DESIGN OF A POWER-PLANT FOR AIR

UNIVERSITY, SOUTH CAMPUS, H-11,

ISLAMABAD

Company:
PowerTec Engineering Services

Group Members:
1. MUHAMMAD USMAN (150452)
2. SHAHEER UL HAQ (150454)
3. M.IBRAHIM (150457)
4. ADEEL MAQSOOD (150469)
5. MOHSIN ALI (150473)
6. MUHAMMAD HARIS MAJEED (140442)

Project Supervisor:
Engr. Bilal Mufti

POWER-PLANT PROJECT REPORT

BE MECHANICAL (Fall 15-7A)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AEROSPACEENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AVIONICS AND AERONAUTICS
AIR UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Date: 24 December, 2018

Abstract

This project is related to the design of a mini-scale Power-plant in accordance with the
parameters prescribed in the CEP. The initial phase consists of computation of hourly loads
against a year and then calculation of load factors, required rated capacity, and size of generating
units and drawing of the load curves in Microsoft Excel.

Second phase is the selection of thermal cycle. We use a Rankine cycle with superheat, reheat
and regeneration to get increased efficiency and power output. After the selection of cycle, we
compute the enthalpies of states of the cycle by applying careful logical assumptions and
approximations of the state parameters, from literature.

Third phase consists of selection of different components that can fit best in the system and can
provide optimum solutions to the problem. We have selected a repeating stage impulse turbine,
centrifugal pumps, an air-cooled condenser, a direct contact dry cooling tower, and a water tube
boiler. We also selected the peaking units to be of photo-voltaic solar type units. The selections
are justified according to our requirements and desired outputs.

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Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii
1 FORMATION OF LOAD CURVES AND CALCULATION OF LOAD FACTORS ACCORDING TO
‗CEP: APPENDIX A‘ ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Formation of the Load Curves ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Calculations from the Load Curves .................................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Size of Generating Units .............................................................................................................. 7
2. DESIGN OF CYCLE ................................................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Selection of Cycle ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Methods Used For Enhancement of Cycle Efficiency and Power .................................................... 10
2.2.1 Why not using Super-Critical Cycle?......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Initial Design Parameters and Defining Cycle States ....................................................................... 10
2.4 Schematic Diagram of the Cycle ...................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Ts Diagram of the Cycle ................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Calculations of the Cycle .................................................................................................................. 15
3. SELECTION OF TURBINE AND ITS CALCULATIONS .................................................................. 22
4 CONDENSER SELECTION [5] ............................................................................................................. 27
5 SELECTION OF COOLING TOWER [6,7,8] ........................................................................................ 27
6. PUMP SELECTION [10,11] .................................................................................................................. 29
7 STEAM GENERATOR/BOILER TYPE AND DESIGN [12,13] .......................................................... 31
8 SUPPLEMENTARY PLANT TYPE AND CALCULATIONS ............................................................. 33
9 WORKING FLUID ................................................................................................................................. 38
10 USE OF SOME ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENTS .................................................................................. 41
11 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 43
1 FORMATION OF LOAD CURVES AND CALCULATION OF
LOAD FACTORS ACCORDING TO ‘CEP: APPENDIX A’

1.1 Formation of the Load Curves

We are given with the peak powers required in the months of a year as shown in Table 1.1 and
Figure 1.1. We take these peak-powers and compute the daily hourly loads of months as in
Figure 1.2. After this in Figure 1.3, we make separate graphs of loads of different months to see
their trends or variations with respect to daily times of 24 hours. Now, when this all is done we
draw the Load Curve (Figure 1.4) and Load Duration Curve (Figure 1.5) which will provide us
with the necessary information regarding the average load and trend of the load in a year, the size
of the generating units, and capacity of the plant. This whole process is done on Microsoft Excel.

