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The Benefits of Variable Area Fan Nozzles on Turbofan Engines

Conference Paper · January 2011

DOI: 10.2514/6.2011-226

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 The benefits of variable area fan nozzles on turbofan engines

Ulf Michel ∗
Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany

A variable area nozzle (VAN) on the bypass stream of a turbofan engine may prove to be necessary for
a sufficient surge margin on an ultra-high bypass ratio fan. It is shown that such a nozzle also has benefits
with respect to fuel burn and noise. The fuel burn will reduce typically about 10 % during departure and
approach and likely 2 % in cruise. The noise reduction is in the order of 2 dB for sideline and flyover. Jet
mixing noise in cruise is reduced by typically 1.0 dB, the reduction of broadband shock noise being larger. A
VAN complements the fan rotational speed n with an additional parameter for controlling the working point
on the fan performance map. The smallest nozzle area is needed only for a single flight condition, TOC, while
for all other conditions, the nozzle exit area can be enlarged, yielding lower fan pressure ratios, higher mass
flows and propulsive efficiencies, lower noise emissions and higher flutter margins for the fan. The benefits
are studied for a UHBR fan with a pressure ratio of 1.5 at TOC. The optimal nozzle enlargement for this fan
varies from small values in the range of a few percent during cruise to values larger than 15 % for take-off and
approach, depending on the actual fan performance map.

Nomenclature
Ac area of constant area nozzle pf,opt optimum cruise static pressure
Ãc normalized area of constant area nozzle pf,t total pressure of flight stream
Aj cross section of fully expanded jet pf,TOC static pressure TOC
Av area of variable area nozzle P power added to fan stream
cf sound speed in the flight stream R gas constant
cj sound speed in the jet Tf static temperature of flight stream
E glide ratio (lift-to-drag ratio) Tf,t total temperature of flight stream
Fd drag of aircraft Tj static temperature of jet
Fl lift of aircraft Tj,t total temperature of jet
Ft thrust vc climb rate (vertical speed)
Ft,TOC thrust for TOC vf flight speed
Fw weight of aircraft vj jet speed
ṁ mass flow of fan stream W = P/ṁ, specific power of fan stream
ṁred reduced mass flow of fan stream α = Av /Ac , nozzle opening factor
ṁred,TOC reduced mass flow of fan stream at TOC γ isentropic exponent
m̃ normalized reduced mass flow ηfan isentropic fan efficiency
Mf flight Mach number ηp propulsive efficiency
Mf,TOC flight Mach number for TOC πa = pf /pf,opt ambient pressure ratio
Mj jet Mach number πnzl nozzle pressure ratio
Mj,TOC jet Mach number for TOC πfan fan pressure ratio
n fan rotational speed πf pressure ratio of flight stream
nred reduced fan rotational speed ρf density of flight stream
pc critical pressure in choked nozzle ρj density of jet
pf static pressure of flight stream ψ = Aj /Av opening ratio of fully expanded jet

I. Introduction
fan pressure ratio π of turbofan engines with constant area nozzles is adjusted to the needs of the aircraft by
T HE fan
changing the fan rotational speed n. Lines with constant fan speeds are shown in the performance map of a civil
fan in the lower part of figure 1. When the fan speed is kept constant, the operating point on the fan working line varies
∗ Member AIAA, Technical University of Berlin, Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Technical Acoustics, Müller-Breslau-Str. 11, 10623
Berlin, Germany, work performed while at DLR, German Aerospace Center, Institute of Propulsion Technology, Engine Acoustics Department,
ulf.michel@aeroacoustic.de

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Figure 1. Performance map of a modern civil fan showing pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency versus mass flow rate (non-
dimensionalized by inlet conditions) for lines of constant non-dimensional rotational speed. The fan pressure ratio for optimum efficiency
at 100% fan speed is πfan = 1.75. (Cumpsty1 with permission Cambridge University Press).

