PACIFIC COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

(Pacific University, Udaipur)

(Lecture Schedule of courses offered in B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture, Semester-1st)
Course No. AGRON 111 Fundamentals of Agronomy Credit hours: 4(3+1)
Theory
Agronomy and its scope, seeds and sowing, tillage and tilth, crop density and
geometry, Crop nutrition, manures and fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency, water resources,
soil plant water relationship, crop water requirement, water use efficiency, irrigation-
scheduling criteria and methods, quality of irrigation water, water logging.
Weeds- importance, classification, crop weed competition, concepts of weed management-
principles and methods, herbicides- classification, selectivity and resistance, allelopathy.
Growth and development of crops, factors affecting growth and development, plant
ideotypes, crop rotation and its principles, adaptation and distribution of crops, crop
management technologies in problematic areas, harvesting and threshing of crops.
Practical
Identification of crops, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and tillage implements, Effect of
sowing depth on germination and seedling vigour, Identification of weeds in crops, Methods
of herbicide and fertilizer application, Study of yield contributing characters and yield
estimation, Seed germination and viability test, Numerical exercises on fertilizer requirement,
plant population, herbicides and water requirement, Use of tillage implements-reversible
plough, one way plough, harrow, leveler, seed drill, Study of soil moisture measuring
devices, Measurement of field capacity, bulk density and infiltration rate, Measurement of
irrigation water.

Theory:
S.No. Topics No. of
lectures
1. Agronomy –definition, importance, basic principles and scope 1
2. Seeds- characteristics-advantages of using good quality seeds- seed 1
germination- seed rate
3. Seed treatment –purposes and methods of seed treatment 1
4. Sowing- methods - factors involved in sowing management 1
5. Tillage and tilth - definition - characteristics of good tilth-objectives of 1
tillage
6. Types of tillage- factors affecting types of tillage- modern concept of 1
tillage
7. Crop density – definition and importance- factors affecting crop density; 1
Crop geometry- definition and types.
8. Crop nutrition: Essential nutrients-classification of essential nutrients 1
9. Nutrients: Role and deficiency- control of deficiency and toxicity 1
10. Organic manures: classification and methods of preparations 1
11. Biofertilizers and their types. 1
12 Fertilizers: Classification - methods and time of application-nutrient use 1
efficiency
13. Factors affecting manures and fertilizer use- Concept of integrated 1
 nutrient management
14. Irrigation : Introduction, Importance, Definition & Objectives 1
15. Water Resources of India – Surface & Ground water resources – 1
Irrigation Development in India – Important major irrigation projects in
India
16. Water Resources of Rajasthan – Surface & Ground water resources 1
– Irrigation development in Rajasthan – Important major irrigation
projects in Rajasthan
17. Soil-water relations : Importance – Soil a three phase disperse system 2
– Physical properties of soil viz., Depth, Soil texture, Soil structure,
Particle density, Bulk density & Porosity influencing water retention,
movement & availability.
18. Plant-water relationships : Root characteristics – Soil properties 1
influencing root development – Effective root zone depth – Moisture
extraction pattern – Moisture sensitive periods of crops.
19. Crop water requirement and factors affecting crop water requirement 2
20. Water use efficiency – Crop water use & Field water use efficiency –
Factors influencing WUE – Climatic, genetic & management factors
21. Scheduling of irrigation – Different criteria – Soil water regime 1
approach – Feel & appearance method, Soil moisture tension &
Depletion of available soil moisture method, Climatological approach –
Lysimeters & IW/CPE ratio method.
22. Scheduling of irrigation – Plant indices approach – Visual plant 1
symptoms, Soil-cum-sand mini plot technique, Growth rate, Relative
water content, Plant water potential, Canopy temperature, Indicator
plants & Critical growth stages
23. Surface Methods of irrigation - Wild flooding, Check basin, Ring basin, 1
Border strip, Furrow & Corrugations – Advantages & disadvantages;
Sub-irrigation.
24. Sprinkler irrigation method – Definition – Applications – Advantages 1
& disadvantages – System components & Layout – Suitable crops.
25. Drip irrigation – Definition – Advantages & disadvantages – System 1
components & Layout – Suitable crops
26. Quality of water – Salinity hazard, Sodicity hazard, Residual sodium 2
carbonate & Boron toxicity – Criteria & threshold limits –
Management practices for using poor quality water.
27. Water logging –causes, effect on crop growth and development, 1
Agricultural drainage
28. Weeds-definition and importance, harmful and beneficial effects of 1
weeds
29. Classification of weeds – classification based on morphology – life cycle 1
– habitat – origin – association – special features and soil pH with
exmples.
30. Crop -weed competition - principles – factors - critical period of crop- 1
weed competition - allelopathy.
31. Concepts of weed management– preventive weed control measures – 1
physical / mechanical, cultural,
32. Chemical and biological methods of weed control – bioherbicides - 1
integrated weed management
33. Herbicides – definition - advantages and limitations of herbicide usage in 1
India- classification of herbicides based on chemical nature - time and
method of application
34. Classes of herbicides based on – selectivity – spectrum – translocation – 1
residual nature – soi sterilants and fumigants – types of formulations.
35. Nomenclature of herbicides - commonly available herbicides in India – 1
adjuvants -definition, their use in herbicides application.- surfactants -
stabilizing agents - solvents - humicants - stickers - activators -
compatibility agents - drift control agents etc.
36. Mode of action of herbicides – important biochemical modes of action of 1
herbicides interfearing with photosynthetic reactions – respiration -
enzymatic inhibition etc – effects of subleathel doses of herbicides on
plants
37. Selectivity of herbicides – fundamental principles of selectivity -
differential rate of absorption - differences in morphology and growth
habit of plants - rate of translocation.
38. Selectivity of herbicides - differential rate of deactivation of herbicides – 1
metabolism - reverse metabolism – conjugation - protoplasmic resistance
to the specific herbicide
39. Growth and development of crops 1
40. Factors affecting crop growth and development 1
41. Concept of plant ideotypes 1
42. Crop rotation and its principles 1
43. Adaptation and distribution of crops 1
44. Crop management technologies in problematic areas 1
45. Harvesting and threshing of crops 1
Total 48

