Charging station

An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging

station, electric recharging point, charging point, charge
point, ECS (electronic charging station), and EVSE (electric vehicle
supply equipment), is an element in an infrastructure that supplies
electric energy for the recharging of electric vehicles, such as plug-in
electric vehicles, including electric cars, neighborhood electric
vehicles and plug-in hybrids. At home or work, some electric vehicles
have onboard converters that can plug into a standard electrical
outlet or a high-capacity appliance outlet. Others either require or can
use a charging station that provides electrical conversion, monitoring,
or safety functionality. These stations are also needed when traveling,
and many support faster charging at higher voltages and currents
than are available from residential EVSEs. Public charging stations
are typically on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies
or located at retail shopping centers and operated by many private
companies.

Charging stations provide one or a range of heavy duty or special Charging stations for electric vehicles:
connectors that conform to the variety of competing standards.
Top-left: a Tesla Roadster (2008) being
Common rapid charging standards include the Combined Charging
charged at an electric charging station in Iwata
System, CHAdeMO, and the Tesla Supercharger.
city, Japan.
As of August 2018, there were 800,000 electric vehicles and 18,000 Top-right: Nissan Leaf recharging from a NRG
charging stations in the United States.[1] Energy eVgo station in Houston, Texas.
Bottom-left: converted Toyota Priuses
recharging at public charging stations in San
Contents Francisco (2009).
Bottom-right: Brammo Empulse electric
Contexts
motorcycle at an AeroVironment charging
Overview
International status
station.
Safety
Standards
Residential charging
Mode 1: Domestic socket and extension cord
Mode 2: Domestic socket and cable with a protection device
Mode 3: Specific socket on a dedicated circuit
Mode 4: Direct current (DC) connection for fast recharging
Infrastructure
Charging time
Charging connectors: IEC Type 1/
Costs
SAE J1772 inlet (left); Tesla02
Deployment of public charging stations proprietary outlet (centre); IEC Type
Locations 2 connector outlet (right)
Vehicle and charging station projects and joint ventures
Charging station manufacturers
 Charging station manufacturers
Charging network operators
Feud
EV charging station signs
Block heater power supplies
Battery swapping
Voltia
Related technologies
Smart grid communication Charging connectors: IEC Type 4/
Renewable electricity and RE charging stations CHAdeMO (left); CCS Combo 2
SPARC station (centre); IEC Type 2 outlet (right)
E-Move charging station
Wind-powered charging station

See also
Notes

Contexts
Charging stations fall into four basic contexts:

1. Residential charging stations: An EV owner plugs in when he or she returns home, and
the car recharges overnight. A home charging station usually has no user
authentication, no metering, and may require wiring a dedicated circuit. Some portable
chargers can also be wall mounted as charging stations.
2. Charging while parked (including public charging stations) – a commercial venture for a
fee or free, offered in partnership with the owners of the parking lot. This charging may
be slow or high speed and encourages EV owners to recharge their cars while they take
advantage of nearby facilities. It can include parking stations, parking at malls, small
centers, and train stations (or for a business's own employees).
3. Fast charging at public charging stations >40 kW, delivering over 60 miles (100 km) of
range in 10–30 minutes. These chargers may be at rest stops to allow for longer
distance trips. They may also be used regularly by commuters in metropolitan areas,
and for charging while parked for shorter or longer periods. Common examples are Charging station with
CHAdeMO (a company that designs and sells standardized chargers), SAE Combined NEMA connector for electric
Charging System, and Tesla Superchargers.[2] AMC Gremlin used by
4. Battery swaps or charges in under 15 minutes. A specified target for CARB credits for a Seattle City Light in 1973
zero-emission vehicle is adding 200 miles to its range in under 15 minutes. In 2014, this
was not possible for charging electric vehicles, but it is achievable with EV battery
swaps and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. It intends to match the refueling expectations of
regular drivers.
Battery capacity and the capability of handling faster charging are both increasing, and methods of charging have needed to
change and improve. New options have also been introduced (on a small scale, including mobile charging stations and charging
via inductive charging mats). The differing needs and solutions of various manufacturers has slowed the emergence of standard
charging methods, and in 2015, there is a strong recognition of the need for standardization.