Peak Load Data

Month Peak Power (KW)
January 1257
February 1140
March 1030
April 1090
May 1350
June 1800
July 2107
August 1942
September 1543
October 1087
November 1109
December 1300

Table 1.1 Peak Load Data

1
 Figure 1.1 Peak Power vs. Months

2
 Figure 1.2 Daily Loads in Months

3
 Figure 1.3 Loads vs. Daily Hours of Different Months

4
 Figure 1.4 Load Curve

5
 Figure 1.5 Load Duration Curve

6
1.2 Calculations from the Load Curves

Average Load = 595.7915104KW

Peak Load = 2107KW
Rated Capacity = 2800KW
Total Energy Generated = 5219133.631KWh (in 8760 hours or in a year)
Load Factor (m) = 0.282767684
Capacity Factor (n) = 0.212782682
Reserve Factor (r) = 1.328903654
A reserve factor of 1.2 to 1.25 is satisfactory [1].
Use Factor (u) = 0.7525
Use factor if approaches 1 then it shows the need for additional capacity of the plant [1].

1.2.1 Size of Generating Units

The unit size must not exceed 20-25% of the total generating capacity of the plant [1].
1. One 400 KW unit will run for 7300hrs = 2920000KWh = 2920MWh
2. One 400KW unit will run for 3840hrs = 1536000KWh = 1536MWh
3. One 400KW unit will run for 2030hrs = 812000KWh = 812MWh
4. One 400KW unit will run for 615hrs = 246000KWh = 246MWh
5. One 400KW unit will run for 300hrs = 120000KWh = 120MWh
(Could take 300KW unit here but would have to perform separate calculations for that, so took
400KW unit. Also 400KW unit will help to cater the increasing demand of electricity in the
upcoming years.)
6. Two additional 400KW units will be kept as Stand-by units. We can use any type of Power-
plant for these units (CEP Statement).
Plant Capacity = 400*5 (Main Units) +400*2 (Standby Units) = 2800KW
After these calculations, we came to know the fact that we require 0.4MW or 400KW power
generation at the generator of each steam Rankine cycle unit and also at the photo-voltaic solar
units.
As we are taking all the equipment and the processes of the cycle to be ideal, so we require 0.4
MW as the net power produced at each unit.

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2. DESIGN OF CYCLE

2.1 Selection of Cycle

We require a medium cost range, moderate size, efficient, less complicated and easy to maintain
power-plant for our application. After a careful observation of a number of factors mentioned in
Table 2.1, we are selecting Rankine Cycle for our main power-plant units.

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Note: 1 = High/More/Long, 2= Moderate/Mid-range, 3 = Low/Less/Short

Rankine Cycle Brayton Cycle Combined Cycle

1. Efficiency 2 3 1
2. Lower Cost 2 1 3
3. Short 2 1 3
Delivery
Times
3. Start-up time 1 3 2
5. Ability to Use 1 3 2
Different Fuels
6. Number of 2 3 1
components
required/ size of
plant setup/space
needed
7. Reliability 1 3 2
8. Effect of 3 1 2
atmospheric (Power generation (Power generation is (It is in the middle. If there are
conditions on not affected by affected by atmospheric unfavorable atmospheric
Power atmospheric conditions as it does not conditions it can use
Generation conditions as it operate on a closed supplementary firing mechanism to
operates on a closed cycle) run its Rankine cycle part.)
cycle.)
9. Materials cost 3 1 2
and complexity (No special and (Special and expensive (It‘s a tradeoff between the two as
of design expensive materials materials needed for it caters that effect due to high
needed as high operating efficiency.)
temperatures are not temperatures.)
that much high
compared to gas
turbine cycle.)
10. Power 2 3 1
Production and (Very little power is (About 2/3 of the power (Very efficient as it uses both the
Consumption by consumed by the produced is used to drive cycles and the high temperature
the Cycle pump.) the compressor.) exhaust gases from gas turbine are
Equipment/s. used to heat water of Rankine
cycle with/without the assist of a
supplementary firing mechanism.)

