Surveying Important topics (Theory):

Objectives of Surveying
• To collect field data;

• To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;

• To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual engineering works.

• To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.

Classifications of Surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been classified into:

• Control surveying : To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as property survey,
boundary survey or cadastral survey.

• Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as and man-made
features including elevation.

• Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering projects. Three
broad steps are

1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.

2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for planning and design.

3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the project.

• Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals, pipelines, and other
linear projects.

• Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades, and for staking out
engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural design has been done).

• Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth (of a line
through observation station) from astronomical observation.

• Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes.
Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being carried out are

 working from whole to part.

 after deciding the position of any point, its reference must be kept from at least two permanent objects or
stations whose position have already been well defined.

The purpose of working from whole to part is

 to localise the errors and

 to control the accumulation of errors.

Methods of measurement
In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are

1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electronic method.

In any work, the choice of a method depends on many factors like field condition, accuracy required, availability of
resources (instruments, time, skill, fund etc).

Direct Measurement
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by using tape, is known as direct method.

Ranging
When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be laid between the
points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process of laying out a straight line between
points is known as ranging.

 Direct Ranging
 Indirect Ranging

Direct Ranging
When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate points are placed at
distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points are found by moving a ranging pole in
transverse direction and thus, points are selected in such a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in
a straight line (Figure 8.1). In this method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of
at least one surveyor and one assistant.
Indirect Ranging
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect method of ranging is
being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal method or by random line method.
Reciprocal Ranging
Figure 8.2 shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B are the two end points whose
distance is required to be found and are not inter visible. To fix the intermediate points in a straight line between
these points, two more points say C and D are chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from
D. Then, direct ranging is being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB lie
in a straight line.

Ranging by Random Line Method

In this method, (Figure 8.3) a random line such as BQ is being laid such that R is visible from Q. A perpendicular QR
is being erected at Q and measure its distance. Then the desired distance BR is being calculated using distance
formula.

In laying the line BR, intermediate points are established first. These are laid by taking offset from the random line at
distances calculated by using the method of similar triangle such as
After locating the intermediate points on the line BR, the obstructions get cleared to make the end points intervisible.
Then, direct ranging is being carried out to obtain an extended continous straight line.

Errors ( Remember all the formulae )

 Systematic Errors and Corrections

o Correction for Absolute Length

 Example
o Slope Correction
 Example
o Correction for Temperature
o Correction for Tension
o Correction for Sag
o Correction for Incorrect Alignment
o Combined Correction
 Example
o Reduction to Mean Sea Level

Principle of compass traversing :

True meridian: Line or plane passing through geographical north pole and geographical south pole.

Magnetic meridian: When the magnetic needle is suspended freely and balanced properly, unaffected
by magnetic substances, it indicates a direction. This direction is known as magnetic meridian. The angle
between the magnetic meridian and a line is known as magnetic bearing or simple bearing of the line.
Arbitrary meridian: Convenient direction is assumed as a meridian.  Grid meridian: Sometimes for
preparing a map some state agencies assume several lines parallel to the true meridian for a particular
zone these lines are termed as grid meridian.  Designation of magnetic bearing  Whole circle bearing
(WCB)  Quadrantal bearing (QB)  WCB: The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise from the
North Pole towards the line is known as WCB. Varies 0-360°.

Magnetic declination: The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and true meridian is known
as magnetic declination.  Dip of the magnetic needle: If the needle is perfectly balanced before
magnetisation, it does not remain in the balanced position after it is magnetised. This is due to the
magnetic influence of the earth. The needle is found to be inclined towards the pole. This inclination of
the needle with the horizontal is known as dip of the magnetic needle.  Local Attraction  Method of
correction for traverse: 
 First method: Sum of the interior angle should be equal to (2n-4) x 90. if not than distribute the total
error equally to all interior angles of the traverse. Then starting from unaffected line the bearings of all
the lines are corrected using corrected interior angles. 

Second method: Unaffected line is first detected. Then, commencing from the unaffected line, the
bearing of other affected lines are corrected by finding the amount of correction at each station.

Check on closed traverse: 

Sum of the measured interior angles (2n-4) x 90° 

Sum of the measured exterior angles (2n+4) x 90 °

Temporary Adjustment of Level

At each set up of a level instrument, temporary adjustment is required to be carried out prior to any staff observation.
It involves some well defined operations which are required to be carried out in proper sequence.

The temporary adjustment of a dumpy level consists of Setting , Leveling and Focusing .

During Setting, the tripod stand is set up at a convenient height having its head horizontal (through eye estimation).
The instrument is then fixed on the head by rotating the lower part of the instrument with right hand and holding firmly
the upper part with left hand. Before fixing, the leveling screws are required to be brought in between the tribrach and
trivet. The bull's eye bubble (circular bubble), if present, is then brought to the centre by adjusting the tripod legs.

Next, Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical. It is achieved by
carrying out the following steps:

Step 1: The level tube is brought parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating the upper part of the instrument.

Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot screws either inward or outward.
(The bubble moves in the same direction as the left thumb.)

Step 3: The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw again by rotating the upper part of the instrument.

Step 4: The bubble is then again brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating the third foot screw either inward
or outward.
Step 5: Repeat Step 1 by rotating the upper part of the instrument in the same quadrant of the circle and then Step 2.

Step 6: Repeat Step 3 by rotating the upper part of the instrument in the same quadrant of the circle and then Step 4.

Step 7: Repeat Steps 5 and 6, till the bubble remains central in both the positions.

Step 8: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through 180 ° , the level tube is brought parallel to first two foot
screws in reverse order. The bubble will remain in the centre if the instrument is in permanent adjustment.

