1) The equatorial radius of the earth is 6378km and gravity at the equator is 9.780m/s2.

Compute
the ratio m of the centrifugal acceleration at the equator to the gravitational acceleration at the
equator. If the ratio m is written as 1/k what is the value of k?

Soln.

The magnitudes of the gravitational and centrifugal components of gravity can be directly
compared at the equator where the vectors are directly opposed to each other. The parameter m is
defined as the ratio of the centrifugal acceleration at the equator to the gravitational acceleration
at the equator:

The centrifugal acceleration is expressed as a c = ω2 r

𝐺𝑀
Gravitational acceleration at equator also expressed as g= 𝑟2

Then the ratio of m the ratio m of the centrifugal acceleration at the equator to the gravitational
acceleration at the equator is expressed as

𝑎𝑐 𝜔2 𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟 3 2𝜋
m= = 𝐺𝑀 = Where ω = , T period, G gravitational constant, M
𝑔 𝐺𝑀 𝑇
𝑟2
mass of the earth
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 4(3.14)2 ∗(6.378∗106 )3 1
Then m= = (24∗60∗60)2 ∗(6.673∗10−11 )∗(5.98∗1024 ) =3.461391*10−3=288.901
𝑇 2 𝐺𝑀

From this the value of k is k=288.901

2) A communication satellite is to be placed in a geostationary orbit. (a) What must the period
and orientation of the orbit be? (b) What is the radius of the orbit? (c) If a radio signal is sent to
the satellite from a transmitter at latitude 45N, what is the shortest time taken for its reflection to
reach the earth?

Soln.

(a) A geostationary orbit is one for which the period of rotation of the satellite about the Earth is equal to
the rotation of the Earth about its own axis. This keeps the satellite “stationary” above a given location.
The orbit must be in the plane of the equator.

b) The radius of the satellite’s orbit is found as follows:

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Given Satellite rotation period, T = 1 day = 86400sec
𝜋 2(3.14)
Then rotation speed ωs = 2𝑇 = = 7.2722 ∗ 10-5rad/s
86400

The centripetal acceleration at distance rs, ac = ωs2r ………………………1

𝐺𝑀
Also the gravitational acceleration at distance rs, aG = ……………2
𝑟𝑠2

By equating equation 1 and 2 we get the following

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
ωs2rs = 𝑟 2 This implies rs3 = 𝜔2
𝑠 𝑠

Multiplying by square of radius of earth to both numerator and denominator of the right side, we
get
𝐺𝑀 𝑅 𝑅
rs3 = (𝜔 )2 = 𝑎𝐺 (𝜔 )2
𝑅2 𝑠 𝑠

6.371∗106
Then, rs3 =9.81(7.272∗10−5 ) =7.5297*1022

Therefore radius of the stationary orbit is 4.2227*107m or 42227km

C) The quickest reflection travels along the shortest path to the satellite from the point on the Earth’s
surface at 45°N where the transmitter and receiver are located (point P in the diagram below); the satellite
is above the equator (point S in the diagram below).

From the figure below the side d is given by

1
d2=R2+r2-2Rrscos (45o) = (6.371*106)2 + (42.226*106) -2(6.371*106)*(42.226*106)*( )
√2
=3.7989*107m. This is the distance from station to satellite.

Then, the two-way travel time of the signal is t =2(d/c) where c is speed of light 3.0*108m/s
3.7989∗107 𝑚
t = 2(3.0∗108 𝑚𝑠−1 ) = 2.5326*10-1 =0.25326 second

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3) Show that the gravitational potential inside a homogenous uniform solid sphere of radius R at
a distance r from its center is given by:
2
UG= -3πGρ (3R2-r2)

Soln. Inside a solid sphere with radius R and uniform density ρ the gravitational potential UG
satisfies Poisson’s equation. Symmetry again requires the use of spherical polar coordinates, and, because the
density is uniform, there is no variation of potential with the polar angle θ or azimuth 𝜙.

