10.

1:-

 The air we breathe is a mixture of different gases: 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen, 1 % argon, 0.04 % carbon
dioxide, and lesser amounts of other gases.
 Cells use oxygen to obtain energy from food.
Aerobic cellular respiration
 Aerobic cellular respiration: the process in which oxygen is used to obtain energy from food.
 About 64 % of the energy released during cellular respiration is released as thermal energy.
 The rest of the energy, about 36 %, is stored in molecules called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 ATP is formed when energy from the breakdown of glucose is used to attach a phosphate group (Pi) onto a
molecule called adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
 Energy for these cellular processes is obtained when ATP reacts with other molecules, reforming ADP and the
phosphate group.
 Phosphorylation: is the process that forms ATP from ADP, phosphate, and energy.
 For each molecule of glucose that undergoes cellular respiration, 36 molecules of ATP are formed.
 Cells use ATP to power almost all of their energy-requiring processes.
 The carbon dioxide and most of the water produced during cellular respiration are released to the
environment as waste products.
Gas exchange
 Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen diffuses into the body cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the cells.
 Carbon dioxide or oxygen diffuses directly from the cells of simple organisms (jellyfish, sponges) through the
cell membrane into the environment.
 Multicellular animals because they contain many cells in their bodies that don’t come in contact with the
external environment (the air or water) have special organ systems that supply oxygen to all cells of the body
and remove carbon dioxide.
How does gas exchange occur:
 In humans and other mammals, gas exchange occurs at two locations:
1. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the air into the bloodstream.
2. Oxygen is transported through the bloodstream and diffuses into all the cells of the body.
 A fluid called tissue fluid (also known as interstitial fluid) surrounds the cells of all tissues in the body. Oxygen
or carbon dioxide diffuses through tissue fluid from the bloodstreams to the cells or the opposite way.

 Ventilation or breathing: is the process of moving oxygen-rich air to the lungs and carbon dioxide-rich air
away from the lungs.
10.2:-
Respiratory Structures in Mammals:
• a thin permeable respiratory membrane (one cell layer thick) through which diffusion can occur. (lungs)
• a large surface area for gas exchange. (lungs)
• a good supply of blood. (lungs)
• a breathing system for bringing oxygen-rich air to the respiratory membrane. (The mechanism of ventilation)
The structure of lungs:
• Air from the outside enters the respiratory system through the nose and mouth.
• The air is warmed and moistened in the nasal passages and mouth to prevent damage to the tissue of the
respiratory membrane.
• The nasal passages are lined with tiny hairs and mucus that filter out and trap dust and other airborne
particles.
 • The air then travels from the mouth or nasal passages into the pharynx (throat).
• The glottis (opening to trachea) remains open so that air flows into the trachea, or windpipe.
Trachea:
• is the tube leading from the mouth toward the lungs
• is a semi-rigid tube of soft tissue wrapped around c-shaped bands of cartilage that are necessary to keep the
trachea open.
• The walls of the trachea are lined with mucus-producing cells (mucus is sticky) and cilia (tiny hair-like
structures), which further protect the lungs from foreign matter.
• The wave-like motions of the cilia sweep the trapped material upward through the trachea, where it is
swallowed or, expelled from the body when coughing or sneezing.

• The trachea branches into two bronchi. Each bronchus connects to a lung.
• The bronchi branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles to form a respiratory tree.
• Alveolus (Alveoli) is a tiny sac at the end of a bronchiole that forms the respiratory membrane.
Alveoli
• Each cluster of alveoli is surrounded by a network of capillaries.
• There is approximately 150 million in each lung.
• Provides the necessary surface area for gas exchange.
Gas exchange in the alveoli:
• The alveoli is moist. Oxygen diffuse across the respiratory membrane after it dissolved in a liquid.
• The network of capillaries encapsulates the alveoli so that there is an adequate supply of blood for the diffusion.
The mechanism of ventilation:
• When the air pressure inside the lungs is lower than the atmospheric pressure, air is forced into the lungs. (negative
pressure)
• Air always flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
• Diaphragm: a large sheet of muscle located beneath the lungs that is the primary muscle in breathing.
• External intercostal muscle a muscle that raises the rib cage, decreasing pressure inside the chest cavity.
• Internal intercostal muscle a muscle that pulls the rib cage downward, increasing pressure inside the chest cavity.
• Inhalation • Exhalation
• Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract. • Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles relax.
• Internal intercostals muscles relax. • Internal intercostals muscles contract.
• Volume increases • Volume decreases
• Pressure decreases • Pressure increases
• Air moves into lungs • Air moves out of lungs
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