Focusing is required to be done in order to form image through objective lens at the plane of the diaphragm and to
view the clear image of the object through eye-piece. This is being carried out by removing parallax by proper
focusing of objective and eye-piece. For focusing the eye-piece, the telescope is first pointed towards the sky. Then
the ring of eye-piece is turned either in or out until the cross-hairs are seen sharp and distinct. Focusing of eye-piece
depends on the vision of observer and thus required whenever there is a change in observer. For focusing the
objective, the telescope is first pointed towards the object. Then, the focusing screw is turned until the image of the
object appears clear and sharp and there is no relative movement between the image and the cross-hairs. This is
required to be done before taking any observation.

Permanent Adjustment of Dumpy Level

 Axis of the Level Tube is perpendicular to the Vertical axis

 Horizontal cross Hair should lie in a Plane Perpendicular to the Vertical axis
 The Line of Sight is Parallel to the axis of the Bubble Tube

 Basic Principle of Leveling

The fundamental principle of leveling lies in finding out the separation of level lines passing through a point of known
elevation (B.M.) and that through an unknown point (whose elevation is required to be determined).

With reference to Figure 13.1, let X represents a point of known elevation (Hx) or a B.M. and Y be a point whose
elevation is required to be determined. To find out the unknown elevation of Y, a level is set up at L in between X
and Y. A leveling staff is first held at X and a reading hx is observed, by sighting the staff (held vertical to the line of
sight of the level). The staff reading at Y, say h y is then observed. The elevation of the point Y (say Hy) is thus given
by Hx + (hx ~ hy) i.e., known elevation (Hx ) added to the separation of level lines (hx ~ hy) passing through the points.
Methods of Leveling
Direct Leveling : Direct measurement, precise, most commonly used; types:

Simple leveling : One set up of level. To find elevation of points.

Differential leveling : Numbers of set-ups of level. To find elevation of non-intervisible points.

Fly leveling : Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during reconnaissance survey.

Precise leveling : Precise form of differential leveling.

Profile leveling : finding of elevation along a line and its cross section.

Reciprocal leveling : Along a river or pond. Two level simultaneously used, one at either end.

Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : By measuring vertical angles and horizontal distance; Less precise.

Stadia Leveling : Using tacheometric principles.

Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference; Using altimeter; Very rough estimation.

Differential Leveling
Applied to determine the elevation of point which is some distant apart from B.M i.e., the unknown elevation of a
point cannot be determined in a single set up of an instrument. Thus, in this method, instrument gets setup number
of times to observe reading along a route in between observed points. For each set up, staff readings are taken
back to a point of known elevation (first sight from the B.M and forward to a point of unknown elevation) final sight to
the terminal station.
Let us consider a station B whose elevation is to be established with reference to a B.M station A, quite a distant
apart. In establishing the station B as B.M., differential leveling is carried out starting from A and terminating at B. In
order to carry out the leveling, first the instrument is set up at some location, say I1 (Figure 13.2), in such a way that
backsight reading taken on A can be read clearly. The staffman is then directed to move forward towards B and
choose a point, say S1 which is firm and stable. It is preferable that the distance of S 1 from I1be the same as that of
station A from I1. After proper selection of the point S1, staff is held to take the foresight reading for this instrument set
up. The instrument is then shifted to some other position in forward direction, say I 2 towards B and take the backsight
reading on S1. Thus, point S1 is used as a turning point. From I2foresight reading is taken to another well chosen (as
followed in S1) turning point S2. Finally, from I3 backsight is taken on S2 and last sight at the terminal point B.

Reduction of Level
The observed staff readings as noted in a level book are further required to be manipulated to find out the elevation
of points. The operation is known as reduction of level. There are two methods for reduction of levels:

1. Rise and Fall method and

2. Height of instrument method.

Rise and Fall Method

For the same set up of an instrument, Staff reading is more at a lower point and less for a higher point. Thus, staff
readings provide information regarding relative rise and fall of terrain points. This provides the basics behind rise
and fall method for finding out elevation of unknown points.
With reference to Figure 13.2, when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading at A (2.365m) is more than that at
S1 which indicates that there is a rise from station A to S1 and accordingly the difference between them (1.130m) is
entered under the rise column in Table 13.1. To find the elevation of S1 ( 101.130m), the rise (1.130m) has been
added to the elevation of A (100.0m). For instrument set up at I2 , S1 has been treated as a point of known elevation
and considered for backsight (having reading 0.685m) . Foresight is taken at S 2 and read as 3.570m i.e, S2 is at
lower than S1 . Thus, there is a fall from S1 a nd S2 and there difference (2.885m) is entered under the fall column in
Table 13.1. To find the elevation of S2 ( 98.245m), the fall (2.885m) has been subtracted from the elevation of
S1 (101.130m). In this way, elevation of points are calculated by Rise and Fall method.
Height of Instrument Method
In any particular set up of an instrument height of instrument, which is the elevation of the line of sight, is constant.
The elevation of unknown points can be obtained by subtracting the staff readings at the desired points from the
height of instrument. This is the basic behind the height of instrument method for reduction of level.
With reference to Figure 13.2 and Table 13.2, when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading observed at A is 2.365m.
The elevation of the line of sight i.e., the height of instrument is 102.365m obtained by adding the elevation of A
(100.0m) with the staff reading observed at A (2.365m). The elevation of S 1 (101.130m) is determined by subtracting
its foresight reading (1.235m) from the the height of instrument (102.365m) when the instrument is at I 1 . Next, the
instrument is set up at I2. S1 is considered as a point of known elevation and backsight reading ( 0.685m) is taken .
The height of the instrument (101.815 m) is then calculated by adding backsight reading ( 0.685m) with the elevation
(R.L.) of point S1 (101.130m). Foresight is taken at S2 and its elevation (98.245m) is determined by subtracting the
foresight (3.570m) from the height of the instrument (101.815 m). In this way, elevation of points are calculated by
Height of instrument method.
Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level
In case of Rise and Fall method for Reduction of level, following arithmetic checks are applied to verify calculations.