Overview

International status
As of December 2012, around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U.S., Europe, Japan and China.[3] As
of August 2014, there are 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers deployed around the world, with 1,978 in Japan, 1,181 in Europe and
686 in the United States, 24 in other countries.[4] As of December 2013, Estonia is the first and only country that had completed
the deployment of an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with
165 fast chargers available along highways at a maximum distance of
between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi), and a higher density in urban
areas.[5][6][7]

As of March 2013, 5,678 public charging stations existed across the United
States, with 16,256 public charging points, of which 3,990 were located in
California, 1,417 in Texas, and 1,141 in Washington.[8][9] As of
November 2012, about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in
Europe.[10]

As of March 2013, Norway, which has the highest electric ownership per
capita, had 4,029 charging points and 127 quick charging stations.[11] As U.S. traffic sign used for EV charging station
part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch
government initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast (DC) charging stations
across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-
based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and
will aim to provide at least one station every 50 kilometres (31 miles) for the
Netherlands' 16 million residents.[12] In addition to that, the E-laad
foundation installed about 3000 public (slow) charge points since 2009.[13]

As of December 2012, Japan had 1,381 public quick-charge stations, the

largest deployment of fast chargers in the world, but only around 300 slow
chargers.[3] As of December 2012, China had around 800 public slow
charging points, and no fast charging stations.[3] As of December 2012, the Public-domain European charge station sign
country with the highest ratio of quick chargers to electric vehicles
(EVSE/EV) was Japan, with a ratio of 0.030, and the Netherlands had the
largest ratio of slow EVSE/EV, with more than 0.50, while the U.S had a slow EVSE/EV ratio of 0.20.[3]

As of September 2013, the largest public charging networks in Australia exist in the capital cities of Perth and Melbourne, with
around 30 stations (7 kW AC) established in both cities – smaller networks exist in other capital cities.[14]

In April 2017, YPF, the state-owned oil company of Argentina, reported that it will install 220 fast-load stations for electric
vehicles in 110 of its service stations in national territory.[15]

Safety
Although the rechargeable electric vehicles and equipment can be recharged from a
domestic wall socket, a charging station is usually accessible to multiple electric
vehicles and has additional current or connection sensing mechanisms to disconnect
the power when the EV is not charging.

There are two main types of safety sensor:

Current sensors which monitor the power consumed, and maintain the
connection only if the demand is within a predetermined range. Sensor wires
react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail and are possibly less expensive to
design and implement. Current sensors however can use standard connectors A charging station in Monza, Italy
and can readily provide an option for suppliers to monitor or charge for the
electricity actually consumed.
Additional physical "sensor wires" which provide a feedback signal such as specified by the undermentioned SAE J1772
and IEC 62196 schemes that require special (multi-pin) power plug fittings.
Until 2013, there was an issue where Blink chargers were overheating and causing
damage to both charger and car.[16][17] The solution employed by the company was
to reduce the maximum current.[18]

Standards
The US based SAE defines Level 1 charging as using a standard 120 volt AC house
outlet to charge an electric vehicle. This will take a long time to fully charge the car
but if only used to commute or travel short distances, a full charge is not needed or A Sunwin electric bus in Shanghai
at a charging station
can be done overnight.[19]

240 volt AC charging is known as Level 2 charging. Level 2 charging is similar to

household appliances such as clothes driers. Level 2 chargers range from chargers
installed in consumer garages, to relatively slow public chargers. They can charge an
electric car battery in 4–6 hours.[20] Level 2 chargers are often placed at destinations
so that drivers can charge their car while at work or shopping. Level 2 home
chargers are best for drivers who use their vehicles more often or require more
flexibility. In many countries outside of North and South America, this is the
standard household voltage.
A battery electric bus charging
"AC Level 3" charging was defined in early editions of SAE J1772 at up to 400 amps, station in Geneva, Switzerland
but has been dropped. Edition 7 of J1772 (2017) states in Appendix M "AC Level 3
charging has never been implemented. The following is historical information for
reference only." The term "Level 3" appears to have been adopted colloquially to mean DC "fast" charging, although "Level 3"
was never defined to mean that in J1772. Table 17 in Appendix M of J1772 (2017) lists AC Level 2 and AC Level 3 from 208 to
240 VAC, and DC Charging with 208-600 V input and 0–1000 V DC output.