Poisson’s equation in spherical polar coordinates reduces to

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑈𝐺
𝑟2 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

Multiplying both sides by r2 we get

𝜕 𝜕𝑈𝐺
𝑟2 = 4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑟 2
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝑟 2 𝜕𝑈𝐺 4
Then, integrating with respect to r and we get =3 𝜋Gρr3+C1
𝜕𝑟

This equation has to be valid at the center of the sphere where r = 0, so the constant C1 = 0 and
𝜕 4
UG =3 𝜋G𝜌r
𝜕𝑟

To obtain the potential inside the solid sphere, we must integrate the above equation.
2
This gives, UG = 3 𝜋G𝜌r2 + C2 ………………………………………..1

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The constant of integration C2 is obtained by noting that the potential must be continuous at the surface of the
sphere. Otherwise a discontinuity would exist and the potential gradient (and force) would be infinite.

The gravitational potential outside the solid sphere is

𝑀 𝑀
UG(r>R) =-G 𝑟 at r=R, This equation becomes =-G 𝑅

4 4
In this M=3 𝜋𝜌R3 the above equation becomes - 𝜋𝜌R2 ………………………….2
3

By equating equation 1 and 2 we get at r=R

2 4
, UG = 3 𝜋G𝜌R2 + C2 = - 𝜋𝜌R2, from this we get the value of C2
3

C2 = -2𝜋𝐺𝜌R2

The gravitational potential inside the uniform solid sphere is therefore given by

2 2 2
UG =3 𝜋𝐺𝜌r2-2𝜋𝐺𝜌R2 = 𝜋𝐺𝜌(r2- 3R2). Or UG = - 3 𝜋𝐺𝜌(3R2-r2)
3

4) Calculate the maximum gravity anomaly at ground level over a buried anticlinal
structure, modeled by a horizontal cylinder with radius 1000m and density contrast 200kg/m3,
when the depth of the cylinder axis is (a) 1500m (b) 5000m.

Soln.

The maximum gravity anomaly is given by a formula:

2𝐺𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝜌
gzmax = Where r is radius, z depth of axis, ∆ρ is density constant.
𝑧

a) For depth of 1500m

2((6.673∗10−11 𝑁𝑘𝑔𝑚−2 )∗𝜋∗(1000𝑚)2 ∗200𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

gzmax = = 5.5*10-5ms-2
1500𝑚

b) For depth of 5000m

2((6.673∗10−11 𝑁𝑘𝑔𝑚−2 )∗𝜋∗(1000𝑚)2 ∗200𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

gzmax = =1.68*10-5ms-2
5000𝑚

6 A plane seismic wave, travelling vertically downwards in a rock of density 2200kgm-3 with
seismic velocity 2000m/s, is incident on the horizontal top surface of a rock layer of density
2400kgm-3 and seismic velocity 3300m/s.

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 a) What are the amplitude ratios of the transmitted and reflected waves?
b) What fraction of energy of the incident wave is transmitted in to the lower medium?

Soln.

a) The amplitude ratios for vertical incidence are described by the reflection coefficient R and
the transmission coefficient T
𝑍 −𝑍 2𝑍1
Then, R = 𝑍2 +𝑍1 and T= 𝑍
2 1 2 +𝑍1

Where, Z1 = 𝜌1 𝑉1 and Z2 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 are seismic impedances and ρ and v are the density and seismic
velocity respectively.

We have density and velocity for the two medium and we can find impedances as follows

 Z1 =𝜌1 𝑉1 = (2200kgm-3) (2000ms-1) = 4.4*106kgm-2s-1

 Z2 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 = (2400kgm-3) (3300ms-1) = 7.92*106kgm-2s-1

Z −Z (7.92∗106 −4.4∗106 )kgm−2 s−1

Thus R = Z2 +Z1 = (7.92∗106 +4.4∗106 )kgm−2 s−1 = 0.29
2 1
2Z1 2(4.4∗106 )kgm−2 s−1 )
T=Z =(7.92∗106 +4.4∗106 )kgm−2 s−1 =0.71
2 +Z1

b) What fraction of energy of the incident wave is transmitted in to the lower medium?

