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Design of a Solar Stirling Engine for Marine and Offshore Applications

Article  in  International Journal of Renewable Energy Technology · April 2015

DOI: 10.1504/IJRET.2016.073400

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Int. J. Renewable Energy Technology, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2016 1

Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and

offshore applications

Alex Yerbury, Alex Coote,

Vikram Garaniya* and Hongyang Yu
National Centre for Maritime Engineering and Hydrodynamics,
Australian Maritime College,
University of Tasmania,
Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
Email:alexyerbury_1@hotmail.com
Email: alex.coote@asc.com.au
Email: V.Garaniya@utas.edu.au
Email: Hongyang.Yu@utas.edu.au
*Corresponding author

Abstract: The Stirling cycle is useful in the marine environment because it can
be driven by any heat source, such as solar, in times of direct sunlight or flared
gas, when sunlight is inadequate. The ability to be powered from exhaust or
flared gas makes it especially suited for offshore production facilities. In this
work, a small 150 Watt solar powered gamma configuration Stirling engine
was designed and constructed. Special care was taken when selecting
construction materials. Solar power is provided by using a parabolic mirror to
focus the sun’s radiation onto the engine. Experimental testing was performed
to determine the engine’s power and torque characteristics, as well as solar
performance. The engine was found to produce a maximum power output of
88 Watts at 245 RPM with a displacer temperature of 514°C. Comparisons of
numerical and experimental results showed that the engine had a maximum
mechanical efficiency of 90%.

Keywords: solar energy; Stirling engine; maritime industry; offshore

platforms.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Yerbury, A., Coote, A.,
Garaniya, V. and Yu, H. (2016) ‘Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine
and offshore applications’, Int. J. Renewable Energy Technology, Vol. 7, No. 1,
pp.1–45.

Biographical notes: Alex Yerbury studied Bachelor of Marine and Offshore

Engineering at Australian Maritime College where he graduated with honours
in 2012. He is currently an Installation Engineer at Technip Oceania. He has
worked throughout South East Asia, and enjoys the challenges of working in
the offshore oil and gas industry.

Alex Coote studied Bachelor of Marine and Offshore Engineering at Australian

Maritime College where he graduated with honours in 2012. He is currently a
Structural Engineer at ASC. He has worked on maintaining the Collins Class
Submarine fleet in Perth, Western Australia as well as major refits in Adelaide,
South Australia.

Copyright © 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

2 A. Yerbury et al.

Vikram Garaniya completed his Bachelor in Chemical Engineering in India. He

obtained his Master of Engineering Science degree from the UNSW in Sydney
in 2005. From 2005 to 2009, he completed his Doctor of Philosophy at the
Australian Maritime College (AMC) – an Institute of the University of
Tasmania. He is currently the Course Coordinator for BE (Marine and Offshore
Engineering) at the AMC. His research interests include Chemical and Thermal
Engineering related areas, such as combustion science, computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) modelling of engines, mathematical modelling, evaporation,
pyrolysis, thermal cracking, coke formation, soot burnout, heavy fuel oil,
continuous thermodynamics are his most areas of interest. He is a member of
Engineers Australia.

Hongyang Yu graduated from the Australian Maritime College in 2012 with a

second-upper class honour in Marine and Offshore Engineering. He is now a
PhD candidate with the National Centre of Maritime Engineering and
Hydrodynamics Australian Maritime College. His primary research interests
are linear algebra, optimisation and process monitoring.

1 Introduction

The Stirling engine, an external combustion heat engine, was first patented by
Robert Stirling in 1816 (Kongtragool and Wongwises, 2003). The engine was developed
as a result of Robert Stirling’s concern about the injury caused by exploding steam engine
boilers, and the safer operation this has due to its lower working pressures (Darlington
and Strong, 2005). The first generation of Stirling engines were used to provide auxiliary
power to mining and manufacturing industries, and were large, coal driven, low
compression engines. Stirling engines were widely used until the turn of the 19th century,
when the rapid development of the internal combustion engine and electric motor led to
the Stirling engines demise (Darlington and Strong, 2005). The Stirling engine was then
revived in the 1930s by the Phillips Research Laboratory, with the idea of using Stirling
engines to power equipment in remote areas. Phillips Research Laboratory used more
advanced knowledge of thermal and fluid mechanics at the time, as well as new materials
to develop Stirling engines with specific power 30 times greater than previous Stirling
engines (Darlington and Strong, 2005).
In recent times, Stirling engines have had something of a revival, with the potential
for solar electric power generation being the driving force. Solar radiation can be
harnessed to power the Stirling Engine. Stirling engines are simplistic and highly
efficient in their design with theoretical efficiency is almost equal to the Carnot
efficiency (Asnaghi et al., 2012). Their high thermal to mechanical efficiency (up to
40%), high power densities (up to 50 kW per litre), and high solar energy to electric
power (29.4%) makes them an attractive solar thermal electricity generator (Mancini
et al., 2003). Their simplicity also means that they are low maintenance, and low cost if
produced with the economies of scale. The Stirling engine is considered to be the most
effective form of solar to electric power generation (Mancini, 1997; Kreith, 1999). Solar
Stirling engines have been around almost as long as the Stirling engines itself. It is
reported that the first solar powered Stirling engine was invented in 1864 by Ericsson,
who used a parabolic reflector to focus the suns energy to heat steam, which was then
used to heat the displacer cylinder of an early style Stirling engine (Kongtragool and
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 3

Wongwises, 2003). Solar Stirling engines have come a long way from this design, and
now use solar radiation to directly heat the displacer cylinder of the engine.
A recent study was performed by Karabulut et al. (2009), regarding the construction
and testing of a dish type solar Stirling engine, and the losses in the solar to electric
conversion. This study found that the dish reflector should not concentrate the sun’s rays
onto a point of the Stirling engine, rather a zone. This reduces thermal stresses placed on
the displacer cylinder. In this concept, the solar radiation is reflected from the primary
parabolic mirror to a secondary reflector that focuses this energy into a cavity attached to
the top of the displacer cylinder. This was concluded to be the most efficient solution for
reflecting the sun’s radiation onto the displacer cylinder.
However, one area of solar research yet to be fully explored is the application of solar
Stirling engines in the marine and offshore environment (Mills, 2004). The Stirling cycle,
being an all gas cycle, is useful in the marine environment because it can be driven by
any heat source, such as solar, in times of direct sunlight or flared gas when sunlight is
inadequate. The ability to be powered from exhaust or flared gas makes it especially
suited for offshore production facilities. Solar Stirling engines are also advantageous over
solar photovoltaic arrays as their solar to electric power conversion is more efficient
(Global Climate & Energy Project, 2006). Furthermore, since Stirling engines produce
rotational motion, they can be used to drive a traditional generator, thus producing useful
AC power directly. While Stirling engines are unlikely to provide total power
requirements for offshore facilities, their implementation to supplement the existing
system is an attractive prospect. The aim of this project is to design and develop a
working solar Stirling engine suitable for marine and offshore environment.
The remainder part of the paper is divided into eight sections: In Section 2, the
fundamental principle of the operation of the solar Stirling engine is briefly reviewed.
The design concept and material selections for the construction of the solar Stirling
engine are described in Section 3. The assembly procedures of the proposed solar Stirling
engine are presented in detail in Section 4. Section 5 outlines the experimental setup and
testing procedures of the built engine, while Section 6 provides a CFD simulation of the
engine to estimate the power and torque. In Section 7, the numerical and experimental
performance of the designed Stirling engine is compared with existing literatures. Finally,
Section 8 summarises the major findings and draws conclusions based on the findings.