Table 2.1 Comparison of Rankine, Brayton and Combined Cycle [2]

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2.2 Methods Used For Enhancement of Cycle Efficiency and Power

We will use superheat, reheat and regenerative processes to increase Rankine cycle efficiency
and power output.

2.2.1 Why not using Super-Critical Cycle?

We are not using a Super-Critical Cycle as it requires more expensive setup. Moreover, it has a
drawback that it requires reheating multiple times to avoid formation of very wet vapor in the
latter stages of the turbine which would otherwise cause rust and corrosion of the turbine blades
[3].

2.3 Initial Design Parameters and Defining Cycle States

Boiler Pressure and Temperature, and Condenser Pressure have been assumed from Table 2.2
provided by a Steam Turbine Manufacturer [4]. We have selected number 5 (Model: N4-N7.5)
condensing steam impulse turbine.

 Speed Range According to Manufacturer = 2500 rpm ≤ N ≤ 6500 rpm

Table 2.2 Condensing Steam Turbine Specifications [4]

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1. We assume the following:

 Boiler Pressure: 8MPa

 Steam Inlet Temperature: 480 °C
 Condenser Pressure: 0.008MPa

We have formed a problem statement based on our logical assumptions of some values from
Literature as well as from the above assumed values. This problem is actually designed in
similarity with a numerical problem mentioned in Power Plant Engineering by P.K.Nag, 3rd
Edition book.

Problem Statement:

Consider a superheat-reheat-regenerative vapor power cycle with two feedwater heaters, a

closed feedwater heater and an open feedwater heater. Steam enters the first turbine at 8MPa,
480°C and expands to 0.7MPa. The steam is reheated to 440°C before entering the second
turbine, where it expands to condenser pressure of 0.008MPa. Steam is extracted from the first
turbine at 2MPa and fed to the closed feedwater heater. Feedwater leaves the closed feedwater
heater at 205°C and 8MPa, and condensate exits as saturated liquid at 2MPa. The condensate is
trapped into the open feedwater heater. Steam extracted from the second turbine at 0.3MPa is
also fed into the open feedwater heater, which operates at 0.3MPa. The steam exiting the open
feedwater heater is saturated liquid at 0.3MPa. The net power output of the cycle is 0.4MW.
There is no stray heat transfer from any component to its surroundings. If the working fluid
experiences no irreversibilities as it passes through the turbines, pumps, steam generator,
reheater and condenser, determine (a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the mass flow rate of the steam
for different mass fractions as shown in the schematic and Ts diagrams.

Some Important Logics have been used in the formation of this Problem.

 Using feedwater heaters in combination is a very common practice in power-plants. So,

we are using an open feedwater heater and a backward-closed feedwater heater in our
steam cycle. The logic behind this is that using multiple feedwater heaters in combination
increases the efficiency of a power-plant [2].

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 Optimum placement of feedwater heaters in a cycle is determined by the following
formula which provides optimum temperature conditions for the feedwater to operate in a
Rankine cycle [2].
dToptimum = { T (boiler outlet) – T (condenser inlet) } / (number of feedwater heaters + 1)
 Open feedwater heater also acts as a de-aerator which removes oxygen and other
dissolved gases from water which would otherwise cause hindrance in the flow [2].

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2.4 Schematic Diagram of the Cycle

Figure 2.1 Schematic Diagram of the Cycle

13
2.5 Ts Diagram of the Cycle

Figure 2.2 Ts Diagram of the Cycle

14
2.5 Calculations of the Cycle

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3. SELECTION OF TURBINE AND ITS CALCULATIONS

Selection: Repeating Stage Impulse Turbine

From Section 2.2, we know that we have selected repeating stage impulse turbine and the
reasons it that are given below.

Reasons and Theory:

To fix the velocity triangles for a repeating stage a turbine designer can fix φ, ψ, and R or φ, ψ,
and α1 (or indeed any independent combination of three angles and parameters).

Once the velocity triangles are fixed, key features of the turbine design can be determined.