 B.S. -  F.S. =  Rise -  Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

Reciprocal Leveling
To find accurate relative elevations of two widely separated intervisible points (between which levels cannot be set),
reciprocal leveling is being used.

To find the difference in elevation between two points, say X and Y (Figure 15.1), a level is set up at L near X and
readings (X1 and Y1) are observed with staff on both X and Y respectively. The level is then set up near Y and staff
readings (Y2 and X2 ) are taken respectively to the near and distant points. If the differences in the set of
observations are not same, then the observations are fraught with errors. The errors may arise out of the curvature
of the earth or intervening atmosphere (associated with variation in temperature and refraction) or instrument (due to
error in collimation) or any combination of these.

The true difference in elevation and errors associated with observation, if any, can be found as follows:

Let the true difference in elevation between the points be h and the total error be e. Assuming, no error on
observation of staff near the level (as the distance is very small)

Then, h = X1 ~ (Y1 - e) [From first set of observation]

and h = (X2 - e) ~ Y2 [From second set of observation]

Thus, the true difference in elevation between any two points can be obtained by taking the mean of the two
differences in observation.

Thus, total error in observations can be obtained by taking the difference of the two differences in observation. The
total error consist of error due to curvature of the earth, atmospheric errors (due to temperature and refraction) and
instrumental errors (due to error in collimation) etc.

Error due to curvature : In case of small sight distance error due to the curvature are negligible, but if the sight
distances are large, the error should be estimated and accounted for, as discussed below. However, the error can be
minimized through balancing of sight or reciprocal observation.

ec = - 0.0785 D2

It is subtractive in nature as curvature of the earth always provides increase in staff reading.

Error due to refraction: It varies with temperature, terrain and other atmospheric conditions. It is usually considered
to be one seventh times but in opposite nature to the error due to curvature. To minimize this error, reciprocal
observation at the same instant of time is required to be adopted.
Error due to Earth's Curvature & Refraction
The combined error due to curvature and refraction (ecomb ) is thus given by

ecomb = +0.0675 D2 m where D is the distance in km

Theodolite
A theodolite is an instrument which is used primarily to measure angles, both horizontal and vertical. It is also used
for many other subsidiary work during surveying such as setting up of intermediate points between inter visible
points, establishment of inter visible points, prolonging a line, laying out traverse etc.
Types of Theodolite
There are different types of theodolite available. It may be classified into three broad categories.

 Vernier or Transit Theodolite

 Digital Theodolite
 Total Station

Different Parts of a Vernier Theodolite

Each type of theodolite is peculiar in its construction and mode of operation. However, inherent fundamentals of all
are same. In this course, the details will be considered for vernier type theodolite which is most popular and is
being widely used. The salient parts of a vernier theodolite have been discussed below (Figure 20.4).

 Leveling Head
 Shifting Head
 Lower Plate
 Upper Plate
 Plate Levels
 Standard (or a Frame)
 Vernier Frame
 Telescope
 Vertical Circle
 Altitude Bubble
 Screws
 Tripod Stand
Temporary Adjustment of Vernier Theodolite
At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to carry out some operations in sequence. The set
of operations those are required to be done on an instrument in order to make it ready for taking observation is
known as temporary adjustment. Temporary adjustment of a vernier theodolite consists of following operations:

o Setting,
o Centring,
o Leveling and
o Focussing.

Permanent adjustment of Theodolite

Relations among Fundamental Lines

In a perfectly adjusted instrument, the fundamental lines bear relations (Figure 21.1) as follows:

1. The vertical cross hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis .

2. The axis of each plate level should lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis

3. The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis .

4. The axis of the telescope level should be parallel to the line of sight

5. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis at its intersection with the vertical axis . Also, the
optical axis , the axis of the objective slide , and the line of sight should coincide
Measurment of Direction using Theodolite:

 Measurment of Horizontal Angle

o Horizontal angle measurement by method of Repetition
o Horizontal angle measurement by method of Reiteration
 Measurment of Vertical Angle

Method of Repetition
When the precision of measurement of a horizontal angle is desired to be more than the least count of the
instrument, repetition method is used. In this method, the desired angle is measured several times, and average of
the observed values is considered as the value of the angle. The precision thus attained is to a much finer degree
than the least count of the vernier. The steps involved in the measurement of the horizontal angle, say POQ at O
(Figure 22.1) by method of repetition are as follows:

Steps 1 to 7 is same as given in method of measurement of horizontal angle but record readings in the form of Table
22.2

8. Unclamp the lower plate, and turn the telescope to sight the signal P again. Tighten the lower clamp. Use the lower
plate tangent screw for exact bisection of the signal P. (The vernier readings should be as it was during previous
reading).

9. Release the upper clamp and turn the telescope to sight the signal Q. Tighten the upper clamp. Bisect the signal Q
exactly using the upper tangent screw. The vernier A will give the value which is about twice the angle POQ.

10. Repeat steps (8) and (9) once again. The final reading of the vernier A will be approximately thrice the angle
POQ.

If necessary, more repetitions can be done.

11. Divide the final reading by the number of repetition to obtain the value of the angle POQ. For every completed
revolution of the circle to the final reading, if necessary, add 360°.

12. Change face of the instrument to the face right. The telescope will be in the inverted condition. Repeat steps (2)
to (9), with the face right, and determine another value of the angle POQ.