Practicals:
S.No. Topics No. of
lectures
1. Identification of crops, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and tillage implements 2
2. Effect of sowing depth on germination and seedling vigour 1
3. Identification of weeds in crops 1
4. Methods of herbicide application 2
Methods of fertilizer application 1
5. Study of yield contributing characters and yield estimation 1
6. Seed germination and viability test 1
7. Numerical exercises on fertilizer requirement plant population, herbicides 2
and water requirement
8. Use of tillage implements-reversible plough, one way plough, harrow, 1
leveler, seed drill
9. Study of soil moisture measuring devices 1
10. Measurement of field capacity 1
11. bulk density and infiltration rate 1
12. Measurement of irrigation water 1
Total 16
Suggested Readings
1.Chandrasekaran, B.,Annadurai, K. and Somasundaram,E.2010.A Text Book of Agronomy,
New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
2. ICAR. 2006. Handbook of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi
3. Gupta, O.P.2005. Weed Management: Principles and Practices (2nd Ed.), Agribios (India),
Jodhpur.
4. Reddy, S.R. 2004. Principles of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana
5. Saraswat, V.N., Bhan, V.M. and Yaduraju, N.T.2003. Weed Management, ICAR,
New Delhi.
6. Balasubramaniyan, P. and Palaniappan, S.P.2001. Principles and Practices of Agronomy,
Agrobios (India), Jodhpur
7. Reddy, S.R.2000. Principles of Crop Production, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana

Lecture No. 1. Agronomy – definition, importance, basic principles and scope

What is Agriculture?
Agriculture: Agriculture is the most important enterprise in the world. It is a productive unit
where the free gifts of nature namely land, light, air, temperature and rain water etc., are
integrated into single primary unit indispensable for human beings. Secondary productive
units namely animals including livestock, birds and insects, feed on these primary units and
provide concentrated products such as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk and lac.
Agriculture is derived from Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field
and Cultura means cultivation. Therefore the term agriculture means cultivation of land. i.e.,
the science and art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes. It is also referred
as the science of producing crops and livestock from the natural resources of the earth. The
primary aim of agriculture is to cause the land to
produce more abundantly, and at the same time, to protect it from deterioration and misuse. It
is synonymous with farming–the production of food, fodder and other industrial materials.
Thus, Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing
crops and the livestock for economic purposes.
As an art, it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a
skillful
manner. The skill is categorized as;
Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient
way for e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds, fertilizer and
pesticides application etc.
Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as (i) time and
method of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii)
adopting improved farm practices etc.
As a science : It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as
crop improvement/breeding, crop production, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize
the yield and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization,
transgenic crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer
responsive varieties, water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control
agents to combat pest and diseases etc.
As the business : As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production
is ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net
return through the management of land, labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge
of various sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is
commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.

Branches of Agriculture
Agriculture has 3 main spheres viz., Geoponic (Cultivation in earth-soil), Aeroponic
(cultivation in air) and Hydroponic (cultivation in water). Agriculture is the branch of science
encompassing the applied aspects of basic sciences.
Crop production - It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops,
fodder crops, fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, soil science,
entomology, pathology, microbiology, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how
to control the diseases.
Horticulture - Branch of agriculture deals with the production of flowers, fruits, vegetables,
ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops-opium, etc., which has
medicinal value) and beverages.
Agricultural Engineering - It is an important component for crop production and
horticulture particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified
tools to facilitate proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and
machinery in animal production.
Forestry - It deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying
wood, timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries.
Animal Husbandry - The animals being produced, maintained, etc. Maintenance of various
types of livestock for direct energy (work energy). Husbandry is common for both crop and
animals. The objective is to get maximum output by feeding, rearing, etc. The arrangement of
crops is done to get minimum requirement of light or air. This arrangement is called
geometry. Husbandry is for direct and indirect energy.
Fishery Science - It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns.
Home Science - Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner.
When utilization is enhanced production is also enhanced. e.g., a crop once in use in south
was found that it had many uses now.
On integration, all the seven branches, first three is grouped as for crop production
group and next two for animal management and last two as allied agriculture branches.
Broadly in practice, agriculture is grouped in four major categories as:

A. Crop (i) Plant breeding and genetics

Improvement (ii) Bio-technology
B. Crop (i) Agronomy
Management (ii) Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science
(iii) Seed technology
(iv) Agricultural Microbiology
(v) Crop-Physiology
(vi) Agricultural Engineering
(vii) Environmental Sciences
(viii) Agricultural Meteorology
(ix) Horticulture
C. Crop Protection (i) Agricultural Entomology
(ii) Plant Pathology
(iii) Nematology
D. Social Sciences (i) Agricultural Extension
(ii) Agricultural Economics
 Allied disciplines (i) Agricultural Statistics
(ii) English
(iii) Mathematics
(iv) Bio-Chemistry etc.

Definition of Agronomy
The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and nomos
having the meaning of field and to manage, respectively. Literally, agronomy means the “art
of managing field”. Technically, it means the “science and economics of crop production by
management of farm land”.

Agronomy is defined as “a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles

and practices of field crop production and management of soil for higher productivity.”

Importance
Among all the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies a pivotal position and is
regarded as the mother branch or primary branch. Like agriculture, agronomy is an integrated
and applied aspect of different disciplines of pure sciences. Agronomy has three clear
branches namely,

(i) Crop Science, (ii) Soil Science, and (iii) Environmental Science that deals only with
applied aspects. (i.e.,) Soil-Crop-Environmental relationship. Agronomy is a synthesis of
several disciplines like crop science, which includes plant breeding, crop physiology and
biochemistry etc., and soil science, which includes soil fertilizers, manures etc., and
environmental science which includes meteorology and crop ecology.

Basic Principles
• Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land, labourer,
capital and other factors of production.
• Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility,
season and method of cultivation and befitting to the cropping system;
• Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and
drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other suitable land improvement
practices;
• Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under
adverse environmental conditions;
• Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop and improvement of soil
fertility and productivity. Correction of ill-effects of soil reactions and conditions and
increasing soil
organic matter through the application of green manure, farm yard manure, organic wastes,
bio fertilizers and profitable recycling of organic wastes;
• Choice of quality seed or seed material and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit
area with healthy and uniform seedlings;
• Proper water management with respect to crop, soil and environment through conservation
and utilization of soil moisture as well as by utilizing water that is available in excess, and
scheduling irrigation at critical stages of crop growth.
• Adoption of adequate, need-based, timely and exacting plant protection measures against
weeds, insect-pests, pathogens, as well as climatic hazards and correction of deficiencies and
disorders;
• Adoption of suitable and appropriate management practices including intercultural
operations to get maximum benefit from inputs dearer and difficult to get, low-monetary and
non-monetary inputs;
• Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field loss and to
release land for succeeding crop(s) and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant
nutrients and other management practices;
• Adoption of suitable post-harvest technologies.
• Agronomy was recognized as a distinct branch of agricultural science only since about since
about 1900. The American Society of Agronomy was organized in 1908.

Agronomist
“Scientist who studies the principles and practices of crop production and soil
management for production of food for human beings and feed for his animals”.

Scope of Agronomy
Agronomy is a dynamic discipline with the advancement of knowledge and better
understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are modified and new
practices developed for high productivity, for example availability of chemical fertilizer has
necessitated the generation of knowledge on the method, quantity and time of application of
fertilizers. Similarly availability of herbicides for the control of weeds has led to development
of knowledge about selectivity, time and method of application of herbicides. To overcome
the problems different management practices are developed.
Population pressure is increasing but area under cultivation is static, therefore more
number of crops have to be grown on the same piece of land to increase the yield. As a result,
intensive cropping has come into practice.
New technology has to be developed to overcome the effect of moisture stress under
dryland conditions. As new varieties of crops with high yield potential become available
package of practices have to be developed to exploit their full potential.
Restoration of soil fertility, preparation of good seed bed, use of proper seed rates,
correct dates of sowing for each improved variety, proper conservation and management of
soil moisture and proper control of weeds are agronomic practices to make our limited land
and water resources more productive