DC charging generally supports charging up to 500 volts for passenger cars. Some newer high-end passenger car EVs and many
heavy duty EV trucks and buses use DC charging with a nominal DC voltage of 700 V or higher, but below 1000 V peak. The
organization CHAdeMO is working to standardize fast chargers.[21] DC chargers in North America often use a 480 VAC input
delivering 62.5 kW (peak power can be as much as 120 kW and is varied across the charge. 208 VAC inputs to the charger are
also used, and 400 VAC is standard in Europe. The Tesla Supercharger is the most ubiquitous in the United States. For a Tesla
Model S 75, a supercharger can add around 275 km (170 miles) of range in about 30 minutes or a full charge in around 75
minutes.[19] As of April 2018, Tesla reports that they have 1,210 supercharging stations and is continuously expanding the
network.[22]

Another standards organization, The International Electrotechnical Commission, defines charging in modes (IEC 62196).

Mode 1 – slow charging from a regular electrical socket (single- or three-phase)

Mode 2 – slow charging from a regular socket but with some EV specific protection arrangement (e.g., the Park & Charge
or the PARVE systems)
Mode 3 – slow or fast charging using a specific EV multi-pin socket with control and protection functions (e.g., SAE J1772
and IEC 62196)
Mode 4 – fast charging using some special charger technology such as CHAdeMO
There are three connection cases:

Case A is any charger connected to the mains (the mains supply cable is usually attached to the charger) usually
associated with modes 1 or 2.
Case B is an on-board vehicle charger with a mains supply cable which can be detached from both the supply and the
vehicle – usually mode 3.
Case C is a dedicated charging station with DC supply to the vehicle. The mains supply cable may be permanently
attached to the charge-station such as in mode 4.
There are four plug types:

Type 1 – single-phase vehicle coupler – reflecting the SAE J1772/2009 automotive plug specifications
Type 2 – single- and three-phase vehicle coupler – reflecting the VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 plug specifications
Type 3 – single- and three-phase vehicle coupler equipped with safety shutters – reflecting the EV Plug Alliance proposal
Type 4 – fast charge coupler – for special systems such as CHAdeMO
For Combined Charging System (CCS) DC charging which requires PLC (Powerline Communications), two extra connectors are
added at the bottom of Type 1 or Type 2 vehicle inlets and charging plugs to connect high voltage DC charging stations to the
battery of the vehicle. These are commonly known as Combo 1 or Combo 2 connectors. The choice of Combo 1 or Combo 2 style
inlets is normally standardised on a per-country basis, so that public charging providers do not need to fit cables with both
variants. Generally, North America uses Combo 1 style vehicle inlets, most of the rest of the world uses Combo 2 style vehicle
inlets for CCS.

Residential charging

Mode 1: Domestic socket and extension cord

The vehicle is connected to the power grid
through standard socket-outlets present in
residences, which depending on the country
are usually rated at around 10 A. To use mode
1, the electrical installation must comply with
the safety regulations and must have an
earthing system, a circuit breaker to protect Mode 1 : Fixed, non-dedicated socket
against overload and an earth leakage
protection. The sockets have blanking devices
to prevent accidental contacts.

The first limitation is the available power, to

avoid risks of: Mode 2 : Non-dedicated socket with cable-incorporated protection device

Heating of the socket and cables following

intensive use for several hours at or near
the maximum power (which varies from 8
to 20 A depending on the country).
Fire or electric injury risks if the electrical
installation is obsolete or if certain
protective devices are absent. Mode 3 : Fixed, dedicated circuit-socket

The second limitation is related to the

installation's power management.

As the charging socket shares a feeder

from the switchboard with other sockets
(no dedicated circuit) if the sum of Mode 4 : DC Connection
consumptions exceeds the protection limit
(in general 16 A), the circuit-breaker will
trip, stopping the charging.

Mode 2: Domestic socket and cable with a protection device

The vehicle is connected to the main power grid via household socket-outlets. Charging is done via a single-phase or three-
phase network and installation of an earthing cable. A protection device is built into the cable. This solution is more expensive
than Mode 1 due to the specificity of the cable.