2 Basic principle solar engine operation

The Stirling engine operates on a temperature differential that imparts motion to one
piston, the displacer, by means of gas transfer between the hot and cold space of the
cylinder. This motion in turn causes another piston, the power piston, to move; thereby
transmitting power to the crank and flywheel. The power of a Stirling engine relies on the
temperature difference of the displacer cylinder not on the fuel that provides this
difference (Darlington and Strong, 2005).
Assuming that the displacer piston has vertical momentum, its effect will cause the
gas in the cylinder to displace from one end of the cylinder to the other. Presuming that
the bottom of the cylinder is heated, while the top cooled, when the gas comes into
contact with the bottom of the cylinder its temperature rises, and the gas expands,
creating an increase in pressure throughout the system. This increase in pressure is
4 A. Yerbury et al.

communicated to the power piston, causing its outward movement and power to be
transmitted to the crank. The return stroke of the displacer causes the heated air in the
cylinder to travel to the cool end of the cylinder, through the regenerator, and
subsequently contract, causing a pressure drop in the system. This pressure drop is
communicated to the power piston, which in turn causes its inward movement, again
transmitting power to the crank.
In order to achieve this out of phase motion, there must be a calculated gap in the
motions of the displacer and power piston. This gap should be a phase angle of 90°, with
the displacer piston always leading the power piston (Kongtragool and Wongwises,
2003). The Stirling engine operates on a closed regenerative thermodynamic cycle. As
shown in Figure 1, in the ideal cycle of a Stirling engine the working fluid undergoes
isothermal compression (a-b), isochoric heating (b-c), isothermal expansion (c-d), and
isochoric cooling (d-a) (3).

Figure 1 The Stirling cycle

A regenerator, also known as the economiser, can be used to increase the efficiency of
the Stirling engine. A regenerator is a heat exchanger that is positioned in between the hot
and cold ends of the system. When the heated gas travels to the cool end of the engine, it
is cooled from the high temperature to a lower one. Then when the gas travels back to the
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 5

heated end, it is heated from the cool temperature. In order to increase efficiency, the
regenerator is placed between the hot and cold chambers of the engine. As the hot gas
passes the regenerator, it gives up energy to the regenerator, heating it and minimising the
amount of energy rejected in the cooling chamber. On the return of the working gas, the
regenerator gives up the heat energy stored by it, pre heating the gas before entry to the
heating chamber of the Stirling engine, and cooling the regenerator, ready for the next
cycle.

3 Engine design

3.1 Engine design

3.1.1 Stirling engine types
Three of the basic designs of the moderate temperature differential Stirling engines are
alpha design, beta design, and gamma design. Alpha design Stirling engines have two
pistons that are both responsible for the thermodynamic processes of the Stirling cycle.
This configuration does not utilise a displacer piston, rather, there is a hot and cold
cylinder, with the hot piston responsible for expansion, and the cold piston responsible
for the compression of the working gas, as shown in Figure 2. One advantage of the alpha
Stirling engine is the ease of incorporating a regenerator into its design (Darlington and
Strong, 2005). The regenerator can fill the dead space connecting the hot and cold
cylinder, increasing the engines efficiency.

Figure 2 Alpha Stirling engine

Beta style Stirling engines, shown in Figure 2(b), are of a piston displacer configuration.
In this arrangement, the displacer piston is only responsible for shuttling the working gas
between the hot and cold regions of the cylinder, while the power piston compresses and
expands the working gas. Beta configurations are advantageous because their design is
more compact, and have the ability to utilise a higher compression ratio (Roldan et al.,
2010).
6 A. Yerbury et al.

According to West (1986), beta Stirling engines may be the only practical
arrangement for high temperature engines. West also states that beta engines are capable
of a higher compression ratio than gamma configurations, an advantageous characteristic.
One disadvantage of beta Stirling engines is the complexity of its design. Since the
pistons are in the same cylinder, the displacer pistons connecting rod may have to be
located through the centre of the power piston and its connecting rod.
Gamma configuration engines, shown in Figure 2(c), are theoretically the most
efficient Stirling engine design (Kongtragool and Wongwises, 2003). This design
incorporates two separate cylinders, one containing the displacer piston, and the other the
power piston. These cylinders are joined, enabling the easy incorporation of a
regenerator. The gamma style engines simplicity lends itself to being the ideal first
engine to design and fabricate (Darlington and Strong, 2005).
A comparison of these three types of moderate temperature Stirling engine
configurations is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparison of moderate temperature differential Stirling engines

Stirling engine
Advantages Disadvantages
configuration
Alpha • Easy incorporation of regenerator in • Unavoidable dead space
design due to design
• Good design for low temperature • Not good for high
operation temperature applications
Beta • Compact design • Incorporation of
regenerator more
• High compression ratios
difficult
• Suitable for high temperature applications
• More complicated design
Gamma • Highest mechanical efficiency • Unavoidable dead space
due to design
• Easy incorporation of regenerator in
design • Not suitable for high
temperature designs
• Simplest engine to design and construct

3.1.2 Stirling engine sizing

The gamma configuration Stirling was chosen for the present study due to its
mechanically efficient arrangement and simplicity in design and manufacture (Darlington
and Strong, 2005). The Stirling engine was initially sized using a MATLAB program,
developed by Saremi (2011a). The sizing of the engine allows follows relative sizing
guide recommended by Darlington and Strong (2005). This sizing guide is presented in
Table 2.
Table 2 Stirling engine relative sizing recommendations

Component Relative size

Displacement piston length 3 × displacement piston bore
Cooling space 1/3 × displacement piston length
Heating space 2/3 × displacement piston length
Power piston swept volume 1/2 × power piston bore
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 7

Figure 3 shows a design methodology commonly used to design a Stirling engine, which
in this case is an iterative design process to ensure the best possible design outcome. This
methodology includes two analysis procedure, Schmidt analysis and non-dimensional
analysis (Roldan et al., 2010).

Figure 3 Iterative design methodology

3.1.2.1 Analysis methods

The Schmidt analysis is the simplest and most widely used design method (Abdullah
et al., 2005). It is a thermodynamic analysis which accounts for the sinusoidal variations
of the various spaces inside the engine due to the mechanical linkage (Roldan et al., 201).
8 A. Yerbury et al.

