SAGARMATHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Tribhuwan University)

sanepa, Lalitpur

REPORT ON
GEOLOGY -I FIELD VISIT

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

1) Santosh Basnet(038) BASANT DEVKOTA

2) Sudip Regmi(039)
3) Sujan Dangi (040)
4) Sunil Pant (041)
5) Suraj Sedai(042)
6) Surendra Das(043)

CONTENTS
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….1
2. Location………………………………………………………………………………..2
3. Objectives of field study…………………………………………………………3
4. Methodology……………………………………………………………………...….4
5. Instrument used …………………………………………………………………..5
6. Study and identification of rocks and minerals………………….……7
7. Study of geological structures………………………………………….…....21
8. Handling of Geological structures………………………………………….26
9. Attitude measurement of planer features………………………………29
10.Study of river channel morphology………………………………………..31
11. Features developed by activities of physical agents…………...…..33
12.Importance in civil engineering……………………………………….…….35
13.Conclusion………………………………………………………….…….…….........36

PREFECE
Nepal is a mountainous country. Since the Himalayan range is a result of collision of
Tibetan and Indian plates, the zone is the most active tectonic zone. The area is widely
known for its complex structural deformation. Due to this, Nepal is suffering from different
types of geo-hazards and instabilities. The rapid construction of infrastructure such as
roads, irrigation, cannels and dams, tunnels, without due relating geology and engineering
may cause the failure of such infrastructures. So, civil engineering students must have the
knowledge of geology for planning, investigating and constructing.

We have completed this report, which entitled “GEOLOGICAL FIELD TRIP” which is based
on practical knowledge on geology. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr.
Basanta Devkota for his guidance and invaluable suggestions.

Finally, we are thankful for the geological field trip conducted under Institute of
engineering by Sagarmatha Engineering College.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For Civil Engineering students, the geological field trip had made aware about different aspects
of geography. Being the students of Civil Engineering, we are carrying on our report entitled
“Geological field trip.” This actually uplifts the creativity of the students and helps to gain some
practical knowledge on the matter on field. It’s great pleasure to express our sincere gratitude
to our respected teacher Mr. Basanta Devkota, for his enthusiastic support, guidance and
confidence towards us. His valuable suggestions helped greatly on gaining knowledge and
completing the report successfully. We are grateful for his remarkable suggestions and
encouragements and for his excellent guidance and helping us to focus our aims towards the
proper direction on achieving the proper knowledge on geography.

Finally we are grateful of having such a cooperative company .Every attempt has been made to
make this report as informative, compact, and to the point as far as possible. Lastly, we would
like to appreciate for any suggestions and comments regarding to the report that may be
helpful to raise our confidence and knowledge.

INTRODUCTION
 Geology is the study of the earth, its history, its exterior as well as interior, and the
processes that act upon it. Geology is an important way of understanding the world around us,
and it enables scientists and geologists to predict how our planet behaves. So, study of geology
is carried out to try to understand the natural hazards and forecast potential geologic events,
such as volcanic eruptions or earthquakes.

The geological field visit to Malekhu was organized by the Department of Geology
under Institute Of Engineering, in order to accustom knowledge about the geological structures
their engineering significance and distribution of different rocks, soil types and study of mass
movement activities. The time duration being two days 3rd Feb and 4th Feb was spent in
geological field study in Malekhu, 75 Km. North West from Kathmandu.

LOCATION:
 The study area lies in Bagmati Zone, 75 km northwest from Kathmandu valley along
Prithvi Highway. The study area, a part of Lesser Himalaya lies in Central Nepal and
covers the Malekhu Bazaar & the areas lying in the vicinity of Malekhu. Geographically it
extends between 270 45′ 00” to 270 52′ 30” north of latitude and 840 47′ 30” to 840 52′
30” east of longitude. It extends from ‘Chalise’ in the east to ‘Majhuwatar’ in the west &
‘Kalidaha’ in the north to ‘Chhepan’ in the south .The site was selected due to availability
of different rocks, the river morphology, natural topography in small extent of area and
different types of mass movement along the route.

