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SAVANNA INSTITUTE
Perennial Pathways
SAVANNA INSTITUTE
2
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
To Sylvan and Ember, and your generation—we plant trees for you. —MW
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This guide was developed as part of my graduate studies at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. I
would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Sarah Taylor Lovell, for inviting me to be a part of the pioneering work her
lab does in multifunctional perennial agriculture. Thanks also to my other committee members, Adam Davis and
Gary Kling, who patiently worked with me as I developed my thesis. Special thanks to Michael Douglass, lab tech
extraordinaire, and to all my labmates— thanks for letting me bounce my crazy ideas off you, and for the help
with stats. You are all world changers. Thanks also to Jerry Lehman, Ron Revord, and Kevin Wolz for reviewing the
persimmon, hazelnut, and walnut sections, respectively. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support of my
amazing wife, Meg, and my two kiddos. I could not have done this without you. —MW
This work was supported by Hatch Act Funds (Project number ILLU-802-938) and Foundational Programs, Agri-
culture Economics and Rural Communities, Award Number 2014-68006-22041 from the USDA National Institute
of Food and Agriculture; and by the Department of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign
through the Jonathan Baldwin Turner Fellowship. Additional funding for this guide was provided through North
Central Region SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education) and The Hegner Family Foundation.
4
Foreward
Matt Wilson, lead author of this excellent book, has a knack for nding where the wild meets the practical. I rst heard
from him when he was plotting out persimmon, mulberry, and chestnut silvopasture paddocks, with fruit drop planned in
se uence for livestock to harvest through several rotations each season. This book is lled with these sorts of wildly practical
ways to integrate perennial crops on your farm.
Perennial crops hold the key to the next green revolution. Some dismiss this as radical. But soil life is the basis of abundance,
and perennials can build soil fertility while producing marketable crops. Protecting and regenerating soil allows us to wean
ourselves from fossil inputs. Tree crops and integrated livestock, as demonstrated in this book, hold this radical power. Wes
Jackson, prophet of perennial agriculture, places himself a century from now, looking back at our current time in history, as
we confront these core uestions:
“Sure, the world must be fed, but then what if we fail to stop greenhouse gas accumulation, soil
erosion, and the depletion of fresh water?” These were the days of the Great Awakening, when few
appreciated that soil is more important than oil and just as much of a nonrenewable resource.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scientists concluded that agriculture was the number one threat
to Earth Island’s wild biodiversity. It was a time to confront the Problem of Agriculture instead of only
addressing problems in agriculture; it was time to tap the wildness, the diversity and creative
complexity of the entire ecosphere, beginning with the land that feeds us; it was time to awaken a
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
new and equally creative, diverse, complex, and equally wild human place within that ecosphere.*
To translate this wisdom of the wild into a successful farm startup, I recommend putting this book to work along with other
educational resources. For the critical step of re ning your goals into a big-picture farm plan, Whole Farm Planning from
NOFA is invaluable. And if you need a place to plant tree crops, or if you own land and want to partner with a farmer, check
out Inspirations for Creating a Long-Term Agricultural Lease for Agroforestry: A Workbook, along with other land access
resources that the Savanna Institute has curated on the web. The list goes on; the point is to learn from the mistakes and
successes of others as we create new ways to farm.
This book will be helpful throughout the stages of farm startup: from the outset of envisioning into the thick of planting and
managing crops. In the beginning, it will provide sparks to the imagination. Then, the book offers scaffolding for plans to take
shape. Throughout, it informs decisions of when to do it yourself and when to seek out help.
The species pro les I particularly appreciate. Selecting pro t centers that will make money is one of the most important
choices a farmer makes. Even without access to the best varieties or markets, many perennial crops can be pro table if cho-
sen wisely: grow what will grow, grow what you love, and grow what you can sell.
In the end, a farmer needs more than books about farming. Many things help: rich soil, practical experience, good mentors
and neighbors, multiple kinds of capital, a exible off-farm job, hungry customers, gritty hard work, etc. Along with all that,
building a resilient farming system will help you steady the ship amidst volatile markets and labor, droughts and oods, and
other vagaries of the almanac. Research shows that resilient farms integrate perennial crops to optimize management ef-
ciency with diversity. This means regenerating our farms—and the whole human place in the ecosphere—with wildness,
to echo Wes Jackson. It will take more than books, but I expect this book will help many farmers plant tree crops in wildly
practical ways.
Jackson, Wes. Earth Island: Prelude to a Eutopian History. Wildness: Relations of People and Place. Edited by Gavin Van Horn and John Hausdoerffer,
University of Chicago Press, 2017, pp. 233-234.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6 INTRODUCTION
9 SITE EVALUATION
21 TOOLBOX: SPECIES PROFILES
41 LIVESTOCK
47 HARVEST & PROCESSING
51 GOAL SETTING
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
57 DESIGN & LAYOUT
62 OBTAINING PLANTS
66 FIELD PREPARATION
74 PLANTING TREES
78 TREE PROTECTION
84 WEED CONTROL
87 BEYOND ESTABLISHMENT
91 ECONOMICS
94 FARMER PROFILES
97 APPENDIX
103 BIBLIOGRAPHY
6
INTRODUCTION
"We all have the forest in our blood." - Robert A. de J. Hart
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
For almost every environmental challenge facing agricul-
What’s in a Name?
ture, trees can help1. Their roots protect the soil by pre- WHAT IS AGROFORESTRY?
venting erosion, and falling leaves and natural root dieback Agroforestry is the intentional mixing of trees with other
build soil organic matter2. Trees capture excess fertilizers crops or livestock. Agroforestry allows us to obtain multi-
and agricultural chemicals that would have ended up in ple products from the same land, like timber and vegeta-
waterways3. They pull carbon out of the air, combatting cli- bles, or wheat and walnuts. Mixing more than one crop is
mate change4,5. Trees provide habitat and food for wildlife, referred to as a polyculture, as opposed to a monoculture,
increasing the biological diversity (and therefore, stability) which is growing only one crop at a time.
of our ecosystems6. The United States Department of Agriculture recognizes
SOCIAL BENEFITS ve agroforestry practices: alley cropping, silvopasture,
Trees are good for people too7. Research shows that treed riparian buffers, windbreaks and forest farming. Some
landscapes contribute to mental wellbeing8. They provide practitioners and researchers dislike the idea of separat-
oxygen and reduce air pollution. Their ability to keep wa- ing agroforestry into distinct parts because there is a lot of
ter clean means fewer chemicals coming out of our taps. overlap among systems. We include them here so that you
7
Alley cropping
Growing eld crops between rows of trees. The trees can be
grown for timber, fruits, and/or nuts, while the alley crops
may include grains, vegetables, or forages cut for hay.
Windbreaks
Rows of trees planted to prevent wind erosion, provide hab-
itat for wildlife, and increase water availability to nearby
crops. On a farmstead, windbreaks can decrease the heating
and cooling needs for living and working spaces by reducing
indoor air exchange caused by wind.
INTRODUCTION
Forest farming
Raising shade-tolerant crops such as mushrooms, medicinal
herbs, and woody ornamental material in established for-
ests.
Silvopasture
Incorporating livestock into an intentional mix of trees and
pasture. Silvopasture is different from grazing the woods ,
as the spacing of the trees is planned to allow enough sun-
light for the forages below and the livestock are kept from
damaging the trees. The trees offer shade during the heat of
the summer and wind reduction in the cold winter.
Riparian buffers
Planted areas around waterways that are at risk from ero-
sion, nutrient leaching, or habitat loss. Producers may
choose different types of vegetation depending upon the
slope and distance from the waterway.
Why this guide? Many of the topics touched on, like rotational grazing or
Agroforestry has been around for decades, though the plant propagation, are entire disciplines unto themselves.
approach of integrating multiple species of edible trees Therefore, every effort should be made to learn as much
and shrubs with vegetables, row crops, or livestock into a as you can before trying a new practice on your farm. Visit
farm-scale system in temperate areas is relatively recent15. farmers who are already doing what you want to do. Gath-
Although homesteaders and permaculturalists have been er useful books, extension publications, and journal arti-
exploring these techniques on a small scale, the systems in cles. Go to conferences. Listen to webinars and lectures.
this handbook have the potential to be scaled up and even Understand the risks that come with undertaking a new
to be mechanized, making them practical for more farmers enterprise. Make a plan to mitigate these risks that will
to implement. However, as you increase the diversity on give you the best chance of achieving your goals. Then, get
your farm, more knowledge and planning will be required out there and plant trees!
to make it work. We hope this guide will be a useful re-
source as you make decisions and plans.
Planning Establishment
1. CONDUCT A SITE ASSESSMENT 1. OBTAIN PLANTS
a. Gather site info: a. Generate a nursery list from eld designs
i. Soil and aerial maps b. Propagate plants yourself (gra ing, seed, cuttings, etc.)
ii. Field history c. Order from a nursery
iii. Climate information 2. PREPARE THE FIELD
b. Do a site visit: a. Do earth moving rst, if desired:
i. Take soil samples i. Ponds, water harvesting (swales, Keylines),
ii. Scout weeds removing stumps or rocks, smoothing
iii. Identify microclimates b. Adjust fertility pH based on soil test
2. LIST POSSIBLE TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SITE c. Plant cover crops
a. Use site assessment and species pro les d. Eradicate perennial weeds
3. CONSIDER LIVESTOCK COMPATIBILITY e. Build deer fence, if required
a. Match trees with livestock needs 3. PLANT TREES
b. Note pastures, fences, water, barns a. Follow planting recommendations
4. ANTICIPATE HARVEST METHOD b. Install irrigation
a. Hand vs. machine 4. PROTECT THE ORCHARD
b. Hired vs. self a. Install tree tubes, deer fence (if not already done),
5. DEFINE YOUR GOALS rodent guards
a. Implement a method: Holistic Management, Whole b. Evaluate the need for guard dogs, repellents, noise-
Farm Planning, Keyline Design, etc. makers, bird netting, etc.
b. Will the selected trees and livestock be compatible 5. BEGIN WEED CONTROL
with your goals a. Decide on which method is best for your site and
6. DESIGN THE FIELD LAYOUT situation:
a. Consider: i. Mulch
i. Interactions: ii. Herbicide
1. Competition, pollination, nitrogen iii. Mowing
xation, etc. iv. Tillage
ii. Timing: 6. CONTINUE ONGOING MAINTENANCE
1. Harvest date, livestock rotation, a. Scout for pests and disease
successional planning b. Maintain soil fertility
iii. Tree Spacing: c. Prune
1. Set spacing within the row based on
mature width of tree
2. Set between-row spacing based on
equipment, alley crop, tree width
b. Make Field Maps that include:
i. Infrastructure: barns, fences, waterlines
ii. Machinery turn-around space (headlands)
iii. Tree rows
iv. Tree varieties/individuals within rows (pollina-
tion, harvest date)
7. DEVELOP AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
a. Make enterprise budgets for each crop based on the
eld design
b. Research cost-share and grant opportunities (NRCS,
FSA, SARE, etc.)
10
SITE EVALUATION
“We have the world to live in on the condition that we will take good care of it. And to take good care of it,
we have to know it. And to know it and be willing to take care of it, we have to love it.” —Wendell Berry
Farmer, Know Thy Site and observed in the eld. For example, you can look up
your plant hardiness zone for your county, but you can also
IMPORTANCE OF SITE EVALUATION: observe microclimates unique to your site.
GROW WHAT GROWS
Your site will dictate which trees and shrubs are likely to do
well. A good site evaluation will allow you choose species
that will thrive. It is possible to modify certain characteris-
Part 1: Gathering Info
tics like pH, drainage, and available moisture but this takes Some of the rst items to gather as you begin your research
time and money and is likely to re uire ongoing mainte- are maps and photos. Mapping out your site will allow you
nance. Species that are inherently well suited to your site to ll in information as you learn more about it and will be
will require less upkeep and may be healthier and more important when you start to plan where to put trees and
productive. infrastructure. You are going to want the following maps:
AERIAL PHOTO
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
TOPO MAPS
Topographical maps depict elevation changes across a landscape
which are important when considering general slope and aspect,
but the topo maps currently available may lack su cient detail
for farm-level planning. If you plan to do any earthwork to convey
water or want to plant trees along a contour or Keyline because of
a steep slope (discussed below), you are going to have to conduct
eld measurements to be accurate.
The Regrarians eHandbook (Chapter 2) has excellent directions for
mapping and surveying, and is available to purchase for down-
load. It is highly recommended, especially if you are interested in
Keyline design:
• www.regrarians.org/product/regrarians-ehandbook-2-ge-
ography/regrarians-ehandbook-2-geography/ Figure 2.3. US Topo map from the U.S. Geological
Survey.
S I T E E V A L U AT I O N
Survey. Although it uses the same data as SoilWeb, it al- For our purposes, you will want the standalone desktop
lows you to organize the information into a convenient version of Google Earth Pro (still free), not the web-based
packet for printing. You can also run custom reports about Chrome version launched in April 2017. The desktop ver-
your soil s suitability for a number of crops and practices sion supports simple design, letting you draw lines, points,
and calculate acreage of elds. It has a bit of a learning and polygons that are to scale. These can be used to mark
curve, but may be worth the effort. fences, waterers, and structures, or to measure the area of
a eld. GPS coordinates can be imported from a hand-held
o https://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
Figure 2.4. Sketchup can be useful for both simple and complex designs.