13. Determine the average value of the angles obtained with the face left and face right.
The method of repetition eliminates different errors present in measurement of horizontal angle. These are as follows:

1. The errors due to eccentricity of verniers and centres get eliminated as readings from both the verniers are
taken.
2. The errors due to inaccurate graduations get eliminated as the readings are observed at different parts of
the circle.
3. The errors due to lack in adjustment of line of collimation and the horizontal axis of the instrument get
eliminated for considering both faces readings.
4. Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the object, eccentric centering etc are eliminated partially as these get
counter-balanced in different observations.

However, the errors due to slip, due to displacement of station or its signal do not get eliminated and moreover, these
errors are of cumulative in nature.

Method of Reiteration
Method of reiteration for measurement of horizontal angle is usually adopted in case several angles of well
distributed points/ objects are to be measured from the same instrument station with high precision. In this method,
angles are measured successively starting from a point termed as initial station (Figure 22.2). The angle between
the terminating station and the initial station is the last observation during a set of measurement of horizontal angle
by method of reiteration. This process of measuring the angles at an instrument station round the point is to obtain a
check on their sum being equal to 360° and is called closing the horizon. When the horizon is closed, the final
reading of the vernier should be the same as its initial reading if there is no discrepancy. Figure 22.2 shows a
instrument station O where the angles POQ, QOR and ROS have to be measured by method of reiteration. The
steps involved in the measurement of the horizontal angles by method of reiteration are as follows:

Steps 1 to 7 are same as given in measurement of horizontal angle and record readings in Table 22.3.

8. Loosen the upper plate clamp screw and turn the telescope clockwise until the station R is sighted. Tighten the
upper clamp screw. Use the upper tangent screw for placing the object R on the vertical cross hair. Read both the
verniers, and record readings in the Table 22.3. Compute the angle QOR. And note down in the table.

9. Likewise, determine the angle ROS.

10. Finally, close the horizon by sighting the reference object P again. Note down the readings. The vernier A should
now read zero (or 360°).

11. Now change the face left of the instrument to the face right by transiting (plunging) the telescope and swinging it
through 180°. Repeat steps 3 to 10 in the anti-clockwise direction.
12. The average value of each angle obtained with the face left and the face right provides the observed values of the
angles.

Measurement of Vertical Angle

A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal plane through the trunnion axis of
the instrument. Prior to the measurement of vertical angle, instrument is required to be leveled with reference to the
altitude level. Figure 22.3 shows vertical angles.

The procedure for measuring a vertical angle is as follows:

1. The temporary adjustment of the instrument is to be done on the station.

2. Then, leveling of theodolite is to be done using altitude level (the operations involved are same as leveling
using plate level).
3. Loosen the vertical circle clamp, and direct the telescope towards the object whose vertical angle is required
to be measured. Clamp the vertical circle, and bisect the point by turning the vertical tangent screw.
4. Read and record the scale with vernier C and D in Table 22.4
5. Change the face of the instrument and read the vertical angle again.
6. The required vertical angle is the average of the values in steps 4 and 5.

Tacheometry is used for

1. preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are required to be measured;
2. survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are inconvenient;
3. reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;
4. establishment of secondary control points.

Systems of Tacheometric Measurements

 Stadia Systems
 Non-Stadia Systems

Fixed-hair method or Stadia method

It is the most prevalent method for tacheometric surveying. In this method, the telescope of the theodolite is equipped
with two additional cross hairs, one above and the other below the main horizontal hair at equal distance. These
additional cross hairs are known as stadia hairs. This is also known as tacheometer.

Principle of Stadia method

(Figure 23.1) A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line of sight. Let a and b be the
lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and their actual vertical separation be designated as i. Let f be the
focal length of the objective lens of the tacheometer and c be horizontal distance between the optical centre of the
objective lens and the vertical axis of the instrument. Let the objective lens is focused to a staff held vertically at Q,
say at horizontal distance D from the instrument station.

By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along the stadia hairs at a and b
respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference between the readings at A and B be designated by s. Similar
triangle between the object and image will form with vertex at the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the horizontal
distance of the staff from F be d. Then, from the similar s ABF and a' b' F,

as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant for a particular instrument and is known as stadia interval factor, also
instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus

d = K.s --------------------- Equation (23.1)

The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station point (Q) at which the staff is held is
d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c), then the horizontal distance D from the center of the instrument to the staff is
given by the equation

D = Ks + C ---------------------- Equation (23.2)

The distance C is called the stadia constant. Equation (23.2) is known as the stadia equation for a line of sight
perpendicular to the staff intercept.
NOTE : LEARN ALL THE CASES for staff normal and staff vertical (for inclined as well as declined line of sights)

Tangential Method:

The tangential method of tacheometry is being used when stadia hairs are not present in the diaphragm of the
instrument or when the staff is too far to read.

In this method, the staff sighted is fitted with two big targets (or vanes) spaced at a fixed vertical distances. Vertical
angles corresponding to the vanes, say 1 and 2 are measured. The horizontal distance, say D and vertical
intercept, say V are computed from the values s (pre-defined / known) 1 and 2 . This method is less accurate than
the stadia method.

Depending on the nature of vertical angles i.e, elevation or depression, three cases of tangential methods are there.