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 OBJECTIVES OF FIELD STUDY
The main objective of the geological field trip was to learn the basic geotechnical
skills in civil engineering regarding river morphology, site investigation, landslide and
petrology. The study aimed at learning general tactics regarding identification of
rocks determining their major chemical contents, determining the various
geotechnical parameters such as attitude of rock bedding and the observation of
various physical features regarding river channel morphology and landslides

The main objectives of our field visit were: -

 Study and identification of Rocks.
 Study and identification of minerals
 Study of different Geological Structure.
 Handling of Geological compass
 Measurement of attitude of Planer features.
 Study of work of Geological work of physical agents
 Study of features developed by physical agents.
 Study of morphology of river channel.

METHODOLOGY
The geological field study of the ascertained area was carried out in the following
ways.

 Sketch of the field topography and rocks.

 Photographs of the field topography and rocks.

 Description of the field topography and rocks.

The study team of students were accompanied and guided by our respected teachers
during the field study. Rock samples were observed, the attitude parameters of
bedding planes were obtained by the use of ‘Brunton Compass’. The idea obtained
was noted and photographs of remarkable spot were taken. A firm blow of hammer
check the strength and rock types (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) were
observed.

4
INSTRUMENTS USED

a. Hammer

A hammer was used to test the hardness of rock in the field. It was performed by striking the
tip of hammer and the surface of the rock whose hardness was to be determined.

5
 b. Brunton Compass

A Brunton Compass was used for the determination of attitude parameters. A compass
works on the simple principle that a freely suspended magnet aligns itself along the magnetic
meridian, when it comes to rest, thus pointing in the north-south relation. The dip direction
and dip amount of the rock beds are possible to measure by the use of Brunton Compass.
While measuring dip, not only angle but direction of dip also should be noted. The sides of the
body of Brunton Compass are placed parallel to the rock bedding for which the attitude is to be
determined. To measure the dip direction, the north of the Brunton Compass was placed in the
same direction of the dip and the bearing pointed by the compass needle was noted, which
gives the dip direction of the rock beds.

A geological hammer was used to determine approximate hardness and strength of rocks and
extraction of the sample.

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 STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rocks are the aggregates of minerals, which form the earth's crust. So rocks are composed
of the minerals. According to the modes of origin, all rocks are categorized into three major
groups. They are: -

1. Igneous rocks or primary rocks

2. Sedimentary rocks of secondary rocks

3. Metamorphic rock

Rocks are identified in the field by the study of its size of grain or texture, shape of grain layers,
color, composition of minerals etc. as they exposed naturally or artificially on the surface of the
earth.

IGNEOUS-ROCKS

These are the rocks formed by the solidification of magma either under neat the surface or
above it: accordingly, they are divided into two groups:

a. Intrusive bodies: which are formed underneath the surface of the earth.

b. Extrusive bodies: which are formed due to consolidation of magma above the surface of the
earth. These are also known as volcanic rocks

On the basis of the depth of formation, intrusive rocks are of two types

Plutonic rocks: which are formed at very depths.

Hypabyssal rocks: which are formed at shallow depths.

Identification of Igneous Rocks in Field

1. Generally igneous rocks are hard, massive, and compact with interlocking grains.

2. Entire absence of fossils.

3. Absence of bedding plane and foliation plane.

4. Random orientation of minerals

5. Usually contain much feldspar

Xenoliths: - The relic of the host rock preserved in the igneous rock is called xenoliths.

7
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentation rocks are formed by the process of sedimentation. Sedimentation is the

process by which the rocks are formed from the deposition and consolidation of sediments or
precipitation of soluble material s in layers. The sediments are formed from the weathering of
old rocks either igneous metamorphic and even sedimentary itself and are then eroded and
transported by geological agents (water, wind, ice). These eroded and transported sediments
are then deposited on the depositional basic and accumulated layer by layer one after another.

