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ABSTRACT
Current measures for apparel product development are presented and described. The evolvement
of the types of measurements are examined through the 1990’s. The increase in the interest and
changing emphasis in the area of product development is examined by analyzing the patent
activity from 1971 to present. Published papers on the subject of textile and apparel product
development show an increase throughout the 1990’s. New trends, technologies and business
practices are discussed in relation to the new era of product development competitiveness.
KEY WORDS: Product Development, Benchmarking, CAD, Digital Printing, Body Scanning,
Rapid Prototyping, Whole Garment Knitting, Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Internet
Commerce, Automatic Language Translation
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PD Papers per 2 years Average No of Patents per year
16
80
14
No of Patents
CA D
60 12
10 Rapid Prototyping
40 8
Digital Printing
20 6
4 Body Scanning
0 2
99-2000
71-72
73-74
75-76
77-78
79-80
81-82
83-84
85-86
87-88
89-90
91-92
93-94
95-96
97-98
0 Whole Garment Knitting
00
97
98
99
A utomatic language
-8
-9
-9
-9
20
71
85
91
95
Translation
Years CIM
Year
Figure1: Source: World Textile Database (2001) Figure 3. - Source: U.S.Patents (2001)
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Volume 1, Issue 3, Spring 2001
decide on the next stages for a line or The Merchandising Calendar coordinates the
category. The system constraints may vary activities, assigns responsibility and
depending on the type of product line and establishes the required start and stop dates
firms. Some of the examples for these for each major activity throughout the entire
constraints are vendor reliability, raw production process. A part of a time-phased
material availability, customer constraints multi-season merchandising calendar is
such as personal consumption expenditures, shown in the Figure 4, which comprises 40
consumer wants, marketing channel, product development activities and requires
technology available etc. The in-depth about 35 weeks to accomplish the product
examination of each phase of the development process. This is shown as a
development process has been explained form of a Gantt Chart with the activities to
using six stages with detailed explanations be accomplished in a predetermined time
of each (May-Plumlee & Little, 1998). frame. Each task is allotted a set amount of
time and must be completed in this time
Merchandising Calendar frame. The tasks are spread out over weeks
The new product development giving targets so that the future processes
models give an overview of the major will be able to continue without being
functions involved in the process and the delayed by earlier processes (Schertel, 1998;
detailed activities in the product Bertrand, 1982).
development process but do not discuss the Source: AAMA (1991)
planning and scheduling of these activities.
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Volume 1, Issue 3, Spring 2001
Benchmarking the New Product Product Development Cycle Time
Development Process Product Development Cycle time is
Benchmarking is a formalized the time between designer’s concept and
approach to business improvement and is an when the style is released for production. As
effective tool to facilitate improvements in the number of line seasons increase, and as
all areas of operations, including product the diversity of most product lines expand,
development. It guides the firms to focus on the need to shorten the time required to
areas of greatest weaknesses and allows develop new products becomes more
companies to prioritize their efforts and important.
improvement to be measured. Product development cycle times in
the one to three months range are achievable
Sample Adoption Ratio for fashion garments and in the three to four
Sample Adoption Ratio is the weeks range for basic garments (Strategis,
percentage of product development samples 1994). This product development cycle
that are actually adopted into a line and reduction can allow for more fashion
indicates how efficiently the product seasons, lower product development costs,
development process functions. Because the and significantly increased competitiveness.
cost of product development is typically To achieve this vision, the old vertical
high, optimum process efficiency is structure where one individual or group
becoming increasingly important, passed a product onto the next individual or
particularly in high style environments. group must be replaced by a horizontal
Today, management and structure where local or global teams
merchandisers are reducing the number of develop product in a concurrent approach.
samples by editing the designer's concepts Consumers and retail representatives may
from sketches or CAD illustrations. Sample actually become a part of the product
adoption ratio in 1994 typically measured at development team. It is not only a product
20% to 30% for fashion products and 40% development measure but also a measure of
to 75% for basic and fashion-basic products merchandising excellence. The companies
(Strategis, 1994). Companies that have which focussed on improvement programs
conducted well-focussed improvement have suggested that the cycle time for basic
programs have suggested that the Hit Ratio styles and fashion styles (from concept to
or the number of successful product pre production sample) is 30 to 60 days and
introductions is about 50%, and the 3 months respectively (Sadd, 1996).