with flight Mach number. During a take-off with fan pressure ratios below πfan = 1.8 the fan pressure ratio reaches its
highest value at the begin of the take-off roll. At the same time the mass-flow rate is lowest, as well as the jet speed.
The highly loaded fan operates close to the surge line in the performance map. With increasing airspeed, the operating
point moves to higher mass flows with lower fan pressure ratios as a result of the increasing dynamic pressure of the
flight stream.
The aerodynamic fan efficiency for constant rotational speed n is shown in the upper part of figure 1. It is lowest
on the surge line and rises with increasing mass flow until it reaches a maximum in a single point beyond which it
decreases again. The best efficiency is achieved in the example fan for a fan speed of 90%. The efficiency drops by
7.5%-points when the fan is operated with a 14% lower mass flow rate at the surge line.
The propulsive efficiency (defined in equation 19) increases continually with increasing air speed. The optimum
efficiency is achieved when the product of fan and propulsive efficiencies reaches its maximum, which is an operating
point slightly to the right of the maximum fan efficiency and is achieved for a single flight condition. The efficiency is
lower than this optimum value for all other flight conditions.
With the installation of a variable area nozzle it is possible to change the fan pressure ratio independently of the
fan speed n which allows an operation of the fan at the optimum product of fan and propulsive efficiencies for all air
speeds and any required thrust. To exploit the benefit, the nozzle would have to be opened during take-off and initial
climb. The working point of the fan would be moved away from the surge line toward the maximum efficiency line
(see figure 1). The resulting lower jet speeds increase the propulsive efficiency of the engine and reduce jet mixing
noise. In addition, the smaller fan pressure ratio is accompanied by lower fan noise.2
The benefits of a variable area nozzle concerning noise and thrust were already studied experimentally on a model
fan by Woodward et al (2006).2 They found that the effective perceived noise level (EPNL) for a typical flyover with
a flyover altitude of 450 m could be reduced by more than 2 dB, with a nozzle area increase of 10.9 % at take-off
conditions. Another investigation was carried out by Crichton et al (2007),3, 4 and by Hall & Crichton,5 in the “Silent
Aircraft Initiative”, where it was suggested to increase the nozzle area for take-off by as much as 45 % and operate the
fan during take-off with a pressure ratio as low as πfan = 1.1. The nozzle is closed in the final climb segment (top of
climb) for a fan-pressure ratio of πfan = 1.5. A study based on CFD solutions was published by Yao et al (2007).6 The
nozzle area was changed by actively controlling the cut-out geometry of a serrated nozzle. Three nozzles were studied
with a maximum increase of the exit area by 14.5 %. A large number of patents were filed in recent years indicating
the need for variable nozzles. Examples are solutions based on shape memory alloy actuator systems that can change
the nozzle exit area.7–10
A variable area nozzle consiting of adjustable panels was already flight-tested on the geared turbofan (GTF)
demonstrator engine on a Boeing 747SP (2008) and an Airbus A340-600 (2009). A similar VAN will be installed

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for the GTF engines in development for the Bombardier CSeries and will certainly also be used for the GTF engines
of the Irkut MS-21 and the Airbus A320neo.
The influence of a variable area nozzle on fan performance is studied analytically in the following. Only the fan
flow will be examined and an ideal fan with the efficiency ηfan = 1 and no friction losses in the fan duct are assumed
to keep the equations simple.

II. Basic equations

The basic equations required for the investigation of the benefits of variable area nozzles shall be derived first. The
ratio of the total temperature Tf,t of the flight stream to its static temperature Tf is defined by
Tf,t γ−1 2
=1+ Mf . (1)
Tf 2
where γ = 1.4 is the isentropic exponent and Mf is the flight Mach number. The pressure ratio of the flight stream is
then given by
  γ
pf,t γ − 1 2 γ−1
πf = = 1+ Mf . (2)
pf 2
The nozzle pressure ratio is related to the jet Mach number Mj according to
  γ
γ − 1 2 γ−1
πnzl = 1+ Mj . (3)
2
The nozzle pressure ratio is the product of the pressure ratio πf of the flight stream and the fan pressure ratio πfan .
πnzl = πf πfan (4)
The fan pressure ratio is then defined by
γ
! γ−1
γ−1 2
1+ 2 Mj
πfan = γ−1 2
(5)
1+ 2 Mf

The mass flow rate of the fan is defined by

ṁ = Aj ρj vj = Aj ρj cj Mj . (6)
Aj is the cross section of the fully expanded jet, ρj the density of the jet, and vj the jet speed, cj the corresponding
sound speed.
For subsonic jets we have
Aj = Av = Ac α , (7)
where α is the nozzle opening factor of the variable area nozzle and Ac is the nozzle exit area of the closed nozzle.
In the case of supersonic jet Mach numbers Mj , the nozzle is choked and the jet expands downstream of the nozzle
throat to the cross section of the fully expanded jet. If the nozzle is a convergent nozzle, we have
Aj = Av ψ(Mj ) = Ac α ψ(Mj ) , (8)
where ψ is the ratio between the cross sections of the fully expanded jet and the nozzle exit, given by
  γ+1
 2(γ−1)
Aj γ−1 2 2 1
ψ(Mj ) = = 1+ Mj . (9)
Av 2 γ+1 Mj
The pressure pc in the throat of a choked nozzle is defined by
 γ
 γ−1
pc 2
= πnzl . (10)
pf γ+1
We assume that the pressure pj in the fully expanded supersonic jet or in the nozzle exit area of a subsonic jet is
equal to the ambient pressure pf . This yields
Tf
ρj = ρf (11)
Tj