According to the modes of transportation of the deposits these rocks are sub -divided into
three types:

i. Mechanically deposited (clastic rock)

ii. Chemically and organically formed (non-clastic rock)

Identification of Sedimentary Rock in Field

1. Generally, soft, stratified i.e. characteristically bedded.

2. Fossils common

3. Statification, lamination, cross bedding. Ripple marks, mud-marks etc. are the usual

structures.

4. No effect on the enclosing or the top and bottom rocks.

5. Quartz, clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, and hematite are the common minerals. E.g.: -

calcite, limestone, magnetite, sandstone, shale, etc.

8
METAMORPHIC ROCK

These are formed by the alternation of pre-existing rocks by the action of temperature,
pressure added by sub-terrain fluids (magnetic or non-magnetic) Metamorphism.

It is a natural process whereby the pre-existing rocks are altered or modified under the
influence of pressure, temperature and the chemical solution. Under the influence of those
factors, the rocks are changed into new rocks physically and chemically. In metamorphic rocks
minerals are arranged in preferred orientation.

Types of metamorphism are:

 Dynamic metamorphism
 Thermal metamorphism
 Dynamo thermal metamorphism

Identification of Metamorphic rock in field

1. Generally hard, interlocking grains and bedded (if derived from stratified rocks)

2. Foliated, gneissose, schistose, granular lose, slaty etc. are the common structure.

3. Fossils are rarely preserved in rocks of sedimentary origin except slate.

5. Common minerals are andalusite, sillimanite, cyanite, cordierite, collastnite, garnet, graphite
etc. E.g.: - slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, amphibolites etc.

9
 ROCK CLEAVAGE:
The tendency to split rock along a certain direction is known as rock cleavage. Some of the
types of rock cleavage are discussed below.

1. Slatty cleavage:
 Have plane and smooth surface.
 Rock split along parallel to short surface.
 E.g. Slate, phyllite, etc.

Fig. Slatty cleavage

2. Schistosity cleavage:
 Have wavy and undulation surface.
 Rock split along such undulation surface.
 E.g. Schist

Fig. Schistosity Cleavage

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 3. Gneissosity:

 Have alternate layer of dark and light colored minerals.

 Rock split along parallel to such layer.
 E.g. Gneiss

(a) Fig. Banded Gneiss (b) Augen Gneiss

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Identification of Rocks:
LOCATION: - 1
Sample 1

Properties:-
 Colour :- Milky white
 Texture :- Crystalline
 Gran size :- Medium to Coarse
 Structure/cleavage :- Bedding/Slatty
 Specific gravity :-High
 Acid test/hammer scratch test :- Sample scratched by hammer
 Minerals composition :- calcite, dolomite
 Rock type :- Sedimentary rock
 Rock name :- Lime stone
 Engineering properties :-
 Blast ability : High
 Strength : High
 Drill ability : High
 Uses :- Aggregate, raw material for cement
 Geological formation unit :- Malekhu Limestone

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LOCATION: - 2
Sample 2

Properties:-

 Colour :- Grey

 Texture :- Non-crystalline

 Gran size :- Fine

 Structure/cleavage :- Foliation/Slatty

 Specific gravity :- Low

 Acid test/hammer scratch test :-

 Minerals composition :- Fellispar, mica, clay minerals, cerisyte

 Rock type :- Metamorphic

 Rock name :- Slate

 Engineering properties :-

 Blast ability : Low

 Strength : Low

 Drill ability : High

 Uses :- Roof top, filling

 Geological formation unit :- Benighat slate

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LOCATION:-3

Sample:-3

Properties:-
 Colour :- Light Grey
 Texture :- Non-Crystalline
 Gran size :- Fine
 Structure/cleavage :- Foliation/ Slatty cleavage
 Specific gravity :-low
 Acid test/hammer scratch test :-
 Minerals composition :- serpentine, sericite, mica, clay mineral
 Rock type :- Metamorphic
 Identification :- Phyllite
 Engineering properties :-
 Blast ability : Low
 Strength : low
 Drill ability : High
 Uses: - Construction materials, filling
 Geological formation unit: - Robang Formation

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 LOCATION:-4

Sample : 4

Properties:-

 Colour :- Milky White

 Texture :- Crystalline

 Gran size :- Fine to Medium

 Structure/cleavage :- Foliation

 Specific gravity :- High

 Acid test/hammer scratch test: - It scratches the hammer.