Advantages

Repeating stage turbine has high-power output and high efficiency

 High stage loading, means we can have less stages to get required work output

 Low inter-stage swirl

 Low thrust on the rotor

 Robust rotor blades

 Lower tip leakage flows (due to a low-pressure drop across the rotor)

 Generally used in steam turbines

Disadvantages

 Susceptible to Boundary layer separation

Assumptions for Calculations:

(For Repeating Stage Turbines: cx = constant, rm = constant, α1 = α3; For Impulse Turbines
Reaction = 0)

Speed = N = 2500 rpm (from section 2.2)

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Mean Radius = rm = 0.46m

α1 = 20°, α2 = 55°, α3 = 20°

β2 = 40°, β3 = 40°

Calculations and Velocity Triangles:

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4 CONDENSER SELECTION [5]

Selection: Air Cooled Condenser

Theory:

In thermal power plants, the use of a condenser is to condense the steam from a steam turbine to
maximize efficiency, and also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into the water so that it may
be reused in the steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water.

Condensers used in power-plants have different types but they are mainly divided into two types.

 Water-cooled
 Air-cooled

Reasons for Selection:

 No need for large water supply

 (As the plant is built in an area with no continuous source of water or limited water
resources so we can‘t use water-cooled condenser.)
 Less expensive to maintain
 No periodic cleaning

5 SELECTION OF COOLING TOWER [6,7,8]

Selection: Direct Dry Cooling Tower

Reasons, Advantages and Working:

A direct dry cooling tower with forced draft has been selected. This selection has been made due to the in-
availability of an adequate water source, required for the functioning of wet cooling tower. Dry cooling
tower is also less expensive and easier to maintain.

Hot water from condenser is passed through finned tubes and is cooled by the flow of air supplied
through an axial-forced draft fan. This fan is chosen because of its low capacity requirement and easy
maintenance.

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As finned tubes are the main components of dry cooling towers, hence careful choice of the same is
critical. In this case, we had the choice of round, oval and flat tubes. Aluminum-clad carbon steel flat
tubes with aluminum fins provide sufficient heat transfer and are considered the modern industrial
standard in dry cooling hence, this arrangement was found to be suitable for this project.

Figure 5.1 Direct Dry Cooling Tower [9]

Table 5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Induced and Forced Draft Fan [9]

Keeping in mind all these points, forced draft fan is found to be more suitable for our project.
Hence we select a direct dry cooling tower.

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6. PUMP SELECTION [10,11]

Selection: Split Case Multistage Twin Volute Diffuser Pump

Theory:

Pumps serve to feed a steam generator such as a boiler or a nuclear reactor with a quantity of
feed water corresponding to the quantity of steam emitted. Today, all boiler feed pumps
are centrifugal pumps.

Before coming towards the pump used first we‘ll discuss its types. There are two types of pumps,
centrifugal and positive displacement pumps.

a) Centrifugal pump

A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by means of the transfer of
rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly
rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out by centrifugal force along its circumference
through the impeller's vane tips.

Advantages

 Steady delivery [uniform flow]

 Can handle all types of fluids.
 Can be mounted horizontally or vertically

Disadvantages

 Reducing performance when handling viscous fluids.

 Can only handle small amounts of gases in liquids.
 Not effective for high velocities, but multi-stage configuration are expensive.
 Primary often needed before start up.
 Can operate between a really low pressure heads.

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b) Positive displacement pump

A Positive Displacement Pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing
cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side
expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is a
constant given each cycle of operation.

Advantages

 Handles high viscous fluids well.

 Able to handle fluids that are corrosive, edible, or contained gases.
 Quick and easy to clean.
 Work well for liquids with low vapor pressure.

Disadvantages

 Does not produce high pressure as well as reciprocating pumps.