Relation of Agronomy to other sciences

Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like soil science, Agricultural
chemistry, crop physiology, plant ecology, biochemistry and economics. Soil physical,
chemical and biological properties have to be understood thoroughly to effect modification of
soil environment. Similarly it is necessary to understand the physiology of crops to meet their
requirements. Advances in economic analysis helped in production of crops economically.
Agronomist aims to obtain maximum production at minimum cost. He exploits the
knowledge developed by basic and applied science for higher crop production. Whatever may
be the research findings of other scientists. Agronomist has to test their suitability in the field
and accept them finally and also judge the reactions of farming community. He is a key
person with working knowledge of all agricultural disciplines and coordinator of different
subject matter specialists.
Lecture No. 2 Seeds- characteristics-advantages of using good
quality seeds- seed germination- seed rate
Lecture No.3 Seed treatment –purposes and methods of seed
treatment
Lecture No.4 Sowing-methods-factors involved in sowing
management
Plants reproduce sexually by seeds and asexually by vegetative parts. Grains, which
are used for multiplication, are called seeds while those used for human or animal
consumption are called grains. Good stalks of planting materials are basic to profitable crop
production. The seed or planting material largely determines the quality and quantity of the
produce. A good seed or stalk of planting material is genetically satisfactory and true to type,
fully developed and free from contamination, deformities, diseases and pests.
Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of three main parts namely seed coat,
endosperm and embryo, which in due course gives raise to a new plant. Endosperm is the
storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat
is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm.

1. CHARACTERISTICS
A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics:
• Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures and should belong
to the proper variety or strain of the crop and their duration should be according to
agroclimate and cropping system of the locality.
• Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential.
• Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection.
• Seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials.
• Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged; crushed or peeled off; half filled and
half rotten.
• Seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight.
• Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age.
• Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%).
• Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%).
• Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.

2. ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS

The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds:
• Reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections.
• Uniform germination thus avoiding replanting, gap filling.
• Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease, damages.
• Uniform growth stages, maturity and products.
• Maintain good quality under storage conditions.
• Reduced cost.

3. SEED GERMINATION
Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in rupture
of the seed coat and emergence of seedling from embryonic axis.

Factors affecting germination are :

Soil: Soil type, texture, structure and microorganism greatly influence the seed germination.
Environment: Generally, the environmental conditions favouring growth of seedling also
favours germination. Germination does not occur until the seeds attain physiological
maturity.
Water (soil moisture and seed moisture): Imbibitions of water is the prerequisite process
for germination. Both living and dead seeds imbibe water and swell. Dead seeds imbibe more
water and swell rapidly as compared to good seeds. The amount imbibed is related to the
chemical composition of the seed such as proteins, mucilage’s pectins and biochemical
components. Cereal grains such as maize imbibe water to approximately 1/3 of its seed
weight, soybean seeds to 1/2 of its seed weight. Seed germination will be maximum when the
soil moisture level is at field capacity. Slower rate of germination is noticed in places where
soil moisture is near or at wilting point.
Temperature: The cardinal temperature (Maximum, optimum and minimum temperature) for
germination of some of the crops is given below; The optimum temperature is that one gives
the highest germination percentage in the shortest period of time.
Table 1. Cardinal Temperature for important Crops

Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting and inhibiting seed germination is red
(660 nm) and infrared (730 nm), respectively.
Atmospheric gases: Most crop seeds germinate well in the ambient composition of air with
20% O2, 0.03% CO2 and 78.2% N.
Exogenous chemicals: Some chemicals induce or favour quick and rapid germination.
• Gibberellins stimulate germination in protoplasmic seeds.
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used for legumes, tomato and barley.
• Ethylene (C2H4) is used for stimulating groundnut germination.

4. SEED RATE
Seed rate is the quantity of seed required for sowing or planting in an unit area. The seed rate
for a particular crop would depend not only on its seed size/test weight, but also on its desired
population, germination percentage and purity percentage of seed. It is calculated as follows:
Area to be sown in m2 x Test weight of the seed x 1
Seed rate (kg)= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Germination% x Purity% x Spacing (m) x 1000

5. SEED TREATMENT
Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by
soaking in solutions of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal,
nematicidal or biopesticidal properties), nutrients, hormones or growth regulators or
subjected to a process of wetting and drying or subjected to reduce, control or repel disease
organisms, insects or other pests which attack seeds or seedlings growing there from. Seed
treatment also includes control of pests when the seed is in storage and after it has been
sown/planted.
The seed treatment is done for the following reasons:
• To protect from seed borne pests and diseases.
• To protect from or repel birds and rodents.
• To supply plant nutrients.
• To inoculate microorganisms.
 • To supply growth regulators.
• To supply selective herbicides.
• To break seed dormancy.
• To induce drought tolerance.
• To induce higher germination percentage, early emergence.
• To obtain polyploids (genetic variation) by treating with x-rays, gamma rays and
colchicines.
• To facilitate mechanized sowing.