Mode 3: Specific socket on a dedicated circuit

The vehicle is connected directly to the electrical network via specific socket and plug and a dedicated circuit. A control and
protection function is also installed permanently in the installation. This is the only charging mode that meets the applicable
standards regulating electrical installations. It also allows load shedding so that electrical household appliances can be operated
during vehicle charging or on the contrary optimise the electric vehicle charging time.

Mode 4: Direct current (DC) connection for fast recharging

The electric vehicle is connected to the main power grid through an external charger. Control and protection functions and the
vehicle charging cable are installed permanently in the installation.

Infrastructure
Charging stations for electric vehicles may not need much new infrastructure in
developed countries, less than delivering a new alternative fuel over a new
network.[23] The stations can leverage the existing ubiquitous electrical grid and
home recharging is an option. For example, polls have shown that more than half of
homeowners in the United States have access to a plug to charge their cars. Also
most driving is local over short distances which reduces the need for charging mid-
trip. In the USA, for example, 78% of commutes are less than 40 miles (64 km)
round-trip.[24] Nevertheless, longer drives between cities and towns require a
network of public charging stations or another method to extend the range of
Prototype modified Renault Laguna
electric vehicles beyond the normal daily commute. One challenge in such
E.V. cars charging at Project Better
infrastructure is the level of demand: an isolated station along a busy highway may Place charging stations in Ramat
see hundreds of customers per hour if every passing electric vehicle has to stop there Hasharon, Israel, north of Tel Aviv.
to complete the trip. In the first half of the 20th century, internal combustion
vehicles faced a similar infrastructure problem.

Charging time
The charging time depends on the battery capacity and the charging power. In simple terms, the time rate of charge depends on
the charging level used, and the charging level depends on the voltage handling of the batteries and charger electronics in the
car. The US based SAE defines Level 1 (household 120 VAC) as the slowest, Level 2 (upgraded household 240 VAC) in the
middle and Level 3 (super charging, 480 VDC or higher) as the fastest. Level 3 charge time can be as fast as 30 minutes for an
80% charge, although there has been serious industry competition about whose standard should be widely adopted. Charge
time can be calculated using the formula: Charging Time [h] = Battery Capacity [kWh] / Charging Power [kW][25]

The battery capacity of a fully charged electric vehicle from electric vehicle automakers (such as Nissan) is about 20 kWh,
providing it with an electrical autonomy of about 100 miles. Tesla initially released their Model S with battery capacities of
40 kWh, 60 kWh and 85 kWh with the latter having an estimated range of approximately 480 km; as of January 2018 they have
two models, 75 kWh and 100 kWh. Plug in hybrid vehicles have capacity of roughly 3 to 5 kWh, for an electrical autonomy of 20
to 40 kilometers, but the gasoline engine ensures the full autonomy of a conventional vehicle.
As the electric-only autonomy is still limited, the vehicle has to be charged every two
or three days on average. In practice, drivers plug in their vehicles each night, thus
starting each day with a full charge.

For normal charging (up to 7.4 kW), car manufacturers have built a battery charger
into the car. A charging cable is used to connect it to the electrical network to supply
230 volt AC current. For quicker charging (22 kW, even 43 kW and more),
manufacturers have chosen two solutions:

Use the vehicle's built-in charger, designed to charge from 3 to 43 kW at 230 V

single-phase or 400 V three-phase.
Use an external charger, which converts AC current into DC current and
charges the vehicle at 50 kW (e.g. Nissan Leaf) or more (e.g. 120-135 kW Tesla
Model S).

Charging time for 100 km of Power Max.

Power Voltage
BEV range supply current
Single
6–8 hours 3.3 kW 230 V AC 16 A
phase
Public charging stations in a parking
Single
3–4 hours 7.4 kW 230 V AC 32 A lot near Los Angeles International
phase
Airport. Shown are two old/obsolete
Three (6 kW level-2) EVSE units (left:
2–3 hours 11 kW 400 V AC 16 A
phase inductive Magne-charge gen2 SPI,
Three right: conductive EVII ICS-200
1–2 hours 22 kW 400 V AC 32 A
phase AVCON).
Three
20–30 minutes 43 kW 400 V AC 63 A
phase
Direct 400–500 100–125
20–30 minutes 50 kW
current V DC A
Direct 300–500 300–350
10 minutes 120 kW
current V DC A