GPS unit, allowing you to gather data in the eld and trans- Make several copies of each map, and use them in the next
fer it to a map. The maps can be saved and printed out, but planning stages. You can also use one base map with
make sure you have a truly overhead view before printing overlying layers of tracing paper for different plans or fea-
by going to view and clicking reset tilt and compass Oth- tures. If not already on the map, add the following: Existing
erwise, your scale may be incorrect, leading to problems fences, property lines, livestock waterers, infrastructure, or
when laying out designs. You can also set the view so that hazards (sinkholes, big rocks, etc.)
it does not tilt while navigating by clicking the following:
tools->options->navigation->Do not automatically tilt
while zooming. Field History
o https://www.google.com/earth/desktop/ PREVIOUS MANAGEMENT
Sketchup is a 3D design so ware. The free version is now Knowing how the land was managed in the past will help
web browser based (as of late 2017). A desktop Pro version you correct any issues that might be present. Go over man-
exists that is more powerful and supports direct downloads agement records to see which pesticides and fertilizers
of aerial imagery and terrain. For the free version, Google were applied. Some herbicides have longer-term residual
Earth images can be imported to Sketchup and then scaled effects. If you have harvest records, they indicate areas
appropriately to create base maps that you can then over- that are particularly productive or that are problematic.
lay with models of trees, shrubs, or infrastructure. You can Note these areas on your map and keep them in mind
even import models that other users have made of trees, when deciding what to plant there.
hoop houses, fences, etc. The basics are straigh orward OLD ORCHARD SITES
to learn, and there are good tutorials available. Sketchup Reclaiming an old orchard site represents an opportunity
can be useful when trying different plant spacings and row to revive the past, but it may also present unique chal-
layouts, but it gets complicated to do complex planting de- lenges. A buildup of pathogens can cause replant disease,
tails along curved contour lines or if you are dealing with which can negatively impact newly planted trees for years
varying topography. to come20. Tiny, soil-dwelling worms called nematodes are
PRINT one of the more important culprits. Usually, commercial
Print maps are great for sketching out ideas and for taking growers deal with replant disease by fumigating the soil.
to the eld. You can print them using the digital resources Alternatives exist, such as cover cropping with rapeseed
above, or you may be able to get a copy from your county or sorghum-sudangrass or applying mustard seed meal, a
clerk s o ce or the Natural Resources Conservation Ser- by-product of pressing oil for biodiesel. Choosing resistant
vice (NRCS). An NRCS or county extension agent may also rootstocks may be the best option21. For more informa-
be able to generate a custom soil map for your farm. tion, check out the resources below:
13
Climate
RAINFALL
Most of the eastern United States has su cient rainfall for
the trees and shrubs in this guide to survive. However, if
there is drought or a dry spell during a time of critical fruit
development, you may have to provide supplemental irri-
S I T E E V A L U AT I O N
gation to have a harvestable product. Even in years with
ade uate rainfall, trees may need irrigation in the rst year
a er planting. Some growers decide not to install irrigation
or do not have access to a water source nearby, instead
relying on a portable water tank if conditions become too Figure 2.5. Currants with irrigation installed.
dry. Mulching will help reduce water stress. Most trees will PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
On your journey into edible agroforestry, some of the most helpful folks can be those at your local government agricul-
ture and extension o ces. Their job is to help farmers, and their knowledge and expertise (not to mention cost-share
funds) can really make a difference. They may be able to help you with aerial and soil maps too. A er coming up with
a rough plan for your farm, give them a call, set up an appointment, and ask them what items you should bring along.
• County Extension- The county extension o ce is the place to go with uestions about soil testing, pests and dis-
eases, and to gather general information on farming in your area. Some o ces do soil testing, so call before you
send it to a private lab. Extension o ces offer workshops on a wide variety of topics, from livestock to gardening
to home food preparation.
• Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)- The NRCS is the branch of the U.S. government that helps farmers
and landowners manage and install practices that protect our natural resources: soil, water, air, plants, and animals.
They offer technical assistance and cost-share programs that may be able to help with your goals.
• Farm Service Agency (FSA)- The Farm Service Agency offers farm loans, business planning, disaster assistance, and
conservation programs. The county FSA and NRCS are o en housed in the same building, making it convenient to
visit both. The FSA has traditionally offered payments to farmers for taking cropland out of production to install
grass, shrubs, and trees. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is the one most farmers are familiar with. The
CRP program provides yearly payments for a contracted amount of time, easing some of the burden of establishing
conservation areas.
Many practices in agroforestry t well within the programs of the NRCS and FSA, though the local o ces might be less
familiar with tailoring them for agroforestry. There are different deadlines and ways to ualify for approval, and not all
applications are accepted every year. The best thing to do is talk with the staff about what you want to do.
14
Depressions and low areas in the terrain can cause cold air the next promising cultivar for your area.
to pool on nights without wind that are cold and clear. It is
best to avoid frost pockets for fruiting trees if possible, but
later-blooming trees (black walnuts, hazels, pecans, chest- DEFENSIVE FARMING:
nuts, persimmons) should be a safer bet23. PESTICIDE DRIFT
WIND Damage to non-target crops from dri ng pesticides
Wind can dry out crops and young trees, cause erosion, has been a risk since they were introduced, but re-
and limit weight gain in livestock in the winter10. Avoid the cently there have been worrying trends that anybody
tops of ridges for fruit and nut trees, as they tend to be who is planning on planting perennials near cropland
windier. Consider putting in a windbreak if you have sus- should be aware of. A new class of herbicide-resis-
tained winds in your area or if pesticide dri is expected tant GMO soybeans was released in 2016 which are
to be a problem. If not serving as a buffer for pesticides, tolerant to either 2,4-D or dicamba, both broadleaf
windbreaks can be made up of species that produce edi- herbicides that are more prone to volatilize and dri
bles and ornamentals, adding valuable production capac- than other herbicides such as glyphosate (Roundup).
ity24,25. Additionally, a real opportunity exists to explore Already, complaints and lawsuits are showing that
different genetics by planting trees that were grown from these herbicides are reaching vineyards, orchards,
the seed of good varieties. Seed-grown trees will be much and non-resistant crops. Some farmers are respond-
ing by planting the patented, resistant soybean seeds
just to protect themselves from neighbors who are
spraying, as the herbicides will damage regular soy-
beans too.
If there is the possibility that this technology will be
used within 1/8 of a mile of your farm, you might
want to consider a strategy for mitigating dri . Since
volatilization can move these chemicals beyond the
typical range normally associated with dri caused
by spray droplets, this might include a wide buffer
of cropland or pasture that will not be damaged by
broadleaf herbicide, as well as a stout windbreak
made up of sacri cial trees like hybrid poplar and
conifers. Taking legal action in the event of damage
can be costly and time-consuming, ultimately making
defensive action the wisest choice. Best of all is put-
ting your new agroforestry planting well away from
Figure 2.6. When selecting a site, avoid low-lying frost pockets and conventional crop production.
windy hilltops if possible. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
15
SLOPE
S I T E E V A L U AT I O N
and sodium. This information will give you an idea of which that there are several schools of thought regarding nutri-
plants might naturally do well. For example, if you have ent management and fertilization. It may be worth getting
very low pH (below 5), you might consider blueberries. A several opinions.
soil test will also serve as a starting point for adjusting the PH
pH and nutrient levels. We recommend ordering a soil test Most fruit and nut trees will thrive at a pH of 6.0-6.526.
that includes organic matter, as this is a major indicator of Some species can handle more acidic (lower pH) or more
soil productivity. Other minor nutrients may be import- alkaline (higher pH) conditions. Consult the species pro les
ant for some tree crops, so nd out if the trees you are later in this guide for speci c re uirements, and plan on
interested in have speci c re uirements so that you can adjusting the pH to an acceptable range before you plant
request for them to be included in the test. your trees.
Contact your county extension o ce and ask if they do soil DRAINAGE
testing, as some o ces offer discounts. Otherwise, a pri- Good drainage is probably the most important soil char-
vate lab can analyze samples for you for $15-$30 for a basic acteristic for nuts and fruits26. A soil map will give you a
test. Ask for instructions on how to collect and prepare the general idea of the soil drainage conditions. Digging some
sample. In general, you are going to want to take separate holes on-site and examining them to a depth of 4-6 feet
samples for each of your elds, and perhaps for different
sections of the same eld if the soil type or slope varies.
Figure 2.8. Drainage class and flooding potential are important soil Figure 2.10. Erosion can be minimized by installing grass and trees,
but especially problematic areas may need more attention. PHOTO
characteristics. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
BY VOLKER PRASUHN, LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE COMMONS SA 3.0.
16
ASPECT
Aspect is the direction a slope faces, which can affect tree
dormancy, moisture levels, and disease23.
• South- Tend to be warm and dry, and heat up earlier in
the spring, which can make trees come out of dorman-
cy sooner and may cause them to lose their blossoms
if there is a late frost. Trees that bloom early are at
more risk, such as stone fruits (cherries, plums, apri-
cots, etc.), apples, and pears. Late blooming trees like
persimmon, mulberry, and chestnut are less of a risk.
• North- warm up later in the spring, generally wetter.
North-facing slopes recommended for frost sensitive
trees and those that like cool, moist soils.
• East- morning sun can help prevent foliar disease by
drying leaves (especially grapes)31.
• West- hotter and drier
Figure 2.14. Aspect can affect early spring blooming and mois-
ture availability. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
S I T E E V A L U AT I O N
likely to have poor drainage27.
FLOODING
Knowing where seasonal ooding occurs within a eld is
critical when installing infrastructure like fences and roads.
This information can be provided by soil maps or possibly
obtained from neighbors if you have not managed the
property for long.
Topography
SLOPE
The slope of your site is important when considering ma- Figure 2.15. Tough weeds like this Canada thistle can cause prob-
lems if not dealt with. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
chine vs. hand harvesting, row design, water management,
and erosion control. It can also affect soil drainage and pat- EXISTING VEGETATION: DO PRESENT SPECIES
terns of air movement. A tool called a clinometer (or in- SUGGEST A GOOD MATCH?
clinometer) is used to measure slope. There are websites Looking at what is already growing can give you an idea of
that guide you through printing out and making simple what might do well on your site without much input. For
clinometers out of paper and string, or you can nd and example, if you have elderberries growing on the edge of
download an app on your phone to do the job. a bottomland eld, you might consider planting improved
For sloping sites, the usual advice is to orient rows along varieties of elderberry nearby. Do you already have black
contours to help prevent erosion. However, this can make walnuts growing on the eld borders It could be a good
for alleys of uneven widths, which can cause problems site for more. This approach is not foolproof— some pio-
when using machinery for tasks like mowing and harvest. neering species may have moved into a marginally suitable
Using Keyline planning can maximize the number of trees site and are just languishing along. But who knows You
while still maintaining a relatively uniform spacing be- might discover a previously unknown cultivar of a native
tween the rows of trees for mowing and other eld work. fruit like pawpaw or an exemplary hickory with easy to
EROSION crack nuts.
In many agricultural landscapes, soil loss from erosion WEED IDENTIFICATION
occurs more rapidly than soil can be formed, steadily de- It is a good idea to identify most of the weeds on your site
creasing the organic matter, nutrient holding capacity, and because effective management will vary by species. A good
productivity of farmland. Take note of any existing erosion weed identi cation guide can help with this, or ask some-
and note it on your map. These areas will need some extra one who knows local weeds to walk your elds with you.
care to protect. Knowing which weeds are present will help later on when
18
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Figure 2.16. Plant Hardiness Zones can be useful when considering which species and varieties are suitable for your site. USDA.
you start to prepare your site for planting. If the farm was
previously in row crops like corn or soybeans, gure out if
there were any problems with herbicide resistance in the
weed population.
Keep an eye out for particularly troublesome weeds like
Canada thistle, Johnsongrass, eld bindweed, poison
ivy, poison hemlock, brambles, ironweed, and multi ora
rose26. These weeds may take special measures to control,
especially under organic management. See the Site Prepa-
ration and Weed Control sections for more information.
19
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
• Soil characteristics
• Drainage ___________________________________________________________________________________
• Compaction ________________________________________________________________________________
S I T E E V A L U AT I O N
• Flooding ___________________________________________________________________________________
Field history
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Existing vegetation
• Groundcover _________________________________________________________________________________
• Weeds ______________________________________________________________________________________
Climate
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Infrastructure
• Fence _______________________________________________________________________________________
• Structures ___________________________________________________________________________________
20
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Suitable Livestock
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Final Species Selected In-row Spacing Alley Spacing Trees needed for
this field
Notes
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
21
THE TOOLBOX:
SPECIES PROFILES
“A tree becomes a great deal more than just a tree when properly used.”
—Shibu Jose, University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry
Species Selection
With your site assessment completed, you are ready to
select plants that will be a good t. Using your eld as-
sessment sheets, you can work your way through the fol-
THE TOOLBOX:
lowing species pages and charts and write down suitable
species for the different areas of your farm. Evaluate each
eld separately. For example, a poorly-drained bottomland
might have a different set of compatible trees than a slop-
ing hillside. The goal in this section is simply to create a list
of which species would be suitable for each eld or even SHRUBS
parts of elds if conditions are different. Final selection and o Aronia
generating a eld layout will be covered in later sections.
o Black currant
Here we highlight species that show promise in mixed,
o Saskatoon/Juneberry/Serviceberry
SPECIES PROFILES
multifunctional plantings, but this is by no means an ex-
haustive list. We prioritize species that can be machine LIVESTOCK FEED
harvested or those that are suitable for feeding livestock. o American persimmon
Hand-harvested species are included if they t well as com- o Honeylocust
panion plants. The majority are disease and pest resistant,
low-maintenance, and hardy to at least zone 5b. o Mulberry
o Hazelnut o Pawpaw
o Pecan (northern)
CHALLENGING
We have intentionally le out certain species if they are
prone to pest or disease problems, re uire heavy inputs,
or do not lend themselves to mixed agroforestry systems.
o Cherries, apricots, plums (pests, early bloom)
o Grapes (disease, outcompete trees)
o Brambles (disease, pests)
o Blueberries (re uire very low pH)
o Apples- dessert (disease, pests, labor intensive)
Apples (cider)
Malus spp.
INTRODUCTION
Despite being one of the more challenging perennial crops
to grow, we have included apples in this guide because of
the increasing interest in hard cider (herea er referred to
simply as cider ) by both growers and consumers. There
are numerous apple pests and diseases to contend with,
making it di cult to meet consumer expectations of size
and appearance for apples destined for fresh eating ( des-
sert apples ). An alternative is to produce apples for pro-
cessing into cider32. Because the fruit need not be visually
perfect, they can be grown with fewer inputs. However,
even cider apples will re uire careful and timely manage-
ment, especially if using organic methods33.
