A MINI PROJECT ON

AUTO INTENSITY CONTROL OF ROOM LIGHT ON SENSING

AMBIENT LIGHT

submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

BATCHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By
CH.RANADHEER (07281A0219)
M.SWETHA GOUD (07281A0224)
K.SHRUTHI RAO (07281A0230)

Under the esteemed guidance of

K.VIJAY KUMAR,
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
(Permanantely affiliated to JNTU)
SINGAPUR-505468
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to our, Associate Professor Sri

YOGESH.Y.PUNDLIK, Head of dept of ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING, for having been a source of constant inspiration and cooperation
through out the period of our project work. .
We wish to express our sincere thanks to our Project guide K.VIJAY KUMAR
for having been a source of constant inspiration, valuable guidance and generous
assistance through out the period of our project work under his guidance
We wish to express our sincere thanks to our Principal Dr. K SHANKAR, for
providing the college facilities for completion of the project.
Finally, we would like to thank all the faculty members, supporting staff of the
Department of EEE, Parents and friends for their cooperation and valuable help for
completing this project.

CH.RANADHEER (07281A0219)
M.SWETHA GOUD (07281A0224)
K.SHRUTHI RAO (07281A0230)
CONTENTS

1. PHASE CONTROL USING THYRISTORS

1.1 permanent magnet motor
1.2 micro controller phase control

2. AC DIMMERS
2.1 AC dimmer with stamper
2.2 Operation of dimmers

3. MOTOR CONTROL
3.1 ST Commited motor control
3.2 High frequency PWM universal motor controls

4. RESISTORS & CAPACITROS

4.1 Construction of capacitors
4.2 Electrical behavior of Electrolytic’s
4.3 Super capacitors
4.4 Resistor color coding and operation
4.5 Current limiting using resistors

5. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

5.1 Data sheet
5.2 Typical application circuits
 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-1

Phase Control Using Thyristors

Due to high-volume production techniques, Thyristors are now priced so that
almost any electrical product can benefit from electronic control. A look at the
fundamentals of SCR and Triac phase controls shows how this is possible.
Output P Phase control is the most common form of Thyristor power control. The
Thyristor is held in the off condition --that is, all current flow in the circuit is blocked by
the Thyristor except a minute leakage current. Then the Thyristor is triggered into an on
connected by the control circuitry. For full-wave AC control, a single Triac or two
SCRs connected in inverse parallel may be used. One of two methods may be used for
full wave DC control -- a bridge rectifier formed by two SCRs or an SCR placed in
serieswith a diode bridge as shown in Figure 1.1.
 Figure 1.2 illustrates voltage waveform and showscommon terms used to
describe Thyristor operation. Delay angle is the time during which the Thyristor blocks
the line voltage. The conduction angle is the time during which the Thyristor is on. It is
important to note that the circuit current is determined by the load and power source.
Simplification, assume the load is resistive; that is, both the voltage and
currentwaveforms are identical.

Different loads respond to different characteristics of the AC waveform.

For example, some are sensitive to average voltage, some to RMS voltage, and others to
peak voltage. Various voltage characteristics are plotted against conduction angle for
half and full wave phase control circuits in Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.3 shows the relative power curve for constant impedance loads
such as heaters. Because the relative impedance of an incandescent lamps and motors
change with applied voltage, they do not follow this curve precisely. To use the curves,
find the fullwave rated power of the load, and then multiply by the ratio associated with
the specific phase angle. Thus, a 180degrees conduction angle in a half-wave circuit
provides 0.5 x fullwave conduction power.
In a full-wave circuit, a conduction angle of 150degrees provides97% full power
while a conduction angle of 30degrees provides only 3% of full power control. Therefore,
it is usually pointless to obtain conduction angles less than 30degrees or 150degrees
Triac Phase Control
The basic full-wave Triac phase control circuit shown in Figure AN1003.9
requires only four components. Adjustable resistor R1 and C1 are a single-element phase
shift network. When the voltage across C1 reaches breakover voltage of the DIAC, C1 is
partially discharged by the DIAC into the Triac gate. The Triac is then triggered into the
conduction mode for the remainder of that half-cycle. In this circuit, triggering in
Quadrants III. The unique simplicity of this circuit makes it suitable for applications with
small control range.
 The hysteresis (snap back) effect is somewhat similar to the action of a kerosene
lantern.That is, when the control knob is first rotated from the off condition, the lamp can
belit only at some intermediate level of brightness,similar to turning up the wick to light
the lantern. Brightness can be turned down until it finally reaches the extinguishing point.
If this occurs, the lamp can only be relit by turning up the control knob again to the
intermediate level. FigureAN1003.10 illustrates the hysteresis effect in capacitor-DIAC
triggering. As R1 is brought down from its maximumresistance, the voltage across the
capaci- tor increases until the DIAC first fires at point A, at the end of a half cycle
(conduction angle �
i). After the gate pulse, however, the capacitor voltage drops
suddenly to about half the triggering voltage, giving the capacitor a different initial
condition.The capacitor charges to the DIAC, triggering voltage at point B in the
half- cycle and giving a steady stateconduction angle shown as � for the Triac.
PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