 Minerals composition: - Quartz (more than 95%)

 Rock type :- Metamorphic

 Rock name :- Quartzite

 Engineering properties :-

 Blast ability : High

 Strength : High

 Drill ability : Low

 Uses :- Construction materials, aggregate

 Geological formation unit :- Dunga-quartzite

16

LOCATION:-8
 Sample:- 5

Properties:-

 Colour :- white

 Texture :- Crystalline

 Gran size :- Coarse

 Structure/cleavage :- Random orientation of minerals and self-interlocked

 Specific gravity :- High

 Acid test/hammer scratch test :-

 Minerals composition :- Biotite, muscovite, plagioclase(milky white), quartz(dirty white)

 Rock type :- Igneous

 Identification :- Granite

 Engineering properties :-

 Blast ability : High

 Strength : High

 Drill ability : Low

 Uses :- Construction of water dams

 Geological formation unit :- Boulder, agra-granite

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LOCATION: - 11
Sample:-6

Properties:-
 Colour:- alternate dark and white band
 Texture :- Crystalline
 Structure/cleavage :- Foliation/ Gneissosity
 Specific gravity :-high
 Acid test/hammer scratch test :-
 Minerals composition :- Quartz, fellspar, mica
 Rock type :- Metamorphic
 Identification :- Gneiss
 Engineering properties :-
 Blast ability : high
 Strength : high
 Drill ability : low
 Uses :- Construction materials

18

Location:7
Sample: - 7

Properties:-

 Colour :- White

 Texture :- Crystalline

 Structure/cleavage :- Preferred orientation of mineral/ foliation

 Specific gravity :- High

 Acid test/hammer scratch test: - Sample is scratched by hammer

 Minerals composition: - Calcite

 Rock type :- Metamorphic

 Rock name :- Marble

 Blast ability : High

 Strength : High

 Drill ability : High

 Uses :- Construction materials, aggregate, cement formation

 Geological formation unit :- vaisedovan marble

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LOCATION: -8
Sample: - 8

Properties:-

 Colour: - Bluish grey

 Texture: - Crystalline

 Structure/cleavage: - Foliation-Schistosity

 Specific gravity: - low

 Acid test/hammer scratch test: -

 Minerals composition: - chlorite, garnate, biotite etc.

 Rock type:- Metamorphic

 Rock name :- schist

 Engineering properties :-

 Blast ability : low

 Strength : low
 Drill ability : high

 Uses :- filling

 Geological formation unit: - Raduwa formation

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 STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

The study area Malekhu has great importance from the engineering point of view. This area
being in the lesser Himalayan at an average height of 2200m to 3300m from the mean sea level
has great possibilities of constructing dams and reservoirs. Such as example of the construction
is Kulekhani hydro power station.

The other having engineering significant is that the area is bounded by M.B.T. differentiating it
from the Siwalik region and M.B.T. differencing if from the higher Himalayas. The earth quake
in this region is bit lower than that of Siwalik and quaternary basin containing H.F.T, M.F.T.
having large number of faults thereby has high chance of earthquake. As M.B.T. is less active
than H.F.T./M.F.T, the quake in this region is more prominent. The weak the point of areas is
i.e. composes of low graded metamorphic rocks and phyllite are predominant. The phyllite has
low bearing capacity and be easily weathered, there by having gentle slope.

The structural features preserved in the rock during information of rock or after formation of
rock or after formation of rock is called geological structures, fold, faults, joints etc. are the
examples of geological structures.

Continuous deformation structures: These are the products of plastic and viscoplastic
deformations e.g.: - folds, veins, foliation, cleavage etc.

Discontinuous deformation structures: - These are the product of brittle deformation

e.g.: - joints, faults etc.