percentage of concepts used in the final line
as 30 percent (Sadd, 1996). Manufacturing Cycle
This is defined as the time between
Seasons Per Year receipt of an order and the time when the
Selling seasons are the number of order is shipped to the customer. New
clearly differentiated (by styling, fabric approaches to manufacturing and new
weight, or other factors) selling seasons in a technologies have significantly increased
year. This provides an indication of how productivity and this measurement shows
often new lines are presented. The concept the effectiveness of the production end of an
of buying/selling seasons may be eliminated apparel company's business.
as manufacturers and retailers respond to the
individual demands of each customer. The Sell Through
textile manufacturing process must be Sell Through is the percentage of
modified to support an evolutionary, quick product that is sold at retail at regular price.
turn of new fabric developments. Increasing sell through is critical to increase
Additionally, the retail buying structure profitability and competitiveness. The
must transition to a longer-term dollar marketing and merchandising present the
commitment with the manufacturer. product line to sales and educate the sales
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force to sell the line according to the profit performance is necessary in the entire
merchandising plan. Therefore this is also a product development process.
measure of line presentation success a). GM and GMROI: The
(AAMA, 1996). More fashion-oriented traditional measure of merchandising
products tend to have lower sell through, success in the retail sector is the Gross
typically in the 20-40% range and basic- Margin (GM) which is the difference
oriented products yielded a higher rate of between net sales and cost of goods sold. A
approximately 45-50%. If a product was more sophisticated indicator of
positioned by the retailer as a promotional merchandising success is the GMROI- gross
vehicle, or had a proliferation of stock margin return on inventory; GM dollars
keeping units (SKUs), the sell through divided by average inventory for a specified
performance could plunge to 25% or less. It period. This recognizes expenses associated
was not until e-commerce emerged that with owning inventory in excess of what is
manufacturers could easily access and required to support sales (AAMA, 1996).
review the last season's performance with b). Return on Equity: This is
the consumer (Strategis, 1994). defined as net income divided by total
equity in an organization, expressed as a
Pick and Ship Times percentage. This benchmark provides an
This is defined as the time between indication of a company’s profit
the receipt of a picking ticket in the performance and of how much profit is
distribution center to the time the product is being generated relative to how much equity
shipped. This benchmark indicates the is being used to earn the profit. The keys to
effectiveness of the distribution center. a good Return on Equity are optimized
Distribution center can use bar-coding financial leverage, high sales revenues on
technology, automated product handling, assets, and expense control.
packing and wrapping equipment etc. to c). Return on Net Assets: The
improve the effectiveness. Return on Net Assets is the operating
earnings before interest and taxes divided by
Initial Forecast Accuracy the net assets of an organization, expressed
The line plans can be evaluated as a percentage. Improvements in this
according to the initial forecast accuracy. measure will result from optimization of
That is, wholesale orders placed as a percent Supply Chain Management practices.
of demand projected when a style or d). Investment per Sales Dollar:
merchandise group is accepted in the line. This is defined as the percentage of each
sales dollar that is committed to systems
Forecast Accuracy improvements. A significant boost in
This is the ratio of actual order systems spending will be necessary as
demand to the forecasted order demand apparel companies move towards greater
expressed as a percentage. As the name integration. Spending will move towards
implies it provides a sense of forecasting implementation of new standards, upgrading
accuracy. hard and soft technologies, pre-production
systems and systems maintenance.
Finance
If the structure of the soft goods Order Fulfillment Efficiency
industry evolves as projected, the overall Order Fulfillment Efficiency (OFE)
financial performance of all members of the is the percentage of orders that are filled
chain will improve significantly. However, exactly as placed and defined by the
major investments in time, technology and customer. It is a measure that computes
systems will be required to make this performance from receipt of a customer
happen. To support future investments order until the order is shipped as complete.
required for improved profitability, better OFE depends on an organized replenishment
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system between the manufacturer and the emphasizes replenishment capability over
retailer; for example, the retailer accepts maintaining high levels of inventory, the
back orders within the original cancel date benchmark category is critical, particularly
(AAMA, 1996). This measure is becoming in commodity products.
more critical as fulfillment requirements are
tightened by retailers. Customer Order Processing Time
This is the time between receipt of a
Textile Inventories customer’s order and its entry into an
This is the average amount of yarn organization’s systems for action.