REQUIREMENTS
Apple trees tolerate a range of soil types but prefer well-
drained, sandy loam to sandy clay loams. Some rootstocks
are more tolerant of heavier, wetter soils. An ideal pH
would be around 6.5, but a pH of 5.5 to 7.5 is acceptable32. Figure 3.2. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
Frost pockets should be avoided to reduce the risk of los- earlier and are easier to harvest and maintain without
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
ing blossoms to late spring frosts. Apples need full sun for working on ladders or pla orms. However, most dwarf
uality fruit production. Early morning sun is particularly and semi-dwarf trees need to be supported by staking or
important since it dries the dew from the leaves, which trellising, adding additional costs during establishment35.
reduces problems with disease. There are varieties of ap- Dwar ng reduces the productive life of the orchard: Trees
ples adapted to most of the climate regions of the United on dwar ng rootstocks may only produce for 15-20 years,
States. semi-dwar ng trees can be expected to live 25 years, and
MANAGEMENT full-sized seedling rootstocks will be productive for 50
Apples re uire cross-pollination with a compatible va- years. Larger trees are also better able to handle drought
riety, and a common practice is to hire or keep hives of and certain pests35.
honeybees to increase fruit set32. Apples have widely vari- Apples re uire yearly pruning to stay productive, though
able characteristics depending upon the variety and root- some growers use techniques such as training branches to
stock33. Choosing appropriate stock for your area will be grow in a downward direction to decrease vigor and reduce
critical for disease management, harvest date, fruit uality, the need to prune36. While apples destined for the cider
and size characteristics34. Cider makers usually use a mix of press can be less-than-perfect cosmetically, certain pests
apple varieties that have different levels of tannins, acidity, and diseases such as apple maggot and apple scab still
and sweetness32. Consult applicable guides and extension need to be controlled. Apple maggot ies can be caught
recommendations for selecting appropriate varieties to with sticky traps, while controlling scab may re uire rak-
suit your location and goals. ing and composting inoculum-carrying leaves or applying
Most commercial orchards are moving toward denser sprays like neem oil, compost tea, or approved fungicides
spacing with dwar ng rootstocks. Smaller trees bear fruit such as Bordeaux mixture35.
Black Walnut
Juglans nigra
INTRODUCTION
Black walnut is one of the most common trees used in tem-
perate agroforestry because it has valuable timber, pro-
duces edible nuts, and has traits that make it well suited to
mixing with other crops. Black walnut trees have a sparse
canopy that allows more sunlight to reach understory
crops, and they are one of the last trees to leaf out in the
spring and rst to lose leaves in the fall. A deep root system
allows black walnuts to reach water and nutrients without
competing with shallower-rooted alley crops or forages.
Black walnut growers tend to focus on either nut produc- Figure 3.4. Black walnuts in the hull. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
tion or timber, as the management re uirements and tree
genetics for each goal are very different42. Trees grown
MANAGEMENT
for timber are planted at a higher density to encourage
Black walnuts can self-pollinate, but it is recommended
competition that results in tall, straight trees with few
that at least four varieties with overlapping owering dates
branches and lower nut yields. Nut bearing trees need
be planted to increase nut set42. If nut production for hu-
more space and a wide, branching canopy to capture the
man consumption is a goal, use gra ed cultivars that have
maximum amount of sunlight, which makes them poorly
desirable nut characteristics such as thin shells for easy
suited for timber42. Establishment costs are another differ-
cracking. You can establish nut-bearing trees in several
ence: for timber, it is important to keep planting costs as
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
LIVESTOCK
Black walnut is an excellent tree for silvopastures stocked
with sheep or cattle, where trees can increase forage ual-
ity and animal comfort12,43. There are reports that full-
grown hogs can be trained to eat whole black walnuts,
cracking and spitting out the shells44. The small fragments
that do end up in the digestive system may act as a de-
wormer45. Enterprising homesteaders used to feed laying
hens through the winter by smashing black walnuts with a
mallet and letting the hens pick the nutmeats out44.
HARVEST
Like many nuts, black walnuts tend to bear heavy crops in
some years and lean crops in others, called alternate bear-
ing. Some cultivars have less of a tendency for this than
others. The harvest season starts in September and goes
through October, depending on the location and variety42.
Yields can be as high as 2,000 pounds per acre with im-
proved cultivars and intensive management42.
For nuts that fall to the ground before being harvested Figure 3.6. Harvest tools like the Nut Wizard® can be used to save
Chinese Chestnut timber species in the eastern U.S. and was a valuable
source of food for both people and livestock. Unfortunate-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Castanea mollissima ly, the imported chestnut blight has all but wiped them
INTRODUCTION out. The blight-resistant Chinese chestnut (Castanea mol-
Chestnuts play a star role on the edible agroforestry stage. lisima) is now the primary species grown east of the Rock-
Low pest pressures, dependable high yields, strong mar- ies, though some commercial hybrids utilize Japanese (C.
kets, and ease of maintenance make them very attractive crenata) and European (C sativa) chestnut genetics.
candidates for mixed perennial systems. The American REQUIREMENTS
chestnut (Castanea dentata) was once a major native Chinese chestnuts require well-drained loamy to sandy
CHESTNUT WEEVIL
“The bane of the chestnut industry in the past has been the weevil. Nearly everyone who has eaten a chestnut
has met a chestnut worm under conditions of extreme and unpleasant intimacy. Neither party was pleased…”
— J. Russell Smith
• www.centerforagroforestry.org/weevil.pdf
27
MACHINE HARVEST
Researchers in Michigan determined that under 2 acres of
chestnuts can easily be harvested by hand, whereas more
than 8 acres favors an imported commercial harvester60.
They developed a prototype vacuum harvester for the in-
termediate sized farms between 2 and 8 acres, but it is not
available commercially.
Another team of researchers in Missouri modi ed a horse
paddock vacuum to harvest chestnuts, and showed that at
the average yield, the paddock vacuum was more econom-
ical than hand harvest with a Nut Wizard for greater than
6.9 acres when wages were 8/hour, but it only took 2.7
acres to make it pro table when wages were 15/hour55.
Similar vacuums are used in sloping orchards to harvest
European hazelnuts, so the same unit may be able to be
Figure 3.11. The Savage model 8042 pecan harvester is self-pow- modi ed for both crops. Backpack vacuums have been de-
ered and can be towed behind an ATV or lawn tractor. PHOTO veloped for smaller or very steep orchards61.
COURTESY OF SAVAGE EQUIPMENT.
Some chestnut growers use a modi ed pecan harvester
The estimated cost of hand-harvesting chestnuts is about to harvest chestnuts, with mixed results51,62. Ken Hunt at
0.25- 0.50 per pound55, so even though no labor is ex- the University of Missouri outlined their experiences with
pended if hogs are allowed to self-harvest the nuts, the a Savage Model 8042 harvester, saying that it was only
numbers still favor selling the nuts for human consump- about 60 effective at picking up chestnuts due to rough
tion. Of course, hogs can be run through the orchard af- ground and the fact that the machine cannot get too close
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
ter the main harvest to pick up any le overs, and chestnut to the tree trunks. Systems with drip lines for irrigation re-
trees can be grown on hillsides that corn cannot. Integrat- uire either moving the lines or using some sort of blower
ing poultry into the chestnut rotation may also help gobble to move the nuts into the alleys where the harvester can
up chestnut weevils56. get at them. Secondary cleaning is needed to separate the
nuts from burrs and trash, and they had good success with
HARVEST
a Savage 4124 pecan cleaner. All in all, Hunt concluded that
Chestnut harvest occurs from September through Octo-
with machine harvest, you end up with scratched, scuffed,
ber, with individual trees dropping nuts over a two to four
and dirty nuts that re uire extra cleaning compared to
week period50. Yields of 2,000 pounds per acre by age 12
hand harvest62.
to 15 can be expected in irrigated orchards50. Chestnuts
are high in carbohydrates and moisture, unlike most oth- According to Savage, the model 8042 harvester runs around
er nuts. They therefore re uire refrigeration a er harvest 10,000 new and has the capacity to harvest 2,200lbs/day
and must be stored under cold, moist conditions57. Har- of pecans. It can be pulled by an ATV or lawn tractor, and is
vesting for human consumption can be done manually or self-powered by a small gasoline engine. The Model 4124
mechanically. Scale, markets, and the availability of labor, pecan cleaner is no longer manufactured, but the current
capital, and machinery will all be part of determining how model 4224 would be comparable, according to Savage.
to harvest your chestnuts. MARKETING AND ECONOMICS
HAND HARVEST The market for chestnuts appears to be strong, with do-
Most chestnut orchards, even relatively large ones, rely on mestic production currently making up only a tiny fraction
human labor to collect nuts58,59. This can be done by open- of the chestnuts consumed in the U.S54. Prices paid range
ing up the orchard for you-pick, hiring seasonal workers, from 1.50 per pound wholesale up to 5.00 or more per
or by working with groups to put on fund-raisers58. Tools pound retail54. Chestnuts are primarily sold fresh in-shell
such as Nut Wizards can be made available to customers. but can also be frozen or dried and ground into our. Co-
Some growers have found that customers with a cultural operatives exist for marketing chestnuts:
familiarity with chestnuts (primarily from Eastern Europe • Prairie ro e estnut rower s ooperati e
and Asia) are very willing to travel to an orchard to collect (Columbus Junction, Iowa)
nuts in a you-pick situation59. With customers at the farm,
offering other products and activities can increase income, o http://prairiegrovechestnutgrowers.com/
a strategy employed by many Christmas tree farms and • Route ooperati e (Carrollton, Ohio)
apple orchards. In areas with chestnut weevil (see below), o http://www.route9cooperative.com/index.html
you will have to do a hot-water bath of the chestnuts, per-
haps complicating you-pick. Chestnuts must be harvested • estnut rowers, nc (across Michigan)
at least every two days to keep the chestnuts from drying o http://www.chestnutgrowersinc.com/index.
out and to ensure that chestnut weevil larvae do not re-in- shtml
fest the orchard52.
29
RESOURCES o
• e owa estnut rower s Pri er (Tom Wahl,
2017)
o http://www.redfernfarm.com/wp-content/
uploads/2017/01/Iowa-Chestnut-Primer.pdf
• rowin inese estnuts in Missouri (University of
Missouri, 2012)
o http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/
chestnut.pdf
• estnut ar in for Pro t (Grimo Nut Nursery,
2017)
o https://www.grimonut.com/shared/media/
editor/ le/Chestnut 20Farming 20for 20
Pro t 202017.pdf Figure 3.13. Hybrid hazelnuts often fall while still enclosed in their
husk. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
Hazelnut
o http://www.treesforever.org/
AgroforestryResources
• andowners uide to Perennial rop ptions
(Trees Forever, 2014)
o http://www.treesforever.org/crops
• rowin ybrid a elnuts (Chelsea Green Publish-
ing, 2015)
o http://www.chelseagreen.com/growing-hybrid-
hazelnuts
• a elnut ar in for Pro t (Grimo Nut Nursery,
2017)
o http://www.grimonut.com/shared/media/
editor/ le/Hazelnut 20Farming 20for 20
Pro t 202017 281 29.pdf
RESOURCES
• Aronia Berries (Agricultural Marketing Resource
Center, 2013)
o http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/
fruits/aronia-berries/
• ronia erry at Windin reek, el ond, owa
(Trees Forever, 2014)
o http://greenlandsbluewaters.net/Aronia 20
Case 20Study 20FINAL 20(1).pdf
• ulture of ronia for ruit Production (University of
Maine, n.d.)
o https://extension.umaine.edu/agriculture/home/
aronia/culture/
Figure 3.16. Black currants. PHOTO BY PAOLO NEO.
• u ube and ronia (University of Kentucky, 2013):
had poor fruit quality. Newer varieties show resistance to
o https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/ WPBR while retaining good quality and high yields77. Al-
jujube.pdf though the federal ban on currants has been li ed, some
states still have laws on the books that may or may not be
enforced, so knowing your local regulations and selecting
Black Currant
only resistant varieties is a good idea75. Powdery mildew
is a problem for currants, so choosing resistant cultivars
Ribes spp. is important77. With disease-resistant varieties, black cur-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
RESOURCES
• r anic lack urrant Production Manual (Anne’s
PEI Farm and the PEI Horticulture Association)
o http://acornorganic.org/media/resources/
blackcurrantmanual.pdf
• Potential for Ribes ulti ation in ort erica
(HortTechnology, 2000)
o http://horttech.ashspublications.org/
content/10/3/548.abstract
• pecialty rop Pro le Ribes urrants and oose-
berries (Virginia Cooperative Extension, 2009)
o https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/438/438-107/438-107. Figure 3.17. Saskatoon berries. PHOTO BY MEGGAR, LICENSED UNDER
html CREATIVE COMMONS SA 3.0. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS.
fruit characteristics. Since persimmons have a deep tap- pulp retails for around 5.00/lb. Dehydrated persimmons
root that makes them sensitive when transplanting, seeds taste similar to dates and may be another avenue for pres-
can be planted directly in the nal orchard location and ervation and added value.
gra ed onto later. For each tree desired, plant about ve RESOURCES
seeds closely together in a mound, and pick the strongest • Persi ons, sian and erican (ATTRA, 2010)
individual to gra a er one or two years when the tree
is pencil-sized and around 12 tall86. Recommended spac- o https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/
ing is 30 x 35 , or around 42 trees per acre. Persimmons summary.php pub 10
are usually trained to a modi ed central leader, but do • Passion for Persi ons rower tri es to o er-
not re uire routine pruning a er they reach mature size87. ciali e t e easonal ruit (Hayhurst, 2012)
Pests and diseases are of minor concern, though wildlife
o http://www.my-indiana-home.com/food/
like deer, s uirrels, and raccoons may eat the fruit. Some
passion-for-persimmons-grower-strives-to-
varieties contain black specks in the esh, which is undesir-
commercialize-the-seasonal-fruit/
able in the pulp87. Care should be taken not to hit the bark
of the tree with mowers or string trimmers, as persimmon • erican Persi on (University of Kentucky, 2011)
trees do not heal well at the base, which can leave them o https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/
open to decay and insects. Keep an eye out for persimmon persimmon.pdf
borer on young trees86.
