Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
PART-A
1. a) Primary Ionization:
The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a gas are
ionization by collision,
photo-ionization, and the
secondary ionization processes.
In insulating gases (also called electron-attaching gases) the process of attachment also
plays an important role. ------------2M
c) Electro-negative gases:
It is the process that gives high breakdown strength to a gas is the electron attachment in
which free electrons get attached to neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions.
Since negative ions like positive ions are too massive produce ionization due to collisions,
attachment represents an effective way of removing electrons which otherwise would have
led to current growth and breakdown at low voltages.
The gases in which attachment plays an active role are called electronegative gases.
------------2M
d) Uniform and Non-uniform field:
Electric field is uniform: A gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a breakdown
of the gap the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges.
Non-uniform field: An increase in voltage will first cause a discharge in the gas to appear
at points with highest electric field intensity. ------------2M
Thus 1.2/50µs , 1000 kV wave represents an impulse voltage wave with a front
time of 1.2 µs, fall time to 50% peak value of 50 µs , and a peak value of 1000 kV.
------------2M
h) Importance of high insulation in power system:
It is required to provide high insulation In power system because to protect from
Lightning over voltages
Switching over voltage and
Temporary over voltages.
------------2M
------------2M
j) Insulation coordination: It is defined as,
The correlation between insulation of the protecting device to the insulation of the
protected device in a power system called as insulation coordination.
The insulation level is always maintained lower value compared to the protected device
because if any surge will enter in to the power system the protecting device initially
operates whether it discharge or destroy and protect the protected device.
------------2M
PART-B
------------2M
2b) Stress intensification factor:
The electric field distribution is governed by the Poisson's equation
▼2 V = ρv / ε
Where V is the the potential at a given point, p is the space charge density in the region, and CQ
is the electric permittivity of free space (vacuum). However, in most of the high voltage
apparatus, space charges are not normally present, and hence the potential distribution is
governed by the Laplace's equation:
▼2 V = 0
The operator ▼ is called the Laplacian and is a scalar with properties.
There are many methods available for determining the potential distribution, the most commonly
used methods being,
(O the electrolytic tank method, and (if) the method using digital computers.
The potential distribution can also be calculated directly. Howevei, this is very difficult except for
simple geometries. In many practical cases, a good understanding of the problem is possible by
using some simple rules to sketch the field lines and equipotentials. The important rules are
Considerable amount of labour and time can be saved by properly choosing the planes of
symmetry and shaping the electrodes accordingly. Once the voltage distribution of a given
geometry is established, it is easy to refashion or redesign the electrodes to minimize the stresses
so that the onset of corona is prevented. This is a case normally encountered in high voltage
electrodes of the bushings, standard capacitors, etc. When two dielectrics of widely different
permittivities are in a series, the electric stress is very much higher in the medium of lower
permittivity. Considering a solid insulation
in a gas medium, the stress in the gas becomes er times that in the solid dielectric, where er is
the relative permittivity of the solid dielectric. This enhanced stress occurs at the electrode edges
and one method of overcoming this is to increase the electrode diameter.
------------3M
(3 ) Finite Element Method (FEM) Finite Element Method is widely used in the numerical
solution of electric field problems, and became very popular. In contrast to other numerical
methods, FEM is a very general method and therefore is a versatile tool for solving wide range
of electric field problems
------------2M
------------3M
------------3M
------------2M
4 (a) PASCHENS LAW:
Paschen's law is an equation that gives the breakdown voltage, that is,
the voltage necessary to start a discharge or electric arc, between two electrodes in a gas as a
function of pressure and gap length gives the breakdown voltage, that is, the voltage
necessary to start a discharge or electric arc, between two electrodes in a gas as a function of
pressure and gap length. ------------1M
and ------------2M
where E0 is the applied electric field, and p the gas pressure. In a uniform field
electrode system of gap distance d,
or
------------2M
4(b)
(5)(a)
(5)(b)
6)(A):-
----- 3 Marks
------- 2 Marks
6(B) Resonant Transformer
= 10 ---- 2 Marks
Overvoltages of power frequency harmonics and voltages with frequencies nearer to the operating
frequency are caused during tap changing operations, by magnetic or ferro-resonance
phenomenon in large power transformers, and by resonating overvoltages due to series
capacitors with shunt reactors or transformers. The duration of these overvoltages may be from
one to two cycles to a few seconds
depending on the overvoltage protection employed.
(a) Sudden Load Rejection
Sudden load rejection on large power systems causes the speeding up of generator prime movers.
The speed governors and automatic voltage regulators will intervene to restore normal
conditions. But initially both the frequency and voltage increase.
The voltage at the sending end is affected by the line length, short circuit MVA at sending end
bus, and reactive power generation of the line (due to line capacitive reactance and any shunt or
series capacitors). Shunt reactors may reduce the voltage to 1.2 to 1.4 p.u.
---- 2 Marks
---- 2 Marks
Single line to ground faults cause rise in voltages in other healthy phases. Usually, with solidly
grounded systems, the increases in voltage (phase to ground value) will be less than the line-to-
line voltage. With effectively grounded systems, i.e. with ^n ^n
T^S 3.0 and ^£1.0 X1 X1 (where, RQ and XQ are zero sequence resistance and reactance and X]
is the positive sequence reactance of the system), the rise in voltage of the healthy phases does
not usually exceed 1.4 per unit.
---- 2 Marks
(d) Saturation Effects
When voltages above the rated value are applied to transformers, their magnetizing currents (no
load currents also) increase rapidly and may be about the full rated current for 50% overvoltage.
These magnetizing currents are not sinusoidal in nature but are of a peaky waveform. The third,
fifth, and seventh harmonic contents may be 65%, 35%, and 25% of the exciting current of the
fundamental frequency corresponding to an overvoltage of 1.2 p.u. For third and its multiple
harmonics, zero sequence impedance values are effective, and delta connected windings
suppress them. But the shunt connected capacitors and line capacitances can form resonant
circuits and cause high third harmonic overvoltages. When such overvoltages are added, the
voltage rise in the lines may be significant. For higher harmonics a series resonance between the
transformer inductance and the line capacitance can occur which may produce even higher
voltages.
---- 2 Marks
9. Principles of Insulation Coordination in High Voltages:
---- 2 Marks
---- 3 Marks
10. Partial Discharge
--- 3 Marks
--- 2 Marks
11.
---- 5 marks
*****
Prepared by
K. Mahesh
Asst. Prof
EEE Dept, BVRITN