(learn all the formulae for the following cases)

Both Angles are above horizontal line of sight

Both Angles are below horizontal line of sight

One of the Vertical Angles is above and the other below the horizontal line of sight

Traverse Surveying
Surveying for establishment of control points of a traverse consists of different steps of operation. These are

1. Reconnaissance
2. Selection of stations sites
3. Marking of stations
4. Field measurements
5. Computations.

Types of Traverse
Fundamentally, there are two types of traverses:

 Open Traverse
 Closed Traverse.
Traverse Computations

 Consecutive Coordinates
o Example
 Independent Coordinates
o Example
 Error of Closure
o Example
 Closing Error
o Example
 Adjustment of Traverse
o Approximate Methods for Adjustment of Traverse
o Analytical Method

Consecutive Coordinates
Consecutive coordinates of a station is designated by its departure and latitude from its previous station as origin.
Departure of a traverse side is defined as its component perpendicular to the reference meridian and the component
of the traverse side along or parallel to the reference meridian is known as latitude. Thus, if l and  are the length
and azimuth of a traverse side, then departure and latitude of the side are given by l sin  and l
cosine  respectively. The algebraic sign of the departure and latitude of a traverse side depends on its azimuth
value thus on the sign of the trigonometric parameters associated with these. In Figure 29.1, the sides AB has
length and bearing as 442.56m and 34° 52' respectively. Thus, its departure and latitude are 253.0m (442.56m sine
34° 52') and 363.11m (442.56 cosine 34° 52') respectively. Similarly, the departure and latitude of the sides BC
(478.23m, 112°) is 441.93m and 182.75m respectively.

Independent Coordinates
The departure and latitude of a station with reference to an origin are known as independent coordinates. The
independent coorinate of at least one of the stations with reference to the considered origin is required to be known
a priori. Thus, if the independent coordinates of any station, say i, is known to be (Xi, Yi), the independent
coordinates of another station say j, (Xj , Yj) can be determined by using the following relations:

Xj = Xi + xij ------------ (Equation 29.1)

Yj = Yi + yij ------------ (Equation 29.2)

Where ( xij, yij) are the departure and latitude of the side ij.
Error of Closure
A check in the accuracy of traverse observation with length and azimuth considered together can be done by
checking the error of closure of the traverse. The error of closure considering both length and azimuth together can
be done by using consecutive coordinates of the station points of the traverse. Since, in any closed traverse, the
algebraic sum of the departure should be equal to the difference between the X coordinates of the initial and
terminating stations of the traverse. Similarly, the algebraic sum of the latitudes should be equal to the difference
between the Y coordinates of the initial and terminating stations. Thus, for a n-stations traverse,

Xn - X1 =  departures -------------- (Equation 29.3)

Yn - Y1 =  latitudes -------------- (Equation 29.4)

( X1 ,Y1 ) and ( Xn , Yn ) are the independent coordinates of the initial and terminating stations of the traverse.

In a closed-loop traverse, since the initial and terminating station of the traverse is the same, Eq (29.3) and Eq
(29.4) reduces to

 departures = 0 -------------- (Equation 29.5)

 latitudes = 0 -------------- (Equation 2963)

Closing Error
The amounts by which Eq 29.3 and Eq 29.4 fail to be satisfied are called the errors in closure in position or simply
the closures of a traverse (Figure 29.2). The closing correction in terms of departure and latitude dD and dL are thus
can be found as

dD=  departures --------------- Eq (29.7)

dL=  latitudes --------------- Eq (29.8)

for link traverse:

dD= (Xn - X1)

dL= (Yn - Y1)

Introduction

 Advantages of Plane Table Survey

 Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

Instruments

 Plane Tables
 Alidade
o Plain Alidade
o Telescopic Alidade
o Digital Alidade
 Plumbing Fork
 Spirit Level
 Trough Compass
 Drawing Arrangements

Basic Principle of Plane Table Surveying

Setting of Instruments

 Fixing
 Centring
 Leveling

Temporary adjustment of Plane Table

Orientation of PlaneTable

 Orientation with a Trough Compass

 Orientation by Backsighting
 Orientation by Resection
  Introduction
A plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying. In this method of surveying, field observation and
plotting are done simultaneously helping the surveyor to compare the plotted details with actual features of the
ground.
Advantages of Plane Table Survey
 It is suitable for location of details as well as contouring for large scale maps directly in the field.
 As surveying and plotting are done simultaneously in the field, chances of getting omission of any detail get
less.
 The plotting details can immediately get compared with the actual objects present in the field. Thus errors
as well as accuracy of the plot can be ascertained as the work progresses in the field.
 Contours and specific features can be represented and checked conveniently as the whole area is in view
at the time of plotting.
 Only relevant details are located because the map is drawn as the survey progresses. Irrelevant details get
omitted in the field itself.
 The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than most other types of survey.
 As the instruments used are simple, not much skill for operation of instruments is required. This method of
survey requires no field book.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

 The plane table survey is not possible in unfavorable climates such as rain, fog etc.
 This method of survey is not very accurate and thus unsuitable for large scale or precise work.
 As no field book is maintained, plotting at different scale require full exercise.
 The method requires large amount of time to be spent in the field.
 Quality of the final map depends largely on the drafting capability of the surveyor.
 This method is effective in relatively open country where stations can be sighted easily .

 Basic Principle of Plane Table Surveying

Plane table surveying is based on the principle that lines drawn during plotting always lie parallel to the
corresponding lines actually present on the ground.

For example, let us consider four ground stations A, B, C and D which on joining provides a rectangle ABCD. This
has been plotted on a sheet of paper at a scale by plane table surveying. Here, the sides AB, BC, CD and DA are
plotted in such a way that they are parallel to the sides actually available on the ground.