The Schmidt analysis is an ideal analysis, and therefore not completely accurate, but is
still considered one of the best methods of analysis for Stirling engine design.
Non-dimensional analysis uses a variety of ratios, including temperature, pressure and
volume to analyse a design of a Stirling engine. These ratios are used to define the sizes
of components of the engine, relative to the maximum allowable sizes defined by the
engine power output. This analysis method is also iterative and the details of the method
are given in reference (Roldan et al., 2010). Once the desired number of iterations is
complete, two non-dimensional numbers, known as the Beale Number and the West
Number, are used to determine the engine’s final power output. The Beale and West
numbers, defined in equation
P
BN = (1)
Pm × V × f

where
BN Beale number
P engine power (W)
Pm mean pressure
V volume (m3)
f shaft rotation frequency (s–1).
P (TE + TC )
WN = × (2)
Pm × V × f (TE − TC )

WN West number
TE temperature of expansion space (K)
TC temperature of compression space (K).
The solar Stirling engine has been designed as a vertical acting, gamma configuration, as
shown in Figure 4. The sizing of the engine components has been conducted following
the design methodology shown in Figure 3 along with the relative sizing
recommendations give in Table 2, supplemented by the MATLAB program developed by
Saremi (2011b). The adiabatic analysis MATLAB program has been modified to suit a
gamma configuration Stirling engine. The expected pressure-volume and energy-crank
angle diagrams are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, respectively.
The Stirling engine model is intended to be a 1:1,000 scale of a 150 kW engine. The
volume of the displacer and power cylinders were iterated until the desired power of
150 W was achieved, given assumed values of displacer hot end temperature and speed.
The assumption for speed is based on recorded speeds from a range of similar engines
from Mohamed (2011), Karabulut et al. (2009) and Kang et al. (2010). For this design
stage, a rotational speed of 420 RPM was assumed. The assumption for the displacer
cylinder hot end temperature of 500°C was based on the quoted temperature from the
solar reflector manufacturer (Green Power Science LLC, 2012). Importing this
information into the MATLAB engine design program gives the volume of the displacer
and power cylinders shown in Table 3.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 9

Table 3 Calculated engine cylinder volumes

Cylinder Volume (m3)

Displacer 0.0006
Power 0.00022

Figure 4 Full Stirling engine design (see online version for colours)

Figure 5 Stirling engine expected pressure-volume diagram (see online version for colours)
10 A. Yerbury et al.

The volumes shown in Table 3 are used to calculate the length and diameter of the
cylinders and pistons shown in Table 4 according to the relative sizing recommendations
given in Table 2.

Figure 6 Stirling engine expected energy-crank angle diagram (see online version for colours)

Table 4 Stirling engine dimensions

Component Dimension Size (m)

Displacer cylinder Length 0.093
Diameter 0.031
Wall thickness 0.001
Displacer piston Length 0.062
Diameter 0.028
Power cylinder Length 0.026
Diameter 0.026
Wall thickness 0.0005
Power piston Length 0.025
Diameter 0.025

3.2 Solar collector design

The solar collector used is a pre-fabricated 25 inch parabolic solar mirror as shown in
Figure 7. The specifications of this solar collector are given in Table 5.
After the engine sizing, Autodesk Inventor Professional 2012 was used to model the
engine and produce the technical drawings required for fabricating the components. The
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 11

Stirling engine was modelled as individual parts, each having specified material
properties, and machining finishes. These parts were imported into an Autodesk
Assembly, and the necessary constraints applied to the components to produce the 3D
model. The completed 3D rendered model and solar concentrator is shown in Figure 8.
Table 5 Solar collector specifications

Given data SI unit

Diameter 25” 0.635 m
Weight 3 lbs 1.36 kg
Max temp. 1,607°F 875°C
Max. temp. climb 1,251°F 677°C
Focal length 23” from centre 0.584 m
Beam focus Spot N/A

Figure 7 Parabolic mirror solar collector (see online version for colours)

Figure 8 Solar Stirling engine design arrangement (see online version for colours)

The vertically orientated design was adopted for ease of use with a parabolic mirror,
since the displacer cylinder can easily be placed in the mirrors focal point. A parabolic
12 A. Yerbury et al.

mirror was chosen to heat the displacer cylinder, as this arrangement has the highest
efficiency (Kongtragool and Wongwises, 2003; Mancini, 1997). The solar testing frame
comprises of a cantilever arm to suspend the engine over the focal point of the parabolic
mirror. Since shadows are detrimental to the efficiency of the solar mirror, and therefore
engine power, this arm was made as small as possible. As such, the distance from the
mirrors outside edge to the displacer cylinder hot cap must be 550 mm. Since vibrations
will be present during operation, it was important to make the frame solid enough to
prevent these vibrations affecting the testing of the engine. The frame, as shown in
Figure 9, was designed with a low centre of gravity, to increase stability and has a large
stable base to prevent overturning with the engine attached.

Figure 9 Solar Stirling frame with engine arrangement (see online version for colours)

3.3 Materials selection

Since the Stirling engine was designed to operate in the marine environment, materials
selection was an essential part of the design. The engine must be lightweight, and
extremely reliable for implementation in marine and offshore applications. Material
selection for Stirling engines is based on many factors such as strength, heat transfer,
corrosion resistance, weight and cost. Components that are subjected to high
temperatures must be able to withstand the heat, while reciprocating components must be
light and strong. The components used in the design employed the materials carefully
selected to suit the purpose of the job they are to provide. Budget constraints and
practical limitations have also governed material selection. After determining the
mechanical properties required for each of the components, material selection charts from
Ashby (2005) and past engine examples were used to select the best suited materials for
each component. Each component and its selected material are summarised in Table 6.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 13

Table 6 Component materials

Component Material General advantages

Power piston and Cast Iron • Self-lubricating properties are needed
cylinder
• Low thermal expansion, and good workability
• Good surface finish possible
Displacer cylinder Stainless • Good corrosion resistance
and piston Steel
• Low thermal expansion
• Poor heat conduction along length
• High melting point
Cooling fins Aluminium • Good workability
• Good heat transfer
• Corrosion resistance
• Light weight
Crankshafts Stainless steel • Resilience
• Fatigue resistance
• Corrosion resistance
Flywheel Stainless steel • High density for larger moment of inertia
• Corrosion resistance
Displacer Stainless steel • Resilience
connecting rod
• Fatigue resistance
• Corrosion resistance
Conrods Aluminium • Lightweight
• Corrosion resistant
Little end bushes Brass • Self-lubricating
• Wear resistant
Transfer plates Aluminium • Good workability
• Lightweight
• Corrosion resistant
Connecting rod Brass • Self-lubricating
guide
• Wear resistant
Displacer flange Brass • Good workability
• Good weldability
Displacer end cap Stainless steel • High melting point
• Maintains strength at high temperatures
• Corrosion resistant
Power piston clevis Aluminium • Lightweight
• Good workability
14 A. Yerbury et al.

Table 6 Component materials (continued)

Component Material General advantages

Supporting frame Aluminium • Lightweight
• Corrosion resistant
• Good workability
Displacer piston hot Stainless steel • High melting point
end plug
• Maintains strength at high temperatures
• Corrosion resistant
Displacer piston Aluminium • Lightweight
cold end plug
• Corrosion resistant
• Good workability
Clevis pins Stainless steel • High resilience
• Fatigue resistance
• Corrosion resistance
Displacer piston Brass • Good workability
clevis
• Aesthetics

4 Procedures for assembly

The build of the Stirling engine took place at the Australian Maritime Thermodynamics
Laboratory. Manufacturing of all components was completed in house, using tooling and
equipment available in the Laboratory workshop. The following section details the
procedure used to machine and assemble all components.

