Physics Terminology and Formulae by Chapter (Semester 1)

Subtopic Term Terminology and Formulae

Chapter 1 Physical Quantities and Units
1.1 Physics The study of matter, its motion and the interaction between matters.
Physical quantity Property that can be measured.
Base quantity Physical quantity that cannot be defined by other quantities.
Derived quantity Physical quantity derived from base quantity by multiplication or division or both.
1.2 Dimension Dimension of a physical quantity relates the physical quantity to the base quantities.
Dimension analysis Method that is used to relate physical quantities to its base quantities in dimension.
1.3 Scalar quantity A physical quantity that has only magnitude.
Vector quantity A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Scalar product (Dot Scalar product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is defined by the relationship:
product) 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑦 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠.
The result is a scalar quantity.
Vector product (Cross Given any two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗, the vector product 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ is defined as the third vector 𝐶⃗, whereby
product) 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗
The magnitude of 𝐶⃗ is 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 and direction of 𝐶⃗ is perpendicular to the plane formed by vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗.
Right hand rule is used to determine the direction. Four fingers of the right hand are pointed along 𝐴⃗ and wrapped
⃗⃗ through the angle 𝜃. The direction of the erect right thumb is the direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
into 𝐵 ⃗⃗ .
The result is a vector quantity.
1.4 Absolute uncertainty The size of the range of values in which the “true value” of the measurement probably lies.
(In general, the maximum uncertainty in the reading of an instrument equals to the smallest division on the scale
of the instrument.)
Fractional uncertainty Ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the measured value of the measurement.
(Relative uncertainty) 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = × 100%
uncertainty 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Primary data Readings recorded from measuring instruments.
Secondary data Data derived from the base data by addition, subtraction, multiplication or division.
(Derived data)
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 Systematic error A systematic error shifts all the measurements away from their actual value by the same amount, and causes the
readings to be always greater than the actual value. For example, zero error.
Random error A random error gives rise to random deviations from the actual value. The reading obtained is just as likely to be
greater or smaller than the actual value. For example, parallax error.
Chapter 2 Kinematics
2.1 Mechanics Branch of physics that focuses on the motion of objects and the force and the force that cause the motion to
change.
Kinematics A study of motion in terms of space and time while ignoring the force that caused motion.
Dynamics A study of the effect that forces have on motion.
Position The position of a point relative to the origin is defined by the position vector.
Displacement, 𝑠 Vector of which points from an object’s initial position towards its final position and has a magnitude that equals
the shortest distance between two positions.
Speed Distance travelled by an object divided by the time required to cover the distance.
(Rate of change of distance of an object.)
Instantaneous speed The rate of distance travelled.
Average speed 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Velocity, 𝑣 The rate of change of displacement in a given direction.
Average velocity, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
∆𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
Instantaneous The instantaneous velocity of a body is its velocity at a particular instant.
velocity, 𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
Acceleration, 𝑎 The rate of change of velocity.
Average acceleration, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
Instantaneous The instantaneous acceleration of a body is its acceleration at a particular instant.
acceleration, 𝑎 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡

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 Equations of linear 𝑣−𝑢
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ⇔ 𝑎 = (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
motion 𝑡
(Assuming 1 Δ𝑠
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡 ⇔ = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
acceleration is 2 Δ𝑡
constant) 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑)
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
2.2 Free fall An object is said to be in free fall if it falls under the action of gravity neglecting air resistance.
2.3 Projectile motion Superposition of two dimensional motions which are constant velocity motion in the horizontal direction and the
free fall motion in the vertical direction.
Projectile A body that is projected at an angle to the horizontal and moves under the action of gravity.
Trajectory Path of a projectile.
Equations in For an object projected with an inital velocity of 𝑢 at an angle of 𝜃 to the horizontal
projectile Horizontal component Vertical component
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑣𝑦0 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 + (−𝑔)𝑡
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 1
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑦 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑡 + (−𝑔)𝑡 2
𝑇= 2
2 2
𝑔 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑇
𝐻= , 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 =
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 2𝑔 2
𝑅= 2𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑔 𝑇=
𝑔
Where 𝑇 𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
2 𝑔
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 Where
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
**Boxed formulae ONLY for object go back to the
same level 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦

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 The object will travel with velocity of magnitude, 𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