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BEDDING

Beds refer to the layers of sedimentary rock that possess almost planner top and bottom
surface. Beddings are planner top and bottom surface of beds. These are planes of weakness.

In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic formation or stratigraphic rock

series marked by well-defined divisional planes (bedding planes) separating it from layers
above and below. A bed is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit, usually ranging in thickness from
a centimeter to several meters and distinguishable from beds above and below it. Beds can be
differentiated in various ways, including rock or mineral type and particle size. The term is
generally applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for volcanic flows or ash layers.

In a quarry, bedding is a term used for a structure occurring in granite and similar
massive rocks that allows them to split in well-defined planes horizontally or parallel to the
land surface.

GRADED BEDDING

In geology, a graded bed is one characterized by a systematic change in grain or clast size from
the base of the bed to the top. Most commonly this takes the form of normal grading, with
coarser sediments at the base, which grade upward into progressively finer ones. Normally
graded beds generally represent depositional environments which decrease in transport
energy as time passes, but also form during rapid depositional events. They are perhaps best
represented in turbidite strata, where they indicate a sudden strong current that deposits
heavy, coarse sediments first, with finer ones following as the current weakens. They can also
form in terrestrial stream deposits.
In reverse or inverse grading the bed coarsens upwards. This type of grading is relatively
uncommon but is characteristic of sediments deposited by grain flow and debris flow. It is also
observed in eolian ripples. These deposition processes are examples of granular convection.

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 FOLD

Any type of undulations, bending and curvatures developed in the rocks due to the action
of stresses in the geological past and preserved in the rocks are known as folds. Folds are
the results of plastic and visco-plastic deformation in the geological past preserved in the
rocks. Folds are best displayed by stratified formations such as sedimentary or volcanic
rocks or their metamorphic equivalents. But any layered or foliated rock, such as gabbro or
granite, gneiss, may show folds. Some folds are a few miles across. The width of other is to
be measured in feet or inches or even fractions of an inch. Folds of continental proportions
are hundreds of miles wide.

Recognition of folds in the field

The easiest and simplest way is the visual inspection. If we find any geological structure
according to the normal definition of a fold then it can be identified as fold.

1. The repetition & omission of beds also indicates the presence of fold.
2. By plotting the attitudes of beds in map
3. When the types of folds are to be recognized on the basis of the age consideration of the
beds, the top and bottom of beds are determined by taking into account the nature, and
form of the features occurring on the beds itself. Accordingly some types of folds have been
inferred.

In the field trip the fold structure is observed at location 12 which is about 300m downstream
from the old broken bridge of the Malekhu bazaar. The structure is observed having limb
intended downward i.e. anticline fold. The fold is unequally divided by the inclined plane so
that it is called as the asymmetrical anticline fold.

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FAULT

Faults are well- defined cracks along which the rock- masses on either side have relative
displacement along the fracture plane or they are the ruptures in which the opposite blocks
moved past each other. The displacement is parallel to the fracture plane. The attitude of
faults is defined in terms of their strike and dip. The strike and dip of fault are measured in
the same way as they are for bedding.

To recognize the faults in the field, a number of criteria are used. The faults may be directly
seen in the field, particularly in artificial exposes such as river-cuttings, road Cuttings, etc. In
field the faults may be recognized as

i. Variation in the behavior of the ground

ii. Evidences of the past deformation

iii. Change in bearing capacity of the materials

iv. Deviation in stress path

v. Variation in the hydraulic behavior

At chainage 330m upstream from Malekhu old bridge along left bank fault zone was
observed. In this zone, the powder form and the angular shaped yellow colored small
rock pieces are found. These forms are formed due to the displacement of the rock
after their raptures or fractures with rubbing each other’s surface. The angular
shaped rock pieces are termed as Breccia and the powdered form is termed as the
fault gauge. In this zone there is also the different elevation of the different rock
layers. Breccia forms due to the displacement that occurs between a highly strong
rock and comparatively lesser strong. Gause are formed due to rubbing of strong rock
and lesser strong block.