4.1 Displacer piston and cylinder

The displacer cylinder is made up of four components:
1 hot end cap
2 cylinder
3 cooling fins
4 flange, as shown in Figure 10.
Stainless steel is used for the cylinder and end cap. This is because stainless steel is
corrosion resistant, and has desirable heat conduction characteristics. Since the heat
conduction through the length of the stainless steel cylinder is poor, it is an ideal material
for the cylinder, since the heat gradient of the cylinder during operation will be maximum
(Darlington and Strong, 2005).
The wall thickness of the cylinder should be as thin as possible. This increases heat
conduction, and reduces the time it takes for the air inside the cylinder to heat up. Since
the end cap of the cylinder will be where the concentrated radiation is focused, it is
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 15

necessary to make this thicker than the cylinder walls to ensure the material does not melt
through.

Figure 10 Displacer cylinder assembly (see online version for colours)

The displacer cylinder is firstly brazed to the brass flange. Next, the cooling fins are
heated and slid onto the cylinder, in line with the flange clearance holes. A heat paste to
increase heat conduction between the cooling fins and cylinder is applied before the
cooling fins are slid into place. Lastly, the end cap is brazed onto the end of the displacer
cylinder.
The displacer piston is made up of three components, the piston, and two end caps. It
is important to keep the weight of the displacer piston as low as possible to increase the
performance of the engine. This is done by machining the piston with a very thin wall
thickness, and using an aluminium end cap at the cold end of the piston. The hot end cap
of the piston still utilises a stainless steel end cap, but this does not need to be as thick as
that of the cylinder, since there is no direct exposure to the heat source. The displacer
piston arrangement can be seen in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Displacer piston assembly (see online version for colours)

4.2 Power piston and cylinder

The power piston and cylinder should create an airtight fit, with as little friction as
possible. This is achieved by using a cast iron piston and cylinder, since cast iron is a
natural lubricant. By machining the piston to the fit the cylinder, rather than to a specific
16 A. Yerbury et al.

tolerance, friction is also minimised. In order to maintain a gas tight fit, a clevis mounting
arrangement is used, rather than conventional cross drilled pistons fitted with a gudgeon
pin. This prevents wear on the cylinder from the gudgeon pin rubbing, as well as
eliminating any possible gas leakage across the pin (Darlington and Strong, 2005). The
clevis arrangement is shown in Figure 12, with a countersunk retaining screw used to
secure the clevis, and a bronze bush used as a little end bearing.

Figure 12 Power piston mounting arrangement (see online version for colours)

4.3 Connecting rods and clevises

The clevises are used to translate the angular force applied from the flywheel through the
connecting rod to a vertical force acting on the piston. The clevises utilise a stainless steel
pin running on a brass bush that is press fit into the little end of the connecting rod. The
big end of the connecting rods use a press fit roller bearing to run on the crankshaft. The
use of a roller bearing and bronze bush minimises the friction in the engine, an important
factor to maximise the performance of the Stirling engine. Both clevises have
countersunk holes bored in one end, with a thread tapped into this hole. This allows the
clevis to be secured, as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13 Power piston and displacer clevises (see online version for colours)

Both connecting rods are made from 3 mm aluminium plate. Aluminium is chosen as the
connecting rod material due to its light weight and corrosion resistance, important for
application in the marine and offshore environment. The connecting rods, with bearings
and bushes press fitted, are shown in Figure 14. It is important to achieve a fit that is
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 17

secure, without restricting the bearings movement. This is achieved by reaming the
bearing holes to size. In order to ensure an accurate and wear resistant bush on the
connecting rods little end, the brass bush is press fitted into the connecting rod. This
causes the centre of the bush to slightly deform. The centre of this bush is then reamed to
size, ensuring a good quality finish for the connecting rod to run on.

Figure 14 Displacer and power piston connecting rods (see online version for colours)

4.4 Transfer plates

The transfer plates are machined out of aluminium plate in order to keep the engine light
weight and corrosion resistant. One plate comprises of the gas transfer route, while the
other plate is used to seal this chamber and secure the two plates together. It is important
to machine as much of the two plates as a pair as possible. This eliminates any issues
arising from machining intolerances. The finished transfer plate is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15 Finished transfer plate (see online version for colours)

Note: Air transfer slot joining the cylinder holes.

18 A. Yerbury et al.

4.5 Crankshaft and flywheel shafting

The crankshaft and flywheel shafting are machined from stainless steel rod. Since
stainless steel is hard, and fatigue resistant, the service life and reliability of the engine is
maximised by using this material. The shafting is all machined as per specification, with
care taken to ensure press fits into the bearings, and flywheels are achieved. It is
important to make sure that the shaft and bearing interference fit is not so great as to
restrict bearing movement, or damage bearings when fitting.

4.6 Supporting frame

The support frame is made of a solid aluminium billet. This is to keep the weight of the
engine as low as possible, while providing rigidity and support for the crankshaft to run
in. The completed supporting fame is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Completed supporting frame (see online version for colours)

Note: Cut out that allows displacer and power flanges to fit closely together, minimising
transfer chamber length.

4.7 Displacer guide

The displacer sealing and guide bush is machined out of brass to provide a natural
lubricant for the connecting rod that runs inside it, as seen in Figure 17. The brass bush
has an oil retaining groove bored in its centre, to help keep the shaft lubricated. It is
important to bore the guide to create a perfect sliding fit with the connecting rod. This is
to prevent any horizontal movement in the shaft throughout its stroke, keeping the piston
aligned, and friction to a minimum.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 19

Figure 17 Displacer connecting rod guide (see online version for colours)

4.8 Flywheels
The flywheels have been machined from aluminium, and dictate the swept volume of
each cylinder, as shown in Figure 18. The flywheels have been machined with a groove
around their circumference that can be used as a pulley to drive a generator. The
flywheels are connected to the shafting by press fit. It is therefore important to accurately
drill the holes in the flywheels. This was achieved using an end mill set up in the milling
machine, since this is the most accurate method of positioning and drilling these holes.

Figure 18 Engine flywheels (see online version for colours)

Note: Displacer flywheel (left), operates on a larger PCD than the power flywheel (right).
The frame is shown in Figure 18, and is fabricated out of mild steel sections for reduced
weight and ease of fabrication, since traditional welding techniques can be used to join
the steel sections. The reflected solar radiation is focused at a point 550 mm above the
outside of the parabolic mirror, and as such the frame has been designed to hold the
displacer cylinder at this point. A threaded steel rod is used to mount the engine to the
frame and can be used to finely adjust the distance of the displacer cylinder from the
mirror, allowing for precise positioning in the mirrors focal point.
20 A. Yerbury et al.

The mirror and arm arrangement angle is adjustable by using the hinge arrangement
shown in Figure 19. This hinge is tightened into position using a unified national fine
(UNF) high tensile bolt. The UNF thread style was chosen to tighten the hinge
arrangement because the bolts fine thread allows a high clamping force with minimal
rotation. This allows for a quick changing of the mirror’s angle, and adequate clamping
force to keep the arm and mirror angle constant during testing.

Figure 19 Solar test rig (see online version for colours)

Note: Hinge arrangement that allows the angle of the mirror and engine to be changed.

5 Experimental setup and testing

The testing of built engine was carried out in the Thermodynamics Laboratory of
Australian Maritime College, and consisted of two experiments; firstly, using the butane
torch to provide a constant heat source to determine engine power, and secondly, using
the solar concentrator as a heat source to determine engine speeds throughout an entire
day.