 The size is more restricted than in centrifugal pumps

Reasons for Selection:

Before the selection of pump there are number of things to be consider

 The boiler evaporation rate or steam generation

 Pressure and temperature the boiler can withstand
 Mass flow rate required for the cycle
 No of boilers used
 Determine if recirculation is required to protect the pumps and if so, which type is
appropriate (pumps may overheat if there is low flow)
 Determine if modulating feedwater or on-off feedwater control will be used

Now after carefully considering all the mentioned requirements we will select the pump. Now
the pump which is to be chosen have to be centrifugal because most of the plants use these,
because positive displacement pump may increase the pressure too much resulting in the
explosion of the boiler moreover centrifugal pumps works under a fixed pressure head meaning

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it will not cross the required value. Most pumps which are being used nowadays are multistage
centrifugal pumps which increase the pressure step by step rather increasing it in one flow.

Categorically, in low pressure installations, horizontal single stage volute type centrifugal pumps
are more in use. For medium pressure below 100 bars, split case multistage twin volute diffuser
pumps are common because of the difficulties found in sealing the case joint surfaces. As for our
plant boiler feedwater pump has to pump really small amount of fluid but if the pressure is
increased it will be beneficial for us.

7 STEAM GENERATOR/BOILER TYPE AND DESIGN [12,13]

Selection: Water Tube Boiler ( Model: SZS10-1.25-Y (Q), SZS2-1.25-Y (Q) )

Theory:

Boiler is device which is used to convert water into pressurized steam which is then used to turn
the turbine. This turbine is coupled to a generator which produces electricity. It can also be used
to take mechanical power as well.

There are 2 types of boilers in general.

1. Fire tube

2. Water tube

Fire tube

In fire-tube boilers, combustion gases pass through the inside of the tubes with water
surrounding the outside of the tubes.

Advantages

 Simple construction and less rigid water treatment requirements

 Relatively inexpensive

 Easy to clean

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  Compact in size

 Available in sizes from 600,000 btu/hr to 50,000,000 btu/hr

 Easy to replace tubes

 Well suited for space heating and industrial process applications

Disadvantages

The disadvantages are the excessive weight-per-pound of steam generated, excessive time
required to raise steam pressure because of the relatively large volume of water, and inability to
respond quickly to load changes, again, due to the large water volume.

 Not suitable for high pressure applications 250 psig and above

 Limitation for high capacity steam generation

Water tube

The water is inside the tubes and combustion gases pass around the outside of the tubes.

Advantages

 Are available in sizes far greater than a fire-tube design , up to several million pounds-
per-hour of steam

 Are able to handle higher pressures up to 5,000 psig

 Recover faster than their fire-tube cousin

 Have the ability to reach very high temperatures

Disadvantages

 High initial capital cost

 Cleaning is more difficult due to the design

 No commonality between tubes

 Physical size may be an issue

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Reasons for Selection:

The boiler which we have chosen is water tube boiler; reason behind is that it is less likely to
explode than fire tube boiler. Although the efficiency is less but safety factor increases
tremendously and as this system is introduced in a university safety is the top priority.

Also the requirement for our plant is also met with this boiler because the primary source of fuel
is gas. The very high pressure is also not required so this makes it an ideal choice.

Model: SZS10-1.25-Y (Q), SZS2-1.25-Y (Q)

8 SUPPLEMENTARY PLANT TYPE AND CALCULATIONS

Selection: Photovoltaic Power Pants

Reasons and Theory:

A photovoltaic power plant is a set of facilities designed to supply electricity to the grid through
the use of large-scale photovoltaic systems. The function of the photovoltaic power station is to
capture and transform solar radiation into electricity.

A photovoltaic power plant is a power plant consisting basically of photovoltaic modules and an
inverter. The photovoltaic panels are in charge of transforming the solar radiation, into electrical
energy of direct current. The inverter is the electronic equipment whose function is to convert the
DC power produced by the photovoltaic modules into AC power with characteristics similar to
those of the electric grid.

The solar installation works as a small electricity production plant, which, through the inverter,
injects the energy produced into the electricity distribution network

Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells
produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to
recharge a batter

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Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or
an artificial light.