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and  − 21  − 21
Tj γ pf Tj
ṁ = Av ψ(Mj ) ρf cf Mj = Av ψ(Mj ) Mj . (12)
Tf cf Tf
Tj /Tf is the ratio of the static temperatures in the jet and flight streams. Tj /Tf = 1 for a loss-less fan. ψ = 1 for a
subsonic jet.
The thrust Ft of the fan flow is given by
 − 21   21 !
Tj Tj
Ft = ṁ (vj − vf ) = Av ψ(Mj ) γ pf Mj Mj − Mf , (13)
Tf Tf

where the relations c2f = γRTf and pf = ρf RTf were used. The equation is also valid for the thrust of a supersonic
jet with a convergent-divergent nozzle of exit area Aj = Av ψ, but the thrust loss of a convergent nozzle is negligible
for the jet Mach numbers encountered in civil turbofans.
The power P added by the fan to the fan stream is given by
 − 21    
cf Tj Tj
P = ṁ (vj2 − vf2 )/2 = Av ψ(Mj ) γ pf Mj Mj2 − Mf2 . (14)
2 Tf Tf

Thrust and power are related via

  21 !
vj + v f cf Tj
P = Ft = Ft Mj + Mf . (15)
2 2 Tf

The specific power W (power per unit mass flow) of the fan stream is defined by
   
P γ R Tf 2 Tj 2
W = = Mj − Mf . (16)
ṁ 2 Tf

The operating point of a fan is defined by the pressure ratio πfan and the reduced mass flow ṁred .
p
Tf,t /Tref
ṁred = ṁ (17)
pf,t /pref

The reference pressure pref and reference temperature Tref can be chosen arbitrarily. Their purpose is to preserve the
dimension of a mass flow for ṁred . Generally the values of the standard atmosphere at sea level are used, pref =
101 325 Pa and Tref = 288.15 K. The reduced mass flow considers the influences of static pressure and temperature
on the axial flow Mach numbers in the fan. When the reduced mass flow ṁred is kept constant, the actual mass flow ṁ
is proportional to the total pressure pf,t and inversely proportional to the square root of the total temperature Tf t , both
values measured in front of the fan.
A further parameter is the fan shaft speed n. The circumferential Mach numbers in the fan remain constant for a
constant reduced shaft speed nred . s
Tref
nred = n (18)
Tf,t
The propulsive efficiency is defined by
2 vf 2 Mf
ηp = = 0.5 . (19)
v j + vf

Tj
Mj Tf + Mf

III. Results independent of nozzle type

A. Jet Mach number as function of flight Mach number and fan pressure ratio
The jet Mach number can be computed from the nozzle pressure ratio πnzl with equation (5).
s  γ−1 
γ−1 2 γ 2
Mj = 1+ Mf πfan − 1 (20)
2 γ−1

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The resulting values Mj are plotted in figure 2 for eight fan pressure ratios, which span the operational range of current
and future engines. It can be seen how Mj increases with increasing flight Mach number Mf . For a fan pressure ratio
πfan = 1.5 it reaches Mj = 1 for a flight Mach number Mf = 0.59 and further increases to Mj = 1.194 for a
cruise Mach number Mf = 0.85. It can be seen that the influence of flight Mach number on the jet Mach number
increases, when the fan pressure ratio is decreased. The results shown in figure 2 are independent of fan efficiency,
which influences the static temperature of the jet and subsequently its sound speed and jet speed but not the jet Mach
number.

Figure 2. Jet Mach number as function of flight Mach number Mf for eight fan pressure ratios πfan .

The benefit of variable area nozzles with respect to jet mixing noise is related to the possibility of reducing the fan
pressure ratio with a subsequent reduction of jet Mach number by opening the nozzle, whenever this is possible. Fan
noise is also decreased when the fan is operated with a lower pressure ratio.2

B. Propulsive efficiency as function of flight Mach number and fan pressure ratio
The propulsive efficiency ηp according to equation (19) is plotted in figure 3 for a loss-less fan with Tj /Tf = 1. It
can be seen, how the propulsive efficiency is increased, when the fan pressure ratio is reduced. The relative increase is
larger for smaller flight Mach numbers.
The benefit of variable area nozzles with respect to fuel consumption is partly based on the higher propulsive
efficiencies associated with lower fan pressure ratios, whenever the nozzle can be opened with a resulting shift of the
working point to higher reduced mass flows and lower fan pressure ratios (see figure 1). This is particularly possible
during taxiing, the acceleration on the runway and the initial climb but may even be feasible to optimize engine
performance during cruise.

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 Figure 3. Propulsive efficiency as function of flight Mach number Mf for eight fan pressure ratios πfan .

C. Expansion ratio of supersonic jets

The jet expansion ratio ψ of a supersonic jet according to equation 9 is plotted in figure 4.

Figure 4. Nozzle area ratio ψ = Aj /Av of a supersonic jet as function jet Mach number Mj .