5.1 Testing program and facilities

5.1.1 Power testing
In order to measure the power the engine produced at varying temperatures, a rope-brake
dynamometer is used. This arrangement consists of using the engines power flywheel as a
brake drum. By adding weights to a wire rope positioned over this flywheel, the braking
force on the engine is increased, thus imparting an upward force on the counterweight
positioned on the electronic scale. The schematic and the actual experimental setup of the
rope-brake dynamometer and instrumentation arrangement are shown in Figure 20 and
Figure 21, respectively.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 21

Figure 20 Testing arrangement schematic (see online version for colours)

Figure 21 Actual experimental setup (see online version for colours)

By setting a constant operating temperature, as the loading weights are applied the engine
speed decreases, and the torque increases. The engine torque can be determined using
equation (3):
T = ( s − w)r (3)
22 A. Yerbury et al.

where s is scale reading, w is the loading weight, and r is the flywheel radius. From this,
engine power can be calculated:
P = 2πNT (4)

5.1.2 Solar testing

In order to determine the potential power output of the engine throughout an entire day,
solar testing was carried out. In this test, the solar intensity, corresponding engine speed
and temperature were measured. This data is used to extrapolate the power output of the
engine throughout the day from the power testing. The solar testing arrangement is shown
in Figure 20, without the mass balance arrangement. This arrangement is excluded to
eliminate complications arising from the engine being orientated at various angles for
alignment to the sun (Figure 22).

Figure 22 Solar testing arrangement (see online version for colours)

5.2 Instrumentation for engine performance testing

5.2.1 Digital tachometer
A digital tachometer is used to measure engine speed as shown in Figure 23. This
tachometer operates on light reflecting off a reflective strip on the flywheel. By using this
style tachometer, engine operation is not affected, since the tachometer is not directly
driven by the engine. In order for accurate readings, the tachometer must be positioned at
a slight angle to the flywheel. The tachometer’s accuracy is rated at ± 1% of the full scale
reading, with a range of 200 RPM to 25,000 RPM. Before testing is performed, the
tachometer accuracy was tested by pointing the tachometer at a fluorescent light and
ensuring the reading is within the range of 5,400 RPM to 6,600 RPM (± 1%) (Fluorescent
light operates at 50 Hz, giving a reading of approximately 6,000 RPM).
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 23

Figure 23 Digital tachometer (see online version for colours)

Figure 24 Pyrometer (see online version for colours)

24 A. Yerbury et al.

5.2.2 Pyrometer
The operating temperature of the engine is measured using a pyrometer as shown in
Figure 24. This is a non-contact temperature indicator that operates by measuring the
amount of radiation emitted by a surface. This pyrometer gives an accuracy of ± 1.5% for
temperatures between –20ºC to 200ºC, and ± 2% for temperatures between 200ºC to
538ºC. In order for accurate readings to be recorded, the pyrometer’s point of focus is
moved up and down the cylinder, identifying the location of hot spots and their
temperature.

5.2.3 Electronic scale

The electronic balance used in this test to measure the force the engine is producing is
shown in Figure 25. The scale is an A&D EP-41KA with an accuracy of 1 g. Prior to
testing, the scale was calibrated with known weights to ensure accuracy.

Figure 25 Electronic scale (see online version for colours)

5.3 Testing procedures

5.3.1 Torque vs. speed experimental investigation
The engines torque speed relationship is needed in order to determine the engine power
and speed characteristics for comparison with the numerical model in Section 6. The
engine power produced is then used to calculate the engine power output throughout a
day. Testing temperatures range from 320ºC to 500ºC. These temperatures have been
used to replicate the temperatures that the engine will experience when used with the
solar concentrator. The procedure used is as follows:
1 Measure ambient temperature.
2 Set engine temperature to 320°C and wait for speed to settle. Record cooling fin
temperature.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 25

3 Apply 20 g weight to engine and wait for engine speed to settle.

4 Record weight on mass balance and RPM
5 Keep applying 20 g weights to engine, allowing settling time until the engine stalls
6 Increase temperature by 50°C and wait for engine speed to settle.
7 Repeat Steps 3–5 until 500°C temperature is achieved and tested.
8 Record data.

5.3.2 Power production throughout a full day

Using the solar arrangement, the solar intensity to engine speed and temperature can be
determined. From the engine power testing, the engine power produced throughout the
day can be extrapolated. The procedure, repeated every hour is as follows:
1 position Stirling engine in concentrator focal point
2 allow 10 minute warm up
3 start engine, and allow engine speed to settle for 1 minute
4 record engine speed, displacer hot and cold temperature, ambient temperature, and
luminescence
5 stop engine and move engine to shade to prevent overheating
6 record experimental data.

6 Numerical simulation

The power output of the designed Stirling engine and the behaviour of the working fluid
are simulated using the Autodesk Simulation CFD 2013. A simplified model of the
Stirling engine is simulated and the behaviour of the air within the engine is found,
including volume and pressure within each cylinder with respect to time. The goal of the
simulation was to determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine, and to identify
differences between the numerical and experimental results. The CFD simulation of the
solar Stirling engine is described in the following section.

6.1 Model simplification

For the purpose of computational simulation of the solar Stirling engine, the designed
engine model is required to be simplified before the CFD simulation is carried out. In this
case, the shaft components and connecting rods were removed and the transfer plate was
simplified using a tube of the same cross sectional area. The inlet/outlet hole of the
displacer and power cylinders was also simplified before CFD simulation by creating a
square face on the cylinders for the air transfer tube to attach to. This idealisation
simplified the flow transfer between the cylinders to make simulation a quicker process
without compromising results. By removing and simplifying these components, the
Stirling engine was idealised as the displacer piston and cylinder, power piston and
26 A. Yerbury et al.

cylinder and transfer tube. Before the model can be imported into simulation CFD, the air
volume within the engine must also be created in the CAD model. Inventor parts were
created in the exact geometry of the void space within the engine to apply air material to
using simulation CFD. The final simplified model of the Stirling engine can be seen in
Figure 26.

Figure 26 Simplified for CFD Stirling engine design (see online version for colours)

Figure 27 Simulation setup flow chart

 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 27

6.2 Simulation setup

The simulation process itself requires several steps to be carried out before accurate
results can be found from the CFD solution. The following sections detail the procedure
followed in setting up the solar Stirling engine computational simulation for the best
possible results, as summarised in the flow chart in Figure 27.

6.2.1 Initial setup

The initial setup of the Stirling engine model in the CFD software involved assigning
materials to each CAD created volume of the model and setting boundary conditions on
surfaces of the model. Setting initial conditions on the surfaces of the model can also be
done at this stage, but were not required in this study.
Table 7 CFD applied Stirling engine materials

Component Material
Power piston Cast iron
Power cylinder
Displacer piston Stainless steel
Displacer cylinder
Transfer tube Aluminium

Figure 28 Simplified Stirling engine with materials (see online version for colours)
28 A. Yerbury et al.