5.1 Methods of Seed Treatment

1. Dry treatment: Mixing of seed with powder form of pesticides/nutrients.
2. Wet treatment: Soaking of seed in pesticide/nutrient solutions
3. Slurry treatment: Dipping of seeds/seedlings in slurry. Example–rice seedlings are dipped
in phosphate slurry.
4. Pelleting: It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds
larger, heavier and to appear uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with
pesticides as a protectant against soil organisms, soil pests and as a repellant against birds
and rodents. The seed treatment for different field crops is given in chapter 15.

6. SOWING
Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the soil for germination and
growth while planting is the placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings,
rhizomes, clones, tubers etc.) in the soil to grow as plants.

6.1 Methods of Sowing

Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where
seedlings are raised
and transplanted later. Direct seeding may be done by
(a) Broadcasting (b) Dibbling
(c) Drilling (d) Sowing behind the country plough
(e) Planting (f) Transplanting
(a) Broad casting - Broad casting is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which
may or may not be incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand,
mechanical spreader or aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of
seeding. The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper
placement of seeds and less soil cover and compaction. As all the seeds are not placed in
uniform density and depth, there is no uniformity of germination, seedling vigour and
establishment. It is mostly suited for closely spaced and small seeded crops.
(b) Dibbling - It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and
depth with a dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time consuming
and expensive compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and, gives rapid and
uniform germination with good seedling vigour.
(c) Drilling - It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and
compacted. Sowing implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures,
fertilizers, soil amendments, pesticides, etc. may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are
drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but
maintains uniform population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements.
(d) Sowing behind the country plough - It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the
plough furrow either continuously or at required spacing by a man working behind a plough.
When the plough takes the next adjacent furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed
by the soil closing the furrow. Depth of sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the
plough furrow. e.g., ground nut sowing in dry land areas of Tamil Nadu.
(e) Planting - Placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow.
(f) Transplanting - Planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It
is done to reduce the main field duration of the crops facilitating to grow more number of
crops in an year. It is easy to give extra care for tender seedlings. For small seeded crops like
rice and ragi which require shallow sowing and frequent irrigation for proper germination,
raising nursery is the easiest way.

Pre-monsoon sowing
Normally, sowing is taken up after receipt of sufficient amount of rainfall (20 mm) in the
case of dry land farming. Since sowing is continued for two or three days after a soaking rain,
certain amount of moisture is last during the period between the receipt of rainfall and
sowing. In the case of heavy clay soils (black soils), sowing operation is difficult after the
receipt of rain. To over come this difficulty, sowing is taken up in dry soil prepared with
summer rains, 7-10 days before the anticipated receipt of sowing rains. The seeds germinate
after the receipt of the rainfall. This method of sowing is known as dry sowing or pre-
monsoon sowing. By this method, the entire rainfall received is efficiently utilized.

6.2 Factors involved in Sowing Management

This can be classified into two broad groups.

1. Mechanical factors - Factors such as depth of sowing, emergence habit, seed size and
weight, seedbed texture, seed–soil contact, seedbed fertility, soil moisture etc.

(i) Seed size and weight: Heavy and bold seeds produce vigorous seedlings. Application of
fertilizer to bold seed tends to encourage the seedlings than the seedlings from small seeds.
(ii) Depth of sowing: Optimum depth of sowing ranges from 2.5–3 cm. Depth of sowing
depends on seed size and availability of soil moisture. Deeper sowing delays field
emergence and thus delays crop duration. Deeper sowing sometimes ensures crop survival
under adverse weather and soil conditions mostly in dry lands.
(iii) Emergence habit: Hypogeal seedlings may emerge from a relatively deeper layer than
epigeal seedlings of similar seed size.
(iv) Seedbed texture: Soil texture should minimize crust formation and maximize aeration,
which in turn influence the gases, temperature and water content of the soil. Very fine soil
may not maintain adequate temperature and water holding capacity.
(v) Seeds–Soil contact: Seeds require close contact with soil particles to ensure that water can
be absorbed readily. A tilled soil makes the contact easier. Forming the soil around the
seed (broadcasted seeds) after sowing improves the soil–seed contact.
(vi) Seedbed fertility: Tillering crops like rice, ragi, bajra etc., should be sown thinly on
fertile soils and more densely on poor soils. Similarly high seed rate is used on poor soil
for non-tillering crops. Although higher the seed rate grater the yield under conditions of
low soil fertility, in some cases such as cotton, a lower seed rate gives better result than a
higher seed rate.
(vii) Soil moisture: Excess moisture in soil retards germination and induce rotting and
damping off disease except in swamp (deep water) rice. Adjustment in depth is made
according to moisture conditions, i.e., deeper sowing on dry soils and shallow sowing on
wet soils. Sowing on ridges is usually recommended on poorly drained soils.