𝑣𝑦
at any time t during the projectile motion at an angle of α= arctan to the horizontal axis.
𝑣𝑥
Terminal velocity Constant final velocity obtained by a body moving in a fluid.
Chapter 3 Dynamics
3.1 Dynamics A study of the effect that forces have on motion.
Newton’s First Law In an isolated system, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues in motion with a constant
of Motion velocity.
Inertia Tendency of an object to remain at its original state.
Momentum, 𝑝 A vector which is the product of the object’s mass and its velocity in the direction same as the velocity.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Newton’s Second The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force applied and is in the same
Law of Motion direction of the resultant force.
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∝ 𝑂𝑅 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∝ (𝑚 +𝑣 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Newton’s Third Law Every action has a reaction which is of the same magnitude but opposite in direction.
of Motion
3.2 Momentum, 𝑝 A vector which is the product of the object’s mass and its velocity in the direction same as the velocity.
Principle of In an isolated system, the total linear momentum is constant.
Conservation of ∑ 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
Momentum
Impulse Impulse is the change in momentum of a body due to the action of a force.
𝑡2
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑝 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
3.3 Newton’s Law of For perfectly elastic collision, in which no kinetic energy is dissipated, and the objects rebound from one another
Restitution with the same relative speed with which they approached.
(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ) = −(𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )
Elastic collision Collision where kinetic energy is conserved and obey the principle of conservation of momentum.
For two objects A and B having masses of 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚𝐵 colliding each other elastically at velocity of 𝑢𝐴 and 𝑢𝐵
respectively, their velocity after collision will be 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 respectively.
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 𝑚𝐴 − 𝑚𝐵 2𝑚𝐵
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑢𝐴 + 𝑢
𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝐵
𝑚𝐵 − 𝑚𝐴 2𝑚𝐴
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑢𝐵 + 𝑢
𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝐴
Inelastic collision Collision where kinetic energy is not conserved and obey the principle of conservation of momentum.
3.4 Center of mass The point where the whole mass of a rigid body be assumed to be concentrated.
For a system that consists 𝑛 particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑛 at the points whose coordinates are
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ), … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ), the coordinates of center of mass are
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 𝑚𝑖 ) ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑦𝑖 𝑚𝑖 )
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = ( 𝑛 , )
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
Velocity of center of ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 )
mass, 𝑣̅ 𝑣̅ =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
Center of gravity The point where the weight of the body acts.
3.5 Frictional forces Force that opposes the relative motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Static friction Friction between two solid surfaces before relative motion occurs.
Limiting static Maximum static friction between two surfaces. Occurs just before the relative motion occurs.
friction, 𝐹𝑠 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑅
whereby 𝜇𝑠 is coefficient of static friction and 𝑅 is the normal reaction
Kinetic friction, 𝐹𝑘 Friction between two surfaces that slide over each other.
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑅
whereby 𝜇𝑘 is coefficient of kinetic friction and 𝑅 is the normal reaction
Kinetic friction, 𝐹𝑘 is always less than limiting static friction, 𝐹𝑠 .
Chapter 4 Work, Energy and Power
4.1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Work done, 𝑑𝑊 Scalar product of the force applied to an object,𝐹⃗ and change in displacement of an object,𝑑𝑠⃗.
𝑑𝑊 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝐹(∆𝑠)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐹⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠⃗
OR
Product of force applied to an object in the direction of displacement and the change in displacement of an object.
𝑊 = 𝐹(Δ𝑠)
𝑠2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑠
𝑠1
4.2 Energy The capacity or ability to do work.
Gravitational Energy that stored in an object because of its position relative to the surface of the earth. If the position of the
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potential energy, 𝑃. 𝐸. object relative to an arbitrary zero level is ℎ,
𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Elastic potential Energy that stored in a spring of force constant 𝑘 is
energy, 𝑈 1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
Kinetic energy, 𝐾. 𝐸. Energy of an object with mass 𝑚 and speed 𝑣 is given by
1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Work Energy The work done on a system increases the mechanical energy of the system. Conversely, work done by a system
Theorem equals that decrease in its mechanical energy.
OR
Work done by a force on a system = increase in mechanical energy of the system.
Potential energy, 𝑈 Relationship with force, 𝐹 is
𝑑𝑈
𝐹=−
𝑑𝑠
Principle of Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
conservation of
energy
Principle of In an isolated system, the total mechanical energy of the system is constant.
conservation of 𝑃. 𝐸.𝑖 + 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑖 = 𝑃. 𝐸.𝑓 + 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑓
mechanical energy
Power, 𝑃 Rate of which work is done
OR
Rate of which energy change
𝑑𝑊
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑠
𝑃= 𝑠+ 𝐹
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 (𝑖𝑓 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
Efficiency 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% = × 100%
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Perfect machine A machine that has efficiency of 100%, which means it has an output power which is equivalent to its input
power.