LIVESTOCK
Many animals relish the sweet fruits, and the persimmon’s
Honeylocust
HARVEST
Honeylocust typically displays alternate bearing patterns,
producing heavily one year and sparingly the next, which
could complicate planning for livestock enterprises. Hon-
eylocust pods fall over an extended period in the late fall.
Stockpiling forage under honeylocust trees in late summer
and grazing it in the fall or early winter would allow live-
stock to harvest the pods themselves and might reduce
hay needs. Pods can be picked up and stored for later use.
Modifying hay equipment or mechanical sweepers for use
in harvesting honeylocust pods is a possibility that merits
further exploration.
MARKETING AND ECONOMICS
The best use of honeylocust is for on-farm feed produc-
tion. Currently, there are no marketing channels for honey-
locust products, though there have been experiments with
generating ethanol by fermenting the pods.
CAUTIONS
The thorny offspring of honeylocust have the potential to
invade neighboring areas, as thornless gra ed trees may
Figure 3.21. Thorns on a wild honeylocust. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON. spread seeds that grow with the characteristic thorns of
tively uickly, reaching heights of 40 to 50 feet. Thornless the parent. Improved varieties may be hard to nd, and
growth rate, time to bearing, and frost tolerance can be
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Good Companions
The following species did not make it into our main crop pro les because they either cannot be machine harvested, do not
t well with livestock, or have other concerns that limit their use as a primary enterprise. However, they can make useful
additions to diverse plantings.
Figure 3.23. PHOTO BY SEE-MING LEE, LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE Figure 3.24. PHOTO BY H. ZELL, LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE COMMONS
COMMONS SA 2.0. SA 3.0.
NUTSHELL: NUTSHELL:
Asian pears, also known as apple pears, have a high val- Elderberries are tough native plants that are easy to prop-
ue in the marketplace, especially with consumers who are agate and grow99. The owers support pollinators, and the
familiar with their crisp, juicy texture and sweet avor98. fruits are high in healthy antioxidants and avonoids100.
Though they have fewer issues with diseases and insects The main markets are for juice, preserves, syrup, wine,
than apples or European pears, an integrated pest manage- and medicinal products99. The small berries are borne on
ment (IPM) program will still be re uired31,98. Asian pears clusters that do not lend themselves to machine harvest,
do not respond to dwar ng rootstocks like European pears and fruit must be frozen before processing99. Unlike most
and require thinning of the fruits to ensure adequate fruit other shrubs, elderberries can be coppiced to the ground
size. They must be picked by hand, and the fruits bruise annually, which reduces yields slightly but saves pruning
easily, so careful handling and storage are necessary98. labor and makes for more even ripening and larger fruit
clusters101. Birds can consume the entire crop if not con-
PROS: trolled99,100. Spotted Wing Drosophila is a newer pest that
Tolerant of heavier soils than apples, fewer pests, good may require spraying for a marketable crop101.
consumer demand, can be dried
PROS:
CONS: Native, tolerant of poor sites, easy to propagate, good for
Blooms early, hand harvest only, re uires pruning and pollinators, health bene ts, easy pruning, well-suited to
thinning mixing with other fruits, frost tolerant
• Asian and European Pears (University of Kentucky, CONS:
2014) Hand harvest, birds, Spotted Wing Drosophila
o https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/pears. • erican lderberry (Uncommon Fruit, 2013)
pdf
o http://uncommonfruit.cias.wisc.edu/american-
elderberry/
• lderberry (University of Kentucky, 2012)
o https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/
elderberry.pdf
• rowin and Marketin lderberries in Missouri
(University of Missouri, 2014)
o http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/
pubs/2014GrowingElderberryGuide.pdf
39
• rowin askap lue oneysuckle in anada (Uni- • Pawpaw (University of Kentucky, 2012)
versity of Saskatchewan, 2008) o https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/
o http://www.fruit.usask.ca/articles/growing pawpaw.pdf
haskap mar2008.pdf • Pawpaw Plantin uide (Kentucky State University,
• oneyberry (Uncommon Fruit, 2013) 2009)
o http://uncommonfruit.cias.wisc.edu/ o http://www.pawpaw.kysu.edu/pawpaw/ppg.htm
honeyberry/ • orest Production of Pawpaw (Kentucky state Univer-
sity, 2009)
o http://kysu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/
ForestPawpawPBI-0031.pdf
40
Pecan (northern)
Carya illinoinensis
NUTSHELL:
Pecans are native to the Mississippi river valley and are the
most important economic nut crop in the eastern U.S108.
For northern growers, cold-hardy varieties are re uired to
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
LIVESTOCK
“When tree agriculture is established, chestnut and acorn orchards may produce great forage crops, and other
orchards may be yielding persimmons or mulberries, crops which pigs, chickens, and turkeys will harvest by picking
up their own food from the ground.” — J. Russell Smith, Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture
LIVESTOCK
and help control invasive species110. Livestock sales can with higher levels of healthy fats and vitamins compared
supplement income in the early years when trees are still to chickens raised in con nement systems without access
too young to produce111. to pasture113.
Adding livestock also brings challenges like making man- Making money with poultry will depend upon feed prices,
agement more complex, increasing labor needs, and re- loss of birds to predators, and labor e ciency. In one study,
uiring additional infrastructure in the form of fences, wa- only 50% of farmers with pasture-raised chickens said that
terers, and handling facilities112. If you maintain breeding they were directly pro table, but 78 noted that they con-
stock, you may have to check on animals every day, year- tributed to indirect pro ts because of the increase in soil
round. Soil compaction and tree root damage can happen fertility and enhanced customer loyalty113.
if animals are le in one place for too long. There is also In agroforestry systems, poultry can be utilized to graze
the danger of damage to young trees if livestock outsmart pasture between or within rows of trees. They do not dam-
a farmer s efforts to protect them. age young trees like larger livestock might. Exceptions to
The purpose of the following information on livestock is this might be if they are le too long in a paddock, poten-
not meant to be comprehensive, but to identify some op- tially causing soil compaction or eating the leaves of tree
portunities and challenges when incorporating animals branches within reach. Pastured poultry are one of the
into agroforestry systems. If you have never managed live- best ways to integrate livestock into agroforestry systems
stock, you should you gain as much experience as you can while trees are getting established.
beforehand. Visit farms in your area with the type of ani- Chickens have been proposed for use in orchards to re-
mals you are interested in, go to training workshops and duce pest pressure on the trees. Studies have shown that
conferences, and consider working on someone else’s farm although the number of insect pests is lower in areas with
to learn the basics. There is no substitute for hands-on ex- chickens, this has not affected the fruit yield or uali-
perience when it comes to working with livestock! ty114–116. Anecdotal evidence suggests that chickens may
Figure 4.1. Grazing livestock in young agroforestry sites can be a way to utilize alleys while the trees grow. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
42
In addition to chickens and turkeys, ducks and geese are Persimmons, mulberries, apples, acorns, hickories, chest-
good candidates for pastured operations and are consid- nuts, hazelnuts, and more will be happily munched by por-
ered hardier and more resistant to cold117. Mature geese cine jowls. The cork oak dehesas of southern Europe are
can thrive on grass and indeed have been successfully used one notable example, where hogs graze acorns under oak
to weed orchards114,118. Marketing goose might be a chal- trees that provide natural cork material119.
lenge, so gure out where you might sell them before you Hogs show promise in reducing pests in orchards by con-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
decide to buy a gaggle of goslings. suming the fallen fruit a er the main harvest. In one study,
hogs in apple, cherry, and pear orchards ate 100% of the
fallen fruit, which broke the cycle of plum curculio and cod-
ling moth, leading to lower pest populations the following
year37.
Another practical way to use hogs is to employ them to dig
up stumps in transitioning forests to silvopasture, an inge-
nious system outlined by Brett McCleod in The Woodland
Homestead 120.
However, this piggy digging power has the potential to be
incredibly destructive. If le in one place too long, pigs
can completely root up young trees or pastures, and their
wallowing can cause severe compaction. Healthy systems
that integrate hogs move them into sensitive areas like
woods and pastures only for short periods of time when
there is food on the ground to keep the animals busy so
Figure 4.2. Chickens play a role in orchard floor management and that they do not dig out of boredom. Smaller sacri ce ar-
pest control. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON. eas are used for more permanent pens. Food safety is an-
other concern when introducing livestock before the main
harvest, as pathogens from manure risk contaminating
Ducks have a reputation for eating slugs and snails, and
some breeds rival chickens for the number of eggs they
can lay in a year. They must have access to clean water to
bathe in112.
All poultry re uire ade uate shelter and protection from
predators. Popular systems include movable pens called
chicken tractors and portable electric netting. It cannot
be stressed enough that losses to predators can make the
difference between pro t and loss113, and it is the farmer’s
obligation to provide for the needs of the animals in his or
her care.
HOGS
Traditionally, hogs were used to gather up the acorns,
fruits, and other mast in forests for part of the year. Figure 4.4. Piglets performing the role of cleanup crew.
PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
43
CATTLE
LIVESTOCK
Beef cattle, like sheep, can get all their nutritional needs
met by grass and hay alone, making them a good t for
areas that need to have grass between trees for erosion
control, such as hillsides. Cattle are the easiest species to
contain with temporary electric fence, o en re uiring only
a single electri ed wire for interior paddocks. However,
robust e uipment or facilities are needed to safely han-
Figure 4.5. Sheep are well suited to silvopastures. dle cattle for routine work like vaccinations and working
PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ. calves, or for loading them on trailers. Alleys in some alley
cropping systems may be too narrow for cattle. Cattle can
Of course, most sheep produce wool, but it is di cult to also cause signi cant compaction if le in one place for
sell it pro tably unless you have heritage breeds and are long or if soils are wet117. They are more expensive to get
willing to market individual eeces to hand spinners. Shear-
ing is di cult, and shearers are not available in all parts of
the country. For these reasons, some farmers choose to go
with hair sheep breeds like Katahdin and St. Croix, which
have been bred so that they do not need to be shorn. They
also tend to handle heat and internal parasites better than
some wool breeds.
GOATS
Goats play a role in improving degraded forests by cleaning
up invasive species like honeysuckle, multi ora rose, and
buckthorn, as well as native plants that might not be de-
sired, like poison ivy112. They are browsers, meaning they
prefer bushes and trees over grass. They are not recom-
mended for integration with fruit and nut trees, as they
are clever at escaping and can debark and damage valu-
able trees surprisingly quickly. They host the same internal
parasites as sheep, so careful parasite management will be
required if both species are part of a system.
Livestock Systems
SILVOPASTURE
One way to generate money from the space between trees
is to use it for making hay or grazing livestock. In the rst
few years, trees will need protection from livestock by tree
tubes, wire cages, or electric fence123. Another strategy is
to only cut hay until the trees are big enough not to be at
risk. Note that it may not be pro table to maintain haying Figure 4.9. Movable poultry pens make it possible to move chick-
e uipment unless you are planning on harvesting signi - ens through pastures following other livestock.
PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
cant acreages. You may be able to hire a custom harvester
to do the haying, or agree on a crop-share where the hay is MULTISPECIES GRAZING
split between you and the person doing the haying. When Including multiple livestock species in a grazing system
hiring anyone to do work on your farm, make sure they takes advantage of the fact that each species of livestock
understand how far away from your trees you would like prefers a slightly different category of available plant for-
them to keep their machinery. Using tree tubes and mark- age: cattle prefer grass, sheep go for broad-leaved forbs,
ing rows with stakes helps prevent accidental mowing of and poultry scratch for seeds and insects129. They can ei-
young trees. ther be grazed all together at the same time or moved se-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
In silvopastures, the tree density is managed to favor for- uentially through a pasture. One well-known example of
age growth by spacing or thinning trees so that light lev- this is Joel Salatin s system of moving chickens into a pas-
els remain at about 50% of open pasture11. Cool-season ture a few days behind his cattle herd130. By then, ies have
species tend to do better in the shade than warm-season laid eggs in the cow pies, and the chickens happily scratch
grasses124. Trees that cast a dappled shade such as hon- them apart to eat the larvae. Thus, the chickens gain some
eylocust and black walnut make good silvopasture trees, protein, the manure is spread out over the pasture by the
though other species can certainly be used125–127. scratching action of the chickens, and the y population
is reduced. This type of synergy is what agroforestry is
ROTATIONAL GRAZING
all about, and good producers look for ways to connect
Rotational grazing is a must in agroforestry no matter what
elements in their farming enterprises to take advantage
livestock species you have. This strategy requires moving
of it. The permaculture movement has been particularly
the animals based upon the condition of the forage. Moves
good about promoting the concept of stacking multiple
can range from every day to a week or more depending on
functions131.
the season, pasture composition, and stocking density110.
Rotational grazing has many bene ts, including minimizing FODDER, COPPICE, AND POLLARDING
wasted forage, increasing pasture and animal health, and Not only do trees offer livestock protection from wind and
higher animal gains per acre110. Portable electric fencing the sun, but the trees themselves can provide valuable
has made rotational grazing practical, and many ingenious fodder. Aspen, alder, black locust, poplar, honeylocust,
systems have been developed to make it easier. Rotational and mulberry all have leaves that are high-quality feed for
grazing is an art unto itself, and there are good resources livestock112. Cutting tree branches and leaves to feed to
available for learning more128. animals is common in the tropics. In temperate areas,
Integrating trees and livestock works best in forests that would ben-
e t from thinning and extra management. If you have woods that
are mature and healthy, it might be best to keep the animals out.
There is the potential for damage to the trees, and it is simply not
worth the risk of upsetting a healthy forest ecosystem. In mature
forests, it might be a better t to try mushrooms, syrup, or medici-
nal herbs like ginseng112.
Figure 4.8. Shiitake mushroom production can take place in a mature
forest. PHOTO BY SYLVAIN COURNET.
45
Infrastructure
FENCING
A full description of the many fencing options is more than
we can cover here, but an overview of the basics will help
you plan. See the Tree Protection section for how fencing
and tree tubes can be used to protect trees from livestock
and deer.