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JOINTS

Cracks or fracture of structure without any displacement is known as joint. They are present
in the most consolidated rocks of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary origin. Joints are
generally recognized in the field as faults without relative displacement. Their dimension
varies within wide limits. Sometimes they are very short in their extension, but in certain
cases they are found to extend for miles together.

Joints commonly control the drainage pattern of an area. They also determine the shape of
coastlines, because they provide a passage, whereby water may penetrate deeply into rock
mass thus allowing weathering to take place.

THRUST

Low angle reverse fault is known as thrust. In this fault structure hanging wall move
upward with respect to the foot wall. The inclination of the fault structure is about 10-30
degrees.

e.g.: - Mahabharata thrust separates Nuwakot complex and Kathmandu complex.

UNCONFORMITY

Surface of erosional and depositional gap within a sequence of strata is called

unconformity. These are usually the weak contact where the failure starts to generate. It
created permeability contrast thus natural springs or discharge can occur in such places.

At Chainage 100m from suspension bridge above Trishuli River along Dhading Besi old road
(location 2) unconformity was seen. Among series of rock strata soil and stone deposition
could be seen which established an unconformity at that place. In this location there are
the deposition of alluvial soil and the hard rocks separated by a line. This show that there is
the present of unconformity. The unconformity define the time gap between the
formations of two rocks. In the location the folliated metamorphic rocks are formed by the
process of metamorphism and deposition, but the alluvial soil deposited by the erosion of
mass from higher altitude where the newly formed rocks are located. The presence of these
two types of rock describe the time gap between their formations.

25
 HANDALING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS AND MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE OF
PLANAR FEATURES
Compass is used for the measurement of dip direction and dip amount of bedding plane, folds,
joints etc.

Types of compass:

1. Brunton compass:-
 It is a type of precision compass, also known as Brunton pocket transit.
 Advanced form of Clinometer
 It utilizes magnetic induction damping rather than fluid to dap needle.
 Used widely by those needing to make accurate degree and angle measurements
in the field
 Used primarily by geologists, but archeologist, environmental engineers and
surveyors also make use of Brunton’s capabilities

Fig. Brunton compass

Handling of Brunton compass:-

While measuring dip, not only angle but direction of dip also should be noted. The sides
of the body of Brunton compass are placed parallel to the rock bedding for which the attitude
is to be determined. To measure the dip direction, the north of the Brunton compass is placed
in the same direction of the dip and the bearing pointed by the compass needle is noted, which
gives the dip direction of the rock beds.

26
2. Clar compass:-
 Take accurate and simultaneous measurements of dip angle and dip amount and
dip azimuth in a single operation
 Ideal for use in geological, geophysical, mining and tectonic applications

Fig. Clar compass

3. Digital compass:-
 Digital compass may refer to magnetometer, such as a MEMS magnetometer in
hand held devices.
 Compatible with computers, iPhone, mobiles, etc. via Bluetooth
 Can be used by common people for finding directions
 3 axis digital compasses are featured with low field magnetic sensing multi-chip
module that provides up to 1 to 2 degree heading accuracy.

Fig. Digital compass

27
4. Clinometer compass:-
 It is a primitive compass for measuring angles of slope (or tilt), elevation or
depression of an object with respect to gravity.
 Also known as tilt meter, tilt indicator, slope alert, slope gauge, gradient meter,
etc.
 It is less accurate as its needle swings more.

Fig. Clinometer compass

28
ATTITUDES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike of a stratum
or planar feature is a line representing the intersection of that feature with the horizontal.
Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass and clinometers or combination
known as a Brunton compass.

Dip direction:

It is the direction of the rock strata towards which it dips i.e. inclined and it always lies at right
angle to the strike. Strike is the direction on sloping surface in which a horizontal line can be
drawn.

Dip amount:

It is the maximum angle of inclination of the rock strata with the horizontal and is measured in
vertical plane.

MEASUREMENT

Location

The readings were taken at the left bank of Malekhu khola about 400 m upstream from the
broken bridge of Malekhu bazaar.