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 Chapter 5 Circular Motion
5.1 Uniform circular When a body moves in a circle with a constant speed, it is said to undergo an uniform circular motion.
motion
Period, T Time taken to complete one rotation or oscillation
Frequency, f Number of rotation or oscillation completed per unit time
Angular Angle swept out by the radius vector in circular motion.
displacement, 𝜃
Angular velocity / Rate of change of angular displacement.
Angular frequency, 𝜔 𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
Angular speed Magnitude of angular velocity
Linear speed and Rate of change of the distance travelled along the circular path
linear velocity, 𝑣 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Linear velocity vector, 𝑣⃗ is always tangent to the circular path and hence is also called as tangential velocity
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Centripetal Acceleration vector of an object moving in circular motion of radius 𝑟 with speed 𝑣 which pointing towards the
acceleration, 𝑎𝑐 center of circular motion and continually changes direction as the objects moves.
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟𝜔2 = 𝑣𝜔
𝑟

5.2 Centripetal force, 𝐹𝑐 Name given to the net force required to keep an object of mass m, moving at a speed v on a circular path of radius
r and has a magnitude of
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 = 𝑚𝑣𝜔
𝑟
which pointing towards the center of circular motion and continually changes direction as the objects moves.
Chapter 6 Gravitation
6.1 Newton’s Law of The force of attraction between two given particles is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
Universal Gravitation inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
1
𝐹𝐺 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 , 𝐹𝑔 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2
𝑟2

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 Weight Gravitational force that acts on the body.
6.2 Gravitational field Gravitational field is the region in which an object experiences a gravitational force.
Gravitational field The gravitational field strength, 𝐸𝐺 at a point in the field is defined as the force per unit mass at that point.
strength, 𝐸𝐺 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝐸𝐺
𝐹𝐺
⇔ 𝐸𝐺 =
𝑚
𝐺𝑀
On the surface of the Earth, 𝑔 = 𝑅2
6.3 Gravitational The potential 𝑉, at a point due to the gravitational field of the Earth is defined as work done by the external force
potential, 𝑉 in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point with a constant speed.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑚
𝑟
∫∞ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑟
=
𝑚
𝑟
∫∞ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑔 𝑑𝑟
=−
𝑚
𝐺𝑀
=−
𝑟
The negative sign indicates the potential at infinity which is zero is higher than the potential close to the Earth.
Potential energy, 𝑈 The potential energy of a mass, m at a point which has distance of r from infinity is equal to the work done in
taking the mass m from infinity to that point.
𝐺𝑀
𝑈 = 𝑚 × (− )
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈=−
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
At the surface of the Earth, potential energy of mass m, 𝑈𝑂 = − , where 𝑅 is the radius of the Earth
𝑅
6.1, 6.2, Relations between 𝐹𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐺 𝐸𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈 𝐹𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈
6.3 𝐹𝐺 , 𝐸𝐺 , 𝑉 and 𝑈 𝐹𝐺 𝑑𝑉 𝑈 𝑑𝑈
𝐸𝐺 = 𝐸𝐺 = − 𝑉= 𝐹𝐺 = −
𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚 𝑑𝑟
6.4 Satellite A body that revolves round a planet.
They are kept in their circular path by a centripetal force provided by the gravitational attraction of the Earth.
Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚 which just circles the Earth of mass 𝑀𝐸 ,
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝐺
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 𝐺𝑀𝐸
⇒𝑣=√
𝑟

The smaller the value of 𝑟, the greater the orbital speed must be
The mass 𝑚 does not appear in the equation, therefore in a same orbital, satellite with different mass has exactly
same orbital speed
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Has gravitational potential energy, 𝑈 = − 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Has kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 2𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Has total energy of 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = − 2𝑟
Synchronous satellite Satellite which appears in fixed position in the sky (stationary) to an observer on the Earth’s surface.
Characteristics:
Orbits the Earth once per day on a circular path that lies in the plane of the equator.
The orbital period is one day, same as time taken for the Earth to turn once about its axis.
Moves around its orbit in a way that is synchronized with the rotation of the Earth from West to East.
Planet A body that is in orbit around the Sun satisfying these conditions:
Has enough mass to form itself into a spherical shape
Has clear its immediate neighborhood of all smaller objects
Kelper’s Third Law For planets orbiting the Sun, the square of the period is directly proportional to the cube of the radius of orbit.
𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
Weightlessness Apparent loss of weight experienced by an object in free fall under gravity.
6.5 Escape velocity, 𝑣𝑒 Minimum velocity required by a body to escape completely from gravitational pull of a planet.
𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ∆𝑈
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑈∞ − 𝑈𝑅
2 𝑒
𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 0 − (− )
𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
𝑅