Most rotational grazers use portable electric fences. Com-
mon systems use single or multiple strands of polywire,
which is an electri ed braided plastic cord. Step-in posts
with insulators are used to hold it off the ground. Cattle,
hogs, and well-trained sheep can be contained with poly-
wire. Electri ed nets are available that offer better con-
tainment for goats, poultry, and ightier sheep. They are
more time consuming to move and re uire a larger charger
because the netting has more points of contact with vege-
tation. They also cost more.
Coppice and pollard systems can provide fodder and wood products.
PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
LIVESTOCK
during dry conditions. The sheep eat the leaves off the fall-
en trees and the farmer later cuts them up for sale as re-
wood to campers in a nearby state park. Before you start
feeding tree foliage, so some research, as a few trees like
cherry can be toxic to livestock133.
Figure 4.11. You will need a way to store and move feed. Figure 4.10. More infrastructure is needed to work cattle than for
PHOTO BY MATT WILSON. smaller animals like sheep. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
cess wherever you plan to keep livestock. You can haul wa- mean portable electric fence supplemented with some rig-
ter in a tank, but this increases labor and uses fuel. id wire panels (o en called hog panels or cattle panels )
to form a working/catch area. For cattle, a portable corral
FEED AND STORAGE
and a head gate are the bare minimum needed. Even bet-
Even with the best management, cattle and sheep will
ter is to have a facility designed to reduce stress for the
need hay in the winter, so consider where you will store
animals and injury for their handlers134.
bales and how you will move them around to feed the an-
imals. Poultry and hogs require supplemental feed, which
either means hauling around bags or storing bulk feed in
bins or wagons.
47
HARVEST AND
PROCESSING
“God gives us the nuts, but he does not crack them.” —German Proverb
Harvest Planning
Knowing how you will harvest your trees will be import-
ant in determining row spacing, pruning technique, spe-
cies composition within a row, and target markets. Harvest
makes up a signi cant percentage of the labor for tree
crops, so knowing the harvest labor demands for each crop
will help you decide on suitable harvesting strategies and
Figure 5.1. This chart shows how labor can be spread out over the season using multiple crops. Calculating the amount of harvest labor per
acre and how many acres one person can harvest during the harvest period are useful for planning.
48
MULTI-CROP HARVESTERS
Figure 5.6. A machine that can harvest crops with different harvest windows can be operated for more of the harvest season, effectively
increasing the machine’s capacity per year and reducing overhead costs.
Figure 5.8. Mid-sized units like this OB 80R can be equipped Figure 5.9. This OB 80 is configured to use standard apple
with an unloading hopper. PHOTO COURTESY OF PRODUCETECH. bins. PHOTO COURTESY OF PRODUCETECH.
50
Processing
Adding value to your products by processing, packaging, or
marketing them yourself can mean the difference between
a crop making money or losing it. However, it usually takes
more time, knowledge, and e uipment than simply selling
a raw agricultural crop. Some fruits and nuts may not have
well-developed wholesale markets available, re uiring di-
rect sales.
PROCESSING REGULATIONS
Depending upon the product you would like to produce
and your state requirements, you may have to do your
processing in a certi ed commercial kitchen. Special in-
cubator kitchens are available in some areas to encourage
small farm entrepreneurship. O en, low-risk foods may be
processed at home if certain conditions or training are met
and the product is going to be sold directly to consumers.
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
GOALS
“A goal without a plan is just a wish.” —Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
GOALS
Whole Farm Planning FOR MORE INFORMATION:
Whole farm planning helps balance the quality of life de- • ntroduction to W ole ar Plannin (Minnesota In-
sired by the farm family with long-term pro tability and stitute for Sustainable Agriculture)
environmental stewardship138. The process can also in-
clude planning for retirement, investments, and transition- o A good introduction to the concepts of whole farm
ing the farm to the next generation139. planning. Includes a list of useful resources138.
There are four steps in whole farm planning: http://misadocuments.info/WholeFarmPlan-
ning_complete.pdf
1. Setting goals
• W ole ar Plannin Model io tate ni ersity
2. Making an inventory and assessment of the farm re- tension,
sources
o A concise overview of whole farm planning
3. Developing and implementing an action plan process, with a focus on the business and family
4. Monitoring on-farm progress toward goals goal setting side of things, including retirement
and transition plans139.
https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/anr-52
Figure 6.1. Planning should take into account financial, ecological, and personal goals. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
52
Holistic Management
HOLISTIC MANAGEMENT Holistic Management is a framework developed by Allan
DECISION MAKING Savory that integrates decision making and farmer values
into a farm management plan. It was originally implement-
ed in the context of grazing, but it can be adapted to other
• Look at all you manage - your team and assets. production models.
• Develop a holistic goal with those involved.
ORGANIC CERTIFICATION
GOALS
tain multiple restaurant or grocery accounts Is able, conventional sources may be used as long
it worth my time to deliver to multiple locations as they are not genetically modi ed (GMO) and
Do I have a consistent enough product over a have not been treated with a prohibited sub-
wide enough time range to satisfy restaurants and stance. Non-organic perennial planting stock (like
grocery stores trees and shrubs) must go through a 1-year tran-
WHOLESALE TO PROCESSORS, AGGREGATORS, sition period before being considered organic.
COOPERATIVES • Organic and conventionally grown products must
Wholesaling means moving a higher volume of product be handled and stored separately.
with less time spent on advertising and customer ser-
vice, but at the cost of lower pro ts per unit of product. • Records must be kept that allow a certifying agen-
O en, the producer has little control over what they are cy to track the integrity of a product throughout
paid, since the market usually dictates wholesale pricing. the production and distribution chains.
Cooperatives can make reaching larger markets possible • An annual farm inspection from the certifying
for smaller growers and can give some bargaining power. agency is re uired in addition to lling out appro-
priate paperwork (known as an “organic system
plan or OSP).
• A processing fee varies by state and by certifying
agency, but federal cost-share assistance is avail-
able:
o https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/grants/
occsp
Smaller farms that have less than 5,000 of gross sales
in organic products are exempt from certi cation,
though they must apply for the exemption and adhere
to the organic regulations.
If you are considering organic certi cation, your state
department of agriculture should be able to give you
Figure 6.5. Your pest control philosophy will will influence your
information on the certifying agencies for your area.
planning. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
54
uestions: What is my time worth Would I like uestions Do I want to keep equipment costs
to spread labor out throughout the year, or do I low and work primarily with hand tools Would a
prefer a couple of weeks of intense work, with the two-wheeled walk-behind tractor be more appro-
option to take time off Am I comfortable hiring priate for my scale Do I have the shop space and
employees during harvest, or would I like to keep the skills necessary to maintain a larger tractor or
things on a scale that my family and I can han- harvester Can I rent or hire custom operators for
dle Am I able to provide time, living space and the e uipment I need
emotional energy for short-term workers such INFRASTRUCTURE
as interns Do I see fruit and nut production as a All infrastructure (fences, refrigerators/freezers, buildings,
hobby, a side business, or a full-time occupation waterers, greenhouses) re uires an upfront investment
and ongoing maintenance. The more you build, the more
time and money you must put into taking care of it. Consid-
er portable or mobile structures whenever possible. They
allow exibility if plans change and may be subject to few-
er zoning and building regulations. Renovating existing in-
frastructure can be costly and time-consuming, so account
for this in planning.
uestions: What infrastructure will I need for
each enterprise Could it be used for multiple
purposes Would it bene t from being portable
Do I have existing infrastructure that could be re-
purposed
GOALS
Figure 6.8. Walk-behind hay equipment. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
EQUIPMENT
Buying expensive equipment can sink a farm into debt or
open doors to new levels of production. Carefully consid-
er your need for equipment. Machinery requires mainte-
nance, fuel, and storage space. Although mechanization
can increase the scale of production signi cantly, it will
also increase costs. Figure 6.9. What infrastructure will you need? PHOTO BY MATT
WILSON.
LAND
Owning a piece of land may be an important goal for you
and your family. Ensuring long-term control of a piece of
property is necessary for growing tree crops. However, a
mortgage may limit nancial exibility. Long-term leas-
es are becoming more common and can be a way to get
access to land if capital is limited. Another thing to consid-
er is that a rental payment is tax-deductible as a business
expense.
uestions: Is owning land required for my plans,
or would rented land work Am I ready to com-
mit to a geographical area for the long-term Do
I re uire speci c land characteristics for my farm
plans (for example, you-pick, livestock, forest
farming)
MONEY
For better or for worse, money is critically important to
Figure 6.11. PHOTO BY FRANKIELEON, LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE
any farming operation. Careful enterprise budgeting and COMMONS SA 2.0. FLICKR.
planning will avoid costly mistakes later. Access to capital in
the form of savings or credit will be important when start-
ing any new enterprise. Building or doing things yourself
can save money upfront but should be part of a longer-
term plan. Government funding may be available for some
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
practices.
uestions Do I have the nancial capability to
begin an enterprise, or will I require outside fund-
ing to make it work For the crops I am interested
in, would it make more sense to invest heavily at
the beginning to maximize potential pro ts soon-
er Am I comfortable with debt Would starting
small and expanding as I have the means be a
better option Are there government funding op-
portunities that might be appropriate for what I
want to do
57
D E S I G N A N D L AY O U T
also be appropriate. It is important to understand the full
costs and inherent risks in undertaking an enterprise like
agroforestry. Unfortunately, comprehensive economic re-
sources are not yet available for complex, edible agrofor-
estry systems in temperate North America. However, there
are several good enterprise budgets for individual crops
like chestnut, hazelnut, walnut, and many fruits. See the
Economics and Funding section for more details on avail-
able resources.
There is mounting evidence for the conservation ben- Tree Spacing &
e ts of diverse, perennial ecosystems. Increasingly,
new and experienced farmers are developing these
Arrangement
systems by growing polycultures of fruits and nuts. To CONSIDER INTERACTIONS
support these farmers, the Center for Integrated Agri- A er choosing appropriate trees and livestock for your site,
cultural Systems at UW-Madison is currently develop- the next step is to consider how these species will interact
ing the Fruit and Nut Compass. with each other. Our goal is to arrange plants in a way to
minimize competition and to take advantage of differenc-
The Compass, funded by a two-year SARE grant, in-
es in size, light re uirements, and nutrient needs15. In per-
cludes an economic planning tool, which helps farm-
maculture, the term guilds is used to denote a group of
ers predict ows of revenue and expenses over a 20-
plants that work well together. For example, Tom Wahl of
year timeline for up to 15 crops at once. In addition,
Red Fern Farm in Iowa found that chestnuts and pawpaws
CIAS is collaborating with the Savanna Institute in con-
are good companions, and notes that persimmons and
ducting interviews to publish Principles of Success,
black walnuts grow better together141.
which includes farmer case studies and a mini-docu-
mentary on fruit and nut farming. LIGHT
One advantage of mixed species planting is the ability to
The Compass will be available from CIAS alongside the
stack different sizes of trees and shrubs to capture the
popular Veggie Compass and the forthcoming Pasture
maximum amount of light. Arrange shade-tolerant species
Dairy Compass and Livestock Compass.
like currants or pawpaws in the understory of larger trees.
58
can take nitrogen out of the air and convert it into a form
that plants can use148. These N- xing plants can increase
the resilience of agricultural systems and save money be-
cause less fertilizer is re uired111.
Utilizing leguminous trees in agricultural systems is more
common in the tropics, where branches are cut and leaves
are tilled into the soil to increase fertility. There are fewer
models in temperate zones. A notable exception is Miracle
Farm in uebec where Stefan Sobkowiak has interplanted
thornless honeylocust trees with apples and pears149. Legu-
minous groundcovers and pasture mixes can also provide
nitrogen, which is discussed more in the Site Preparation
section.
POLLINATION
Pollination re uirements vary by species. Some fruits and
nuts re uire careful consideration to match varieties, spac-
Figure 7.2. Shade-tolerant species like currants can be grown ing, and timing. Others are self-frui ul. For certain fruits
under larger trees. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
or nuts, you may have to intersperse speci c pollinizer va-
For silvopastures, space trees so that there is about 50 rieties throughout the orchard to get effective pollination.
sunlight available for the forage142,143. Consult extension and nursery sources for speci c variety
BELOW-GROUND INTERACTIONS recommendations.
The below-ground interactions in mixed agroforestry sys- TEMPORAL PLANNING:
DESIGN WITH TIMING IN MIND
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
HARVEST DATES
Designing your layout according to the date of maturity
will allow greater e ciency when harvesting and integrat-
ing livestock. Variety is especially important when consid-
ering harvest dates. For example, there are some varieties
of apple that are mature as early as July, while others may
not ripen until November. Predictable harvest timing is one
of the major advantages to using gra ed cultivars instead
of seedling stock, as plants grown from seed will have vari-
able dates of maturity.
If you are planning on doing you-pick, grouping varieties by
maturity into blocks will create less confusion for your cus-
Figure 7.3. Root nodules that harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria. tomers, as unripe blocks can be roped off. Similarly, moving
PHOTO BY NINJATACOSHELL. LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE livestock like pigs through an orchard that is systematically
COMMONS SA 3.0. grouped by maturity will make it easier to avoid problems
59
D E S I G N A N D L AY O U T
in the intermediate term78. In a mature, closed-canopy
orchard, mushrooms or medicinal herbs can supplement
income from fruits and nuts. A cash ow analysis that ac-
counts for this yearly change in successional cropping is a
useful way to evaluate various design elements.
ROW ORIENTATION
For sloping sites, the usual advice is to orient rows along
contours to help prevent erosion. However, strict adher-
ence to contours will usually make for rows of uneven
widths, which can be problematic when using machinery
for tasks like mowing and harvest. Using Keyline planning
can help maximize the number of trees while still main-
taining a relatively uniform spacing between the rows of
trees for mowing and other eldwork. For atter areas,
east-west oriented rows will provide more sunlight for the
alley crop than those oriented north-south146. Researchers
in Canada found that a northwest-southeast orientation
worked best for alley cropping at their latitude.