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Solar array arrangements

The solar arrays are the subsystems which convert incoming light into electrical energy.[They
comprise a multitude of solar modules, mounted on support structures and interconnected to
deliver a power output to electronic power conditioning subsystems.

A minority of utility-scale solar parks are configured on buildings] and so use building-mounted
solar arrays. The majority are 'free field' systems using ground-mounted structures, usually of
one of the following types:

Fixed arrays

Many projects use mounting structures where the solar modules are mounted at a fixed
inclination calculated to provide the optimum annual output profile. The modules are normally
oriented towards the Equator, at a tilt angle slightly less than the latitude of the site. In some
cases, depending on local climatic, topographical or electricity pricing regimes, different tilt
angles can be used, or the arrays might be offset from the normal East-West axis to favor
morning or evening output.

A variant on this design is the use of arrays, whose tilt angle can be adjusted twice or four times
annually to optimize seasonal output. They also require more land area to reduce internal shading
at the steeper winter tilt angle. Because the increased output is typically only a few percent, it
seldom justifies the increased cost and complexity of this design.

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Power conversion

Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to
convert this to alternating current (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid.
This conversion is done by inverters.

Siting and Land

The land area required for a desired power output, varies depending on the location, and on the
efficiency of the solar modules,] the slope of the site. and the type of mounting used. Fixed tilt
solar arrays using typical modules of about 15% efficiency[ on horizontal sites, need about 1
hectare/MW in the tropics and this figure rises to over 2 hectares in northern Europe.

Because of the longer shadow the array casts when tilted at a steeper angle, this area is typically
about 10% higher for an adjustable tilt array or a single axis tracker, and 20% higher for a 2-axis
tracker, though these figures will vary depending on the latitude and topography.

The best locations for solar parks in terms of land use are held to be brown field sites, or where
there is no other valuable land use. Even in cultivated areas, a significant proportion of the site of
a solar farm can also be devoted to other productive uses, such as crop growing or biodiversity

Advantages

 Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel other
than sunshine, PV systems do not release any harmful air or water pollution into the
environment, deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.
 Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops of existing
buildings.
 Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to be imported
from other regions of the country or across the world. This reduces environmental
impacts associated with transportation and also reduces our dependence on imported oil.
And, unlike fuels that are mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce
electricity we do not deplete or alter the resource.
 A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy requirements. Furthermore,
the owner of a PV system can enlarge or move it if his or her energy needs change. For

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 instance, homeowners can add modules every few years as their energy usage and
financial resources grow. Ranchers can use mobile trailer-mounted pumping systems to
water cattle as the cattle are rotated to different fields.
 PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels
there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly.
 Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
 Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
 Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed power
generation – DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure!
 Solar panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly promising
future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.
 Photovoltaic panels, through photoelectric phenomenon, produce electricity in a direct
electricity generation way
 Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost
negligible, compared to costs of other renewable energy systems
 PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of sun-tracking
mechanical bases; consequently they have far less breakages or require less maintenance
than other renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbines)
 PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a perfect
solution for urban areas and for residential applications (see solar panels for home)
 Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling, PV panels can provide an
effective solution to energy demand peaks – especially in hot summer months where
energy demand is high.
 Though solar energy panels‘ prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past years, and are
still falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of major renewable energy
systems that are promoted through government subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits etc.);
thus financial incentive for PV panels make solar energy panels an attractive investment
alternative.
 Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without any
interference to residential lifestyle.

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Disadvantages

 Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process.
These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling
and proper disposal.
 As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not shining at
night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.
 Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar energy
panels less reliable a solution.
 Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct electricity
(DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power network.
 For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,
Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus increasing
the investment cost for PV panels considerably
 In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas for
deployment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for a period of 15-20
years – or even longer.
 Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared to the
efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.
 Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they are fragile
and can be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are therefore of ultimate
importance to safeguard a PV investment.
 It is not much efficient, its efficiency is 15 percent which is quiet less.
 Proper maintenance required i-e changing of batteries, and replacing of panels.
 Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of
energy due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion
efficiencies of the equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the
manufacturing costs continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost
competitive with conventional fuels.