29
 MEASURED DATA

The measurement of the planner features was done at the Bank of Malekhu khola. The
following readings were taken with the help of the Brunton Compass. Readings for the dip
amount and dip direction taken in the field:

S.N. Dip direction Dip amount Attitude Remarks

1 191 72 191/72 B.P
2 271 65 271/65 J.P
3 256 70 256/70 J.P
4 262 69 262/69 J.P
5 171 64 171/64 B.P
6 274 60 274/60 J.P
7 260 63 260/63 J.P
8 176 34 185/80 B.P
9 251 72 269/31 J.P
10 254 78 184/79 J.P
11 256 83 256/83 J.P
12 177 82 177/82 B.P
13 181 80 181/80 B.P
14 187 81 187/81 B.P
15 264 78 264/78 J.P
16 174 75 174/75 B.P
17 264 87 264/87 J.P
18 175 88 175/88 B.P
19 171 88 171/88 B.P
20 269 73 269/73 J.P
21 170 86 170/86 B.P
22 276 66 276/66 J.P
23 271 65 27165 J.P
24 275 62 275/62 J.P
25 168 80 168/80 B.P
26 245 75 245/75 B.P
27 184 81 184/81 J.P
28 271 72 271/72 B.P
29 264 64 264/64 J.P
30 259 70 259/70 J.P
31 256 83 256/83 J.P
32 180 82 180/82 B.P
33 184 79 184/79 B.P
34 175 86 175/86 B.P
35 264 62 264/62 J.P
36 256 71 256/71 J.P
37 256 62 256/62 J.P
38 184 82 184/82 B.P
39 276 66 276/66 J.P
40 273 73 273/73 J.B
41 178 64 178/64 B.P
42 245 80 245/80 J.P

INDEX:-
B.P=Bedding Plane
J.P=Joint Plane
F.P=Foliation Plane

STUDY OF RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY

River is a mass of water that flows along a path high to low gradient carrying different
materials and responsible for different geological actions, such as erosion, transportation and
deposition of sediments. The route along which river flows is called river valley. In engineering
practice, many structures, such as dam, bridge, reservoir etc. are constructed in the river
channels. Besides construction of infrastructures, construction materials are also barrowed
from the river territory.

TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL

Straight River

The river channel in which water is flowing in the same direction on straight path is straight
river channel. The prefect straight channel is rare and if present, the length will not exceed ten
times its width. The straight channel is formed in the youth stage and at the head region of the
river. The gradient of the river is high, causing the flow of velocity to be high. Since the energy
level of such river is high, the rate of erosion is intensely higher than the deposition of the
sediments. Deep scouring along the river path is higher than the side cutting. Straight rivers are
dominantly occurred in the Higher Himalayan region.

Meandering River

River channel in which course of river bends towards different directions within small area is
known as meandering river channel. This type of river flows along zigzag path. The gradient of
the river type is so moderate that the river strikes on one end and return to other direction
making zigzag path. The channel is characterized by low velocity, soft rock type and is formed
at the matured stage of the river.

Meandering channel maintains a fairly steady width because erosion and widening of the
channel on one side is balanced by deposition and narrowing on the other.

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Braided River

In this type of river, a single river path is diverted into several paths and may converse to single
later. The topography of the area is characterized by low relief. The gradient of the river path is
so low and the river area is widened and flow with lower velocity. In the Terai area the velocity
of water in the river channel is low and waters flows from different small channels. Since the
energy level of such river is low, the deposition rate of sediments is intensely higher than the
rate of erosion. Thick successions of sediments go on depositing along the river path and river
diverts to other subparts.

Location:

Right bank of the Trishuli River at the height of sixty meter above the old road from
Malekhu to Dhading Besi three hundred meter upstream of suspension bridge, Conference of
Thopal Khola and Trishuli River.

River channel morphology of Trishuli River and Thopal khola

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 FEATURES DEVELOPED BY THE RIVER CHANNEL

By Water
Erosion bank:
The bank of the river, which is weaker part, has the tendency to get eroded. This is the
unstable bank of the river.
Deposition bank:
The bank on which deposition process takes place is called deposition bank.

