attention to
what I was doing, so I laid out
one white sock and one black.
He didn't notice!
o Standard: You should not lie
down right after eating a large
meal. Yesterday I lay on my
bed for half an hour after
dinner, and suffered
indigestion as a result. My wife
saw me lying there and made
me get up; she told me that if I
had waited for a couple of
184
hours I could have lain down

in perfect comfort.
o Non-standard: Is this bed
comfortable when you lay on
it? (Should be lie)
o Non-standard: Yesterday I laid
down in my office during the
lunch hour. (Should be lay)
o Non-standard: There was no
reason for him to have laid
down in the middle of the
path, it unnerved me to see
him laying there saying
nothing. (Should be "have lain
down" and "him lying there")
 Loathe: Often used for loth or
loath in phrases such as "She was
loathe to accept." Loathe is only
used as a verb in Standard
English.
 Me, myself and I. In a traditional
prescriptive grammar, I is used
185
only as a subject, me is used only

as an object, and myself is used
only as a reflexive object, that is
to say when the subject is I and
the object would otherwise be me.
o Standard: Jim and I took the
train.
o Standard: He lent the books to
me and Jim.
o Non-standard: Me and Jim
went into town.
o Non-standard: It was clear to
Jim and I that the shop was
shut.
 Myself is often used in a way that
makes usage writers bristle,
particularly when someone is
trying to be "extra correct". Like
the other reflexive pronouns, in
prescriptive usage, myself should
be used only when both the
186
subject and object of the verb are

the speaker, or as an intensifier.
o Standard (intensifying): I
myself have seen instances of
that type.
o Standard (reflexive): I hurt
myself. I did it to myself. I
played by myself. I want to
enjoy myself.
o Non-standard: As for myself, I
prefer the red. (Just use me
here)
o Non-standard: He is an
American like myself. (Just
use me)
o Non-standard: He gave the
paper to Jim and myself. (Just
use me)
o Non-standard: My wife and
myself are not happy with all
the development going on in
town. (Just use I)
187
 Of and have. In spoken English,

of and the contracted form of
have, 've, sound the same.
However, in standard written
English, they aren't
interchangeable.
o Standard: Susan would have
stopped to eat, but she was
running late.
o Standard: You could've
warned me!
o Non-standard: I should of
known that the store would be
closed. (Should be "I should've
known")
 Redundant does not mean useless
or unable to perform its function.
It means that there is an excess of
something, or that something is
"surplus to requirements" and no
longer needed.
188
o Standard: A new pill that will

instantly cure any illness has
made antibiotics redundant.
(Antibiotics could still be used
to cure illnesses, but they are
no longer needed because a
better pill has been invented)
o Standard: The week before
Christmas, the company made
75 workers redundant.
o Non-standard: Over-use of
antibiotics risks making them
redundant. (This should read:
over-use of antibiotics risks
making them worthless)
 Sight and site. A site is a place, a
sight is something seen. The
internet may be dazzling to some,
but it is not a web-sight!
o Standard: You're a sight for
sore eyes.
189
o Standard: I literally found lots

of sites on the internet---I was
looking at a tourist site for
Rome.
o Non-standard: I found lots of
sights on the internet.
 Than and then. Than is a
grammatical particle and
preposition associated with
comparatives, whereas then is an
adverb and a noun. When spoken,
the two words are usually
homophones because they are
function words with reduced
vowels, and this may cause
speakers to confuse them.
o Standard: I like pizza more
than lasagne.
o Standard: We ate dinner, then
went to the movies.
o Non-standard: You're a better
person then me.
190
 There, their and they're. While

they all sound the same, in
standard written English they all
have separate, definite meanings,
and are not interchangeable.
There refers to the location of
something. Their means
"belonging to them". They're is a
contraction of "They are".
o Standard: Since they're all
coming to the restaurant for
their dinner, we'll meet them
there.
 You're, your, yore and ewer.
While they sound the same in
many dialects, in standard
written English they all have
separate meanings. You're is a
contraction for "you are", and
your is a possessive pronoun
meaning "belonging to you".
When in doubt, just see whether
191
you can logically expand it to

"you are". The third homonym,
yore, is an archaism meaning in
the distant past, and is almost
always used in the phrase "in
days of yore". The fourth is the
name of a once common piece of
household equipment made
obsolete by indoor plumbing: the
large jug holding washing water.
o Standard: When driving,
always wear your seatbelt.
o Standard: If you're going out,
please be home by ten o'clock.
o Non-standard: You're mother
called this morning.
o Non-standard: Your the first
person to notice my new
haircut today!
 Whomever - because of
hypercorrection, some speakers
and writers subsitute whomever
192
for whoever when the only latter

would be proper. One can
determine correct usuage by
rephrasing what follows the -ever.
If he (a subjective pronoun) is the
logical replacement for the -ever,
then whoever (also a subjective
pronoun) is correct. Only if him
(an objective pronoun) is the
logical replacement will
whomever (also an objective
pronoun) be correct.
o Disputed usage: We choose
whomever we think is best.
o Undisputed usage: We choose
whoever we think is best. (we
think he is best)
o Disputed usage: We choose
whoever the panel
recommends.
o Undisputed usage: We choose
whomever the panel
193
recommends. (the panel

recommends him)
 Won't and wont (usually
pronounced like want). Won't is a
contraction for "will not", while
wont is a less frequently used and
completely different word: as an
adjective it means accustomed or
inclined to.
o Standard: He won't let me
drive his car.
o Standard: He spent the
morning reading, as he was
wont to do.
o Non-standard: I wont need to
go to the supermarket after
all.

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1

b. Nouns and pronouns

c. Pronouns must agree

A sentence should express

than only in the hospital.

Prefer active verbs to

Building parallel elements

Make sure that pronouns

Make sure that a modifying

Make sure the modifier

Recognize the literal

Like a bolt from the blue

10. FAULTY WORD

Don't use "fancy" words for

Explaining the rationale for

Don't spin empty words; use

(1993), states that

12. COMMA SPLICES

A comma splice is the

a. Use a period or semicolon

We started to unpack our

b. Use a semicolon as well

are not well understood.

13. MISUSE OF COMMA,

a. Use a comma after each

function, decreased pain

b. Use a comma when you

c. Use a semicolon when

d. Do not use a comma to

e. Use a colon to introduce

quotation after a complete

Make sure each word group

Incorrect (the second

Revised: Tests of the Shroud

some curious findings. For

Incorrect: Scientists report

Revised: Scientists report

Too many equally weighted

Incorrect (There are no

Revised: The hearing, which

3. Misplaced and Dangling

Place modifiers near the

Incorrect: When writing a

Revised: When writing a

Incorrect: Many tourists

Revised: Every day from

Be sure you use

Incorrect: The candidate's

Revised: The candidate's

All pronouns must clearly

Incorrect: Einstein was a

Revised: Einstein, who was

Incorrect: Because Senator

the environment than in

Revised: Because of his

6. Incorrect Pronoun Case

Determine whether the

ideological conflict between

Incorrect: Because strict

Revised: Because strict

Use commas to signal

Incorrect: When it comes to

Revised: When it comes to

Incorrect: The Huns who