C

细胞壁 cell wall

cell is a general diagram that shows all the features that you might find
without themcell
nucleu 细胞核
being too
is acell specialised.
m e m diagram
general brane
Figure
that shows1.2 shows
all the thethat
features features youfind
you might would
(inside cell wall)
without and
see in many animal themplant
being cells.
too specialised.
However Figure 1.2these
not all showsare
the present
features you
in would
液泡 animal
see in many vacuole and plant cells. However not all these are present in
parts of a plant which are not green do not have chloroplasts,
cell parts of a plant which are not green do not have chloroplasts,
细胞膜 cytoplasm

mitochondria
cell cell
线粒体
nucleu nucleu mitochondria
cell membrane
cell membrane
(inside
(inside cell wall)cell wall)
• • cytoplas 叶绿体 chloroplasts
cell membrane vacuol vacuol
细胞质
cell membrane
cytoplas
cytoplas
animal cell mitochondria nucleus
mitochondria p l a n t cell
mitochondria

0 mitochondria
chloroplast •.
cytoplas
' • WI
substrate enters
10µ chloroplast • MI ••.
enzyme'scytoplas • I
' • W
nucleu
animal cell 10µ (I lam m m ) • MIplant
•
•
nucleu
Figure 1.2 The structure of a 'typical' animal and
animal cell (I lam m m ) plant
Figure 1.2 The The livingofmaterial
structure a 'typical'that makes
animal andup a cell is called cytoplasm. It has a text
like sloppy jelly, in other words somewhere between a solid and a
0 The living material
jelly, it is that makes
not made 0 up substance
of one a cell is called
but is acytoplasm. It has
complex material a text
made
reactio
different
like sloppy jelly, structures.
in other wordsYou can't see many
somewhere of these
between
takes a structures
solid andunder
a
microscope. An electron microscope has a much
jelly, it is not made of one substance but is a complex material made higher
products show the details of these structures, which are called organelles
different
leave activestructures.
site You can't see many of these structures under
microscope. An electron microscope has a much higher
Figure 1.5 Enzymes catalyse reactions at their active site. mitochon
This acts like a 'lock' to the substrate 'key'. The
show
substrate fits into the active site, the details
and products ofThis
are formed. these structures,
happens which are called organelles
more easily than
enzyme - so enzymes act

mitochon
(b) Internal structure of a bacterium
cell wall
cell
(made of chitin) — • . •
chromosome (nucleoid) I c e l l
cell
membran
cytoplas
cytoplas
capsul
(slime
vacuol
nucle
nucleu cytoplas
Figure 1.3 The organelles in a cell can be seen using an electron flagellu
I p l a s m i d s
I
The2.10
Figure largest organelle in the
Structure 细菌结构 cell is the nucleus. Nearly all cells have
few types that don't are usually dead (e.g. the xylem vessels in a
酵⺟母
nucle
or don't live for very long
RNA(e.g. mature red bloodenvelop
cells, Chapter 5).
Figure 2.4 Structure of a
酵 DNA or
controls the activities of the cell. It contains chromosomes
(membrane from (46
⺟母 Figure 1.3 The which
organelles
carryin athe
cellgenetic
can bematerial,
seen usingoran 0 7 h o s t cell)
electron
genes. You will find out
genes and inheritance later in the book. Genes control the activities
cytoplas The largest organelle in the cell is the nucleus. Nearly all cells have
vacuol few types that don't are usually dead (e.g. the xylem vessels in a
or don't live for very long (e.g. mature red blood cells, Chapter 5).
controls the activities of the cell. It contains chromosomes (46
enzymes
cell which carry
on to the genetic material, or genes. You will findcoatout
protein
nucl membrane I soluble
10 genes and inheritance later in the book. Genes control the activities
absorbe
Figure 2.7 The structure of a typical mould fungus, the 'pin 1
0.01 t o 0.1 pm
⽑毛霉菌（真菌）的结构
Figure 2.13 The structure of a typical virus, such
as the type causing influenza (flu).