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 2𝐺𝑀
⇒ 𝑣𝑒 = √ = √2𝑔𝑅
𝑅
Chapter 7 Statics
7.1 Center of gravity , 𝐶𝐺 Point where the whole weight of the system is assumed to act.
For a system that consists 𝑛 particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑛 at the points whose coordinates are
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ), … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) , the coordinates of center of gravity are
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑖 ) ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑦𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑖 )
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = ( 𝑛 , ),
∑𝑖=1(𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑖 ) ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑚𝑖 𝑔𝑖 )
Where 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , 𝑔3 , … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑛 are accelerations due to gravity at the position of the particles respectively.
7.2 Static equilibrium An object is in static equilibrium when the object is at rest. The object has no linear or angular speed.
Must fulfill 2 conditions which are:
1. Resultant external force must equal to zero. ∑ 𝐹 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 , ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2. Resultant torque about any axis must be zero. ∑ 𝜏 = 0
7.3 Torque (moment of The turning effect of force 𝐹 to rotate a rigid body about the axis of rotation.
the force) Defined as vector product of position vector 𝑟 and force 𝐹
𝜏 = 𝑟×𝐹
= 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 (𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹)
Chapter 8 Deformation of Solids
8.1 Tensile Force or stress applied normal to cross-section.
Stress / Tensile stress Force applied per unit cross-sectional area at the normal to the area.
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
Strain / Tensile strain Extension per unit original length perpendicular to cross-section.
𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑙0
Elasticity A property of a body to return to its original dimension after the force acting on it is removed.
8.2 Limit of The limit that holds the proportionality of strain to the maximum stress.
proportionality OR
Maximum force applied to a material below which the extension of the material is directly proportional to the
applied force.
OR