Methods of Plane table Surveying

Radiation Method

Radiation Method
In the radiation method of plane table surveying, the direction of the objects or points to be located are obtained by
drawing radial lines along fiducial edge of alidade after getting the objects or points bisected along the line of sight of
the alidade. The horizontal distances are then measured and scaled off on the corresponding radial lines to mark
their positions on the drawing.
Let Figure 34.1 be considered in which a plane table is set up at station X and details in the area X plotted by method
of radiation.In order to carry out this, first the plane table is set over the station X, clamped and its position is plotted
on paper as x. Now, with alidade pivoted at x, salient object points present in the area such as A, B, C, D etc of a
building around the plane table got bisected and radial lines are drawn showing their directions. The corresponding
field distances XA, XB, XC, XD are measured and scale off on respective radial lines. Thus, plotted their positions as
a, b, c, d etc. The plotted positions are then joined to represent the object. In this way, points e, f, g, h are also plotted
and joined to get another building corner. The location of a telephone line pillar T plotted as t.

The radiation method of plane table surveying is suitable for locating objects which are within a single tape length
(from the location of plane table). The method is convenient if telescopic or digital alidade is used. Otherwise, it is
effective when associated with tacheometer or EDM for measurement of horizontal distance.

Intersection Method

In intersection method of plane table surveying, the objects or points to be located are obtained at the point of
intersection of radial lines drawn from two different stations.
 Let us

consider plane table stations Z and Y (Figure 34.2) from which details got plotted by method of intersection. In this,
first the plane table is set over the station Z, clamped and its position is plotted on paper as z. If the position of the
station is not already plotted, then the station Y is bisected and plotted by method of radiation. Now, with alidade
pivoted at z, salient object points on the surface of earth such as 1, 2, 3 etc of a building, 4 a telephone pillar, 5 a tree
etc around the plane table got bisected and radial lines are drawn showing their directions. The table is then shifted to
the station Y and get it set and after orienting by backsighting to station Z get it clamped. With alidade pivoted at y,
same objects i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. get bisected and rays are drawn. The intersection of the respective rays provides
the plotted positions of the respective details. The plotted positions of 1,2, 3 are then joined to represent the building
corner. Telephone pillar and tree are represented by their conventional symbols.

In this method, the plotting of plane table stations are to be carried out accurately. Checking is important and thus
done by taking third sight from another station.

The intersection method is suitable when distances of objects are large or cannot be measured properly. Thus, this
method is preferred in small scale survey and for mountainous regions.

Three-Point Problem
in this method, three well defined points, having locations already being plotted on the drawing are involved. These
are used to find and subsequently plot the location of the plane table station.
The method is based on the fact that, in a correctly oriented plane table, resectors through well defined points get
intersected at a point which represents the location of the plane table station on the drawing. For example, as shown
in Figure 35.1, if X, Y and Z are well defined objects present in the field whose plotted positions are x, y and z. Now, if
the plane table is oriented correctly, the three resectors Xx, Yy and Zz get intersected at p which represents the
location of the plane table station, P on the drawing sheet. Thus, through solution of three-point problem, both
orientation and resection of plane table gets accomplished simultaneously.

There are several methods for solution of the three point problem: (i) trial and Error method, (ii) mechanical method,
(iii) graphical method, (iv)Analytical method and (v) geometrical construction method. Of these, the trial and error
method is easy, quick and accurate. It is commonly used in practice and hence, has been discussed in detail.

Simple Circular Curve

Elements of a Simple Circular Curve

Designation of a Curve

Degree of Curve

 Chord Definition
 Arc Definition

Radius of Curve

Fundamentals of Geometry of Circular Curve

Simple Circular Curve

Once the alignment of a route is finalized, such as AVCD in Figure 37.1, the change in direction is achieved through
provision of circular curves. In Figure 37.1, to change the direction from AV to VC, a circular curve T1 GT2 is
provided. Similarly, from VC to CD, T'1G'T'2 is provided. The straight alignments, between which a curve is provided,
are tangential to the curve. Thus, AT1 V and VT2C are tangential to T1 GT2 . The tangent line before the beginning of
the curve is called the Back tangent or the rear tangent. The tangent line after the end of the curve is called the
Forward tangent . The line AT1 is the back tangent and the line T2C is the forward tangent for the curve T1GT2. The
distinction of the back tangent from the forward tangent depends on the direction of the route surveying. The point at
which extension of the back tangent and the forward tangent meet is known as the Vertex (V) or point of intersection
(P.I.). The exterior angle at the vertex or point of intersection is known as the Intersection angle (I). It is also known as
Deflection angle () as it represents the deflection angle between the back tangent and the forward tangent. Thus,
angle between the line AV produced beyond the vertex V and the line VC represents I (or ). The point on the back
tangent where the curve begins is known as the Point of Curvature (P.C.). At this point, the alignment of the route
changes from a straight line to a curve. This is represented by T 1 in Figure 37.1. The point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends is known as the Point of tangency (P.T.). At this point, the alignment of the route changes from
a curve to a straight line. It is represented by T2 in Figure 37.1. The distance between the point of curvature (T1) to
the point of intersection (V) along the extension of back tangent is known as Tangent distance (T). It is also equal to
the distance between the point of tangency (T2) to the point of intersection along the extension of forward tangent.
The distance between the point of intersection (V) and the middle point of the curve is called as External distance (E).
The longest possible chord of the circular curve is known as Long chord (L). It is the line joining the point of curvature
(T1) and the point of tangency (T2). The distance between the middle point of the curve and the middle point of the
long chord is Mid-ordinate (M). The length of the alignment along the curve between the point of curvature (T1) and
the point of tangency (T2) is known as the Length of curve (l). During the progress of the route, if the direction of
deflection is to the right then it is called Right-hand curve (T1GT2) and it is called left -hand curve, if the curve deflects
to the left T'1G'T'2.
Elements of a Simple Circular Curve