病毒结构
 start of
(oesophag
oesopha

trache trach

laryn bulge
left
i
ring of passing
bronchiol oesopha

intern C—shaped
intercost of cartilage
musc wall of
position of
Figure 3.3 C-shaped cartilage rings
the
trache
extern
pleural intercost
musc

pleural fluid rib

(in pleural
fibrous
muscular part of
of the diaphra

Figure 3.1 The human gas (b)

(a)

air enters air pushed out

trache

cavit
containin
pleur
flui

intern
intercost
diaphragm muscl
diaphragm external
relax— contract
contract muscles
becomes pulling
diaphragm pulling ribs up and out
shape down
Figure 3.6 Changes in the position of the ribs and diaphragm
(a) Breathing in (inhalation). (b) Breathing out

(a) a i r in and out end of (b

blood backback air in and out

. oxygenat
blood i t
deoxygenat
bloo wall of
one
capillar

blood from

oxyge
carbon

thin layer of
fluid lining

cells of alveolus

red blood
Figure 3.7 (a) Alveoli and the surrounding capillary network (b) Diffusion of oxygen and
takes place between the air in the alveolus and the blood in the
 ••
•
C ) . glucos 3 fatty
acid

C 2 7

glycero

fructos •
glucos Figure 4.5 Lipids are made up of a molecule of
sub- glycerol joined to three fatty acids.
different fatty acids form the variable part
• molecul

part
sucrose s t a r c h

Figure 4.3 Glucose and fructose are

molecules. A molecule of glucose joined
molecule of fructose forms the 'double
sucrose. Starch is a polymer of many
unit

surface cells
position microvilli
longitudinal
circular muscles contract

lactea

blood capillaries

direction of
circular highly magnified
circular muscles relax of surface cells

Figure 4.15 Peristalsis: contraction of circular muscles behind the food narrows the gut, pushing Figure 4.20 Each villus contains blood vessels and a lacteal, which absorb the products of digestion. The
along. When the circular muscles are contracted, the longitudinal ones are relaxed, and surface cells of the villus are covered with microvilli, which further increase the surface area for absorption.

positio
of liver
stomac

gall bladder duct of

pancrea
bile duct
duodenu
Figure 4.17 The first part of the small intestine, the duodenum, receives digestive juices from the
pancreas through tubes
 mout salivary

oesophagus

tongu

•achea (wind

live

stomac

gall
pancre

duodenu
sma
intestin
ileu
colo
larg
intestin
rectu

appendi

anu

;ure 4.16 The human

 head and

pulmonary artery aort

pulmonary
vena

right atrium left atrium

right ventricle left

lung
pulmonary artery pulmonary

liver
hepatic hepatic artery
. . . 1 1 1 P. 1 1 1 . 0 4 1 6 . 4 1 ,
Nip ' N M

44

hepatic

digestiv system

kidney
renal renal artery

sex organs

Figure 5.5 The main components of the human

(a (b
aort pulmonar
vena aort ven artery
(superior pulmonary artery cav
pulmonar
pulmonar vei
se vei
luna
valve left left
bicuspi
righ
(mitral coronar
righ valv atriu
atriu arterie
lef
tricuspi ventricl
valv lef
righ ventricl
ventricl
vena
(inferior righ
ventricl
Figure 5.6 The human heart: (a) vertical section; (b)
 0 The walls 0 When the ventricles
they contract.This
atria
Blood enters the pressure of blood
This raises
It cannot pressure ventricles which
into the in the atria bicuspid and
because again. Blood cannot return to
forces
(mitral) and the bicuspid the
valves are
tricuspid
Blood
through
valves
ventricle