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 Maximum stress applied to a material below which the strain of the material is directly proportional to the applied
stress.
Young’s modulus Ratio of longitudinal stress to strain.
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝐹𝑙
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐸 = = 𝑒 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝐴
𝑙
8.2 Elastic limit Maximum stress point where the wire is still able to go back to its original length after the force / stress applied to
it is removed.
Elastic deformation Deformation in which the body undergoes deformation will return to its original dimensions when the force /
stress acting on it is removed. Work done by stress is to increase the separation between molecules.
Hooke’s Law Below the limit of proportionality, the restoring force is directly proportional to the extension, 𝑒.
Restoring force The force to restore the object’s original dimension.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
Negative sign indicates the restoring force is in the opposite direction to the increasing extension, 𝑒.
Yield point The point where plastic deformation starts.
Plastic deformation Deformation in which the body undergoes deformation will not return to its original dimensions when the force /
stress acting on it is removed. The body is described to be plastic.
Plastic Behavior occurs when a material is deformed beyond its elastic limit
Permanent extension Extension which is permanent and object cannot restore to its original dimension. Part of the work done is lost and
only part of it is recoverable. Work done by stress is to increase the separation between molecules and to slide the
atomic planes over one another. Sliding is due to movement of dislocations in the atomic planes. Thus, the wire
thins uniformly.
Ultimate tensile The maximum stress that the wire can be subjected before it breaks. Beyond this point, the wire thins non-
strength/ breaking uniformly and forming “necks”. The wire breaks if sufficient stress is applied to form “necks” that keeps
stress narrowing and break.
Strength The force required to break a given material is a measure of its strength.
The breaking force depends on the shape and size as well as the type of material. Materials with higher strength
will have a higher breaking stress.
Stiffness A measure of the difficulty of changing the shape of an object. (Measured by the Young’s modulus of the
material)
For wires of the same diameter and length, made of different materials, the stiffest material is the one which
extends least when each is put under the same tension.
Ductile Materials that undergo plastic deformation before breaking are said to be ductile. Eg. steel
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 Ductility A measure of degree of plastic deformation sustained at fracture.
Brittle Materials that undergo plastic deformation before breaking. Eg. glass
Polymeric A polymeric material is made up of molecular chain that are tangled and coiled.
When a polymeric material is stretched, a small force produces a large extension. The molecular are aligned and
unraveled.
Elasticity Property of materials that is able to regain / return / restore to its original shape after being distorted.
Some materials like rubber bands are much more elastic than others.
Elastic limit Maximum stress point where the wire is still able to go back to its original length after the force / stress applied to
it is removed.
Plastic Behavior occurs when a material is deformed beyond its elastic limit
8.3 Work done, 𝛿𝑊 Product of force,𝐹 and its small extension produced by the force, 𝛿𝑥.
𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹𝛿𝑥
𝑒
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒, 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
Strain energy / Elastic Energy stored in the wire when a stress is applied on it.
𝑒
potential energy
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= 𝐹𝑒, 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
1 𝐹𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ( )
2 𝑙𝐴
Chapter 9 Kinetic Theory of Gases
9.1 Ideal gas A gas that obeys completely the gas laws that relate the pressure 𝑝, volume 𝑉 and absolute temperature T of a
fixed mass of gas.
OR
A gas that obeys completely the gas laws that relate the Pressure Law, Charles’ Law and Boyle’s Law for a fixed
mass of gas.
Boyle’s Law Given a fixed mass of gas at constant absolute temperature, the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to its
1
volume. 𝑝 ∝ 𝑉
Pressure Law Given a fixed mass of gas at constant volume of the gas, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature. 𝑝 ∝ 𝑇
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 Charles’ Law Given a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature. 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
Ideal gas equation 𝑚 𝑛
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 =
𝑀 𝑁𝐴
OR
⇒ 𝑝𝑉𝑚 = 𝑅𝑇
Where m is mass of n moles of gas particles, M is molar mass of the gas particle, N is number of gas particles, 𝑁𝐴
is the Avogadro’s constant, n is the number of moles of gas particles, R is the molar gas constant.
𝑝 , 𝑉, 𝑇, 𝑉𝑚 are pressure, volume occupied by gas particles, absolute temperature, volume occupied by 1 mole of
gas particles.
Assumption made by Equal volume of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. Hence
Avogadro all gases at s.t.p. has the same number of molecules. This is known as Avogadro’s number, 𝑁𝐴 .
Boltzmann constant Gas constant for one molecule.
𝑅
𝑘=
𝑁𝐴
Where 𝑅 is the molar gas constant, 𝑁𝐴 is the Avogadro’s constant.
9.2 Assumptions of the  The container holds a very large number of identical molecules of same mass and behaves as a point particle
Kinetic Theory of each.
Gases  Molecules of gas move freely and randomly obeying Newton’s Law of Motions at any time interval.
 When molecules hit the walls of the container or collide with one another, they bounce elastically.
 The time of contact during the collision (with the container or another molecule) is considered to be
extremely short compared to the time interval between two consecutive collisions of a molecule. (to and fro
distance of 2𝑙 parallel to the edge of cubic container of side length of 𝑙)
 The volume of each molecule is considered to be negligibly small. (compared to volume occupied by gas)
 There is no intermolecular force between molecules except when they are in contact during a collision.
(Attractive forces and repulsive forces of molecule with one another are neglected)
Other assumption Air pressure in the container is assumed to be uniform and therefore the pressure of the gas is same as the pressure
on every surface of the container.
Formulae 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑢 − (−𝑚𝑢) = 2𝑚𝑢
2𝑙
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 =
𝑢

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 1 𝑢
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑢
𝑢 𝑚𝑢2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 2𝑚𝑢 ( ) =
2𝑙 𝑙
𝑁 𝑁
1 𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑁 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = (∑ 𝑚𝑢𝑖2 ) = (∑ 𝑢𝑖2 )
𝑙 𝑙
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑁 𝑁
𝑚 𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑁 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 3 (∑ 𝑢𝑘2 ) = (∑ 𝑢𝑖2 )
𝑙 𝑉
𝑖=1 𝑘=1
𝑁
1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ̅̅̅
𝑢2 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = ∑ 𝑢𝑖2
𝑁
𝑖=1
𝑚𝑁𝑢 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑁 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = ̅̅̅2
= 𝜌𝑢
𝑙3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑐 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟.
𝑁
1 2 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅2 1
𝑐 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑧 . 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚, ̅̅̅
2 2 2 2
𝑐 = 𝑢 = 𝑣 = 𝑧 , since ̅̅̅
𝑐 2 = ∑ 𝑐𝑖2
3 𝑁
𝑖=1
1 ̅̅̅2 1 𝑁𝑚 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑁 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝜌𝑐 = ( 3 ) 𝑐
3 3 𝑙

9.3 Molecular kinetic 3

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑅𝑇
energy 2
3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐾. 𝐸. (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙)𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑘𝑇
2
∴ 𝐾. 𝐸. ∝ 𝑇 ⇒ ̅̅̅
𝑐 2 ∝ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∝ √𝑇
9.4 Comparison of types The movement of gas molecules which have different speeds is always random in all directions. The speed of
of average speed many molecules is distributed continuously.