The user finds charging an electric vehicle as simple as connecting a normal

electrical appliance; however to ensure that this operation takes place in complete
safety, the charging system must perform several safety functions and dialogue with
the vehicle during connection and charging. REVAi/G-Wiz i charging from an on-
street station in London

Costs
Tesla currently gives the owners of its Model S and Model X cars a supercharging credit that gives 400 kWh for free.[26] After
that credit is used, drivers using Tesla Superchargers have to pay per kWh. The price ranges from $0.06 to $0.26 per kWh in
the United States.[27] The benefit of Tesla superchargers is that they are only usable by Tesla vehicles. Other charging networks
are available for non-Tesla vehicles. The Blink network of chargers has both Level 2 and DC Fast Chargers and charges separate
rates for members and non members. Their prices range from $0.39 to $0.69 per kWh for members and $0.49 to $0.79 per
kWh for non members, depending on location.[28] The ChargePoint network has free chargers and paid chargers that drivers
activate with a free membership card.[29] The paid charging stations' prices are based on local rates (similarly to Blink). Other
networks use similar payment methods as typical gas stations, in which one pays with cash or a credit card per kWh of
electricity.

Deployment of public charging stations

Currently charging stations are being installed by public authorities, commercial
enterprises and some major employers in order to stimulate the market for vehicles
that use alternative fuels to gasoline and diesel fuels. For this reason, most charge
stations are currently either provided gratis or accessible to members of certain
groups without significant charge (e.g. activated by a free "membership card" or by a
digital "day code").

Locations
Charging stations can be found and will be needed where there is on-street parking,
at taxi stands, in parking lots (at places of employment, hotels, airports, shopping
centers, convenience shops, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses etc.), as well as in
the workplaces, in driveways and garages at home. Existing filling stations may also
incorporate charging stations. As of 2017, charging stations have been criticized for
being inaccessible, hard to find, out of order, and slow; thus reducing EV
expansion.[30] At the same time more gas stations add EV charging stations to meet
the increasing demand among EV drivers.[31]
SemaConnect Electric vehicle
charging stations for commercial
use
Vehicle and charging station projects and joint ventures
Electric car manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and regional
governments have entered into many agreements and ventures to promote and
provide electric vehicle networks of public charging stations.

The EV Plug Alliance[32] is an association of 21 European manufacturers which

proposes an alternative connecting solution. The project is to impose an IEC norm
and to adopt a European standard for the connection solution with sockets and
plugs for electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Members (Schneider Electric,
Legrand, Scame, Nexans, etc.) argue that the system is safer because they use BYD e6. Recharging in 15 Minutes
to 80 Percent
shutters. General consensus is that the IEC 62196 and IEC 61851-1 already have
taken care of safety by making parts non-live when touchable.[33][34][35]

Charging station manufacturers

The principal suppliers and manufacturers of charging stations offer a range of
options from simple charging posts for roadside use, charging cabinets for covered
parking places to fully automated charging stations integrated with power
distribution equipment[36]
Solaris Urbino 12 electric, battery
electric bus, inductive charging
Charging station manufacturers station

Andersen A1[37]
Chargemaster Plc[38]
eMotorWerks JuiceBox[39]
Etrel[40][41]
Garo[42]
POD Point[43]
Smartcharge Ltd[44]
WattZilla
These companies (among AC slow-charging stations) design and
manufacture DC fast charging stations (less than 30 minutes). These
systems may offer a restricted charge, stopping at a charge level of 80%,
or may change the charging rate to a lower level after a charge level of
80% is reached.