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  Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun.
Solar facilities may produce no power at all some of the time, which could lead to an
energy shortage if too much of a region's power comes from solar power.

Calculations

E = A * r * H * PR

E = Energy (kWh) = 8760*0.4(103) KWh = 3504KWh

A = Total solar panel Area (m2)

r = solar panel yield or efficiency (%) = 0.18 or 18%

H = Annual average solar radiation on tilted panels (shadings not included) = 2150KWh/m2 (For
Islamabad, Pakistan)

PR = Performance ratio, coefficient for losses (range between 0.5 and 0.9, default value = 0.75)

Total Area Required for Solar Panels = A = 3504 / (0.18*2150*0.75) = 12.072m2

9 WORKING FLUID

Selection: Water

Reasons:

A suitable fluid must exhibit favorable physical, chemical, environmental, safety and economic
properties such as low specific volume (high density), viscosity, toxicity, flammability, ozone
depletion potential (ODP), global warming potential (GWP) and cost, as well as favorable
process characteristics such as high thermal and energetic efficiency. These requirements apply
both to pure (single-component) and mixed (multicomponent) working fluids. Existing research
is largely focused on the selection of pure working fluids, with a vast number of published
reports currently available.

The reasons for using water are below (non-toxic, etc.) but the working fluid in the engine
doesn't matter. Power plants require a pressure change which is achieved by converting liquid

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water to steam, after going through the turbine it's cooled until it condenses back into the water
where it is fed through the boiler again.

Water is used over other fluids because it is easy to use and for the most part chemically inert. If
you were to use something like alcohol (low bp, high expansion), we have to be more careful
that our pipes never ever had leaks, or you'd be sitting on a million dollar explosion hazard of a
power plant. If you used something similar to water that was reactive with your metal
components then it would chemically attack them and you'd have huge overhead resulting from
replacing damaged parts. Water is used because for the most part it's freely available, is not
prone to attacking the pipes/turbines/pumps/equipment in general and is non-reactive so you
don't have to worry about water explosions (sort of, boilers can still explode but not from
combustion).

Common criteria for cycles

1. The saturation pressure at the maximum temperature of the cycle should not be excessive.
Very high pressures lead to mechanical stress problems, and therefore, unnecessarily expensive
components may be required.

2. The saturation pressure at the minimum temperature of the cycle (i.e. the condensing pressure)
should not be so low as to lead to problems of sealing against the infiltration of the atmospheric
air into the system.

3. The triple point should lie below the expected minimum ambient temperature. This ensures
that the fluid does not solidify at any point during the cycle nor whilst being handled outside the
system.

4. The working fluid should possess a low value of the liquid viscosity, a high latent heat of
vaporization, a high liquid thermal conductivity and a good wetting capability. These ensure that
the working fluid pressure drops in passing through the heat exchangers and the auxiliary piping
are low and that the heat transfer rates in the exchangers are high.

5. The working fluid should have low vapor and liquid specific volumes. These properties affect
the rates of heat transfer in the heat exchangers. The vapor specific volume relates directly to the
size and cost of the cycle components. Moreover, a high vapor specific volume leads to larger

39
volumetric flows requiring a multiplicity of exhaust ends of the expander at heat engines or
compressor in refrigeration cycles and resulting in significant pressure losses. The specific
volume of the liquid at the condenser pressure should be as small as possible in order to
minimize the required feedwater pump work.

6. Non-corrosivity and compatibility with common system materials are important selection
criteria.

7. The fluid should be chemically stable over the whole temperature and pressure range
employed. The thermal decomposition resistance of the working fluid in the presence of
lubricants and container materials is a highly important criterion. In addition to making the
replacement of the working fluid necessary, chemical decomposition of the fluid can produce
non-condensable gases which lower the heat transfer rate in the heat exchangers, as well as
compounds, which have corrosive effects on the materials of the system.

