Tutorial 1

1. Petrophysicist is a rock property and fluid type identifier which all the petrophysical
data derived from indirect measurement. Thus, Petrophysicist also involved with other
disciplines which are resource assessment, geology, reservoir engineering, production
technology drilling, production operations and geophysics. Basic information that usually being
interpreted are lithology, logging, fluid type, well completion and geomechanics.

2. Drill pipe conveyed logging (TLC/PCL) is logging that used in wells which the logging
tools cannot be located into the well by using a logging cable because of the borehole
conditions. So, to overcome this problem, normal wireline logging tools are attached to the drill
pipe by applying side-entry sub and positioned into the well. For coiled tubing conveyed
logging, there are two methods used which are SIMPHOR-type system and coiled tubing with
standard logging cable inside it. SIMPHOR-type system operates by moving the logging tools
over the zone of interest by the drill string. For Slick line (piano wire) conveyed logging, it is
used to run tools into wellbore for several purposes such as low and raise the down hole tools
used to the appropriate depth of the drilled well.

3. Invasion is a process which drilling mud being forced through the rock because of
different pressure. Drilling mud that is made up with solid and ions will dissolve in water and
displaced water formation, then followed by mixing with water that is not being displaced. This
called invasion diameter and disturbed zone called invaded zone. Flushed zone is a zone where
maximum displacement and mixing of water occur. Transition zone is a zone which there is a
balance between maximum displacement and no invasion. Mud cake formed during the
invasion process that collects on the borehole wall.

 Based on the resistivity profile below, the highest resistivity is at flushed zone,
at medium depth of wellbore. It can be written as Rxo (Flushed zone)> Ri (Invaded
zone)> Ro (uninvaded zone). The closer the distance to the borehole, the higher the
resistivity as high resistivity shows that the elements inside the borehole are non-
conductivity which is hydrocarbon. At Ri, the resistivity start to decrease as at invaded
zone, there are water displacement occurs so as water is a conductor element then the
resistivity are low. At Ro, since the radius already out from the borehole, there are low
possibility about the existence of hydrocarbon. So, the resistivity decrease as the zone
only contains water that has good conductivity.
  For salty mud, hydrocarbon zone, it is opposite of fresh mud, salt water zone
resistivity diagram. At shallow depth of the borehole, resistivity is low at flushed zone.
As it enter uninvaded zone which is at the depth zone, the resistivity increase because
the formation of fresh water are higher than formation of salt water. Based on resistivity
profile, formation of salt water started to decrease when it enter the flushed zone.

4. Annulus is a zone that formed when a casing being placed inside the borehole drilled. It is a
zone where cementing process will took place in order to avoid the borehole wall from
collapse. Besides that, it also is the main flow which drill mud circulated to remove cuttings
from drilling operation.

5. Potassium, thorium and uranium

6. Shale Potential operates by locating the SP electrode inside the borehole. It will
produce DC current that will detect the bed formation whether there are shale or not under the
subsurface. SP electrode connected to the ground electrode which will give out the reading that
will confirm if the subsurface has shale bed. For liquid junction potential, it occurs when two
solutions of different concentration make contact between each other. Based on the principle
of diffusion, high concentration solution is easier to diffuse into the solution that has low
concentration, that will formed negative charge to the high concentration solution and dilute
concentration become positively charged thus formed junction. Potential difference formed
because of the ionic transfer.

7. Presence of gas can be detected by combination of data from Neutron and density log
by determining the porosity of the rock. Low reading data from Neutron log will determine the
high porosity of the rock since pore space contains high hydrogen concentration. For density
log, it the same concept with neutron log since it is to determine the porosity of rock. When log
data obtain low neutron log reading and high density log, it means there are presence of gas
since rock that has pore may have high concentration of hydrogen.

8. SP log is known for its extremely useful quick look indicator of bed permeability. It is
to the extent that it can associate the size of SP curve deflection with the degree of permeability.
SP log is quite sensitive as a small deflection will indicates that the bed has a reasonable
permeability. Unlike the other parameters which can’t associate large permeability with large
deflection of curve, however salinity can gives a better impact. The bigger difference in salinity
between formation fluids and mud filtrate, bigger deflection will form in the SP curve.