The fraction of energy ER of the incident energy reflected at the interfaces is given by

ER = R2

Then, the fraction ET of the incident energy transmitted through the interface is given as

ET = 1-ER =1-(0.29)2 = 0.9159 =0.92

 This means 92% of incident energy is transmitted to the second (lower) medium.

7) (a) Calculate the minimum arrival times for seismic reflections from each of the reflecting
interfaces in the following section. Consider the base of the lowermost bed to be a reflector as
the well.

b) What is the average velocity of the section for a reflection from the base of the dolomite?

c) Using the listed densities calculated the reflection coefficient for each interface (except the
base of the dolomite). Which interface gives the strongest reflection and which the weakest? At
which interfaces does a change in phase occur? What does this mean?

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 If the given section is:
Rock type Density (kgm-3) Thickness (m) Formation velocity
(ms-1)
Alluvium 1500 150 600
Shale 2400 450 2700
Sandstone 2300 600 3000
Limestone 2500 900 5400
Salt 2200 300 4500
Dolomite 2700 600 6000

Soln.

a) The formation thicknesses and velocities give the following two-way travel-times in each
formation, and cumulative two-way travel-time for each reflecting interface.

The formation two-way time travel is calculated as follows:

2𝑑
to = 𝑉

Where, to is minimum arrival time, d is thickness and V is formation velocity

For each of interfaces we can calculate minimum arrival time

2(150) 2(450)
 For Alluvium to = = 0.50s. For Shale to = = 0.33s
600 2700
2(600) 2(900)
 For Sandstone to = = 0.40s. For Limestone to = = 0.33s
3000 5400
2(300) 2(600)
 For Salt to = = 0.13s. For Dolomite to = = 0.20s
4500 6000

Total thickness 3000m total time 1.90s

The cumulative two-way time-travel is obtained by successively adding to of each interface. By

table it is as follows

Formation Thickness(m) Formation Formation two- Cumulative

velocity(ms-1) way travel- two-way travel-
time(s) time(s)
Alluvium 150 600 0.50 0.500
Shale 450 2700 0.33 0.833
Sandstone 600 3000 0.40 1.233
Limestone 900 5400 0.33 1.567
Salt 300 4500 0.13 1.700
Dolomite 600 600 0.20 1.900
Total 3000 1.90

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 b) What is the average velocity of the section for a reflection from the base of the dolomite?
𝑆 2(3000)
Vav = 𝑡 = 1.90
=3160ms-1

c) Using the listed densities calculated the reflection coefficient for each interface (except the
base of the dolomite). Which interface gives the strongest reflection and which the weakest? At
which interfaces does a change in phase occur? What does this mean?
Soln. The reflection coefficient (R) for each interface between successive rock types is
computed as follows
𝑍 −𝑍
R = 𝑍2 +𝑍1
2 1

By using this formula we can calculate reflection coefficient for each of the rocks
(2400∗2700)−(1500∗600)
 For Alluvium R = (2400∗2700)+(1500∗600) =0.756
(2300∗3000)−(2400∗2700)
 For Shale R = (2300∗2700)+(2400∗2700) =0.031
(2500∗5400)−(2300∗3000)
 For Sandstone R = (2500∗5400)+(2300∗3000) =0.324
(2200∗4500)−(2500∗5400)
 For Limestone R = (2200∗4500)+(2500∗5400) =-0.154
(2700∗6000)−(2200∗4500)
 For Salt R = (2700∗6000)+(2200∗4500) =0.241

Then in short by using table

Rock type Density (kgm-3) Formation Reflection Reflection

velocity (ms-1) coefficient characteristic
Alluvium 1500 600 0.756 Strongest
Shale 2400 2700 0.031 Weakest
Sandstone 2300 3000 0.324 ----
Limestone 2500 5400 -0.154 Phase change
Salt 2200 4500 0.241 ----
Dolomite 2700 6000 ----- -----

 The strongest reflection occurs at the interface between the Alluvium and Shale
 The weakest reflection occurs at the interface between the Shale and the sandstone
 The negative reflection coefficient at the interface between Limestone and Salt indicates
a phase change of 𝜋 radians.

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8) A plane electromagnetic wave is travelling vertically downwards in the air in the Z-direction.
The wave has an angular frequency, ω, and the electric field is polarized in the x-direction. At
this location, the surface of the Earth is at z=0.