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 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑(𝑖𝑒. 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) = 𝑣𝑚𝑝 (𝑣𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣 ( 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)
𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑣𝑚𝑝 < 𝑣𝑎𝑣 < 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
9.5 Degree of freedom Independent mode of motion or an independent mode of acquiring kinetic energy. Depends on the number of
atom in a molecule (monoatomic, diatomic, polyatomic) and temperature
Degrees of freedom of gases at room temperature are
𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜 = 3, 𝑓𝑑𝑖 = 5 , 𝑓𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 6
All degrees of freedom above are due to translational and rotational motion ONLY.
For diatomic molecule,
T < 250K 250K ≤ T ≤ 750K T > 750K
𝑓𝑑𝑖 = 3 𝑓𝑑𝑖 = 5 𝑓𝑑𝑖 = 5
3 Translational motion 3 Translational motion 3 Translational motion
2 Rotational motion 2 Rotational motion
2 Vibrational motion
Law of Equipartition 1
The mean kinetic energy associated with each degree of freedom of a molecule is 2 𝑘𝑇.
of Energy 𝑓
Mean KE. of a gas molecule =2 𝑘𝑇
3
∴ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑘𝑇
2
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 5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑘𝑇
2
6
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑘𝑇
2
Internal energy of a 𝑈 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
mole of gas, U 𝑓
𝑈 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝑇
2
for an ideal gas, the internal energy U of a mole of gas is the sum of the K.E. of 𝑁𝐴 molecules.
9.6 Internal energy of real According to Kinetic Theory, The energy of an ideal gas consists the K.E. of the molecules that includes
gas translational, vibrational and rotational K.E.. For a real gas, intermolecular forces exist. The molecules can have
potential energy due to the intermolecular forces. Thus, internal energy of a real gas consists of K.E. and P.E.
between the molecules.
Chapter 10 Thermodynamics of Gases
10.1 Heat capacity, C The heat required to raise the average temperature of the body by 1K.
𝑄 = 𝐶(∆𝑇)
Specific heat The heat required to raise the average temperature of a unit mass of the body by 1K.
capacity, c 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(∆𝑇)
Molar heat capacity, The heat required to raise the average temperature of one mole of the material by 1K.
𝑐𝑚 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑐𝑚 (∆𝑇)

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure 𝑐𝑝,𝑚 is the heat required to raise the average temperature of one mole of
the material by 1K at constant pressure.
Molar heat capacity at constant volume 𝑐𝑣,𝑚 is the heat required to raise the average temperature of one mole of
the material by 1K at constant volume.