Design Layout
The next step is to nalize the planting design, which will
be used for eld planting and to generate nursery lists. This
be done on paper or digitally. If your site is mostly at and
you have straight rows, the process may be relatively sim-
ple. Keyline or contour planting for sloped terrain is more
of a challenge. For complex situations, it might be worth
hiring a competent designer who is familiar with the type
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
D E S I G N A N D L AY O U T
Figure 7.8. A simple layout generated by a combination of Google Earth Pro and Sketchup.
maps. It will not easily accomplish scaled planting designs. 3. Draw in tree rows, ensuring the distance between
Sketchup is probably the best free tool available for spa- them is correctly scaled.
tially explicit layout. Once the basics have been mastered, 4. If a single row is going to be made up of different vari-
a 2D ( at) design can be drawn to scale relatively uickly. eties of trees (i.e. for grouping by maturity or to inter-
Dealing with contours and keylines on sloped terrain will sperse pollenizers), note the individual trees for each
take intermediate to expert level competence. Online tu- row.
torials are available to get you started.
NURSERY LIST
Mapping step-by-step: Once you have your layout nished, you can generate a
1. If you have not done so already, mark all existing infra- nursery list with the number and type of trees to purchase
structure on a map layer. On another layer, put down or propagate. To gure out the number of trees per row,
future infrastructure that you plan to install. measure each row (if different lengths) and divide the
2. E uipment will need space to turn around at the ends length by how far apart your trees will be in the row. For
of tree rows. The amount of space will depend upon example, a 250 long row with 30 spacing between trees
the type of e uipment you have. A rough guideline would be 250/30 8.3 trees, rounded down to 8 trees per
would be to leave 30 or so. Mark this offset around row. Add up the number of each variety and compile it into
the inside of the eld boundaries on your map. Your a nal nursery list. Adding a certain number of extra trees
tree rows should not extend past this offset. to make up for runts or losses should be considered.
62
OBTAINING PLANTS
“The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn.” —Ralph Waldo Emerson
O B TA I N I N G P L A N T S
pawpaws, honeylocust, and pecans are all suited to this
techni ue. Apples and pears were traditionally gra ed STRATIFICATION
onto seedling rootstocks, but the trees end up very large Many fruit and nut seeds must go through a period under
and vigorous, making pruning and harvest more of a chal- cold, moist conditions to germinate, known as stratifica-
lenge than trees on dwar ng rootstocks. These days, most tion. In nature, this ensures that the seeds do not germi-
apple and pear rootstocks are vegetatively produced by nate right a er falling off the tree, which would put them
layering or micropropagation. at risk for winter damage. For many species, putting seed
Figure 8.3. Direct seeding is done by planting more seed than you need, selecting the best of the seedlings that grow, and grafting (if desired)
onto it. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
64
CUTTINGS
Aronia, elderberry, mulberry, and currants can be propa-
gated by cutting off shoots or branches at the appropriate
time and putting them in soil or potting media, where they
will take root78,155,156. As these species also bene t from
yearly pruning, an opportunity exists for multiplying num-
bers of plants very rapidly and at little extra cost or labor.
Consult appropriate resources to determine the best tim-
ing and techni ues for individual species.
MOUND LAYERING
Mound layering (also called stool layering ) can be used
for European hazelnuts and apple rootstocks, though with
American hazelnuts layering has had mixed results157. The
winter before layering, cut the tree or shrub to the ground.
The following spring, multiple shoots will sprout from the
stump. You then girdle these sprouts either by wrapping
with wire or cutting the bark in a certain way. Soil, sawdust,
or peat moss are mounded up around the shoots. Because
Figure 8.7. Elderberry cuttings ready to be transplanted. PHOTO BY of the girdling, each shoot will start to send out roots, and
SYLVAIN COURNET.
when they are ready, you cut and transplant each shoot
will have to be re-gra ed or replaced. There are many individually.
gra ing techni ues, some more suitable to certain species
than others. A hands-on lesson from someone is the best
way to learn.
O B TA I N I N G P L A N T S
66
FIELD PREPARATION
“By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.” —Benjamin Franklin
Soil Prep
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
HEAVY EQUIPMENT
Field prep starts by installing any fences, water lines, ter-
races, ponds, or other features that re uire heavy e uip-
ment31. Take care to avoid removing or burying topsoil, if
possible. Remove any hazards such as old stumps or rocks
that might damage a mower26. If utilizing deer fence, in-
stall it before planting trees. Otherwise, have tree shelters Figure 9.2. A handheld soil penetrometer. PHOTO BY HPSY, RELEASED
INTO PUBLIC DOMAIN ON WIKIMEDIA COMMONS.
on hand for installing shortly a er planting, preferably the
same day. To avoid compaction, do not use machinery Measuring compaction can be done with a tool called a
when the soil is wet. penetrometer, which can be purchased for a few hundred
COMPACTION dollars or perhaps borrowed from a forester or extension
Next, evaluate the level of existing compaction. Crop elds agent. It is pushed into the soil while a gauge is read. Mul-
and pastures can become compacted over time due to tiple readings will be re uired to be accurate, so sample
e uipment use or livestock hoof tra c. Tree growth will every few hundred feet, or at least three to four samples
be compromised if roots cannot penetrate past the com- per acre. Readings above 300psi indicate signi cant com-
paction zone159. paction, so if greater than 50 of the samples taken read
above this threshold, you should subsoil (see below)160. Be-
cause the readings on a penetrometer can vary depending
upon the soil moisture, the soil type and pro le should also
be considered161,162. If soils are naturally poorly drained or
very clayey, subsoiling may be ineffective.
SUBSOILING
Subsoiling is the practice of ripping a deep groove in the
soil, breaking up compaction and creating a favorable envi-
ronment for roots by allowing water and air into the soil11.
You can also use a subsoiler a er trees are established to
prune tree roots to prevent trees from competing with al-
ley crops16.
Subsoilers usually consist of a set of shanks mounted to the
3-point hitch of a tractor. For orchard preparation, subsoil
along the rows where the trees will be. If possible, rip in
both directions, making a grid26. On atter sites, plan the
subsoiling rip lines so that they cross where trees are to be
Figure 9.1. Operating vehicles on wet soil can cause compaction. planted, allowing the tree roots to grow outward in four
PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
67
F I E L D P R E PA R AT I O N
row like a moldboard plow would, be aware that it can still
raise a signi cant divot that can create bumpy conditions
for vehicle tra c or hay making activities. Coulters (disks)
Planting Trees
ahead of shanks and packing wheels behind help with re- Weed control is one of the most important things you
ducing and breaking down clods161. For more information can do to improve the survival and growth of young
about subsoiling, consult: trees163–165. Making an effort to eliminate perennial weeds
and deplete the weed seed bank before planting trees will
• A Guide to Successful Subsoiling (CETAB, 2015) make it much easier to keep weeds in check later on34.
o https://www.cetab.org/system/ les/ Choosing an effective control strategy will depend upon
publications/weill 2015. guide to successful the species of weeds present, availability of e uipment, to-
subsoiling. cetab.pdf pography, and your goals, such as conventional or organic
management. Herbicides can be used on non-organic sites,
ADJUSTING NUTRIENTS AND PH while non-chemical options include tillage, cover cropping,
If you have modi ed a eld by major earthmoving, it might mulching, and solarization.
be worthwhile to take another soil test to give a more ac-
curate basis for adjusting nutrients26. If you plan on using FIELD CONDITIONS AND WEED POPULATIONS
organic amendments like compost, manure, or rock pow- If the eld has been in row crops, weed management
ders, they can be applied to cover crops to give time for should focus on preventing annual weeds from establishing
some of the nutrients to break down into a plant-available and going to seed. Sloped areas, pastures, and fallow elds
o en contain highly competitive perennial grasses and
legumes like smooth brome, orchard grass, reed canary
grass, tall fescue, alfalfa, or birdsfoot trefoil23,148. For these
areas, you may have to remove the existing vegetation and
plant a groundcover that is less competitive. Tenacious
weeds like Canada thistle, Johnsongrass, eld bindweed,
poison ivy, poison hemlock, brambles, and multi ora rose
may re uire more than one season of intervention for ad-
e uate control, especially under organic management26,34.
HERBICIDE
Broad-spectrum herbicides like glyphosate (Roundup ) are
commonly used to kill vegetation before planting. You can
apply herbicides to the whole eld if establishing a new
groundcover or alley crop, or just in the tree rows if keep-
Figure 9.4. Apply lime at least to months ahead of planting ing the existing sod in the alleys11. Some perennials will
trees. PHOTO BY MARK ROBINSON, LICENSED UNDER CREATIVE re uire two or three applications for complete control26.
COMMONS 2.0. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS.
68
Figure 9.5. Herbicide strips in preparation for tree planting. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
If the eld has been under conventional crop management Perennial weeds with underground rhizomes like Canada
that included herbicide use, there is a chance that herbi- thistle (Cirsium arvense) or Johnsongrass (Sorghum halep-
cide-resistant weeds may be present. If there is a known ense) are especially di cult to eradicate, as a single tilling
history of resistance, adjust plans or herbicide formula- operation will only chop up and distribute underground
tions accordingly. For all herbicide use, follow label direc- pieces— each of which will sprout into a new weed. How-
tions or hire a competent professional. ever, fre uent tillage will eventually deplete the weed s
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Figure 9.7. A combination of cover cropping and strip tillage. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
fabric or recycled cardboard with a layer of wood chips or searchers planted sorghum-sudangrass the summer be-
straw on top may be viable as long as the material and la- fore establishing hybrid poplar. The sorghum-sudangrass
bor are available169. See the Weed Control: Post Planting was then cut and raked into the tree rows the following
section for more details. spring when the trees were planted. Trees with the mulch
COVER CROPS had higher survival rates than those without, likely due to
Whether using conventional herbicides or organic tech- increased moisture retention under the mulch171.
ni ues, growing cover crops during site preparation will Similar research in Illinois used a cereal rye cover crop
help choke out weeds, add organic matter to the soil, and mulch for establishing apples. Rye was planted in the al-
F I E L D P R E PA R AT I O N
prevent erosion34. Cover crops can also be used in alleys leys in the fall, and white clover was frost-seeded in late
a er you plant trees, but they should be kept far enough winter into the standing rye. The following spring, the tree
apart to avoid competition between the cover crop and rows were tilled, the apples were planted, and tree tubes
the trees. were installed. The rye was cut with a sickle-bar mower at
Two of the best summer cover crops for choking out weeds the owering stage and raked into the tree rows. A er one
and building soil are hybrid sorghum-sudangrass (o en season of growth, trees with the cover crop mulch were an
called Sudex ) and buckwheat. Both are planted when the average of 39 taller and had a 62 larger trunk diameter
soil temperatures warm up, typically around June170. than the trees grown in plots without weed control. The
apple trees in the wood chip treatment in the study had
Cool-season cover crops include cereal rye, winter wheat, the best results of all— they were 89 taller and had 120
hairy vetch, tillage radish, and Austrian winter pea. These larger trunks.
fall planted cover crops will hold the soil over the winter
and grow rapidly in the spring170. An excellent free resource for detailed cover crop informa-
tion is Mana in o er rops Pro tably, available from
In addition to directly smothering weeds, cover crops may SARE:
have a place in generating on-site mulch. In one study, re-
o http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/
Managing-Cover-Crops-Pro tably-3rd-Edition
SOLARIZATION
Solari ation has been successfully used in preparing organ-
ic sites for planting pollinator habitat, and the method may
be suitable for tree establishment172. To solarize a planting
area, spread a clear sheet of UV-stable plastic over tilled
soil and bury the edges. The heat under the plastic kills
weeds and some soil-borne pathogens. Remove the plas-
tic before planting your trees. Solarization would only be
appropriate for smaller orchard sites, as the cost of plastic
can be high if it is not available used172. For more informa-
tion about solarization, refer to:
• Wild ower stablis ent r anic ite Preparation
Met ods ( erces, 2016)
o http://www.xerces.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/10/Organic-Wild ower-
Figure 9.8. No-till drills can often be rented or borrowed from local
Establishment Oct2016 FINAL-web.pdf
conservation offices or watershed districts. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
70
Figure 9.9. A rye cover crop grown in the alleys between trees. Figure 9.10. After tree planting, the cover crop is cut and raked
PHOTO BY MATT WILSON. with hay equipment (here, a BCS tractor and Molon hay rake).
PHOTO BY MEG WILSON.
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Figure 9.11. The mulch will supress weeds and conserve mois- Figure 9.12. Adequate biomass is required for good weed con-
ture. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON. trol: at least 3”-4” when settled. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
Figure 9.13. Comparing the effects between no weed control (left) and rye cover crop mulch (right). PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
71
Establish Groundcover or
Alley Crop
GROUNDCOVER
If you are not planning on cropping or grazing the alleys,
plant a suitable groundcover to protect the soil and pro-
vide a surface for machine tra c. Choose a species that
is low-maintenance, non-competitive, and shade tolerant.
A mixture of grass and legume species is preferred, as the
legume will contribute nitrogen to the system. Suggested
species include turf-type perennial ryegrass, ne-leaved
fescue (hard, creeping red, or Chewing s), and Dutch white
clover31. Plant the groundcover in August or September,
and either spray or till a 2 -3 strip the following spring
to plant your trees into21,26. Clover can be successfully
frost-seeded into a standing cover crop or groundcover in Figure 9.14. A fall-planted alley crop that was drilled into an herbi-
late winter. cide-killed sod. PHOTO BY SYLVAIN COURNET.
SILVOPASTURE
If an alley is to be grazed or cut for hay, you should choose a
forage species that will remain productive in partial shade.
Cool-season forages like clover, tall fescue, bluegrass and
orchardgrass grow as well or even better at 35-65 percent
sunlight than in open pastures124. If using tall fescue, con-
F I E L D P R E PA R AT I O N
sider investing in novel-endophyte varieties, as the regular
KY-31 tall fescue harbors an endophytic fungus that can
negatively affect livestock health.
In a pasture or hay eld, mixes that contain at least 33
legumes do not re uire additional nitrogen fertilizer. Inte-
grating legumes into a stand of grass can increase the total
yield, even compared to stands that receive commercial
nitrogen fertilizers143.
ALLEY CROPS
If you are actively growing grains or vegetables in the alleys
between trees, you can either integrate a cover crop into Figure 9.15. A winter alley crop putting on growth in the early
spring. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
the rotation while establishing trees or continue cropping.