Figure AN1003.16 illustrates a circuit for phase controllinga permanent magnet

(PM) motor. Since PM motor sare also generators, they have characteristics that make
them difficult for a standard Triac to commutate properly.Control of a PM motor is easily
accomplishedby using an alternistor Triac with enhanced commutating characteristics.
 Should be connected in series with the AC input side of the rectifier bridge. The
possible alternative of putting an SCR controller in series with the motor on the DC side
of the rectifier bridge can be a challenge when it comes to timing and delayed turn-on
near the end of the half cycle. The alternistor Triac controller shown in Figure
AN1003.16 offers PM motors normally require full-wave DC rectification.Therefore, the
alternistor Triac controller a wide range control so that the alternistror Triac can be
triggered at a small conduction angle or low motor speed; the rectifiers and alternistors
should have similar voltage ratings, with all based on line voltage and actualmotor load
requirements.
MICRO CONTROLLER PHASE CONTROLPhase
Traditionally, microcontrollers were too large and expensive to be used in small
consumer applications such as a light dimmer. Microchip Technology Inc. of Chandler,
Arizona has developed a line of 8-pin microcontrollers without sacrificing the
functionality of their larger counterparts. These devices do not provide high drive
outputs, but when combined with a sensitive Triac can be used in a cost effectivelight
dimmer.
Figure AN1003.23 illustrates a simple circuit using a transformerless power
supply, PIC 12C508 microcontroller, and a sensitive Triac configured to provide a light
dimmer control. R3 is connected to the hot lead of the AC power line and to pin GP4.
The ESD protection diodes of the input structure allow this connection without damage.
When the voltage on the AC power line is positive, the protection diode form the input to
VDD is forward biased,and the input buffer will see approximately VDD + 0.7 V.The
software will read this pin as high. When the voltage on the line is negative, the
protection diode from VSS to the input pin is forward biased, and the input buffer sees
approximately VSS - 0.7 V. The software will read the pin as low. By polling GP4 for a
change in state, the software can detect zero crossing. Control

With a zero crossing state detected, software can be written to turn on the Triac by going
from tri-state to a logic high on the gate and be synchronized with the AC phase cycles
(Quadrants I and IV). Using pull-down switches connected to the microcontoller inputs,
the user can signal the software to adjust the duty cycle of the Triac.
 CHAPTER-2

An AC Dimmer for Use with the Stamp.

The Document contains directions for converting a comercial 120VAC dimmer for use
with the stamps PWM output.

IDEA OF OPERATION
The basic idea of the circuit is to replace the variable resistor that is connected to
the knob of a dimmer with an optoisolater. The optoisolator is connected to an
operational amplifier that interfaces with the stamp. Users of this circuit should read and
be familiar with the operation of the stamps PWM function. This document assumes that
you have read and understood the PWM section of the stamp manual. It is also assumed
that you have some experience wiring AC. As it is likely you do not have experience with
AC, please find someone who has. AC is dangerous and it can kill you. The circuit is
simple. The op-amp provides current amplification allowing the optoisolator to sink
current without discharging the 4.7μF capacitor. The 51k_ resistor provides the right
current through the optoisolator to provide the right resistance on the output of the
optoisolator. Parts Dimmer: Lutron Rotary Dimmer, part # D-600RH-WH available for
Home Depot.
 Op-amp: Manufactured by Harris, available from Network Electronics, Newark
Part # 06F2202 Optoisolator: Manufactured by EG&G Optoelectronics, EG&G part #
VTL5C8, available from Network Electronics, Newark Part # 97F1140 Directions For
construction Carefully remove back plastic cover from the dimmer. There should be two
rivets holding it on. I recommend using a drill to remove the head of the rivet. On the
back of the plate you will find a cylinder about an inch in diameter and half an inch tall.
Around the edge of the cylinder are a bunch of components. On the flat side of the
cylinder there are two leads, these leads are for the on-off switch of the dimmer. On one
side of the rounded part of the cylinder there are three solder lugs, two of which are
connect to wires or other components. Remove the components from the center one; this
should just be just one resistor. Place the end of the optoisolator labeled 'cell' between the
center lug and the resistor you just removed. Build the circuit on a small piece of perf-
board, use wires to connect the optoisolator to the perf-board. Remember that the input of
the optoisolator is a LED and the polarity is important. The polarity should be marked on
the case of the optoisolator. There should be three wire coming out of the dimmer, one
green and two black. The green wire should be connected to ground, the bottom, round
prong on a plug. The two black wires should be connecting in series with the load.
 Chapter-3
Motor control