2. Biological factors - Factors like companion crops, competition for light, soil
 microorganisms etc.

(i) Companion crop: Companion crop is usually sown early to suppress weed growth and
control soil erosion. In cassava + maize/yam cropping, cassava is planted later in yam or
maize to minimize the effect of competition for light. In mixed cropping, all the crops are
sown at the same time.
(ii) Competition of light: In mixed stands, optimum spacing for each crop minimizes the
competition of light.
(iii) Soil microorganisms: The microorganisms present in the soil should favour seed
germination and should not posses any harmful effect on seeds/emerging seedlings.
Lecture 5
Tillage and tilth – definition - characteristics of good tilth - objectives of tillage
Tillage operations in various forms have been practised from the very inception of
growing plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing seeds. The word
tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian and teolian, meaning to plough and
prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops. Jethrotull, who is considered as
Father of tillage suggested that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into
fine particles.
1. DEFINITION : Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and
implements so as to create favourable soil conditions for better seed germination and
subsequent growth of crops.
Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage. Tilth is a loose friable
(mellow), airy, powdery, granular and crumbly condition of the soil with optimum moisture
content suitable for working and germination or sprouting of seeds and propagules i.e., tilth is
the ideal seed bed.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TILTH : Good tilth refers to the favourable physical
conditions for germination and growth of crops. Tilth indicates two properties of soil viz., the
size distribution of aggregates and mellowness or friability of soil. The relative proportion of
different sized soil aggregates is known as size distribution of soil aggregates. Higher
percentages of larger aggregates with a size above 5 mm in diameter are necessary for
irrigated agriculture while higher percentage of smaller aggregates (1–2 mm in diameter) are
desirable for rainfed agriculture. Mellowness or friability is that property of soil by which the
clods when dry become more crumbly. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has free
drainage up to water table. The capillary and non-capillary pores should be in equal
proportion so that sufficient amount of water and free air is retained respectively.
3. OBJECTIVES Tillage is done:
• To prepare ideal seed bed favourable for seed germination, growth and establishment;
• To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and proliferation;
• To remove other sprouting materials in the soil;
• To control weeds;
• To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbour in the soil;
• To improve soil physical conditions;
• To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favour for microbial and
biochemical activities;
• To modify soil temperature;
• To break hard soil pans and to improve drainage facility;
• To incorporate crop residues and organic matter left over;
• To conserve soil by minimizing the soil erosion;
• To conserve the soil moisture;
• To harvest efficiently the effective rain water;
• To assure the through mixing of manures, fertilizers and pesticides in the soil;
• To facilitate water infiltration and thus increasing the water holding capacity of the soil, and
• To level the field for efficient water management.
Lecture 6
Types of tillage- factors affecting types of tillage- modern concept of tillage
1. TYPES OF TILTH
Fine Tilth refers to the powdery condition of the soil.
Coarse Tilth refers to the rough cloddy condition of the soil.
Fine seedbed is required for small seeded crops like ragi, onion, berseem, tobacco.
Coarse seedbed is needed for bold seeded crops like sorghum, cotton, chickpea, lab-lab etc.