or fabric inventory in-house, expressed in Technology and process optimizations are
days or weeks. As with the textile order the keys to reducing this time to a minimum
cycle time, increasing linkages between
apparel and textile companies are driving a Finished Goods Inventories
decrease in “in house” textile inventory This is defined as the average
levels. amount of finished product inventory in-
house, expressed in days or weeks. The level
Inventory Turns of finished goods inventory should be
Inventory Turns is the ratio of cost adequate to support order fulfillment
of goods sold to the average of the efficiency requirements.
beginning and ending levels of total
inventory. In other words it is the number of Textile Order Cycle
times the manufacturer uses its average raw The Textile Order Cycle is the time
materials, finishes its average work-in- between placement of an order for yarn or
process, and ships its average finished goods fabric and actual receipt of the yarn or
inventory in a period. The measure is fabric. This benchmark is an indication of
usually in units but could be calculated in the degree of integration that has been
dollars (AAMA, 1996). This benchmark achieved through linkages and electronic
indicates how long a company holds an commerce.
average item of inventory before it is sold.
Too long in inventory will result in high SKU Planning Frequency
carrying costs. Too short in inventory can This measure relates to how
mean loss of sales. To improve inventory frequently a firm plans production as a
turns reductions in processing inventory reaction to changes in forecast or in order
levels at all stages of production will be demand. The frequency can be monthly, bi-
necessary. weekly, weekly or daily (AAMA, 1996).
(Strategis,1994)
Apparel Type
Blazers & Jackets 90 6 4.2 94 3 2 8 12
Bras 95 8 7.5 95 7 2 2 10
Dress Shirts 92 2 6 92 7 0 5 4
Dress Slacks 96 6 3.5 99 3 1 7 13
Dresses 90 6 4.2 93 3 2 7 12
Jeans 96 2 6 95 1 0 4 3
Ski Jackets 92 8 3.5 94 7 1 4 10
Socks 93 1 5 98 4 2 8 2.5
Suits 95 6 3.5 99 3 1 10 13
T-shirts 95 1.5 8 95 3 0 3 1
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Therefore, benchmark companies (b). Technology for Virtual Product
are implementing structural and Development
technological improvements designed to The premiere performance of the
reduce this risk and improve customer focus. future will be achieved by companies using
Market research and analysis for benchmark advanced technology to radically “reduce
companies is focused, structured and the need for samples”. Virtual reality
formalized. There is increasing use of technology will illustrate all potential
consumer panel data, focus groups and in- designs showing the silhouette in multiple
store testing. Companies will move towards dimensions. The fabric can be viewed at all
a seasonless operating mode, where perspectives and, if a consumer or retailer
merchandising and product development desires to touch the garment, a fabric swatch
will be done continuously. can be provided.
Until virtual reality technology is
Product Development Technology readily available, the manufacturer's product
Available development teams will review pictorial
Improved product development depictions of basic products with customers
structure is enhanced by use of integrated to
computer systems, where all functions can test the acceptance level of a potential
access and use all data on a real time basis. product. This will require a major paradigm
Increasing use of electronic commerce, shift as most buyers today expect to touch
satellite and optical scanning technologies and see an actual garment before making
will link internal and external functions. their commitment to the product. Several
These advances will allow retailers and uniform manufacturers today are using CAD
consumers to take a proactive role in the technology to illustrate proposed designs to
product development process. Computer the customer and have eliminated the need
aided design, retail sell-through analysis, for almost all samples.
pattern grading, costing, style and trend Tremendous potential has arisen
analysis, order tracking, production with the development of virtual reality
scheduling, distribution logistics, and environments, e-commerce and Internet
integration of pre-production, production business. The combination of computer
and post-production processes have become virtual technologies and database internet
the norm. techniques will provide the next generation
The reader can find surveys of effects not only in industries such as film,
product development technologies from the advertising and games but also the fashion.