Magnetic permeability of air and Earth µ=µo

Dielectric permittivity of air and Earth ε=εo
Electrical conductivity= σ
The incident wave in the air can be described by Ex =A exp (-ikoz)
The reflected wave in the air is given by Ex =B exp (ikoz)
And in the earth the transmitted wave is Ex = C exp (-k1z)
𝜔𝜇𝜎
Where ko = ω√𝜇𝜖 and k1 = (1-i)√
2

a) What type of EM signal propagation is implied by the values of ko and k1? Explain
your answer carefully.
1
b) The apparent resistivity is defined as ρa =𝜔𝜇|zxy|2. Compute ρa and show that has
expected value.

Solution

a) Both incident wave and reflected wave are propagates in the air and they move in
opposite direction.
 The incident wave is polarized in the x-direction. This incident wave has an amplitude

A, frequency 𝜔, and wave number ko. Also the reflected wave has an amplitude B, frequecncy
𝜔 and wave number ko. The conductivity of air is zero. Therefore the waves won’t be damped
and their wave number is real.

Then, the type of EM signal propagation implied by the value ko = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀 is the incident signal
and reflected signal which are real.

 The transmitted wave propagates in the earth. Since the conductivity of earth is

relatively large, the transmitted wave will propagate in the earth by diffusion (i.e. damped). This
assumes that displacement current is negligible compared to conduction current.

The transmitted wave has an amplitude C, frequency 𝜔, and wave number k1.This wave number
𝜔𝜇𝜎
is given by k1 = (1-i)√ which is a complex number. The real part cause exponential decay
2
and the imaginary part cause an oscillation.

b) From the transmitted EM signal, we know that

1 𝜕
Ex = C exp (-k1z). From this Hy =𝑖𝜔𝜇 𝜕 𝐸𝑥 (𝑧)
𝑧

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 1
Then, Hy = 𝑖𝜔𝜇 𝐶(−𝑘1 )exp(−𝑘1 𝑧)

𝐸 (𝜔)
The impedance Zxy(ω) = 𝐻𝑥 (𝜔) Then considering the value of impedance at z=0
𝑦

−𝑖𝜔𝜇 (1−𝑖) 𝜔𝜇
Zxy(ω) = = √𝜎
𝑘1 √2

Zxy(ω) depends only on the properties of the earth, not on air and it is a complex number with
magnitude
𝐸𝑥 (𝜔) 2 𝜔𝜇
|Zxy(ω)|2 = = | | = By re-arranging this
𝐻𝑦 (𝜔) 𝜎

𝜔𝜇
𝜎 = |𝑧 2 From this conductivity and resistivity are inversely
𝑥𝑦 |

proportional and the resistivity of the earth is written as:

2
1 |𝑧𝑥𝑦 |2 1 𝐸𝑥(𝜔)
𝜌=𝜎= =𝜔𝜇 |𝐻 | …………………………(*)
𝜔𝜇 𝑦 (𝜔)

All terms on the right hand side can be measured, and this shows how surface measurements of
electric and magnetic fields can be used to measure the resistivity of the earth.

It is important to consider which part of the Earth is being sampled in such a measurement.

Since the EM fields attenuate in the Earth with a length scale of skin depth (𝛿), this
measurement samples a hemisphere around the observation site, radius 𝛿.

In reality, the resistivity of the earth will not be constant over the hemisphere. In this case it is
usual to define the apparent resistivity as a function of frequency (𝜔) as:
2
1 𝐸𝑥 (𝜔)
𝜌𝑎 (𝜔) = 𝜔𝜇 |𝐻 |
𝑦 (𝜔)

If the earth has a uniform resistivity, then the analysis above shows that: 𝜌𝑎 =
𝜌 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 (∗) 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
1 2
That means 𝜌𝑎 = 𝜔𝜇 = |𝑧𝑥𝑦 |

In general, the resistivity will not be constant with depth. In this case, the apparent resistivity can
be considered as the average resistivity over a hemisphere with radius equal to the skin depth.

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