ABB[45] (Stations with CHAdeMO and CCS)

AeroVironment
Andromeda Power[46] (Stations with CHAdeMO, ISO61851 and SAE
Combined Charging System CCS) power input from Solar Panel
(S2V) and from another vehicle (V2V).
Bosch Automotive Service Solutions Inc.[47] (Stations with SAE
Combined Charging System CCS).
Delta Electronics[48][49][50] (Stations with CHAdeMO certified)
Eaton[51] (Stations with CHAdeMO and SAE Combined Charging
System CCS) (US and Canada) up to 1 MW.
EFACEC [52] (Stations with CHAdeMO and CCS (E.U. or U.S.) (CCS)
Elmec[53](Canada. Stations with CHAdeMO and SAE Combined
Charging System) Wireless charging station
E-Station (Australia)
EVTRONIC[54] (Stations with CHAdeMO, ISO61851 and SAE
Combined Charging System CCS) .
EV Charge + [55] (Sweden)
Flo[56](Canada. Station with CHAdeMO and SAE Combined
Charging System)
Fuji Electric[57] and [58]
Nidec Industrial Solutions
Schneider Electric
Detail of the wireless inductive charging device
Star Charge China
Siemens[59] (Stations with CHAdeMO and CCS (E.U. or U.S.))
Signet Systems
Valent Power

Charging network operators

An operator manages charging stations from one or more manufacturers.

Allego (Europe)
ChargeNet N (New Zealand)
Chargefox (Australia)
Charge Star (Australia) Tesla Model S charging at a Tesla
Supercharger (rapid-charging)
ChargePoint
station in Gilroy, California.
E.ON
Ecotricity
E-FLux
eMotorWerks JuiceNet
EVgo
EV-Box
Fastned (Europe)
Flo[60] (Canada)
GreenFlux
Greenlots
Greenway Infrastructure (Central & Eastern Europe)
 Green Frontiers (Sri Lanka)

www.green-frontiers.net (http://www.green-frontiers.net)

Go Electric Stations
SemaConnect
Star Charge China
Tesla, Inc.
WENAR, Poland

Feud
Reports emerged in late July 2013 of a significant conflict between the companies responsible for the two types of charging
plugs. The Japanese-developed CHAdeMO standard is favored by Nissan, Mitsubishi, and Toyota, while the Society of
Automotive Engineers’ (SAE) International J1772 Combo standard is backed by FCA, GM, Ford, Volkswagen, and BMW. Both
are direct-current quick-charging systems designed to charge the battery of an electric vehicle to 80 percent in approximately
20 minutes, but the two systems are completely incompatible. In light of an ongoing feud between the two groups, experts in
the field warned that the momentum of the electric vehicle market will be severely affected.[61][62] Richard Martin, editorial
director for clean technology marketing and consultant firm Navigant Research, stated:

Fast charging, however and whenever it gets built out, is going to be key for the development of a mainstream
market for plug-in electric vehicles. The broader conflict between the CHAdeMO and SAE Combo connectors, we
see that as a hindrance to the market over the next several years that needs to be worked out.[62]

As of September 16, 2013, a standard does not exist in Australia for charging connectors. Australia’s first fast-DC charging
stations follow the Japanese CHAdeMO standard.[14]

EV charging station signs

In the United States, the standard charging station sign is defined in the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) 2009 edition.[63]

In July 2013, FHWA released interim MUTCD approval for charging station signs located on public roads governed by MUTCD
standards.[64]

There is an open source, public domain European charge station sign proposed.[65]

Block heater power supplies

In colder areas such as Finland, some northern US states and Canada there already exists some infrastructure for public power
outlets provided primarily for use by block heaters and set with circuit breakers that prevent large current draws for other uses.
These can sometimes be used to recharge electric vehicles, albeit slowly.[66] In public lots, some such outlets are turned on only
when the temperature falls below -20 °C, further limiting their use.[67]

Battery swapping
A battery swapping (or switching) station is a place at which a vehicle's discharged battery or battery pack can be immediately
swapped for a fully charged one, eliminating the delay involved in waiting for the vehicle's battery to charge.
Battery swapping is common in warehouses using electric forklift trucks.[68] The concept of an exchangeable battery service was
first proposed as early as 1896, in order to overcome the limited operating range of electric cars and trucks. It was first put into
practice between 1910 and 1924, by Hartford Electric Light Company, through the GeVeCo battery service, and was initially
available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle, without a battery, from General Vehicle Company
(GeVeCo), part-owned by General Electric,[69] and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through the use of an
exchangeable battery. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The owner paid a variable
per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck. During the period of the service, the
vehicles covered more than 6 million miles.