Let T1GT2 be the circular curve that has been provided between the tangents AV and VC. The deflection
angle,  between the tangents is measured in the field. The radius of curvature is the design value as per
requirement of the route operation and field topography. The line joining O and V bisects the internal angles at V
and at O, the chord T1T2 and arc T1GT2 . It is perpendicular to the chord T1T2 at F. From the Figure 37.1, RT1O
T2 =  and

To compute the elements of a circular curve, consider the radius of the curve OT1 = OT2 = R. Further, it is known
that the RVT1 O = RVT2 O = 90° (since the tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency).
The elements of a circular curve required to lay it out in the field with reference to Figure 37.1 are as follows :

Length of Curve,

l = T1 GT2

--------------Equation (37.1)

Tangent Length,

T = length T1 V = length T2 V

--------------Equation (37.2)

Chainages of tangent point : The chainage of the point of intersection (V) is generally known. Thus,

Chainageof T1 = Chainage of V - tangent length (T) --------------Equation (37.3)

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + length of curve (l) --------------Equation (37.4)

Length of the long chord (L) : Length of the long chord,

L = length T1 FT2

--------------Equation (37.5)
External distance (E) :

E = length VG

= VO - GO

--------------Equation (37.6)

Mid-ordinate (M) :

M = length GF = OG-OF

--------------Equation (37.7)

Designation of a Curve
A curve is designated either in terms of its degree (D) or by its radius (R).

Degree of Curve
The degree of a curve (D) is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord or an arc of
specified length.

Chord Definition
The degree of a curve is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord of 30 m length.
Let D be the degree of a curve i.e., it is the angle subtended at its centre O by a chord C 1C2 of 30 m length as shown
in Figure 37.2. Thus

-------------- Equation (37.8)

Arc Definition
The degree of a curve is defined as the angle subtended at its centre of the curve by an arc of 30 m length.
From Figure 37.3,

-------------- Equation (37.9)

Example 37.1 The deflection angle at the point of intersection (chainage 1256.260 m) of two straights is 43°. Find the
elements of a 3° circular curve to be set out between the straights.

Solution Refer Figure 37.1

From Equation37.1, the radius of the circular curve,

R = 1718.9 / D = 1718.9 / 3 = 572.97 m ~ 573 m

Let us consider, the radius of the circular curve to be set be, R = 575 m

From given data,

the deflection angle,  = 43°

Thus, from Equation 37.2, tangent length T = R tan (  / 2) = 575 tan (43° / 2)

= 226.498 m = 226.50 m

Length of the curve, l = (From Equation 37.1)

Chainage of T1 (the point of curve) = Chainage of P.I. – T

= 1256.260 – 226.50 = 1029.676 m

And Chainage of T2 (the point of tangency) = Chainage of P.C. + l

= 1029.76 + 431.533 = 1461.293 m

Length of the long chord, L = 2R Sin ( / 2) ------------------- (Equation 37.5)

= 2 x 575 x Sin (43° / 2) = 421.476 m

External distance, E = ------------------- (Equation 37.6)

Mid-ordinate distance, M = R (1 – Cos ) -------------------(Equation 37.7)

Example 37.2 To connect XY and ZY, by two right handed circular curves separated by a straight line AB, 250 m
long, following measurements were made.

WCB of the lines XY, ZY , AB are 45°, 300° and 90° respectively. The chainage of the station Y is 1000.00 m. A
distance of 1 km is available for the curves alongwith the straight path. If the radius of the first curve is half of that of
the second, calculate the following
  The radii of the curves
 The chainage of the point of tangencies

Solution :

(i) Deflection Angles

Deflection angle for the first curve

1 = Bearing of AB – Bearing of XY

= 90° – 45° = 45°

Deflection angle for the second curve

2 = Bearing of YZ – Bearing AB

= 120°– 90° = 30°

Deflection angle for the straights XY and YZ

 = 1 + 2 = 45° + 30° = 75°

Bearing of YZ - Bearing of XY = 120° - 45° = 75° (Verified)

(ii) Lengths of the Curves

Length of the first curve of radius R, say

l1 =

Length of the second curve of radius, 2R

l2 =

Total length of the curve, l = l1 + l2

(iii) Radius of the Curves

Given, Total length of the curves + straight path = 1000

or, l + 250 = 1000

or,

R = 409.26 m

Let us provide, the first curve having radius, R = 410.0 m

Thus, the radius of the second curve, 2R = 820.0 m

(iv) Tangent Length

Tangent length, T1 P = R tan = 410 tan = 169.827 m = PA

Tangent length, T2 Q = 2R tan = 820 tan = 219.717 m = QB

Thus, PQ = PA + AB + BQ

= 169.827 + 250 + 219.717 = 639.544 m

From  YPQ,
PY = x Sin 30° = 331.054 m

YT1 = YP + PT1 = 331.054+ 169.827 = 500.88 m

Let us provide YT1 = 500 m;

(v) Chainage

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of Y – YT1

= 1000 – 500.00 = 500.00 m

Chainage of A = Chainage of T1 + l1

= 500 + = 822.00 m

Chainage of B = Chainage of A + AB

= 822.00 + 250 = 1072.00 m

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of B + l2

= 1072.00 + = 1394.013 m

Layout of simple circular curve methods: ( learn all the formulae for the following setting out methods)

1. Linear method
2. Tape and theodolite method
3. Two theodolite method
4. Tacheometric method
5. Total station method
Contours

 Definition
o Contour Interval
o Horizontal Equivalent
o Characteristics of Contour
o Contouring
 Direct
 Indirect
 Grid method
 Radial method
 Comparison between Direct and Indirect method
 Drawing of Contours

Definition
A line joining points of equal elevations is called a contour line. It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two
dimensional plan or map.
Contour Interval
The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed. This vertical distance between
any two contour lines in a map is called the contour interval (C.I.) of the map. Figure 17.1(a) shows contour interval
of 1m whereas Figure 17.1(b) shows 10m.