9. The factors that govern the amplitude or reading of SP deflection opposite the
permeable bed, includes:
i) The thickness of the permeable bed, h.
ii) The true resistivity of the permeable bed, Rt.
iii) The diameter of the invaded zone, di.
iv) The resistivity of the invaded zone, RXO.
v) The resistivity of the bounding formations.
vi) The resistivity of the mud, Rm.
 vii) The diameter of the borehole, dh.
viii) The relative salinities of the mud filtrate and the formation fluids

This is because the size of the deflection and the change in the SP curve between beds upon
the distribution of the current flux and the potential drops taking place in each part of the
formation.

10. Three principal uses of these waveform data:

i) Compressional Wave:
This wave travels from transmitter to the formation as a fluid pressure wave,
refracted at the borehole wall and travels within the formation at compressional
wave velocity of the formation, and back to the receiver as a fluid pressure
wave.

ii) Shear Wave:

This wave travels from transmitter to the formation as a fluid pressure wave,
and within the formation at the shear wave velocity of the formation, and back
to the receiver as a fluid pressure wave.

iii) Stoneley Wave:

A large amplitude wave that travels from the transmitter to receiver with a
velocity less than that of the compressional wave in the borehole fluid (mud
wave).

11. The porosity value can be computed, when the velocity or time transit of the rock
matrix and borehole fluids are known. The relationship of two factors can be expressed in the
Wyllie time-average equation, where:

The formation of porosity can be estimated by using the neutron and density logs
simultaneously. However, if there any formation of gas in the pore spaces, instead of water and
oil, these two porosity logs will separate and form a crossover, or called as gas crossover.

A neutron tool response is sensitive to the number of hydrogen atoms in the formation.
When a gas-filled formation is logged, and has lower number of hydrogen content than water-
filled formation (calibrated value) of the same porosity. This result in a lower porosity estimate
than the true porosity.

On the other hand, a density tool measures the total number of formation electrons.
Therefore, when a gas-filled formation is logged, it will result in a porosity estimate is higher
than the true porosity.

12. If gas is present, its low density will produce an apparent increase in porosity reading.

In gas zone, correction has to be made as, the presence of gas in the formation can
overestimate the porosities. The density of gasses is very low (approximately 0.0001 g/cm3)
 compared to aqueous fluids. If the formation is gas bearing, a significant amount of gas is
always left in the invaded zone. This gas will reduce the mean fluid density of the invaded zone,
and will cause overestimations of the porosity.

While, in oil zone, the density of oil (approximately 0.7 g/cm3) is less than that of
aqueous fluids. However the presence of oil-bearing formations rarely causes problems in
porosity calculation because both the oil and water in the invaded zone, which the tool
measures, is replaced by mud filtrate.

13. The use of resistivity-log data can be another method of determining OWC and GWC
depth in a wellbore. The resistivity logs are used to calculate Sw, and where there is a significant
decrease in the Sw values (decreasing from near 100% PV) that depth is defined as the fluid-
contact depth. Also, the invasion profile of the shallow- vs. deeper-reading resistivity tools can
be used to help define the depth interval in which the fluid contact occurs. This is true of either
WBM- or OBM-drilled wells.

Also in WBM-drilled wells, tar intervals can be defined by those depths over which
the shallow- and deep-reading resistivity tools show a lack of oil-saturation change, which
indicates that the hydrocarbons in the pore space are too viscous to be displaced by the WBM
filtrate. If the reservoir is not too shaly, neutron logs can be a way to identify gas-bearing
intervals. A GOC, or a GWC, can be defined at the depth at which the neutron porosity
significantly decreases and the density and sonic porosities slightly increase as one moves up
through the reservoir interval.

14.

Type of coring Conventional Coring Sidewall Coring

Cost and Time Costly and time consuming Cheaper than conventional
coring and can be taken only in
hours.
Size of Sampling A solid cylinder of rock about 4-5 A core will be about 1 inch in
inches in diameter, and a single diameter and 1-2 inches long
core will be about 30 feet long
Characteristics A better coring for heterogeneous Less representative for
formation of rocks heterogeneous formation of
rock
Use core bit, which coated with Use two(2) types of tool:
small, sharp diamond that can  Rotary sidewall, or
grind through the hardest rock  Percussion