Erosional Activities
 Pot Holes
These have various dimensions, shapes and are the depression, which are excavated in
the riverbeds by extensive erosion. These are formed in soft rock in the cylindrical or bowl
shaped. These are initiated by plucking out of pieces of soft rocks from riverbeds due to the
velocity of water abrasion and further depressions.
 Waterfalls
Due to abrupt change in slope and soft and hard rock an uneven surface is created
known as waterfalls.
 River Valleys
In general, every large river forms its own valley. Valley is the low land surrounded by
hills of various slopes. The erosion processes due to the cutting up of the bed form the valley.
 Rock Island
Depositional Activities
 Escarpment
Riverbanks might have alternate soft and hard rock layers. The soft rocks get eroded
quickly and the hard rock gets eroded later on. As the river continues its flow, the bank falls
suddenly creating a steep slope. This is known as escarpment.
 Alluvial Fans
When rivers with low gradient enter the lower surfaces, the materials brought by the
river get accumulated. Also, the structure is not affected, as erosion doesn't take place as
water of the river flow over the structure.
Alluviums are the sediments eroded by river. They are round to sub-round in shape.
 Flood Plain
The plane or the area covered by the river when the river is in the flooding
condition. At these places, materials from very fine to coarser conditions are found. It is low
laying area adjacent to the river channel.

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 Terrace
The area that the river used in the past to cover during flooding or normal
condition is called river terrace. This is the area has left the channel level to lower level and the
remnants of earlier deposits to form higher level. This area is very suitable for human
settlement. Gravel and sand is found in such places. It is abandon flood plain deposition.
 Ox-bow Lake
It is in the shape of ox-bow and seen in meandering river.

 Delta Deposition
The deltas are the triangular structures formed by the alluvial deposits at the mouth of
the river. Whenever a river with high gradient enters the standing water source the river
deposits some of the material brought by it. The continuous deposition of material results in
the formation of delta.
The number of river channels when meet at the point the flowing water loses the
velocity and therefore no other way then to drop down the balance of its load right at this
point of emergence at the mouth of the river known as the delta deposition.
 Point Bar/Side Bar
It is discontinuous deposition at river bank. These are the remaining of deposits
carried out by the river at the stage of higher discharge. This is also known as side bar.
 Channel Bar
The accumulation of the materials at the mouth of the river is called channel bar.
It is seen in braided river. (terai)

By Glacier
 Moraines
 Drumlins
 Kames
 Eskers
 Kettles
By Wind
 Dunes (sand size)
 Loess (silt size)

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 IMPORTANCE IN ENGINEERING

Geology in civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It
includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and materials; assessing risks posed by
site conditions; designing earthworks and structure foundations; and monitoring site
conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site investigation of soil, rock, fault
distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their
engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction.
Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the
engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans,
property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes,
soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.

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 CONCLUSION

Geology in civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials.
It includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and materials; assessing risks posed by
site conditions; designing earthworks and structure foundations; and monitoring site
conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

The subject GEOLOGY is really one of the most important subjects for CIVIL ENGINEER.
The two day and one night tour to MALEKHU area has proved as a chance to learn the various
geological site, geological events, geological conditions, and the related area to the engineering
point of view .The study was related to the practical as well as theoretical knowledge. In this
tour we saw and felt the major type of rocks in their natural condition and pictured them. The
visit has yielded rich knowledge and the information about the morphology of the MALEKHU
river which merges with the TRISULI River. It has also yielded good knowledge and information
about the landslides and their impact on the local and national economy ant the use of
geological compass to find the attitude of a rock.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site investigation of soil, rock,
fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their
engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction.
Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the
engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans,
property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes,
soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.

In conclusion, we had achieved great knowledge about geology, its formation, importance, and
their uses in our daily life. Moreover, this skills to identify the rocks and minerals have great
scope in the very days to come.

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