ST – committed to motor control

Power discretes
ST offers a broad selection of products for power discretes: MOSFET and IGBT
transistors, thyristors, triacs and AC switches, fast rectifiers and protection devices
ranging from 1 to 50A and 30 to 1,600V. Perfectly suited to medium power motor drive
applications, ST is constantly enhancing the performance of its power discretes by
upgrading process capabilities and product families. ST innovations include:
■ enhancing the IGBT family with the new strip layout PowerMesh geometry, and the
Turboswitch™ diodes family with the new 300V and 600V STTH series
■ breaking MOSFET performance barriers using MDmesh™ highvoltage technology and
STripFET low-voltage technology to lower Rds(on) without sacrificing switching
performance
■ embedding control features into switch with VIPower™ technology for low-voltage
motors
■ adding over-voltage protection and a separating gate circuit with the ACS™ switch,
designed around 500V and 800V ASD™ technology
Smart power and dedicated ICs
With ST’s proprietary BCD family of processes, which combine bipolar, CMOS
and DMOS structures on the same substrate, it is possible to achieve high levels of
integration, including monolithic 600V gate drivers for mains-fed motor drive
applications. For low-voltage applications such as automotive and PC peripherals, ST has
developed a broad range of complete single-chip motor drivers incorporating control,
drivers and power switches. Using a process as fine as 0.35mm, typical of ST’s newest
BCD6 process, evenrelatively complex digital circuits such as microcontrollers, DSP
cores and non-volatile memories can be integrated into Power ICs, creating advaced
Smart Power solutions. Single-chip versus multi-chip solutions is shown on page 4 the
universal motor is a brush motor with series excitation (see page 8). As its torque is
independent of current direction, it can accept either AC or DC. Speed is controlled by
varying motor voltage.

Typical application parameters

Voltage Motor power Speed range Features

100 to 240vac( or 100 to 1600watts 0 to 20000rpm High startup and

corresponding low speed torque
rectified voltage) capability

AC universal load drive

The motor is connected to the mains through an AC switch. The AC voltage
varies across the motor in phase control mode by means of a microcontroller which sets
the triac triggering time.
Main applications
■ Vacuum cleaners
■ Washing machines
■ Power tools
■ Food processors
High-frequency PWM universal motor drive
A rectified voltage across the motor varies in PWM mode at an inaudible
switching frequency. A DC supply provides smooth current operation, reducing
(acoustic) motor noise and improving motor efficiency.
Main applications
■ Washing machines
■ Food processors
■ Treadmills, Industrial motion control
 The rotor of the brush DC motor includes a winding which is fed by a DC voltage
source through carbon brushes. The stator circuit comprises a permanent magnet structure
(PMDC motor) or a winding. If the stator includes a winding, the latter can be connected
to the rotor winding in series or parallel,or can be driven separately.Brush DC motors can
be driven in voltage mode,since motor speed is proportional to supply voltage when the
load is constant. However, to control motor torque, a current control loop is usually
added in higher performance systems .For bi-directional operation, the rotor current must
be inverted, taking into account the stator magnetic field.

Typical application parameters

Voltage Motor power Speed range

6 to 320 vdc Up to 20000 w O to 30000 rpm

Main applications
■ Consumer audio/video
■ Shavers
■ Toys
■ Traction
■ Servomechanisms