IV. Turbofan with variable area nozzle

A. Working lines of fan
By introducing equation 12 in equation 17, the reduced mass flow rate can be written as
 γ+1
− 2(γ−1)  − 21
γ pref γ−1 2 Tj
ṁred = Ac α ψ(Mj ) 1+ Mf Mj (21)
cf,ref 2 Tf

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where Mj has to computed with equation 20. The ratio ṁred /ṁred,TOC for a loss less fan is then given by
γ+1
! 2(γ−1)
γ−1 2
ṁred ψ(Mj ) 1+ 2 Mf,TOC Mj
=α (22)
ṁred,TOC ψ(Mj,TOC ) 1 + γ−1
2 Mf
2 Mj,TOC

The reduced mass flow increases with jet Mach number Mj but decreases with rising flight Mach number Mf due
to its influence on the total pressure pf,t and the total temperature Tf,t on the fan face according to equation 17.
The results of equation 22 are plotted in figure 5 for a constant area nozzle (α = 1) in form of fan working lines.
The values are normalized with the reduced mass flow for a fan pressure ratio πfan = 1.5 and a flight Mach number
Mf = 0.85. It can be seen, how the reduced mass flow changes with flight Mach number and that the spread between
Mf = 0 and Mf = 0.85 becomes larger for small fan pressure ratios. The figure includes four working lines for a
nozzle designed for πfan = 1.5, but opened by 10% (α = 1.1). An estimate for the line with best efficiency for such a
fan is also shown. The line is based on the corresponding curve in figure 1. It can be seen, how the working lines can
be moved toward the best efficiency line, when the nozzle is opened and that the best opening factor depends on πfan
and Mf . The best efficiency for take-off (0 < Mf < 0.3) is achieved for πfan ≈ 1.4, when the nozzle is opened by
α = 1.1. A further opening to α = 1.2 would yield an optimum pressure ratio of πfan ≈ 1.3.

Figure 5. Working lines for four flight Mach numbers. Reduced mass flow rate for a nozzle with constant area normalized with largest
value occurring for a fan pressure ratio πfan = 1.5 and Mf = 0.85. Four more lines for nozzle opened by factor α = 1.1. Line for best
fan efficiency estimated based on figure 1.

In order to move working points on the left of the best-efficiency line toward the optimum value the nozzle would
have to be opened. The corresponding benefit of the variable area nozzle with respect to fan efficiency may be
substantial as can be deduced from the efficiencies in figure 1.

B. Reference condition for top of climb (TOC)

The demand on a turbofan is highest for the top of climb (TOC) condition, when the lowest ambient pressure of the
initial climb is reached. The climb rate vc expected for this condition is 500 ft/min = 2.54 m/s.11 The thrust Ft of an
unaccelerated aircraft is related to its drag Fd , weight Fw , climb speed vc and airspeed vf according to

Ft Fd vc
= + . (23)
Fw Fw vf

For small vc /vf the cruise drag of a modern aircraft is determined by a lift-to-drag ratio of E = 21.11

Fd 1
= = 0.0476 (24)
Fw E
The initial cruising altitude to be reached at TOC is assumed to be flight level 350, which is defined by the ambient
pressure pf = 23842 Pa. The sound speed in a standard atmosphere for this altitude is cf = 296.5 m/s. This yields

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vf = 252.0 m/s for a flight Mach number Mf = 0.85. With vc /vf = 0.0101 the thrust-to-weight ratio for TOC
becomes
Ft,TOC
= 0.0577 . (25)
Fw,TOC
The thrust is defined by equation (13). A relation for the ratio of any thrust to the thrust required for TOC can be
derived. For a loss-less fan this yields

Ft ψ(Mj ) pf Mj (Mj − Mf )
=α . (26)
Ft,TOC ψ(Mj,TOC) pf,TOC Mj,TOC (Mj,TOC − Mf,TOC )

A constant area nozzle exit area Ac shall be defined such that the required thrust for TOC can be achieved. A
normalized form Ãc can be defined with equation (13) and (25). For a loss-less fan we have
Ac γ pf,TOC 0.0577
Ãc = = . (27)
Fw,TOC ψ(Mj,TOC ) Mj,TOC (Mj,TOC − Mf )

The jet Mach number Mj,TOC is determined by the fan pressure ratio πf,TOC for TOC according to equation (20). Ãc
is plotted in figure 6 as function of fan pressure ratio πf,TOC for a flight Mach number Mf = 0.85 and two lift-to-drag
ratios. It can be seen, how the required nozzle area increases when the fan-pressure ratio at TOC is reduced. The fan
pressure ratio πfan = 1.5 selected for TOC in the following studies is indicated with a circle.

Figure 6. Normalized reference nozzle area Ãc according to equation (27) at top of climb (TOC) as function of fan pressure ratio for a
flight Mach number Mf = 0.85. The circle indicates the fan pressure ratio used in the remaining paper.