10.2 Work done by a gas Work done by a gas in cylindrical container is defined as work done to push the piston of area A by small
distance , while the gas expands. The work done by gas is 𝑑𝑊.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑊 = 𝑝(∆𝑉) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
10.3 The First Law of The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation that specifically includes heat. 𝑄 is the
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 Thermodynamics amount of heat flows into the system, is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy, ∆𝑈 and the work done
by the system, 𝑊.
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
Q positive sign System gains heat
Q negative sign System loses heat
∆𝑈 positive sign Increase of internal energy of the system
∆𝑈 negative sign Decrease of internal energy of the system
W positive sign Work done by system
W negative sign Work done on the system
Thermodynamical A system of gas is said to be in thermodynamical equilibrium if the temperature, pressure and percentage
equilibrium component of all part of the gas is constant respectively.
Reversible process A reversible process is one in which every state along some path is an equilibrium state, and one for which the
system can be returned to its initial condition along the same path. Contrarily, a process which does not satisfy the
requirements is known as irreversible.
Relation between 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,
𝑐𝑝,𝑚 and 𝑐𝑣,𝑚 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 ∵ 𝑊 = 0 𝑓
𝑓 𝑛𝑐 𝑝,𝑚 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 + 𝑝∆𝑉
𝑛𝑐𝑣,𝑚 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 2
2 𝑓
𝑓 𝑛𝑐 𝑝,𝑚 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
∴ 𝑐𝑣,𝑚 = 𝑅 2
2 𝑓
∴ 𝑐𝑝,𝑚 = 𝑅 + 𝑅
2
𝑓
𝑐𝑣,𝑚 = 𝑅
2
𝑐𝑝,𝑚 = 𝑐𝑣,𝑚 + 𝑅
∴ 𝑐𝑝,𝑚 > 𝑐𝑣,𝑚
Ratio of principal 𝑐𝑝,𝑚 𝑓 + 2
molar heat capacity, 𝛾 𝛾= =
𝑐𝑣,𝑚 𝑓
𝛾𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜 = 1.67
𝛾𝑑𝑖 = 1.40
𝛾𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 1.33
10.4 Isovolumetric/ Process in which an ideal gas undergoes a change of state at constant volume.
Isochoric/ Isometrix/ 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
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Isometric process 𝑉2
(Obeys Pressure Law 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 = 0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑉1
= 𝑇2 )
𝑇
1 2 OR
∆𝑉 = 0 ⇒ 𝑊 = 0
𝑓
∆𝑈 = 𝑛 𝑅(∆𝑇)
2
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑐𝑣,𝑚 (∆𝑇)
𝑓
∴ 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑐𝑣,𝑚 (∆𝑇) = 𝑛 𝑅(∆𝑇)
2
Hence, heat gained/given out by the system is used to increase/decrease the internal energy ie. K.E. of the
molecules of the gas sample. There is NO work done for isovolumetric process because the gas doesn’t expand.
Isobaric process Process in which an ideal gas undergoes a change of state at constant pressure.
(Obeys Charles’ Law 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
𝑉1 𝑉
= 𝑇2 ) ∆𝑝 = 0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑇
1 2
𝑝(∆𝑉) = 𝑛𝑅(∆𝑇) (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝, 𝑛, 𝑅 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝(∆𝑉) = 𝑛𝑅(∆𝑇) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑉1

𝑓
∆𝑈 = 𝑛 𝑅(∆𝑇)
2
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑐𝑝,𝑚 (∆𝑇)
Isothermal process Process in which an ideal gas undergoes a change of state at constant temperature.
(Its curve in p-V curve is called as an isotherm)
(carried out in an heat-conductive container / thin-walled container / frictionless piston / carried out slowly/
in water bath)
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
∆𝑇 = 0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑓
⇒ ∆𝑈 = 𝑛 𝑅(∆𝑇) = 0
2
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛, 𝑅, 𝑇 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

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 𝑛𝑅𝑇
∴𝑝=
𝑉
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln = 𝑝2 𝑉2 ln
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1