2. TYPES OF TILLAGE
1. On Season Tillage: It is done during the cropping season (June–July or Sept.–
Oct.).
2. Off Season Tillage: It is done during fallow or non-cropped season (summer).
3. Special Types of Tillage: It is done at any time with some special
objective/purpose.
1. On Season Tillage
Tillage operations done for raising the crops in the same season or at the onset of the crop
season are called as on season tillage. They are,
A. Preparatory Tillage
It refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It is divided
into three types viz., (i) primary tillage, (ii) secondary tillage, and (iii) seed bed preparation.
(i) Primary tillage - The first cutting and inverting of the soil that is done after the harvest of
the crop or untilled fallow, is known as primary tillage. It is normally the deepest operation
performed during the period between two crops. Depth may range from 10–30 cm. It includes
ploughing to cut and invert the soil for further operation. It consists of deep opening and
loosening the soil to bring out the desirable tilth. The main objective is to control weeds to
incorporate crop stubbles and to restore soil structure.
(ii) Secondary tillage - It refers to shallow tillage operation that is done after primary tillage
to bring a good soil tilth. In this operation the soil is stirred and conditioned by breaking the
clods and crust, closing of cracks and crevices that form on drying. Incorporation of manures
and fertilizers, leveling, mulching, forming ridges and furrows are the main objectives. It
includes cultivating, harrowing, pulverizing, raking, leveling and ridging operations.
(iii) Seed bed preparation - It refers to a very shallow operation intended to prepare a seed
bed or make the soil to suit for planting. Weed control and structural development of the soil
are the objectives.
B. Inter Tillage/Inter Cultivation
It refers to shallow tillage operation done in the filed after sowing or planting or prior to
harvest of crop plants i.e., tillage during the crop stand in the field. It includes inter
cultivating, harrowing, hoeing, weeding, earthing up, forming ridges and furrows etc. Inter
tillage helps to incorporate top dressed manures and fertilizers, to earth up and to prune roots.
2. Off Season Tillage
Tillage operation is done for conditioning the soil during uncropped season with the main
objective of water conservation, leveling to the desirable grade, leaching to remove salts for
soil reclamation reducing the population of pest and diseases in the soils. etc. They are:
(a) Stubble or Post harvest tillage - Tillage operation carried out immediately after harvest of
crop to clear off the weeds and crop residues and to restore the soil structure. Removing of
stiff stubbles of sugarcane crop by turning and incorporating the trashes and weeds thus
making the soil ready to store rain water etc., are the major objectives of such tillage
operations.
(b) Summer tillage - Operation being done during summer season in tropics to destroy weeds
and soil borne pest and diseases, checking the soil erosion and retaining the rain water
through summer showers. It affects the soil aggregates, soil organic matter and sometimes
favour wind erosion. It is called as Kodai uzavu in Tamil Nadu state.
(c) Winter tillage - It is practiced in temperate regions where the winter is severe that makes
the field unfit for raising crops. Ploughing or harrowing is done in places where soil condition
is optimum to destroy weeds and to improve the physical condition of the soil and also to
incorporate plant residues.
(d) Fallow tillage - It refers to the leaving of arable land uncropped for a season or seasons
for various reasons. Tilled fallow represent an extreme condition of soil disturbance to
eliminate all weeds and control soil borne pest etc. Fallow tilled soil is prone to erosion by
wind and water and subsequently they become degraded and depleted.
3. Special Types
Special type tillage includes
(i) Subsoil tillage (sub soiling) is done to cut open/break the subsoil hard pan or plough pan
using sub soil plough/chisel plough. Here the soil is not inverted. Sub soiling is done once in
4–5 years, where heavy machinery is used for field operations and where there is a colossal
loss of topsoil due to carelessness. To avoid closing of sub soil furrow vertical mulching is
adopted.
(ii) Levelling by tillage - Arable fields require a uniform distribution of water and plant
nutrition for uniform crop growth. This is achieved when fields are kept fairly leveled.
Levellers and scrapers are used for levelling operations. In leveled field soil erosion is
restricted and other management practices become easy and uniform.
(iii) Wet tillage - This refers to tillage done when the soil is in a saturated (anaerobic)
condition. For example puddling for rice cultivation.
(iv) Strip tillage - Ploughing is done as a narrow strip by mixing and tilling the soil leaving
the remaining soil surface undisturbed.
(v) Clean tillage - Refers to the working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living
plant is left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests.
(vi) Ridge tillage - It refers to forming ridges by ridge former or ridge plough for the purpose
of planting.
(vii) Conservation tillage - It means any tillage system that reduces loss of soil or water
relative to conventional tillage. It is often a form of non-inversion tillage that retains
protective amounts of crop residue mulch on the surface. The important criteria of a
conservation tillage system are:
(i) presence of crop residue mulch, (ii) effective conservation of soil and water, (iii)
improvement of soil structure and organic matter content, and (iv) maintenance of high and
economic level of production.
(viii) Contour tillage - It refers to tilling of the land along contours (contour means lines of
uniform elevation) in order to reduce soil erosion and run off.
(ix) Blind tillage - It refers to tillage done after seeding or planting the crop (in a sterile soils)
either at the pre-emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in the early stages of
growth so that crop plants (cereals, tuber crops etc.) do not get damaged, but extra plants and
broad leaved weeds are uprooted.
MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE
In conventional tillage combined primary and secondary tillage operations are performed in
preparing seed bed by using animal or tractor, which cause hard pan in sub soils resulting in
poor infiltration of rain water, thus it is more susceptible to run off and soil erosion. Farmers
usually prepare fine seed bed by repeated ploughing, when the animal of the farm is having
less work. Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and often detrimental.
Repeated use of heavy machinery destroys structures, causes soil pans and leads to soil
erosion. Moreover energy is often wasted during tillage processes. All these reasons led to the
development of modern concepts namely the practices like minimum tillage, zero tillage,
stubble mulch farming and conservation tillage, etc.
1. Minimum Tillage
Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good
seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing conditions. Tillage
can be reduced in two ways by omitting operations, which do not give much benefit when
compared to the cost, and by combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer
application.
(a) Advantages (especially in coarse and medium textured soils)
• Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ.
• Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the
decomposition of dead roots.
• Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure.
• Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles.
• Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage.
(b) Disadvantages
• Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.
• More nitrogen has to be added as the rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. This
point holds good only in temperate regions. Contrary to this in tropics, minimum tillage
recommended to conserve organic matter in the soil.
• Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans.
• Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment.
• Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial
problematic weeds (weed shift).
• Minimum tillage can be achieved by the following methods:
(a) Row zone tillage - Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of
the field, secondary tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done only
in row zone.
(b) Plough-plant tillage - After the primary tillage a special planter is used for sowing. In
one run over the field, the row zone is pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter.
(c) Wheel track planting - Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing,
the wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which planting is done.
2. Zero Tillage/No Tillage/Chemical Tillage
Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided and
secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only. It is also known as
no-tillage and is resorted to places where soils are subjected to wind and water erosion,
timing of tillage operation is too difficult and requirements of energy and labour for tillage
are also too high. Weeds are controlled using herbicides. Hence, it is also referred as
chemical tillage. There are two types of zero tillage.
(a) Till Planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash bars clear a
strip over the previous crop row and planter–opens a narrow strip into which seeds are
planted and covered. In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the
vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non-selective herbicides
with relatively short residual effect (Paraquat, Glyphosate etc.) are used and subsequently
selective and persistent herbicides are needed (Atrazine, Alachlor etc.).
(b) Sod planting or sod culture: Sod refers to top few centimeters of soil permeated by and
held together with grass roots or grass-legume roots. Planting of seeds in sods without any
tillage operation is known as sod culture or sod seeding. Usually legumes or small grains are
mechanically placed directly into a sod.
Advantages
• Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms. These soil
physical properties are apparent after two years of zero tillage.
• The organic matter content increases due to less mineralization.
• Surface runoff is reduced due to the presence of mulch.
Disadvantages
• In temperate countries highest dose of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of
organic matter in zero tillage.
• Large population of perennial weeds appears in zero tilled plots.
• Higher number of volunteer plants and build up of pests are the other problems.
3. Stubble Mulch Tillage or Stubble Mulch Farming
In this tillage, soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by leaving the crop
residues on the surface during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the
soil up to 12 to 15 cm depth in the first operation after harvest and the depth of cut is reduced
during subsequent operations. When unusually large amount of residues are present, a disc
type implement is used for the first operation to incorporate some of the residues into the soil.
Two methods are adopted for sowing crops in stubble mulch farming.
• Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash-bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow
planter-shoe opens a narrow furrow into which seeds are placed.
• A narrow chisel of 5–10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15–30 cm
leaving all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters tillage pans and surface crusts.
Planting is done through residues with special planters.
Disadvantages
• The residues left on the surface interfere with seedbed preparation and sowing operations.
• The traditional tillage and sowing implements or equipments are not suitable under these
 conditions.
4. Conservation Tillage
Though it is similar to that of stubble mulch tillage, it is done to conserve soil and water by
reducing their losses. Modern tillage methods are practiced in western countries especially in
USA. In India, it is not suitable due to several reasons. In USA, straw and stubbles are left
over in the field but in India, it is a valuable fodder for the cattle and fuel for the home. Use
of heavy machinery in India is limited and therefore, problem of soil compaction is rare. The
type of minimum tillage that can be practiced in India is to reduce the number of ploughings
to the minimum necessary i.e., unnecessary repeated ploughings/harrowing can be avoided.
Lecture 7
Crop density – definition and importance- factors affecting crop
density; Crop geometry- definition and types.