Figure 29 Meshed regions of Stirling engine CFD model (see online version for colours)

Table 8 CFD testing temperature range

Test number Hot end temperature (K)

1 300
2 320
3 340
4 360
5 380
6 400
7 420
8 440
9 460
10 480
11 500

Materials were assigned to each CAD created volume of the simplified Stirling engine
model is summarised in Table 7. This material designation governs the effects of friction
and heat transfer on the internal fluid. Solid materials were assigned to the engine as
shown in Figure 28.
The CAD created volumes representing the Stirling engine’s internal fluid volume
must also be assigned by the materials, fluid command. The working fluid within the
Stirling engine is air, which is a compressible gas, and hence must be set to behave as
such. This is achieved by making the air properties variable within the edit material tab of
the material setup. This allows the properties of the air to vary according to changes in
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 29

the surrounding environment, hence the fluid can be compressed and has variable density,
viscosity, etc.
The next step was to apply boundary conditions to the relevant surfaces of the model.
Temperature conditions were applied to the hot and cold sections of the displacer
cylinder. The temperature applied to the cold end of the displacer cylinder was constant
at 20°C. The hot end of the cylinder has a varying range of temperatures applied to it
corresponding to different levels of solar heat supplied to the engine over the course of
one day. The varying range of temperatures is shown in Table 8. As the physical model
was tested in Northern Tasmania, Australia, the average daily temperature profile for this
region has been used to estimate the solar heat supplied to the engine (Australian Bureau
of Meteorology, 2012).

6.2.2 Meshing
The size of the mesh on the parts of the simplified Stirling engine model governs both the
accuracy of results and the speed of solution. Mesh is used on the model to create a series
of points at which pressure is calculated. The finer the mesh, the more points there are to
calculate air pressure in each part of the model. A small mesh size can create highly
accurate results but increase model solving time dramatically. To select the appropriate
mesh size, a convergence study was conducted. The convergence study shown in
Appendix compares results from the model with varying mesh sizes to determine the best
size for further simulation. This mesh size was used throughout all CFD simulations. The
final meshed components of the model are shown in
Certain parts of the model are not required to be meshed to achieve accurate results
from CFD simulation. In general, stationary solid and irrelevant air volumes can be
excluded from meshing being applied to them. To exclude a volume from meshing, it
must be suppressed in the CFD software. The volumes suppressed from meshing for
simulation of the solar Stirling engine were:
• power cylinder
• transfer tube
• displacer cylinder
• internal air of displacer piston.
These solid model components were suppressed as they were used only to contain the
working fluid. Since friction is neglected in this model, the interaction between solid
material and moving air was not required to be simulated. The internal air of the displacer
piston was also suppressed as it had no effect on the performance of the Stirling engine.

6.2.3 Motion
Two types of motion were applied to the pistons in the simulation CFD program; forced
motion and free motion. Free motion allows the speed of piston movement to be
determined due to the forces applied from the expansion and compression of the internal
air. This type of motion applied to the pistons is shown in Figure 30, which allows the
expected rotational speed of the engine to be simulated over a range of displacer hot end
temperatures.
30 A. Yerbury et al.

Figure 30 Stirling engine pistons with free motion applied for temperature vs. speed simulation
(see online version for colours)

Forced motion was used in the simulation once the speed of rotation had been determined
for the range of displacer hot end temperatures. Each resulting speed was applied to the
Stirling engine pistons to simulate the power developed within the engine. Figure 31
shows the pistons with linear free motion applied corresponding to 522 RPM shaft speed.

6.2.4 Solver control

Controlling the solution process is the final step before running the simulation of the
Stirling engine. The solver setup allows the user to define step size, save intervals and
simulation time, as well as solution methods, liquid properties, heat transfer calculations,
gravity settings and simulation output values. Within the Stirling engine, the variables
required in output files were; pressure on each piston and volume in each cylinder. From
the pressure and volume recorded during simulation, post-processing was used to produce
pressure-volume and work-crank angle diagrams, and from these, the power developed
was found.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 31

Figure 31 Stirling engine pistons with forced linear motion applied for power output simulations
(see online version for colours)

The simulation time, iteration step size throughout that time and save intervals were
critical factors in acquiring accurate results from the model. The simulation time is
important, as the engine must be allowed to reach a steady state before any CFD results
are recorded. In this case, the engine has been allowed to complete ten cycles before
results are taken from one final cycle, which requires between 1.1 and 1.2 seconds of
engine operation within the simulation, depending on the engine speed. The number of
iterations within this period is defined by the step size. The step size was set at
1 millisecond, which is low enough to produce useful results without making the
simulation run for extensive periods of time. It should be noted that with more advanced
computer hardware, the step size could be reduced further to improve results. This step
size then defined the number of iterations the simulation ran before completion, which
equates to approximately 1,100 to 1,200 iterations depending on the engine speed. The
final time-based setting to be made before solving was an interval at which iteration
results were to be saved. Saving each iteration solved would result in very large output
files; however, more accurate results over a period of time could be developed. In the
Stirling engine simulation, every third iteration completed was recorded and stored in an
output file. Saving every third iteration produced accurate post-processing results without
slowing the simulation significantly or creating large output files.
32 A. Yerbury et al.

6.3 Results extraction

Upon completion of the simulations, pressure results were taken from CFD for
post-processing. The results are presented in graphical form in Figure 32 and Figure 34.
These show the pressure profile within the cylinders at BDC and TDC of the displacer
piston stroke.
To obtain the results desired from the simulation, planes were inserted into the model
to record results at certain areas. For the purpose of Stirling engine testing, planes were
placed at the base of both pistons and the top of the displacer piston, as shown in
Figure 33. Data for CFD calculated results at every required saved iteration was then
exported to a text file to be used in post-processing. Data for piston movement was also
used for post-processing. This data was automatically saved to text files for each piston to
use for further analysis. Upon the culmination of recording all necessary pressure data,
the resultant text files were then used to develop the results into meaningful figures and
graphs using the MATLAB programming software.

Figure 32 Typical pressure result at displacer piston BDC (see online version for colours)
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 33

Figure 33 Results planes used for pressure data extraction (see online version for colours)

Figure 34 Typical pressure result at displacer piston TDC (see online version for colours)
34 A. Yerbury et al.

6.4 Post-processing
Post-processing of the text files created using simulation CFD was conducted to produce
the desired data and figures from the CFD simulations. The relevant data was used to
produce figures for speed-temperature, pressure-volume, work-crank angle, power-speed
and power-temperature diagrams using the MATLAB programming software. The first
set of data processed was the speed of the engine due to the heat applied to the hot end of
the displacer cylinder. The linear speeds of the pistons were saved within the piston
motion output files and these were then converted to a shaft speed in RPM. This
conversion was conducted using equation (5).
v
N= × 60 (5)
2× s
where
N shaft speed (RPM)
v piston velocity (m/s)
s half-period piston stroke (m).
The range of speed at which the engine runs due to the applied temperature range from
Table 8 was found. These speeds were applied to the pistons at a constant displacer hot
end temperature as described earlier in this chapter. This produced results for pressure in
each cylinder for the range of speed. These pressures were plotted against volume to
create a pressure-volume diagram for the Stirling engine. Using the pressure-volume
diagram for each scenario, the graph for work per cycle for each piston was produced.
Work was calculated using the area beneath the pressure-volume diagram curve using
equation (6). The same post-processing method was used to find work per cycle for the
temperature range in Table 8, at the median speed determined from displacer hot end
temperature vs. engine speed tests.