C. Fan operating conditions for various flight conditions

The fan pressure ratio and the reduced mass flow shall now be studied for the flight conditions shown in table 1. Item
1 describes the start of roll for take-off. Items 2 through 6 describe climb conditions with item 6 describing TOC.
Item 7 is the initial cruise condition and item 8 a cruise condition at FL350 but with the aircraft mass reduced to 75%
of its initial value as a result of the used fuel. Item 9 describes a higher cruising altitude for this lower mass. Item
10 describes the data for a holding pattern and item 11 is for an aircraft on approach on a 3 deg glide slope about
11 km before the runway threshold. The lift-to-drag ratios are speculative. The value E = 21 for cruise is taken from
Cumpsty.11
The following investigation is based on a fan pressure ratio πfan,TOC = 1.5 at TOC. The required fan pressure ratio
and the reduced mass flow are determined by the thrust Ft , the flight Mach number and the nozzle area. The thrust is
defined by equation (23). The influence of the nozzle area is investigated for a range of relative nozzle areas α ≥ 1.
The fan operating points required for all flight conditions are plotted in figure 7(a) for the fan pressure ratio
πfan = 1.5 of an ultra-high bypass ratio fan (UHBR) and in figure 7(b) for the fan pressure ratio πfan = 1.8 of a high
bypass ratio (HBR) fan. Figure 7(a) contains outlines of a possible surge line on the left, a line of best efficiency in

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 Table 1. Selected flight conditions in ICAO Standard Atmosphere.

# flight altitude pressure temp. sound flight lift/ climb vc /vf rel.
level speed Mach drag rate mass
- - - m Pa K m/s number - ft/min - -
1 TO FL0 0 101325 288.15 340.3 0.00 15 0 0 1.00
2 CLB FL30 914 90814 282.2 336.8 0.40 15 2000 0.075 0.99
3 CLB FL100 3048 69682 268.3 328.3 0.55 20 3000 0.093 0.98
4 CLB FL200 6096 46563 248.5 312.3 0.65 21 1500 0.041 0.97
5 CLB FL300 9144 30090 228.7 303.2 0.75 21 600 0.010 0.96
6 CLB FL350 10668 23842 218.8 296.5 0.85 21 500 0.010 0.95
7 CRS FL350 10668 23842 218.8 296.5 0.85 21 0 0 0.95
8 CRS FL350 10668 23842 218.8 296.5 0.85 21 0 0 0.75
9 CRS FL390 11887 19678 216.6 295.1 0.85 21 0 0 0.75
10 HLD FL140 4267 59525 260.4 323.5 0.35 20 0 0 0.66
11 APP FL20 610 94215 284.2 338.0 0.35 8 - -0.054 0.65

the center, and a choke-line on the right. The performance map of figure 1 may be overlaid on figure 7(b) as a rough
estimate. The normalized reduced mass flow is defined here by
 γ+1
− 2(γ−1)
γ−1 2
m̃ = α ψ(Mj ) Mj 1 + Mf . (28)
2

The fan pressure ratio is defined by equation (5). All working points are computed for the thrust of an unaccelerated
flight, except for the start-of-roll point (#1), which is based on a take-off-thrust over TOC-thrust ratio of 6.3.11 The
working points are computed for a range of opening factors α, which yields lines of operating points, which start at a
high pressure ratio on the left hand and fall off to the right with increasing opening of the variable area nozzle.
The working point for take-off of the UHBR fan (#1 (solid black line) in figure 7(a)) is located at a relatively high
fan pressure ratio and low mass flow in comparison to the working point for the HBR fan (#1 in figure 7(b)). By
opening the nozzle, the take-off working point can be moved to the right substantially. The highest fan pressure ratio
is required for TOC (#6), which is indicated by a circle. Since this point is close to the choking line of the fan (to keep
the engine as small as possible), an opening of the nozzle (α > 1) would not be usefull. The cruise conditions #7, #8,
and #9 may allow a small opening of the nozzle, depending on the actual fan performance map. The required mass
flow for the take-off condition (#1) with fan pressure ratio πfan = 1.8 is too far to the right, which implicates that the
assumed take-off-thrust over TOC-thrust ratio of 6.3 can not be achieved with a fan pressure ratio of 1.8.
The situation is different for the take-off condition (#1) with a fan pressure ratio πfan = 1.5, which requires a
working point with a rather low reduced mass flow. The operating point is likely close to the surge line (stall line)
of the fan. An opening of the nozzle would move the working point to the right. A similar conclusion can be drawn
for the climb case (#2), which describes the noise sensitive initial climb. An opening of the nozzle would move the
working point to higher reduced mass flows with lower jet Mach numbers. An opening of the nozzle might also be
possible for the holding condition (#10) and the final approach condition (#11).

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 (a) πfan = 1.5 (b) πfan = 1.8

Figure 7. Fan pressure ratio as function of reduced mass flow for the studied flight conditions. (a) UHBR fan (b) HBR fan. The left hand
end of each curve is the working point for a constant area nozzle. The working point moves to the right by opening the nozzle.

The jet Mach number that is necessary to achieve the required thrust can be calculated by rearranging equation
(26).
1 Ft pf,TOC
ψ(Mj ) Mj (Mj − Mf ) = ψ(Mj,TOC ) Mj,TOC (Mj,TOC − Mf,TOC ) (29)
α Ft,TOC pf
The resulting jet Mach numbers are plotted in figure 8 for the 11 cases of table 1. It can be seen how the jet Mach
numbers decrease when the nozzle is opened. The thrust remains constant because the mass flow is increased.