Adiabatic process Process in which an ideal gas undergoes a change of state without heat entering or leaving the gas.
(carried out in an insulated container / thick-walled container / carried out rapidly)
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
𝑄 = 0 (𝑁𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
𝑊 = −∆𝑈
𝑝𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑘1
𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 (𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛 = 1)
𝑘1
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡2 = 𝑘2 =
𝑅
𝑛𝑅 1
𝑊= (∆𝑇) = (𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
1−𝛾 1−𝛾 2 2
𝑓
∆𝑈 = 𝑛 𝑅(∆𝑇)
2
Cyclic process A process that originates and terminates at the same state.
∆𝑈 = 0 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑊
Chapter 11 Heat Transfer
11.1 Heat / Thermal A conduction by which the heat is transferred through solids. 2 ways of conducting heat through metal are
conduction i. Conduction through free electron (electronic conduction) by diffusion of free electrons
When solid is heated at a point, the atoms in heated part vibrate more vigorously. Free electron gain KE by
colliding with the atoms and thus free electrons in the heated part move faster. The free electrons which are
high-speed having greater KE collide with free electrons from the colder part which have lower KE, causing
some KE is transferred to the “colder” free electrons. An individual electron may only travel a short distance
along the bar before colliding and giving up its extra KE to another electron. The electron which received KE
will rebound and repeat the same situation. Thus energy is transmitted through the metal by movement of
free electrons, even though the electrons only travel short distance.
ii. Conduction through vibrations of the atoms (lattice conduction)
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 When part of the material is heated, the molecules in heated part vibrate more about its equilibrium position
with greater amplitude which approximates simple harmonic motion. The increased vibration make the
neighboring atoms vibrate more which in turn make other atoms further away vibrate more via intermolecular
forces until thermal equilibrium is achieved. So energy passes to other parts of the material. This mechanism
is present in metals but energy transfer due to electrons is much greater than that due to atomic vibrations.
A good conductor of electricity is also a good conductor of heat because it contains a lot of free electrons which
allows heat transfer via collision of free electrons. However, the converse doesn’t necessarily true because a good
conductor of heat which transfer heat through lattice conduction only is not a good conductor of electricity as
there are no free electrons to conduct electricity.
In non-metal (insulator), conduction only occurs through vibrations of molecules which generate waves which
similar to harmonic motion. The waves are then dispersed through the insulators. Heat is then transferred at a
lower rate compared to metal which is good conductor of heat. Generally, non-metals are poor heat conductors
because there is only lattice conduction for non-metal.
Temperature The change of temperature per unit distance across two points on the material.
𝑑𝜃 (𝜃 − ∆𝜃) − 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
gradient, − 𝑑𝑥 Temperature gradient = lim =−
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Rate of heat transfer The rate of heat flow through a cross sectional area perpendicularly to the flow of heat is directly proportional to
𝑑𝑄 i. The cross sectional area, A
𝑑𝑡 The larger the cross sectional area, the greater the rate of heat flow.
(Fourier’s Law) 𝑑𝜃
ii. Temperature gradient, − 𝑑𝑥
The greater the magnitude of temperature gradient, the greater the rate of heat flow.
and depends on the material of the solid.
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
∝ −𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
∴ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Where k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
Thermal conductivity The negative rate of heat flow per unit area perpendicular to the flow per unit temperature gradient.
Steady state A condition when temperatures at all points have become constant and will not change with time.
The temperature at all points are constants, however, they are not necessarily equal to each other.
Thermal resistance The heat property of an object to resist a heat flow.
𝑙
𝑅𝜃 =
𝑘𝐴

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 𝑑𝑄 ∆𝜃
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝜃
Rate of heat flow is similar to rate of electric charge flow
𝑑𝑄𝑐 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉
𝐼= = 𝜎𝐴 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑙 𝑅
Analogous quantities Heat Electricity
for heat and Thermal conductivity, 𝑘 Electrical conductivity, 𝜎
electricity Heat, 𝑄 Charge, 𝑄𝑐
Temperature, 𝜃 Electric potential, 𝑉
Temperature difference, ∆𝜃 Potential difference, 𝑉
Thermal resistance, 𝑅𝜃 Electrical resistance, 𝑅
𝑑𝑄
Rate of heat flow, 𝑑𝑡 Rate of electric charge flow, 𝐼
Thermal conduction Electrical conduction
11.2 Convection A process of heat transfer involving the movement of the mass of the medium, usually liquid or gas, itself from
one place to another.
There are two types of convection
a) natural convection (自然发生的)
b) forced convection (人为的)
Comparison between conduction and convection
Conduction Convection
Involves molecules moving only over small distances Involves the movement of large numbers of molecules
about their equilibrium position and electrons over large distances.
colliding with one another and other molecules.
Radiation A process of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves such as visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves and
microwaves.
It would occur in vacuum. All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves due to randomly
oscillating constituent atoms at all temperatures known as radiant energy. For objects with temperature above 0 K,
the radiation emitted is called thermal radiation which consists of a combination of wavelengths. The higher
temperature of the object, the shorter the wavelength of thermal radiation and the higher the rate of radiation
energy emitted by the object. When thermal radiation is directed at a surface, some of the radiation is absorbed
and some is reflected. For some material, the radiation may be transmitted right through the material.
At 800 °C, a body emits enough visible radiation to be self-luminous and appears “red hot”.

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 At 3000 °C, a body emits enough visible light to be “white hot”.
Rate of radiation Rate of radiation energy from an object is directly proportional to
𝑑𝑄 i. The surface area, A
energy 𝑑𝑡
ii. The forth power of absolute temperature, T 4
iii. Nature of surface, emissivity=e
Rate of radiation energy from an object is given by
𝑑𝑄
= σeAT4 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 σ is Stefan − Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10−8
𝑑𝑡
Blackbody An ideal radiator, having emissivity, e=1 which is also an ideal absorber for radiation.
Ideal reflector An ideal reflector, having emissivity, e=0 which absorbs no radiation, is also a very ineffective radiator.

Prepared by Chia En Ooi L6F1/2018

Last edited on 15/10/2018