For the planting year, you will have to carefully plan how
site preparation and tree planting will be accomplished
without damaging the alley crops. Likewise, any manage-
ment for the crops like spraying herbicide or cultivation will
need to be adjusted to keep from harming young trees.
Year 1:
1. Earthmoving: rocks, stumps, waterlines, swales, terraces (prevent erosion with cover crop or mulch)
a. Conventional: Herbicide in Fall
Year 2:
SPRING
2. Plow, disk 1x
3. Subsoil
4. Weed control: Spring
a. Organic: Stale seedbed
i. Shallow tillage every 10 days for at least a month
b. Conventional: Herbicide
SUMMER
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
June
5. Adjust nutrients/pH
a. If planting sorghum-sudangrass: 75-100 lb. N/A170
b. Add 50 lb. N, correct P and K
6. Cover crop: Summer
a. Sorghum-sudangrass: warm soil (2 weeks a er prime corn date for your area), 35-40 lbs. (drilled) or 40-50
lbs. (broadcast), 1-2 deep170
b. Buckwheat: Soil temps at least 65 degrees, 50-60 lbs. (drilled), 70 lbs. (broadcast), 0.5-1.5 deep
July-Aug
Aug-Sept
Sept-Oct
Year 3:
SPRING
Feb-Mar
Apr-May
F I E L D P R E PA R AT I O N
15. Install tubes, irrigation
a. Option: establish alley crop
16. Begin post-planting weed control
a. Herbicide
b. Mulch
c. Tillage
d. Mowing
Aug-Sept
PLANTING TREES
“The best time to plant a tree was twenty years ago. The second best time is now.” –—Anonymous
Planting Prep
FIELD LAYOUT: MARKING TREE LOCATIONS
You should mark out where your trees will go before plant-
ing them. The simplest way to transfer the plan from your
map to actual ags on the ground is to identify a telephone
pole, road intersection, building corner, or particularly
unique tree as a reference point on your map and then
measure from that point in your eld. Make all subse uent
measurements from this initial reference point.
You can use a long tape measure (100’ or more), a mea-
suring wheel, or a rope (look for a “no-stretch” type) with
the correct spacing marked off on it with zip ties or col-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Figure 10.1. Start by marking a baseline (1.), then use lengths of rope in multiples of the “3-4-5” triangle to ensure your first row is perpen-
dicular (2.). Repeat for the last row (3.), then fill in every tree location (4.). IMAGE CONCEPT ADAPTED BY MATT WILSON FROM GRIMO NUT NURS-
ERY’S “CHESTNUT FARMING FOR PROFIT”.
75
If you are not using tree tubes, you should mark the ends
of rows with something stout like a T-post as a visual refer-
ence later when mowing or spraying, as it can be di cult
to spot very young trees if there is much vegetation around
them.
MARKING CONTOURS: THE “BUNYIP” LEVEL
If you need to plant on contours or keylines, various tools
are available for marking out tree rows. These range from
simple homemade A-frame levels up to modern surveying
stations that are linked to global satellite networks. If you
can rent or borrow modern equipment, by all means, do
Figure 10.4. If planting is delayed, “heel in” bareroot trees by lay-
so. If your eld is small or you prefer a DIY approach, a ing them in a trench and covering with sand, sawdust, peatmoss, or
Bunyip level will do the job. It re uires two people to loose soil. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
operate.
dried out. Call the nursery if you discover a problem. Bare-
root stock should be kept moist (but not wet) by wrapping
in shredded paper, sawdust, or peat moss and kept in a
cool, frost-free location until being planted11. If it is going
to be more than a few days before planting, heeled in
the trees outdoors in a well-drained location by laying the
trees in a trench and covering the roots with soil, wood
shavings, sand, or sawdust173. Just before planting, rehy-
drate the trees by soaking them for up to a half a day, pref-
erably under owing water or in a tub that has an a uari-
um bubbler to provide oxygen.
PLANTING TREES
INOCULATION
Most plants form symbiotic relationships with bene cial
fungi in the soil. These mycorrhizal fungi extract minerals
from the soil which they share with the plants in exchange
Figure 10.3. A “Bunyip” water level is a simple way to mark out for sugars that the plant produces. Usually, there are su -
contours and grades. A laser level or survey station would be quick-
er, but more costly. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON. cient native populations of these fungi, but research sug-
gests that inoculating seedlings before planting with the
appropriate strains of fungus may help seedlings become
Make a Bunyip level by attaching a clear, water- lled tube
to two stakes. The tube is open at both ends, so the water
will measure level on both sticks as long as there is a little
slack in the tube. A stout string that is the desired length
between measurements is tied to both stakes. Shorter
lengths will lay out more accurate contours, but longer
lengths will be uicker. Before starting, place both stakes
on a level surface next to each other and mark the level on
the stakes as a reference. You can also attach a yardstick or
old tape measure to the sticks.
For marking out a 10-meter tree spacing along a contour,
one person holds a stake at the starting point and the other
person walks the other stake out until the 10-meter string
is taut, then pivots uphill or downhill until the level of the
water is the same on both sticks.
You can mark out simple grades by calculating the amount
of rise or fall required on the stakes for the distance be-
tween them. For example, if we wanted a slope of 1%
along our 10-meter distance, we would want a vertical dif-
ference of 10cm between the lines on our stakes (10m x
1% = 1000cm x 0.01 = 10cm). Good resources exist online
for building and using Bunyip/Water levels.
HANDLING TREES UNTIL PLANTING
When trees are shipped from a nursery, count them, in- Figure 10.5. Before planting, inoculate roots with the appropriate
mycorrhizal fungi. These can be mixed with gels that prevent the
spect them for disease, and make sure the roots have not roots from drying out. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
76
Mechanical Planters
AUGER
A mechanical auger can make uick work of digging
holes. Various types are available, including single-person,
two-person, and tractor-mounted. Remove the sod with
a shovel before using the auger. Augers can sometimes
smooth and compact the sides of the hole, making it dif-
cult for tree roots to penetrate. To avoid this, score the
sides of the hole with a shovel or use an auger with teeth
welded on the outside of the auger blade177.
TREE PLANTER
If you have many trees to plant, it might be worth rent-
ing or borrowing a tree planting machine. Some state for-
estry departments have them available for use. The tree
planters mount behind a tractor, and one or two operators
sit in a seat and drop seedlings into a furrow cut by the
planter. Closing wheels come behind and close the furrow.
Tree planters work best with smaller bareroot stock, as the
planting is less exact than when planting by hand.
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Timing
SPRING PLANTING
Spring planting is best for bareroot stock, usually in March
or April in the Midwest173. Most nurseries ship trees in the
spring, and cooler temperatures and moist soil allow trees
to take root before summer heat32. Avoid planting into
overly wet or frozen soils.
FALL PLANTING
Fall planting is also possible, but it is a bit riskier due to
the possibility of winter injury173. Plant trees early enough
to develop some roots before overwintering. Container
grown stock may be planted anytime throughout the grow- Figure 10.7. Many trees can be planted quickly with a tree planter.
ing season but should be kept moist. PHOTO BY SYLVAIN COURNET.
77
PLANTING TREES
Figure 10.8. Important concepts for tree planting. IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
Planting: Step-by-Step
1. During planting, do not let tree roots dry out. For bare 5. One of the most important steps when planting trees
root trees, gels are available that you can dip roots is to make sure that the root crown, which is the
in, or keep trees in a bucket of water or wrapped in a part where the roots and trunk meet, is level with
moist towel173. the ground or slightly higher. In soils that have poor
2. Dig a hole that is 2-3 times as wide as it is deep so that drainage or that consist of mostly silt and clay, place
the roots of the tree can spread out without bending trees 2-4” higher than the trees were grown in the
around the sides of the hole. If the roots are exces- nursery177,178. If planted too low, trees can suffer from
sively long, it is better to trim them to t the hole rath- disease, and there is no way to correct this a er the
er than bend them. Do not dig too deep, as this may tree is established11. For gra ed trees, correct plant-
cause the tree to settle31. ing depth ensures that the gra union stays above the
soil. Otherwise, the scion may root and in uence the
3. For potted trees, score the roots if they seem root- growth of the tree.
bound. Spread the roots out in the hole and hold the
tree at the appropriate level as you back ll, tamping 6. Water each tree at planting and weekly a er that for
the soil as you go to eliminate air pockets. Avoid bend- the rst growing season unless there is enough rain
ing the roots upward, known as J-rooting, which can (around 1” per week)177. Young trees have small root
lead to shallow rooting that is susceptible to damage systems, so supplemental water will likely be required,
during high winds or drought177. If the tree is gra ed, even with fairly regular rainfall.
orient the gra union towards the north or northwest 7. Install tree shelters or rodent guards the same day as
to avoid sunburn. planting. If you do not use tree tubes, young trees may
4. Back ll only with native soil: do not add any fertiliz- re uire stabilization to avoid leaning from the wind.
er, compost, or other amendment to the planting One effective method is the use of bamboo stakes
hole178. Enriching the soil in the hole may allow the with rubber tie bands. This system allows some move-
tree to grow well at rst, but when the roots meet the ment of the trees but stabilizes them against perma-
edge of your planting hole, they may bend to stay in nent leaning.
the nutrient-rich soil mix instead of growing into the 8. Begin weed control strategies within a few days of
native soil, creating a pot in the ground effect that planting (mulching, herbicides, etc.)
will stunt the tree. Do not fertilize the tree for the rst 9. If planted later in the fall, mulch deeply to avoid frost
year, other than with compost that is top-dressed173. heave23.
78
TREE PROTECTION
“Organic orcharding can never be a straightforward recipe where you simply follow steps A, B, and C and then pull a
delicious apple strudel hot from the oven. Nature is dynamic…” —Michael Phillips, The Holistic Orchard
Deer
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Figure 11.2. The amount of fence required per unit of area. The
more area enclosed, the less fence per unit of area is needed.
Deer can cause serious damage or death to trees during IMAGE BY MATT WILSON.
establishment. Deer browse leaves and nibble off young
growing shoots. Bucks rub their antlers on smaller trees, a sturdier wire tree cage with two or three stakes. Another
damaging the bark. In areas with high deer pressure, trees option is to use moveable electric fences or pens to keep
can be killed or stunted for years if not protected, which the livestock away from the trees. Consult the Livestock
means a loss of revenue due to the cost of replacing trees section for more details about planning for livestock.
and the delay of harvest. We highly recommend deer pro-
tection for all new fruit and nut plantings. HOW MANY ACRES AND HOW MANY TREES PER
ACRE NEED PROTECTION?
As eld size increases, the amount of fence per acre re-
Fence Factors uired to enclose it goes down (see chart). For small elds,
tree tubes may be more economical, especially at lower
Deer fence may seem like a lot of upfront work and ex- tree densities. If many trees per acre need protection or
pense, but it can be the most economical and effective acreages are larger, a fence may be the most economical
option in the long run. When deciding on deer protection choice.
measures, ask yourself the following uestions:
ARE DEER LIKELY TO CAUSE HARVEST LOSSES?
If deer may eat your fruits or nuts during harvest (likely for
things like apples or chestnuts), deer fence may be the best
choice from the start. However, you still may have to put
rodent guards on the trees if voles or rabbits are expected
to be a problem.
WILL LIVESTOCK BE A PART OF THE SYSTEM?
If you have sheep, goats, or cattle, you will need a reliable
perimeter fence that separates the pasture from neighbor-
ing farms, the road, or other places you do not want your
livestock to wander. Woven wire and electri ed high ten-
sile make good perimeter fences, but less secure barriers
like a 3D polywire fence should not be relied upon to keep
your cows off the road or pigs out of the neighbor s lawn.
If you want to graze livestock when trees are still young
enough to be at risk, then both a perimeter fence AND tree
protection will be re uired. Commercial tree tubes will suf-
ce for poultry or sheep, but cattle and hogs may re uire Figure 11.1. A young tree that has been completely debarked by
buck rubbing. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
79
TREE PROTECTION
Woven wire fence provides excellent control, but it is as an interior fence, but should not be relied upon as a
expensive ( 4.00- 6.00 per foot) and labor intensive to perimeter fence for livestock.
Cost Comparison of Fence Types and Tree Tubes
COST COMPARISON OF FENCE TYPES AND TREE TUBES
$20,000.00
$18,000.00
$16,000.00
$14,000.00
$12,000.00
$10,000.00
$8,000.00
$6,000.00
$4,000.00
$2,000.00
$-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Acres
Woven Wire High Tensile 3D Electric
50 Tubes/acre 100 Tubes/acre 200 Tubes/acre
Figure 11.4. For smaller acreages, it may be cheaper to use tree tubes unless many trees per acre need protection.
80
Tree shelters
Tree shelters consist of a cylinder of polypropylene or wire
that is installed around a tree and held down with stakes.
Height should be tall enough to allow the tree to grow
above the browsing height of deer, typically 5 . Depending
on the shelter, they may also prevent damage from live-
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
REPELLENTS
Deer repellents are substantially cheaper than fencing or
shelters, but results are unpredictable and they must be
reapplied periodically150. Fear-based repellents that have
a sulfurous smell may be more effective than taste-based
repellents185.
RODENTS AND RABBITS
Mice, voles, gophers, and rabbits eat the bark and roots of
trees. They are more of a threat during the winter when
food is scarce and tree bark is more tempting. Tall grass,
cover crops, brush piles, and even tree tubes and mulch-
es can provide hiding places for rodents. They have been
known to tunnel under plastic weed barrier to get to trees. Figure 11.9. A multipurpose raptor pole, complete with nesting
TREE PROTECTION
platform, bat house, and time-lapse cameras. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
Mulches like straw, sawdust, shredded bark, or grass clip-
pings may have to be raked away from tree trunks in the
a eld where they can perch. Building suitable nest boxes
may entice them to stick around.
Poisons and trapping show mixed results and put non-tar-
get animals at risk192. Domestic cats kill some rodents, but
they are also a major threat to native songbirds, killing bil-
lions of birds every year, so they are best kept indoors193.
Small working dogs like terriers may be a better option if
you are interested in using domesticated animals for con-
trolling small mammals51,188.