Beginning in 1917, a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Electric cars, who also could buy
the vehicle without the batteries.[70] A rapid battery replacement system was implemented to keep running 50 electric buses at
the 2008 Summer Olympics.[71]

In recent years, Better Place, Tesla, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have been involved with integrating battery switch
technology with their electric vehicles to extend driving range.[72][73] In a battery switch station, the driver does not need to get
out of the car while the battery is swapped.[74] Battery swap requires an electric car designed for the "easy swap" of batteries.
However, electric vehicle manufacturers working on battery switch technology have not standardized on battery access,
attachment, dimension, location, or type.

In 2013, Tesla announced a proprietary charging station service to support owners of Tesla vehicles. A network of Tesla
Supercharger stations was supposed to support both battery pack swaps for the Model S, along with the more-widespread fast
charging capability for both the Model S and the Tesla Roadster.[75][76] However, Tesla has abandoned their battery swap
initiatives in favor of rapidly expanding fast-charging stations.[77] This decision has driven Tesla to be a market-leader in fast
charging stations, amounting to 1,210 stations worldwide, as of April 2018.[78]

The following benefits are claimed for battery swapping:

Fast battery swapping under five minutes.[79][80]

Unlimited driving range where there are battery switch stations available.[81]
The driver does not have to get out of the car while the battery is swapped.[82]
The driver does not own the battery in the car, transferring costs over the battery, battery life, maintenance, capital cost,
quality, technology, and warranty to the battery switch station company.[83]
Contract with battery switch company could subsidize the electric vehicle at a price lower than equivalent petrol cars.[84]
The spare batteries at swap stations could participate in vehicle to grid storage.

A Zotye M300 EV having its batteries The batteries of a Zotye M300 EV Wear and tear in the battery
replaced. being charged before being swapped. compartment of a Zotye M300 EV,
located in the trunk.

Better Place
The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the
battery switching model. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the first electric car enabled
with switchable battery technology available for the Better Place network in
operation in Israel and Denmark.[85] Better Place used the same technology to swap
batteries that F-16 jet fighter aircraft use to load their bombs.[86] Better Place
launched its first battery-swapping station in Israel, in Kiryat Ekron, near Rehovot
in March 2011. The battery exchange process took five minutes.[79][87] As of
December 2012, about 600 Fluence Z.E.s had been sold in the country. Sales during
the first quarter of 2013 improved, with 297 cars sold, bringing the total fleet in
A Better Place battery switching
Israel close to 900.[88] As of December 2012, there were 17 battery switch stations
station in Israel
fully operational in Denmark, enabling customers to drive anywhere across the
country in an electric car.[89] Fluence Z.E. sales totaled 198 units through December
2012.[90]

Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment
required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market
penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Fewer than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars had been deployed
in Israel and only around 400 units in Denmark.[91][92] Under Better Place's business model, the company owned the batteries,
so the court liquidator had to decide what to do with customers who did not have ownership of the battery and risked being left
with a useless car.[93]

Tesla

Tesla designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[72] In June 2013, Tesla
announced its goal of deploying a battery swapping station in each of its
supercharging stations. At a demonstration event, Tesla showed that a battery swap
operation with the Model S took just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to
refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.[80][94] Tesla Supercharger network rapid
charging station in Tejon Ranch,
The first stations were planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California California. The rooftop of the carport
because, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans make the San has a solar collector manufactured
Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. Those stations were to be followed by ones on by SolarCity feeding energy into the
the Washington, DC to Boston corridor. Elon Musk said the service would be offered grid.
for the price of about 15 US gallons (57 l; 12 imp gal) of gasoline at the current local
rate, around US$60 to US$80 at June 2013 prices. Owners could pick up their
battery pack fully charged on the return trip, which was included in the swap fee. Tesla would also offer the option to keep the
pack received on the swap and pay the price difference if the battery received was newer, or to receive the original pack back
from Tesla for a transport fee. Pricing had not been determined.[80]

In June 2015, Musk indicated that Tesla was likely to abandon its plans to build a network of swap stations. He told his
company's shareholders that, despite inviting all Model S owners in the California area to try out the one existing facility, at
Harris Ranch, only four or five people had done so. Consequently, it was unlikely that the concept was worth expanding.[95]

Gogoro Energy Network

Gogoro has announced their intention to launch the Gogoro Energy Network in 2015. The network is built on the idea of
distributed GoStations which will serve as battery swapping locations for Gogoro's Smartscooters.