Figure 8. Jet Mach number as function of relative nozzle area α for the studied flight conditions. The circle indicates the TOC condition.

The resulting normalized reduced mass flows according to equation (28) are plotted in figure 9 for the 11 cases of
table 1. It can be seen that the reduced mass flows increase when the nozzle is opened.

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Figure 9. Normalized reduced mass flows after equation (28) as function of relative nozzle area α for the studied flight conditions. The
circle indicates the TOC condition.

The gain in propulsive efficiency can be derived from equation (19).

Mj,c + Mf
g= (30)
Mj,v + Mf

where Mj,c is the jet Mach number of the constant area nozzle and Mj,v the corresponding jet Mach number of
the larger variable area nozzle. The propulsive efficiency rises with increasing nozzle area because Mj,v decreases
with rising nozzle area. Results for the gain in propulsive efficiency are plotted in figure 10. It can be seen that the
propulsive efficiency during take-off (#1) may increase by 9.5 % if the nozzle is opened by 20 %. The benefit for the
initial climb condition (#2) is even 11.7 % for an opening of 15 %.

Figure 10. Gain in propulsive efficiency as function of relative nozzle area for the studied flight conditions. The circle indicates the constant
area nozzle.

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 The power of the jet stream is defined by equation (31). The ratio between the VAN and a constant area nozzle is
defined by
2
Pv Mj,v (Mj,v − Mf2 )
=α 2 − M 2) (31)
Pc Mj,c (Mj,c f

The results are plotted in figure 11. The reduction for the start of roll is 8.7 % for α = 1.2, for the initial climb 5.4 %
for α = 1.15. 11.7 % are saved in the holding pattern (#10) and 16.8 % on approach (#11). Interesting are the possible
reductions for the three cruise conditions (#7, #8, #9). The relatively small opening of the nozzle by 5 % would reduce
the fuel flow by between 3.5 % and 4.2 % if the fan efficiency would remain constant.

Figure 11. Power of the jet stream for constant thrust as function of relative nozzle area for the studied flight conditions. The circle indicates
the constant area nozzle. The power reduction would equal the fuel flow reduction if the fan and core efficiencies would remain constant.

It may be mentioned that the mass flow through the core will become smaller when the nozzle is opened, because
the fan’s pressure ratio is getting smaller. But since the power requirement for driving the fan (figure 11) is reduced
faster than the pressure ratio (figure 7(a)), the specific load on the core is reduced. This is shown in figure 12, where
the relative power of the jet stream for constant thrust is plotted over the pressure ratio of the fan, normalized with its
value for the closed nozzle. An opening of the nozzle would allow to increase the core power, which would increase
the take-off thrust and allow an increase of take-off mass of the aircraft without modifications of the engine, except for
the addition of a variable area nozzle.

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Figure 12. Relative power of the jet stream as function of relative fan pressure ratio for the studied flight conditions. The jet power and
the fan pressure ratio are normalized with their values for the fully closed nozzle. It can be seen that the jet power required for constant
thrust decreases faster than the fan pressure ratio for all flight conditions, which indicates a reduced specific power of the core, whenever
the nozzle is opened.

D. Cruise
It is essential for a low fuel burn that the nozzle area is optimized for best cruise performance. This means that the
product of fan efficiency and propulsive efficiency reaches a maximum. It shall be discussed now, in how far this is
possible in cruise.
The thrust is defined by equation (13). With the glide ratio (lift-to-drag ratio) E and for a loss-less fan with
Tj /Tf = 1 the required cruise thrust is given by

Ft = Fw /E = Ac α ψ γ pf Mj (Mj − Mf ) . (32)

It is a characteristic feature of the cruise condition that the weight Fw of the aircraft reduces continually due to the
fuel burn and this will influence the working point of the fan, which is defined by its pressure ratio πfan according to
equation (5) and by the reduced mass according to equation (28). It can be concluded from equation (32) that the jet
Mach number Mj remains constant if the ambient pressure pf is chosen proportionally to the required thrust Fw /E
of the aircraft. In this case the working point of the fan remains constant, because the fan pressure ratio πfan according
to equation (5) as well as the reduced mass flow according to equation (28) will remain constant. The same is true for
the angle of attack of the aircraft, which remains constant if pf ∝ Fw . This is the argument to increase the cruising
altitude during the flight to adjust to the ever decreasing weight of the aircraft. However, in practice this can not be
achieved because cruising flight levels are assigned by air traffic control (ATC) in increments of FL20 or FL40. This
means that aircraft normally do not fly at the altitude with optimum efficiency, but at lower altitudes. Other reasons to
select lower altitudes could be more favorable winds or increased buffet margins in the case of turbulence.
It shall now be studied, how the working point changes if a lower than optimal cruising altitude has to be used.
When the nozzle area is constant, a larger pf is compensated by a smaller jet Mach number Mj , resulting in a smaller
fan pressure ratio πfan according to equation (5) and a smaller reduced mass flow m̃ according to equation (28). This
is shown in figure 13 for pf /pf,opt = 1 . . . 1.2 for five nozzle opening factors α. The upper right of each curve is
the cruise condition after completion of the initial climb. The lower left describes the fan operating point when the
ambient pressure is larger than the optimum value by a factor of 1.2 equivalent to a flight level FL350 instead of the
optimum FL390. The flight level can often not be increased to the optimum level because the maximum certificated
flight level of the aircraft is reached. The flight levels actually flown on long range flights are often much lower than
the optimum flight levels due to air traffic control (ATC) constraints or to more favorable winds at lower altitudes.
Medium range flights are often operated far below FL300.
The blue dash-dotted line indicates how the line might look that connects all working points of the fan with
optimum efficiency. The best opening for cruising at optimum altitude would be α = 1.023 (upper blue triangle)
according to this map and α = 1.075 (lower blue triangle) for cruising in FL350 rather than an optimum FL390.