∫
W = − pdv (6)

where
W engine work (J)
p engine internal pressure (Pa)
v cylinder volume (m3).
The final step in the post-processing procedure was to find the power developed by the
engine due to the work on the pistons by applying equation (7). This calculation was
carried out as in the determination of work per cycle; by calculating the area under the
work-crank angle curve over one cycle. This produced a power value in Watts for each
scenario previously described to produce results for engine power vs. engine speed and
engine power vs. temperature.
2π

∫
P = N Wdθ
0
(7)
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 35

where
P engine power (W)
θ crank angle (rad).
Further calculations were made using the power found previously to find the efficiency of
the engine at various conditions using equation (8). Due to the CFD model not
incorporating engine shafting or friction effects, the power found was the ideal or
indicated power of the engine. By comparing the indicated power with the brake power
as in equation (8), the overall engine efficiency can be found.
BP
η= × 100% (8)
IP

7 Results and discussions

The results from both experimental testing and CFD simulations of the solar Stirling
engine are discussed in this section. Comparisons of numerical simulation results are
made in order to determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine, as well as identify
any inconsistencies between the numerical and experimental results.

7.1 Engine speed and temperature relationship

The experimental engine speed and differential temperature relationship is shown in
Figure 35. It is observed that the larger the engine temperature differential, the higher the
engine speed. This is due to the working gas undergoing larger changes in pressure when
travelling from the hot end of the displacer cylinder to the cold end, which results in a
higher engine speed.

Figure 35 Engine speed temperature relationship under no load condition (see online version
for colours)
36 A. Yerbury et al.

When comparing numerical and experimental results for engine speed vs. temperature as
shown in Figure 36, it is observed that for a given temperature the experimental engine
speed is considerably less than that derived from numerical simulation. This is a result of
simplifications made to the engine in the numerical simulation. The numerical model
used does not include friction or momentum in its analysis. Consequently, the simulation
has a much higher engine speed for a given temperature.

Figure 36 Comparison of numerical and experimental engine speed temperature relationship

(see online version for colours)

It is also observed that the experimental engine has a much larger range of speed over the
tested temperatures. This is also due to friction playing a larger factor at lower engine
speeds, when power is less. As engine temperature increases, less of the total power
output is used to overcome friction, resulting in higher engine speeds. Since the
numerical simulation did not include friction, the smaller range of engine speeds was
found. The lower engine speeds in the experimental model also result from the
temperature being measured from the exterior of the displacer cylinder, and not the
temperature of the gas inside it. That means the working gas inside the engine could be at
a lower temperature than the outside of the displacer cylinder due to losses caused by
convection and conduction. The analysis specified the temperature of the working fluid,
and as such does not take into account these losses. The small range of engine speeds in
the numerical simulation also results from the thermal expansion and contraction
properties of air. At higher temperatures, since the mass of air inside the engine is
constant, the air inside the engine reaches a maximum thermal expansion, so even with
increased heat the working gas cannot undergo any further expansion, thus limiting the
engines performance at this temperature.

7.2 Engine power and torque results

From experimental testing, the maximum power was determined using equations (1) and
(2) to be 88.4 W at 514°C. Figure 37 shows that engine power increases with operating
temperature, and the highest engine powers occur at the hottest operating temperatures.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 37

This is a result of the larger temperature differential between the hot and cold end of the
displacer cylinder at these temperatures. This in turn results in a larger pressure
difference inside the engine, imparting the greatest force on the power piston. This force
that acts on the power piston is transmitted to the crankshaft and flywheel, where the
power is measured from.

Figure 37 Engine power for varying operating temperatures (see online version for colours)

As it is observed in Figure 37 that the engine power decreases after a maximum value has
been reached with increasing engine speed. This is a result of an increase in friction as
engine speed increases, causing a reduction in power. This power reduction at higher
engine speeds is also due to inadequate heat transferral to the working gas. As the engine
speed increases, the heat transfer of the working gas from the hot end of the displacer to
the cold end increases. This allows less time for the air inside the engine to fully expand
and contract. Since maximum expansion and contraction is not achieved throughout the
cycle, engine power is reduced. It is also observed from Figure 37 that the 370ºC test
does not obey the trend of increasing engine power with increasing temperature. The
maximum power output for this test is 24.4 W, whereas the maximum power at 340°C is
27.2 W. This is because of an increase in engine friction for this test temperature. After
this test was performed, it was noticed that the displacer piston was scraping the bore of
the cylinder, something that had not been observed in previous tests. Upon closer
investigation, it became apparent that during testing, the displacer connecting rod had
slightly unscrewed from the clevis, causing sloppiness in the stroke of the piston which
resulted in the piston contacting the cylinder through its stroke. This contact increased the
friction that was present in the engine for this test, therefore resulting in the lower power
output observed by the results.
It can be seen that engine torque also increases with decreasing engine speed, up to
the point where the engine stalls. The engine torque is also observed to increase with
38 A. Yerbury et al.

operating temperature, as shown in Figure 38. This is due to the higher temperature
differential of the engine, leading to an increase in engine torque. The maximum torque
that the engine produced is 0.031 Nm at 514°C.

Figure 38 Engine torque for varying operating temperatures (see online version for colours)

It can be observed from Figure 37 and Figure 38 that the experimental data has several
outliers to the overall torque and power trends. This is due to a number of inaccuracies in
the testing procedure and the data acquisition methods used:
• Since the engine is relatively low powered, friction plays a large part in the power
output of the engine. The o-ring used to seal the displacer connecting rod is
lubricated with oil to minimise friction. This lubricant dries out over the period of a
test as a result of the engines operating temperature, increasing the friction present in
the engine. In order to make this friction increase as consistent as possible
throughout all tests, the lubricant was only applied at the start of each test. However,
with the higher test temperatures, this seal dries out much faster, making the re
application of lubricant necessary before the test was finished. This reduces the
friction, increasing engine speed and power. This varying friction contributes to the
outliers in the general power and torque trends.
• The method used to record engine speed is not the most accurate. The engine speed
is seen to fluctuate at a given temperature, sometimes as much as 20 RPM in the
space of a few seconds. As a result, the average engine speed was recorded for each
load case. This inaccuracy in the recording of engine speed is a factor contributing to
the power and torque trend outliers.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 39

The engine speed and power relationships observed in Figure 39 are understood to be
similar to the results presented by Kongtragool and Wongwises (2007). This comparison
serves to validate the experimental results obtained, since the experimental trends are
consistent with those found by Kongtragool and Wongwises (2007) in their testing of a
low-temperature difference (LTD) solar Stirling engine. The torque is observed to plateau
to a maximum value at the lowest engine speed, while the corresponding power is seen to
increase with increasing torque, up to a maximum point, where the power then decreases
with decreasing engine speed.

Figure 39 Engine power and torque for 470°C (see online version for colours)

Figure 40 Variation of shaft power with displacer temperature (see online version for colours)
40 A. Yerbury et al.

The effect of displacer temperature on engine power output is shown in Figure 40. It is
observed that as the displacer temperature increases, so too does the engine power output.
This means that the greater the displacer temperature, the greater the engine power. This
curve seems to plateau at the highest temperatures. This is because the air inside the
cylinder is at a temperature of maximum thermal expansion, and cannot expand or
contract anymore with an increase in temperature.