following sources (Apparelkey, 2001; It is required to adopt this technology fairly
Bobbin, 1999; Bobbin Buyer’s Guide, 2000; soon in the fashion industry as textile and
& Techexchange, 2001). fashion products have a short market life
and their success is dependent upon fashion
(a). Rapid Prototyping, Body Scanning, styles and price. The fashion, textiles and
Digital Printing and Computer apparel industries are moving towards
Aided Design global retailing or remote shopping with the
Information on a detail study of concept of enabling customers to purchase
these technologies can be obtained from garments by conducting “virtual try-on”
“Rapid Prototyping in the Textile & Apparel using their own body size and shape. At this
Industry: A Pilot Project “ by Istook (2000). stage, the virtual human modeling concept
Figure 3 of this paper shows the evolvement has become very important and research is
of product development technologies that underway to develop 3D systems for online
continue to drive the product development 3D human measurement and reconstruction
process. for virtual try-on for global retailing. The
idea is to capture and analyze 3D body
profiles using an online image measurement
11 JTATM
Volume 1, Issue 3, Spring 2001
and processing system and store them in a ordering cycle times can be achieved. This
SQL server database which can be reduces the need for textile inventories and
interfaced with global retailing (Stylios, provides improved manufacturing
Han, & Wan, 2001; My Virtual Model, responsiveness.
2001; Browzwear, 2001) The entire manufacturing process
can be done via a home through personal
(c). Whole Garment Knits: computers and cyberspace. Engineering will
The new knitting equipment has become web centric, where designs will be
highly advanced design software, which developed, reviewed, and approved
allows patterns to be downloaded to the electronically (Ai SpecNet, 2000; FitNet,
knitting machine directly, and knitting the 2000; Internet Commerce Committee, 2001
whole garment thereby virtually eliminating & WebPDM, 2001).
set-up time. As companies are linked The evolution of the Internet has
through computer networks between provided the means for sharing
designers, purchasers, manufacturers, technical/product information among the
suppliers and off-shore agents, they share personnel involved in the business. With a
common databases of information that are universal, low-cost, high-performance
progressively built throughout the process, network it has transformed how companies
updated on a daily basis, and accessed at any conduct every aspect of their businesses. In
time (Shima Seiki, 2001). order to stay in the pace with this e-
commerce environment the product
(d). Web based information transfer development function has developed rapidly
technology in the recent past. From marketing through
The environments in which textile the World Wide Web to transforming
and apparel companies are operating today purchase orders into customer products it is
are becoming increasingly dynamic, diverse, no doubt that this is an important
complex and hostile. In this environment the requirement.
need for relevant, timely, accurate and cost
effective information is paramount. (e). Automatic Language Translation
Companies today are linking computer Language translation is necessary
networks between designers, purchasers, for businesses to be successful in local
manufacturers, suppliers and offshore markets around the world but translation is
agents. All parties share a common database expensive and can cause significant delays
of information that is progressively built in getting products to markets. Many of the
throughout the process, updated on a daily documents that are translated by businesses
basis, and accessed at any time by all. today are highly repetitive in nature, or are
Companies who provide this facility provide the result of a modification or update to an
a secure transmission and communication of existing document. Therefore a significant
all product specifications in terms of files. part of the translation effort involves
The system provides a facility to build work translating, again and again, the same text
groups so that the communication is more often with minor and subtle variations.
productive between established groups. Companies with large document translation
The most significant change is in the needs, often find that managing the
way retailers, apparel companies and textile translation process is as difficult as actually
suppliers share information. The textile doing the translation itself. As a company's
supplier needs to know as early as possible translation requirements increase, quality
what future requirements may be, so as to and time to market become increasingly
replenish the products that are selling. important. Companies are available today,
Fabric ordering must be timely, and equally which provides translation management
importantly, it must be accurate. With software and consulting services. Several
effective linkages, reductions in textile companies are developing languages based
12 JTATM
Volume 1, Issue 3, Spring 2001
on symbols to communicate the (1999, July) Bobbin, Vol. 40 (11).
specifications for new and existing products
(World of Sewing, 2001; Language Partners, Bobbin Buyer’s Guide (2000):
2001). http://www.bobbin.com.
Strategis (1994):
http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/engdoc/main.html
Stylios, G.K., Han, F. & Wan, T.R. (2001)
A remote on-line 3D human measurement
and reconstruction approach for virtual
wearer trials in global retailing. International
Journal of Clothing Science and
Technology, Vol. 13 (1), 65-66.
Techexchange (2001):
http://www.techexchange.com/vars/sform.ht
ml.
WebPDM (2001):
http://www.gerbertechnology.com
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