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Figure 13. Fan pressure ratio over reduced mass flow for Mf = 0.85 for nine different nozzle opening ratios α. The top-of-climb (TOC)
condition is marked with a green circle, the first cruise condition after the climb is completed is marked with a red square. The upper right
ends of the curves for the five opening ratios α describe the working points when cruise is performed at the optimum altitude. The lower
left ends correspond to an atmospheric pressure that is higher by a factor of 1.2 (equivalent to a flight level FL350 instead of an optimum
FL390). The blue dash-dotted line indicates how the line might look that connects all working points of the fan with optimum efficiency.

The reduction of the power of the jet is shown in figure 14. It can be seen that the power of the jet stream changes
only by fractions of one percent when the nozzle is opened in cruise. The improvement of the propulsive efficiency is
partially offset by the increase of the mass flow. A reduction of the fuel flow may be achievable if the working point
of the fan can be moved to a point with better fan efficiency by opening the nozzle as might be possible according to
figure 13.

Figure 14. Reduction of cruise power through opening of the nozzle for Mf = 0.85 for nine different nozzle opening ratios α. The
ambient pressure ratio is the ratio of the actual ambient pressure over the optimum pressure for the current weight of the aircraft.

E. Noise
The noise emission of the jet behind a variable area nozzle is reduced due to the lower relative jet speed and the lower
fan pressure ratio. An estimate for the jet noise reduction shall be based on the assumption that jet mixing noise is

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proportional to the eighth power of relative jet speed. In addition jet noise increases with nozzle area and with the
square of the stretching due to flight speed.12
Mj,v − Mf σv
∆SPL = 80 dB lg + 10 dB lg α + 10 dB lg ψ + 20 dB lg , (33)
Mj,c − Mf σc

where σ is the jet stretching factor in flight according to Michalke & Michel (1979).12
σ = 1 + AMf /(Mj − Mf ) (34)
with A = 1.5 . . . 2. Unfortunately, the increase of sound radiation due to jet stretching offsets a substantial part of the
noise reduction associated with the reduction of relative jet speed.
The results for the noise reduction with A = 1.5 are plotted in figure 15. It can be seen that the noise reduction
in the initial climb phase (#2) reaches 2.6 dB when the nozzle is opened by 15 %. The noise reduction in the holding
pattern (#10) would even be 5.5 dB for α = 1.25. The reduction of jet mixing noise in cruise amounts typically to
1.0 dB for α = 1.03. The reduction of broadband shock noise (not described by equation (33)) should be larger,
because the pressure amplitude in the cell structure of the supersonic jet is reduced, when the nozzle is opened.

Figure 15. Noise reduction as function of the nozzle area increase for the studied flight conditions.

V. Discussion
The installation of a nozzle with a variable exit area for the fan stream of a turbofan engine provides an additional
parameter for adjusting the operating point in the fan characteristic. During take-off the fan can be operated far away
from the stall line by opening the nozzle. Likewise the optimum efficiency (product of fan efficiency and propulsive
efficiency) can be achieved in any flight regime by selecting the optimum nozzle area.
The installation of a variable area nozzle will also have consequences for the core engine. The specific load on the
core engine is reduced when the nozzle is opened for constant thrust. This would allow to increase the actual thrust
of the engine whenever the variable area nozzle can be opened, especially during the take-off roll and begin of climb
yielding shorter take-off rolls and higher flyover altitudes.
Benefits of variable area nozzles in detail are:
• Operation of the fan at optimum efficiency for all flight conditions.
• Operation far away from the surge line during take-off and landing, permitting lighter fan blades. This removes
one technical problem of UHBR fans. Fan efficiency may increase by several percentage points, depending on
the actual fan performance map.
• Large surge margin no longer a fan optimization parameter. Allows optimization of fan for best efficiency and
lowest mass.