7.3 Mechanical efficiency

The mechanical efficiency of the engine can be determined from the numerical and
experimental power outputs, as shown by;
BP
ηMech = (11)
IP
The mechanical efficiency of the engine is forced to increase with displacer temperature,
as shown in Figure 41. The efficiency increases from 19.1% at 320°C to 87.5% at 514°C.
This increase in efficiency is due to the higher power at these higher temperatures,
meaning that less of the total power is used overcoming the friction present in the engine.
The curve is seen to plateau with an increase in efficiency of only 0.1% between 470°C
and 510°C. This is because it is hard to achieve 100% efficiency, due to the friction and
imperfect heat transfer in the engine.

Figure 41 Mechanical efficiency of engine with respect to displacer temperature (see online
version for colours)

The major effect that friction has on the mechanical efficiency of the engine is
demonstrated by the reduction in efficiency at 370°C. This reduction is caused by an
increase in friction in the engine during this test, caused by the displacer piston and
cylinder rubbing. This reduction in performance highlights the fact that engine
performance is directly dependant on the amount of friction present, and the need to keep
friction to a minimum to maximise engine efficiency and performance.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 41

7.4 Solar testing

The solar intensity has a direct impact on the engine temperature differential. It is shown
in Figure 42 that as the light intensity increases, so too does the temperature differential,
and therefore engine power. This is due to there being more solar radiation for the
concentrator to focus, resulting in a higher temperature focal point, and therefore higher
displacer temperature. It can be observed in Figure 42 that there are several points
outlying the general trend. During the testing, there were scattered clouds present. In
between some tests, clouds obscured the sun, reducing the solar radiation focused by the
concentrator, resulting in a reduced engine temperature.

Figure 42 Light intensity and displacer temperature comparison (see online version for colours)

It was observed from the solar testing that the engine speed for a given temperature
is less than the engine speed at the same temperature when using the butane torch to
heat the engine. This is due to the different temperature gradient created by each
heating method. When using the butane torch to heat the cylinder, the area that is heated
comprises of the whole hot cap of the displacer cylinder. This creates an even spread of
heat, that dissipates uniformly up the displacer cylinder. When using the solar
concentrator to power the engine, it was observed that the focal point is only a small spot,
approximately 5 mm long, by 1–2 mm wide. Around this spot, the concentrator
beam is not as focused, therefore creating less heat. This means that the temperature
gradient up the displacer cylinder is less than when using the butane torch, resulting in a
lower engine speed.
Excluding the lower engine temperature differentials where the engine had
insufficient heat to warm up and clouds were obscuring the sun, the average displacer
temperature is observed from Table 9 to be 383°C. From the butane testing, the power the
engine produces at this temperature is approximately 25 W.
42 A. Yerbury et al.

Table 9 Engine temperature and light intensity over the period of one day

Ambient Hot cap Cooling fin Temp differential Light

Time
temperature (ºC) temperature (ºC) temperature (ºC) (ºC) (Lux) ×10
8:30 5 428 32 396 1035
10:45 11 355.6 41.5 314.1 1020
11:00 11 411.8 31.7 380.1 1050
11:45 13 392.2 23.6 368.6 1655
12:00 13 388.1 26.7 361.4 1570
12:15 13 392.7 23.7 369 1723
15:00 16 398.8 32.7 366.1 1254
15:30 16 345.8 36.2 309.6 1151
15:45 16 359.8 31.7 328.1 1310
16:00 16 356.7 32.6 324.1 1290
Average 383 Average 1336

While engine speed was a measured variable during the solar testing, instrumentation
limitations provided inaccurate results that have therefore been excluded. This inaccuracy
is caused by the digital tachometers method of operation. The tachometer works on the
reflection of light from reflective strips placed on the engines flywheel. Since the
parabolic mirror generates such an intense light, the tachometer was unable to distinguish
the reflective strips as they passed through its light beam. Another method of recording
engine speed, such as an encoder placed on the flywheel, is needed for further
experimentation. This would provide a comparison of engine speeds and temperatures
between engine heating methods, the solar concentrator and butane torch. In doing this,
the verification of power output of the engine when heated by the solar concentrator
could be achieved. Using the results shown in Table 9, it is possible to perform a power
estimation of the engine for the day of testing. Since an average of 25 W was produced
throughout the day, the total mechanical power output of the engine for the entire day,
assuming 8 hours of useable sunlight, can be calculated to be 200 W/day. From this, an
approximate estimate of 73 kW of mechanical power per year of operation is determined.

8 Conclusions

Results from this experimental testing indicates that the engine power, torque and speed
all increase with increasing temperature differential. This is consistent with past studies
done by reference studies (Kongtragool and Wongwises, 2007, 2008; Sripakagorn and
Srikam, 2011). While the engine was initially sized for 150 W, there are several factors
that made this power output unattainable:
• The engine manufacturing is not perfect. The inadequate precision in alignment and
fit of parts increased the friction present in the engine, reducing the engines total
power output. If the engine was made by experienced tradesmen this would be
improved.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 43

• The assumptions made in the initial sizing made a power estimate based on perfect
gas laws and ideal operating conditions. Since the experimental engine does not
operate on the same assumptions, the power output is less than that numerically
determined.
• The thermodynamic sizing calculations do not take friction or flywheel inertia into
account. These two factors slow the engine speed, and reduce its total power output.
When comparing the numerical and experimental power results, it is observed that that
the numerical simulation generates 12.7 W more power than the experimental model at
the maximum operating temperature. This is due to the inaccuracies and assumptions
made when simulating the engine listed below:
• The numerical model does not incorporate the effects of friction in its analysis.
Friction is a large factor in the performance of a Stirling engine, and as a result is
largely responsible for the difference in engine speed between experimental and
numerical results.
• The numerical model does not incorporate the momentum derived from the
flywheels and crankshaft arrangement. This momentum slows the engine, and
smooths the power delivery.
The solar testing concluded that the more sunlight intensity, the hotter the displacer
temperature, and therefore the more potential power. Extrapolating the power data
derived from the experimental testing, it is calculated the engine produced approximately
200 W of mechanical power for the entire 8 hours of testing. Additional testing to
determine the effectiveness of the solar concentrator, and engine power when heated by
the concentrator is needed to verify this estimate, however, it provides an estimate of
power savings possible by implementing a solar Stirling engine to supplement power
supply.
The higher efficiency of solar Stirling engines makes them an attractive replacement
for traditional photovoltaic arrays. With their inherent high maintainability and reliability,
solar Stirling engines implementation on unmanned offshore platforms, such as
navigation aids and satellite production facilities, as supplementary or whole system
power providers, would be perfectly suited.

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Appendix

Convergence study
The convergence study results in 86,032 elements being used on the CFD model. This
number of elements corresponds with the point in Figure A1 and Figure A2 where results
become consistent and decreasing mesh size will only increase the time to solve the
simulation rather than improve results. This element number was used throughout Stirling
engine simulations.
 Design of a solar Stirling engine for marine and offshore applications 45

Figure A1 Convergence study mass and volume flow rate results (see online version for colours)

Figure A2 Convergence study Reynolds number results (see online version for colours)

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