Birds
Figure 11.8. A rodent nest and nibbled tree bark. Currants, Saskatoons, aronia, haskap, and hazelnuts may
PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ.
have to be protected from birds. Extreme bird pressure
may re uire using nets at harvest time84. Alternately, some
winter to prevent damage189. However, wood chip mulches growers have had success with noise-making machines
seem to be unfavorable to them190. One grower observed that mimic the distress call of the offending bird species68.
that wood chips larger than a silver dollar prevent burrow- Encouraging raptors is another option.
ing into tubes and under fabric.
Using a range of methods may be re uired for ade uate
control191. One of the best is keeping the grass mown short
around trees to remove cover for the critters, making them
vulnerable to predators. Physical barriers like tree tubes or
wire rodent guards are effective for rabbits if they are at
least 24 to 36 tall. Wire rodent guards that have a small
mesh size (1/4 ) and tree tubes will discourage some ro-
dents, although determined voles and gophers can dig
under them191. Mice like to nest in the sheltered environ-
ment in tree tubes, but not wire rodent guards. You can
attract raptors like hawks, kestrels, and owls by placing a Figure 11.10. Hoops for installing bird neeting.
tall post such as an old telephone pole in the middle of PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
82
TREE PROTECTION
84
WEED CONTROL:
POST PLANTING
“May all your weeds be wildflowers.” —Author Unknown
Weed Basics
Weed control is perhaps one of the most challenging tasks
in caring for young trees, yet it has been shown to be very
important for the rst three to ve years23,153. Once ma-
ture, trees have deeper roots and more nutrient reserves,
enabling them to compete with weeds better163,194. Herbi-
cides are commonly used in conventional orchards, while
organic methods include tillage, mowing, and mulching169.
Organic herbicides so far do not provide reliable results
and are cost-prohibitive190.
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
Herbicide
Once you have controlled the perennial weeds and planted herbicides. Either way, taking advantage of multiple modes
your trees, you should limit herbicide use to a 2’ to 3’ wide of action will help prevent herbicide resistance from de-
strip in the tree rows. Recommendations differ regarding veloping196. To avoid damaging trees from accidental dri ,
whether to focus on pre-emergence or post-emergence consider using spray shields or wick applicators. Herbicides
usually result in adequate tree survival and growth, al-
though the uality of the soil may go down over time com-
SPECTRUM OF INTERVENTION pared to mulching or living cover189,198.
Mulch
Mulches can be either manufactured (smooth plastic, wo-
ven fabric, biodegradable ber) or dead organic materials
(wood chips, straw, bark, sawdust). Non-living, plant-based
mulches like wood chips and straw are good for both the
soil and trees, including encouraging a higher diversity of
soil life, lowering evaporation rates, and improving soil or-
Figure 12.2. Mowing a young planting. PHOTO BY KEVIN WOLZ. ganic matter and nutrient content197. Organically managed
Organic standards mandate that soil and water quality be plots have higher levels of bene cial fungi than conven-
maintained or improved, a goal which may be di cult tional plots, likely due to the use of compost and mulches
to achieve with tillage as the primary weed control prac- for weed control207. Hurdles to using much can be a lack
Figure 12.5. A mulch study plot. Wood chips on the left; no weed control on the right. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
mulch application190. Wood chip mulches seem to be unat- bark and roots150,190. In areas that are prone to ooding,
tractive to voles, a major pest in orchards205. oodwaters can li plastic and wrap it around tree trunks,
STRAW causing damage150. Synthetic mulches may also limit your
Straw mulch also improves tree growth, nutrient cycling, options for managing fertility, as nutrients from surface-ap-
and fruit yield189. In a study comparing different orchard plied composts and manures may have di culty passing
groundcover treatments, Merwin and Stiles (1994) noted through169. If you plan on applying liquid nutrients through
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
that straw mulch showed excellent tree growth, nutrient drip lines, this is less of an issue. For organic compliance,
uptake, and fruit yield189. Another study noted that straw synthetic weed barriers must be removed from the eld
before deteriorating168.
Biodegradable manufactured mulches made of natural
bers or recycled cellulose have interesting possibilities
for organic plantings, as they can be laid under dead or-
ganic mulches like wood chips and would not have to be
removed169. Biomass-based mulches also ease concerns
over fossil-fuel derived materials and eliminate the issue
of disposal a er removal.
BEYOND ESTABLISHMENT
“You can’t have a healthy civilization without healthy soil.” —Joel Salatin, Polyface Farm
B E Y O N D E S TA B L I S H M E N T
those that farm your soils long a er you are gone. It is not Compaction can occur if heavy vehicles pass over the
an exaggeration to say that maintaining our soils is critical same ground over and over, especially when the soil is
for the survival of future generations. Improving soil health wet. Some growers avoid compaction by using smaller and
is like putting money in the bank. The investment will pay lighter e uipment, such as walk-behind tractors. Avoid us-
dividends in the form of higher yields, better uality, and ing a vehicle when walking or using a handcart or wheel-
fewer inputs re uired. Healthy soils grow healthy plants barrow will do.
that are more resistant to droughts, disease, and insects159.
Livestock can also compact soils, especially over the win-
ter124. Consider installing dedicated lanes for moving live-
stock, and take care when feeding hay. Use small sacri ce
areas to prevent damage to larger pastures during wet
weather.
As discussed in the site preparation section, some types
of compaction can be broken up by subsoiling. If you want
to reduce competition from trees in silvopasture and
alley cropping situations, subsoiling and root pruning can
be done at the same time16.
Figure 13.5. Pheromone lures and sticky traps target specific pests
without spraying. PHOTO BY MATT WILSON.
B E Y O N D E S TA B L I S H M E N T
farmscaping, helps keep pest populations lower and ben-
e ts other pollinators and wildlife. In addition to good
pollinator plants, farmscaping includes using water sourc-
es, hedgerows, and cover crops213. Sometimes just an
un-mowed strip in the middle of the rows where existing
plants can go to ower is enough to provide some bene-
ts35. Take care when choosing plants to include, as some
plants can provide habitat for pests instead of bene cials.
For more information:
ar scapin to n ance iolo ical ontrol (A RA,
2000)
o https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/
summary.php?pub=145 Figure 13.7. Diseases like fireblight are best dealt with by selecting
resistant varities. PHOTO BY SABASTIAN STABINGER, LICENSED UNDER
ar scapin Makin se of ature s Pest Mana e ent CREATIVE COMMONS SA 3.0. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS.
Service (e tension, 2013)
o http://articles.extension.org/pages/18573/ Choosing site-appropriate varieties with proven disease re-
farmscaping:-making-use-of-natures-pest- sistance and integrating them into an ecologically diverse
management-services system with an attention to soil health is the rst step in
preventing disease. Select sites with good air drainage and
circulation. Promptly remove diseased material from the
orchard and burn it. Properly sanitize pruning shears in
strong bleach or Lysol to prevent the spread of pathogens.
For some diseases like apple scab, raking fallen leaves and
fruit from the orchard can eliminate the source of inocu-
lum. Potential hosts of pests and diseases (for example,
cedar trees that harbor cedar apple rust) should also be
removed from the surrounding landscape if possible35.
Some organic fruit growers advocate for spraying compost
teas and other mixes that contain nutrients and bene cial
microbes to outcompete pathogens and boost tree health,
and although the scienti c literature is less clear about the
effects, it probably doesn t hurt214–216.
UGLY FRUIT
Unless you are farming as a hobby or as a way to provide UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI CENTER
food for your family (both worthwhile goals in them- FOR AGROFORESTRY
selves), getting a nancial return on your efforts is nec-
essary for the long-term viability of your operation. Any
farm business re uires good nancial management, but
cutting-edge perennial systems have uni ue challenges:
high initial investment, long payback periods, non-tradi-
tional markets, untested yields in mixed systems, and com-
plex management, to name a few. Research is ongoing, but
there are still many uestions about the most economical- One of the best resources for agroforestry information is
ly successful models for growing these crops in integrated the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry. In ad-
systems. To succeed, you will need careful enterprise bud- dition to extension publications, several interactive enter-
OTHER RESOURCES
http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/
Books/Building-a-Sustainable-Business
• andowners uide to Perennial rop ptions (Trees
Forever, 2014)
o A useful overview of several perennial crops
including aronia, hazelnut, black walnut,
The NRCS is a branch of the United States Department of
chestnuts, elderberries, and Christmas trees.
Agriculture (USDA) with the goal of helping landowners ad-
Includes enterprise budgets and production
dress natural resource concerns. It has several programs
guidelines.
that may be compatible with edible agroforestry. Usually,
http://www.treesforever.org/crops an NRCS agent will visit the farm and work with the pro-
ducer to come up with a plan that includes several prac-
tices. Once approved, the farmer then installs the practice
according to the standards set in the agreement, and a set
amount is paid to the famer once they are checked off.
93
FARM PROFILES
“Farming is a profession of hope.” —Brian Brett
Model Farms
Examples of long-standing, commercial edible agroforestry
systems in the U.S. are rare. Those few farms that have suc-
cessfully evolved into multi-strata, perennial-crop-based
businesses serve as invaluable case studies. Like many
growers today who rely on off-farm incomes, conven-
tional farming enterprises, or research grants to support
non-commercial or transitional systems, these mature
agroforestry farms invariably developed following unique,
incremental paths. Adapting to and developing niche mar-
kets is what allows them to remain nancially viable. The
diversity in their approaches illustrates the lack of a “one-
size- ts-all solution.
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
FA R M P R O F I L E S
growing other tree, shrub, cane, and vine fruit grants them bicide or glyphosate directly to control weeds, though they
improved resiliency to annual weather and pest patterns look for ways to manage their crops to reduce chemical
and allows them to consistently market fruit from May inputs. They mulch their plantings to a large degree with a
through January. Bringing additional value to the farm mushroom grower s growing medium, offering some fertil-
at each step of the production cycle, they have invested ization and weed suppression. They will also mechanical-
in becoming mostly vertically integrated by adding value ly cultivate around the plants in the rows and within the
through their commercial kitchen, cidery, and winery, and alleys and seed the alleys with white clover as a ground
by partially distributing their own products. The relation- cover and pollinator attractant. Pollination of owering
ship with a regional network of co-op markets allows them and fruiting ornamentals improves the uality of the crop.
some exibility in how they market. Over time they have
adapted to changing demands on the farm by transitioning
from direct distribution to markets to wholesale delivery to
co-op partner s distribution centers.
o https://www.hochorchard.com/
woody perennials is bare-stem stalks. Deer, however, can Harvesting and preparing chestnuts are uni ue experi-
have a negative impact on woody/perennial ornamentals ences with deep signi cance for communities of many
and they address this by hunting 20-30 deer on the prop- heritages. Red Fern Farm has been discovered by people
erty every year. all around the country as an extraordinary place to pick
The mass marketability of their specialty natural products fresh chestnuts. Communities with a family connection
requires that they have a broad geographical reach and to the chestnut harvest have especially enjoyed the farm.
bene t from economies of scale in distribution. Small en- Through bringing people to the farm, they have brought
terprises of ornamental specialty products, however, may greater attention to the broader community about the
also be important avenues for farm diversi cation for local chestnut and the other lesser-known nuts and fruits that
markets. they sell. Along with selling trees and seed nuts, they do a
lot of education and outreach to help people understand
o http://starvalley owers.com/ their crops and how their practices bene t the local envi-
ronment in terms of biodiversity, soil quality, and stability.
A growing part of their business is working with food pro-
RED FERN FARM cessors as well as other chestnut growers to increase the
uses and availability of high-quality, regional ingredients
Wapello, Iowa for products like beer and ice-cream.
Tom Wahl and Kathy Dice bring the ecological knowledge As the systems have matured, they have experimented
and expertise from careers in natural sciences into man- with many smaller components, adding and subtracting as
aging their mature, nut, fruit, and nursery business. They the system provides feedback. They have at times grazed
exemplify the visionary, slow transition from off-farm- small animals, mostly as a homestead enterprise. Poultry
working homesteaders to full-time commercial farmers of seemed to work the best for their setting once they trained
a unique forest-like agroecosystem. the hawks to stay away (a lesser-known agroforestry skill:
P E R E N N I A L PAT H W AY S
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
(feet) SPACING (feet) PLANTS PER ACRE PRUNING
3-4 12-14* 900 Every few years Reported machine harvest rates
vary from 12 to 65 hour per acre
with Joanna harvester.
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
4000-
8000 4.5-15 163-650 25 NA NA (2) 3 July-Sept
99
APPENDIX
(feet) SPACING (feet) PLANTS PER ACRE PRUNING
Savage pecan harvester may be
30* 30* 48 Early training only
modified to work with walnuts.
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
350- 6 (graft)
1500- 1-2 1200 10-16
2000 30-40 13-32 62 Weiss Weiss (seed) Sept-Nov
*spacing determined by harvester requirements
*may be planted at a higher initial density and thinned later
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
0.4 sweep, bearing
0.6 har-
700- vest, 0.7 (4-5)
2000+ 15-25 211 6 load 5000 11-12 Sept-Oct
*spacing determined by harvester requirements °produces best in full sun, but can tolerate partial shade
*may be planted at a higher initial density and thinned later
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
200-
1400
(300) 0.5-3 211 6 -- -- (3-6) 8 Aug-Sep
*adaptable to a variety of soil types, but grows best in listed conditions °produces best in full sun, but can tolerate partial shade
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
APPENDIX
(feet) SPACING (feet) PLANTS PER ACRE PRUNING
Few pests, trees are not browsed by
8-15 8-15 295 Early training only
deer, shade is required for young
trees.
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
(3) 5 graft-
ed, 5-8
6000 15-50 250+ 25? NA NA seedling Sept-Oct
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
MACHINE HARVEST
(machine company
or name is included,
YIELD (lb) HAND HARVEST if known) TIMING
Per acre Per plant Hours per Lb. per Hours per Lb. per Years to Harvest
acre hour acre hour (partial) season
and full
bearing
2-6.5* 275 (5-7
600- Savage Savage grafted),
1800 30-50 -- -- 8042 8042 20-25 full Sept-Oct
*spacing determined by harvester requirements *may indicate machine capacity, NOT total harvest labor
*may be planted at a higher initial density and thinned later
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