8. Non-toxicity, non-flammability, non-explosiveness, non-radioactiveness, and current

industrial acceptability are also desirable attributes.

9. The fluid should meet the criteria of environmental protection requirements such as a low-
grade ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global warming potential (GWP).

10. The fluid should possess good lubrication properties to reduce friction between surfaces in
mutual contact, which reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move and ultimately
increases cycle performance.

11. The substance should be of low cost and readily available in large quantities.

12. Long-term (operational) experience with the working fluid and possible fluid recycling is
also beneficial.

Special Criteria for Heat Engines (like Rankine Cycle)

1. The critical temperature of the fluid should be well above the highest temperature existing in
the proposed cycle. Evaporation of the working fluid — and thus the significant addition of heat
can then ensue at the maximum temperature of the cycle. This results in relatively high cycle
efficiency.

40
2. The slope ds/dT of the saturated vapor line in T–s diagram should be nearly zero in the applied
pressure ratio of the expander. This prevents significant moisture (liquid droplet) formation or
excessive superheat occurring during the expansion. It also ensures that all the heat rejection in
the condenser occurs at the minimum cycle temperature, which increases the thermal efficiency.

3. A low value for the specific heat of the liquid or, alternatively, a low ratio of the number of
atoms per molecule divided by the molecular weight and a high ratio of the latent heat of
vaporization to the liquid's specific heat should appertain. This reduces the amount of the heat
required to raise the temperature of the sub-cooled liquid of the working fluid to the saturation
temperature corresponding to the pressure in the Rankine cycle's evaporator. So most of the heat
is added at the maximum cycle temperature, and the Rankine cycle can approach more closely
the Carnot cycle.

10 USE OF SOME ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENTS

(a) Cyclone and Buffer type steam drum which will prevent entrance of wet steam into the super-
-heater. It is in the boiler section

Figure 10.1 Cyclone and Buffer Steamdrum

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(b) Feedwater and Drum Level Control. To maintain the required amount of liquid in the steam-
drum.

Figure 10.2 ―Half a glass‖ Drum Level Control

(c) Steam Pressure Control

 Called as ―Boiler master‖

 Maintains steam pressure by adjusting fuel and combustion air flows

Figure 10.3 Boiler Master

(d) Introduction of an Attemperator into the system will help in smoothening the variations in
temperature due to changing loads.

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11 REFERENCES

[1] Nag, P., POWER PLANT ENGINEERING, 3rd Edition, 2015, New Delhi: McGraw Hill
Education, India.
[2] Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas and Steam Turbines Power Plants
http://thermogenpower.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-gas-and-steam-turbines-power-
plants/
[3] Wakil, EI, M.M., POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY, International Edition, New Delhi:
McGraw Hill Education, India.
[4] High Speed & High Efficiency Impulse Steam Turbine-Paramete - High Speed & High
Efficiency Impulse Steam Turbine - Shandong Qingneng Power Co., Ltd.
http://www.qnpower.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=86&id=88
[5] http://www.kennedytank.com/heat-exchanger-specifications/
[6] https://almeco.eu/en/blog/difference-between-induced-or-forced-draft
[7] https://spxdrycooling.com/news/9-dry-cooling-terms-nobody-really-understands/
[8] https://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases//palomar/documents/applicants_files/2002-11-
14_ADV_DIS_DRY_WET.PDF
[9] Power Plant Condenser: Wet Cooling Tower, Pond, Air Cooled
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/power-plants/64576-steam-power-plant-condenser-
cooling-part-1-introduction-to-alternatives/
[10] Multistage centrifugal pump from multigo companies.
http://media.ebaraeurope.com/assets/161221-091724-DataBook_MULTIGO_50_H.pdf
[11] High Pressure Boiler Feed Pump With Cooler (Self-balancing Multistage)
https://www.zoompumps.com/products/d_5b85f1dfa624636fd268af55.html
[12]http://www.zhongdingboiler.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=45&id=1
17
[13]http://www.zhongdingboiler.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=45&id=6
8

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