Ke
oxygenated
deoxygenated
® As the
empty, higher
in the ® The ventricles continue to
pulmonary contract and
closes the continues to
these blood forces open the
The cycle valves at the base
again as the aorta and
to fill with artery. Blood is ejected into
these two
The pulmonary
carries blood to
The aorta
that carry blood
other parts of

% e a

cells
the

capillary oxyg
(one cell glucos
amino
and water
carbon
red blood other
products

Figure 5.12 How capillaries exchange materials

(a

( platel bacterium

•
toialkos

• • pseudopodi

• surround
bacteriu

re
blood •
•
• bacteriu
cel • I
enclosed in
a
111)
lymphocyte- 7 . phagocyt

digestive
destroy bacterium
 m o t o r neurone
cell body
dendro

dendrite

axo

direction

.
this
axon terminations
in the
muscle
nerve—muscle
nucleus of cell that myelin
makes myelin

cell body

20 um
sensory neurone myelin this part is in the CNS

IN+
junctions direction of impulse d e n d r o n axon j u n c t i o n s with
sensory neurones in CNS
Figure 6.3 The structure of motor and sensory neurones. The cell fibres (axon/dendron) are very long,
which is indicated by the

ciliary retin

fove

iri

optic
len nerv

pupi
corne

suspensor blin
ligament spo

scler
choroid

Figure 6.4 A horizontal section through the

receptor CN

sensory

relay neurone

motor neurone
 spinal cord

dorsal root
synaps
dorsal root

sensory neurone

sensory receptor
—nerve
in

motor white matter

muscle in arm grey matter
(stimulus) ventral root r e l a y neurone

Figure 6.9 A reflex arc in

synaptic connections with

other neurones impulses arrive down axon
of first neurone neurotransmitter
diffuses across

100:- ® neurotransmitter
attaches to
cell body 4 membrane of
second neurone

impulse
second neurone

® neurotransmitter
axo down by enzyme from
second neurone
Figure 6.10 The sequence of events hanoenina at

cranium
space around
filled with

c e r e b r u m
hypothalam

cavity
filled with
pituitary
(make
hormones
adrenal

cerebellu

pancreas
spinal
medull

ovary
(in women)
vertebral
(spin
testis (in men)
Figure 6.12 Section through the human brain, showing its
Figure 7.2 T h e main endocrine glands o f the body.
 I b l o o d to
r b l o o d from heart
a
e
h

renal artery - n showing where cortex

was cut)
right kidney medull

renal
vena renal artery
location
renal single nephron
aorta
ureter

pelvi

bladde sphincte pyramid

muscles u r e t e r
(two

urethra

Figure 8.2 The human

blood out
glomerulu
tubule second coiled
tubule

Bowman's
other
join here

collecting duct

loop of
duct opening at
tip of

Figure 8.4 A single nephron, showing its position in the kidney. Each kidney contains about a million of
these filtering

cells of Bowman's

cells of capillary wall

start of

bloo

glomerulu magnifie
view
filtrate passes of
into capsule

filtrate
red blood enter
tubul

cell of
Bowman'
basement capsul
Figure 8.5 A Bowman's capsule and glomerulus.
 pore
hair

epidermis

h a i r erector
oil gland muscle

pain
capillary loop
receptor

dermis sweat
gland
temperature
pressure receptor
receptor

hypodermis fat layer

Sperm approach An extra membrane (the fertilisation

membrane) now prevents any more
sperm from entering.

This sperm penetrates The sperm

the cell and ovum
the sperm nucleus enters.
Figure 9.5 The main stages in fertilisation.

Side view l-ront

uteru sperm duct

Fallopian tube (early
takes ovum from occurs
funnel of ovary to uterus
ovar
womb F a l l o p i a n tube erectile
(produces
(uterus ( o v i d u c t )

urethra semin
bladder o v a r y vesicl
peni

front c e r v i x ligament
holds ovary
muscular
in position testi
of womb scrotu
rectu
urethra
anu cervix
Figure 9.8 The human male
vagin vagin

Figure 9.7 The human female