BattSwap
BattSwap is a new European start-up with battery swap solution. It has a working prototype covered by seed funding received
from European angels. Swap station takes only 30 seconds to make a complete swap and is 10x cheaper than Tesla supercharger
to build.

Voltia
Voltia (formerly Greenway Operator) designed and runs proprietary battery
swapping stations (BSS) in Slovakia for switching the batteries in light commercial
vehicles. The stations have been in successful commercial operation since 2012.

Voltia's BSS are drive up/drive in station, with a house for a number of batteries to
be charged simultaneously. The structure allows drivers to pull up and, using a
hydraulic lift, switch their used battery with a new, fully charged one in under 7
Battery Swap Station for light
minutes.[96] A computer system notifies drivers where to dock their old battery and
commercial vehicles in Slovakia
which new one to take. It is ideal for companies for whom time is of the essence and
time spent recharging is time and money.[97][98]

The batteries come in a variety of sizes (40-90kWh), which offer different useful
ranges (160–270 km).

Criticism

These battery swapping solution have been criticized for being proprietary. By
creating a monopoly regarding the ownership of the batteries and the patent
protected technologies the companies split up the market and decrease the chances
of a wider usage of battery swapping.[99]

Related technologies

Smart grid communication

Recharging a large battery pack presents a high load on the electrical grid, but this
can be scheduled for periods of reduced load or reduced electricity costs. In order to loading a Voltia electric LKW battery
pack
schedule the recharging, either the charging station or the vehicle can communicate
with the smart grid. Some plug-in vehicles allow the vehicle operator to control
recharging through a web interface or smartphone app.[100] Furthermore, in a vehicle-to-grid scenario the vehicle battery can
supply energy to the grid at periods of peak demand. This requires additional communication between the grid, charging
station, and vehicle electronics. SAE International is developing a range of standards for energy transfer to and from the grid
including SAE J2847/1 "Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid".[101] ISO and IEC are also developing a
similar series of standards known as ISO/IEC 15118: "Road vehicles -- Vehicle to grid communication interface".

Renewable electricity and RE charging stations

Charging stations are usually connected to the electrical grid, which often means that their electricity originates from fossil-fuel
power stations or nuclear power plants. Solar power is also suitable for electric vehicles. Nidec Industrial Solutions has
designed a system that can be powered by either the grid or renewable energy sources like PV (50-320 kW). SolarCity is
marketing its solar energy systems along with electric car charging installations. The company has announced a partnership
with Rabobank to make electric car charging available for free to owners of Tesla vehicles traveling on Highway 101 between
San Francisco and Los Angeles. Other cars that can make use of same charging technology are welcome.[102]`
 Several Chevrolet Volts at a charging station powered with solar panels in Frankfort, Illinois.

SPARC station
The SPARC (Solar Powered Automotive ReCharging Station) uses a single custom fabricated monocrystalline solar panel
capable of producing 2.7 kW of peak power to charge pure electric or plug-in hybrid to 80% capacity without drawing electricity
from the local grid. Plans for the SPARC include a non-grid tied system as well as redundancy for tying to the grid through a
renewable power plan. This supports their claim for net-zero driving of electric vehicles.

E-Move charging station

The E-Move Charging Station is equipped with eight monocrystalline solar panels, which can supply 1.76 kWp of solar power.
With further refinements, the designers are hoping to generate about 2000 kWh of electricity from the panels over the year.[103]

Wind-powered charging station

In 2012, Urban Green Energy introduced the world's first wind-powered electric vehicle charging station, the Sanya SkyPump.
The design features a 4 kW vertical-axis wind turbine paired with a GE WattStation.[104]

See also
Automated charging machine
Battery charging
Battery charger
Direct coupling
ECOtality
Electric vehicle battery
Electric vehicle network
Filling station
IAV
List of energy storage projects
Magne Charge
Park & Charge
Plug-in electric vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Plugless Power
Radio-frequency identification
SAE J1772, CHAdeMO and Combined Charging System charging standards
Solar Roadways
Solar vehicle
Street light
Vehicle-to-grid and GridPoint
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