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 • Jet noise and fan noise reduction in the order of 2 dB for sideline and flyover measuring points, when nozzle
area opened by about 15 to 20 %.
• Considerably higher propulsive efficiencies for small flight Mach numbers allow shorter take-off distances,
higher initial climb rates, and higher payloads.
• Additional noise reduction in flyover point through higher flyover altitudes by using the higher thrusts provided
with a variable nozzle.
• Shorter climb times to cruise altitude.
• Adjustment of nozzle area might even be beneficial during cruise to move fan operating condition to optimum
point.
• Wave drag of engine nacelle is reduced when engine operated at higher mass flow rates.
• Likewise the spillage drag of the engine nacelle is also reduced.
• Smaller windmilling drag of engine in case of failure through opening of the nozzle.
• Lighter fan and smaller fan pressure ratio of variable area nozzle may permit smaller flight idle speeds of fan,
because fan speed can be accelerated faster.
• Take-off
– Improve fan efficiency by several percentage points, depending on fan performance map.
– Improve propulsive efficiency substantially.
– Both items should lower the fuel flow substantially.
– Lower specific core power allows increase of thrust, allowing higher take-off mass and increased payload.
– Reduce sideline and flyover noise by 2 dB.
• Climb
– Nozzle completely closed only for TOC at cruise Mach number.
– Nozzle area of closed nozzle can be chosen for best product of fan and propulsive efficiencies at TOC,
yielding the smallest possible nozzle (and engine) size.
– Nozzle area can be increased whenever flight Mach number smaller than cruise Mach number and when-
ever climb is interrupted by a level segment. Operation near optimum fan performance decreases fuel
consumption.
• Cruise
– Nozzle can be opened in level flight after TOC is passed. Increase of fan efficiency and of propulsive
efficiency.
– Nozzle can be opened further whenever flight is operated at lower than optimum altitude. Further gain of
fan and propulsive efficiencies.
– Jet noise reduction in rear of cabin in cruise by typically 1.0 dB.
– Broadband shock noise also reduced.
• Descend
– Nozzle can be opened for better propulsive efficiency or closed for more drag.
– Holding patterns can be flown with open nozzle for best efficiency and lowest noise.
• Approach
– Fan can be accelerated faster, when nozzle open. May allow smaller flight idle speed.
– Engine noise substantially reduced.
The higher weight of the variable area nozzle may be offset by a lighter fan. A variability of only a few percent is
required for optimizing cruise and climb performance. Optimizing take-off and approach performance would require
larger increases of the nozzle area by more than 15%.

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 References
1 Cumpsty,
N. A., Jet Propulsion, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
2 Woodward,
R. P., Hughes, C. E., and Podboy, G. G., “Fan Noise Reduction with Increased Bypass Nozzle Area,” AIAA Journal of Aircraft,
Vol. 43, No. 6, 2006, pp. 1719–1725.
3 Crichton, D., Xu, L., and Hall, C. A., “Preliminary Fan Design for a Silent Aircraft,” J. Turbomach., Vol. 129, No. 1, 2007, pp. 184–191.
4 Crichton, D., de la Rosa Blanca, E., and Law, T. Hileman, J., “Design and Operation for Ultra Low Noise Take-Off,” AIAA-2007-456, Jan
2007, 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, Nevada, Jan. 8-11, 2007.
5 Hall, C. A. and Crichton, D., “Engine Design Studies for a Silent Aircraft,” Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 129, 2007, pp. 479–487.
6 Yao, H., Richardson, J., and Riordan, D., “Investigations on Variable Fan Nozzle Area to Reduce the Aircraft Jet Noise,” AIAA-2007-7789,
Sept 2007, 7th AIAA ATIO Conf, 2nd CEIAT Int’l Conf on Innov and Integr in Aero Sciences, 17th LTA Systems Tech Conf; followed by 2nd
TEOS Forum, Belfast, Northern Ireland, Sep. 18-20, 2007.
7 Rey, N. M., Miller, R. M., Tillman, T. G., Rukus, R. M., and Kettle, J. L., “Variable area nozzle for gas turbine engines driven by shape
memory alloy actuators,” United States Patent 6735936, May 2004.
8 Birch, N. T. and Webster, J. R., “Gas turbine engine exhaust nozzle having a noise attenuation device driven by shape memory material
actuators,” US Patent 7000378, February 2006.
9 Rey, N. M., Miller, R. M., Tillman, T. G., Rukus, R. M., and Kettle, J. L., “Variable area nozzle for gas turbine engines driven by shape
memory alloy actuators,” United States Patent 7004047, February 2006.
10 Mabe, J., “Variable area jet nozzle for noise reduction using shape memory alloy actuators,” J. Acoust. Soc Am., Vol. 123, May 2008,
pp. 63871.
11 Cumpsty, N. A., “Preparing for the future: Reducing gas turbine environmental impact,” GT2009-60367, 2009, Proceedings of ASME Turbo
Expo, International Gas Turbine & Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, June 8-12, Orlando, Florida.
12 Michalke, A. and Michel, U., “Prediction of Jet-Noise in Flight from Static Tests,” J. Sound Vib., Vol. 67, 1979, pp. 341–367.

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