The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal considerations. These are:

 Nature of the Terrain

 Scale of the Map
 Accuracy
 Time of Cost

Characteristics of Contour
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are as follows:
 1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and varies inversely
on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform slope (Figure 17.2); closely for
steep slope contours (Figure 17.3) and widely for moderate slope (Figure 17.4).
3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of the contour at
that point (Figure 17.5). They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines.
4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings (Figure 17.6)
5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are the exceptions).
(Figure 17.7)
6. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is an exception). (Figure
17.8)
7. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
8. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map.
9. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill (Figure 17.9(a)). A set of ring contours
with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a depression (without an
outlet) Figure 17.9(b).
10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-shape cross a ridge and
in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour lines is towards higher ground in the
case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley (Figure 17.10).
11. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Contouring

The method of establishing / plotting contours in a plan or map is known as contouring. It requires planimetric
position of the points and drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points. Contouring involves providing of
vertical control for location of points on the contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points. Thus,
contouring depends upon the instruments used (to determine the horizontal as well as vertical position of points). In
general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two classes:

Direct methods

Indirect methods

Direct Method
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a
desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and
tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of precision. Direct method of
contouring can be employed using Level and Staff as follows:

Vertical control : In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any
commanding position and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading on the bench mark be
1.485 m. If the reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485
m. To locate the contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground where the
staff reading is 101.485 -100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the ground where the staff reading would be
0.985 m by inserting pegs. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would be 101.485 -101 = 0.485 m for
101m contour. The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of
instrument for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating contours of higher value, the
instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable position. Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take
fore sight on it. This point acts as a point of known elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another
position, from where the work proceeds in the similar manner till the entire area is contoured.

Horizontal control : The horizontal control is generally provided by method of plane table surveying or locating the
positions of points by other details in which will be discussed in later module (Figure 17.11).
Indirect Methods
In this method, points are located in the field, generally as corners of well-shaped geometrical figures such as
squares, rectangles, and spot levels are determined. Elevations of desired contours are interpolated in between spot
levels and contour lines are drawn by joining points of equal elevation.

Indirect methods are less expensive, less time consuming and less tedious as compared to the direct method.
These methods are commonly employed in small scale surveys of large areas or during mapping of irregular surface
or steep slope. There are two different ways usually employed for indirect method of contouring:

 Grid method and

 Radial line method

Grid Method
In this method, the area to be surveyed is divided into a grid or series of squares (Figure 17.12). The grid size may
vary from 5 m x 5 m to 25 m x 25 m depending upon the nature of the terrain, the contour interval required and the
scale of the map desired. Also, the grids may not be of the same size throughout but may vary depending upon the
requirement and field conditions. The grid corners are marked on the ground and spot levels of these comers are
determined by leveling. The grid is plotted to the scale of the map and the spot levels of the grid corners are
entered. The contours of desired values are then located by interpolation. Special care should be taken to give the
spot levels to the salient features of the ground such as hilltops, deepest points of the depressions, and their
measurements from respective corners of the grids, for correct depiction of the features. The method is used for
large scale mapping and at average precision.
Radial Method

In this method, a number of radial lines are set out at known angular interval at each station and points are marked
at the ground at convenient distance apart on the rays that are set. Spot levels of these points are determined by
leveling. The points are plotted to the scale of the map and spot levels are entered. The contours of desired values
are then located by interpolation. This method is convenient in hilly terrain with level stations chosen at high points
so as to command a large area from each. Horizontal control may be obtained by taping (Figure 17.13).
Uses of Contours

 Nature of Grounds
 To Locate Route
 Intervisibility between Stations
 To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area
 Storage capacity of a Reservoir



Nature of Grounds

To visualize the nature of ground along a cross section of interest, a line say XY is being considered through the
contour map (Figure 18.3). The intersection points between the line and contours are projected at different elevations
of the contours are projected and joined by smooth curve. The smooth curve depicts the nature of the ground surface
along XY.
To Locate Route

Contour map provides useful information for locating a route at a given gradient such as highway, canal, sewer line
etc.

Let it be required to locate a route from P to Q at an upward gradient of 1 in 100. The contour map of the area is
available at a contour interval of 5 meter at a scale of 1:10000. The horizontal equivalent will therefore be equal to
100 meter. Then with centre at P with a radius of 2 cm draw an arc to cut the next higher contour, say at q. With q as
centre, mark the next higher contour by an arc of radius 2 cm say at r. Similarly, other points such as s,t,u…. etc are
obtained and joining the points provides the location of route. (Figure 18.2).

Intervisibility between Stations

When the intervisibility between two points can not be ascertained by inspection of the area, it can be determined
using contour map. The intervisibility is determined by drawing a line joining the stations / points say PQ and plot the
elevations of the points and contours intersected by PQ as shown in Figure 18.3. If the intervening ground is found
to be above A'B' line, the intervisibility is obstructed. In the figure, the ground is obstructing the line of sight.
To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area

The catchment area of a river is determined by using contour map. The watershed line which indicates the drainage
basin of a river passes through the ridges and saddles of the terrain around the river. Thus, it is always
perpendicular to the contour lines. The catchment area contained between the watershed line and the river outlet is
then measured with a planimeter (Figure 18.4).

Storage capacity of a Reservoir

The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line indicating the full reservoir
level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed between successive contours are measured by
planimeter (Figure 18.5). The volume of water between F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either
Trapezoidal formula or Prismoidal formula.