Crop Density and Crop Geometry

Crop density is the number of plants per unit area in a cropped field. It indicates the size of
the area available for individual plant.
Crop geometry is the pattern of distribution of plant over the ground or the shape of the area
available to the individual plant, in a crop field.

1. IMPORTANCE
Yield of a crop depends on the final plant density. The density depends on the
germination percentage and the survival rate in the field. Establishment of required plant
density is essential to get maximum yield. For example when a crop is raised on stored soil
moisture under rainfed conditions, high density will deplete moisture before crop maturity.
Where as, low density will leave moisture unutilized. Hence, optimum density will lead to
effective utilization of soil moisture, nutrients, sunlight etc. When soil moisture and nutrients
are not limited, higher density is necessary to utilize other growth factors (solar radiation)
efficiently.
Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant density per unit area is increased
However, the yield per unit area is increased up to a certain level of plant density due to
utilization of growth factors. Maximum yield per unit area can, therefore, be obtained when
the plant density is optimum.
(a) Cop Density and Yield
Biological yield increases with increases in crop density up to a point and reaches a
plateau with further increase in density, thus no additional biological yield can be obtained.
On the other hand, the economic yield increases with increase in crop density up to a point
and subsequently decreases with increased in density.
(b) Crop Density and Growth
Plant height increase with increase in plant density due to competition for light. Dense
plant stands leads to reduction in leaf thickness and alters leaf orientation. Dry matter
production per unit area increase with increase in plant density up to a limit, as in biological
yield.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT DENSITY

Optimum plant density is necessary to obtain maximum yield. Optimum plant density
depends on size of the plant, elasticity, foraging area, nature of the plant, capacity to reach
optimum leaf area at an early date and seed rate used. The factors affecting plant density are
grouped into two as (a) genetic and (b) environment factors.
A. Genetic Factors (plant or internal factors)
(i) Size of plant - The volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering decides the
spacing of the crop. Plants of red gram, cotton, sugarcane etc., occupy larger volume of space
in the field compared to rice, wheat, ragi, etc. Even the varieties of the same crop differ in
size of plant.
(ii) Elasticity of the plant - Variation in size or plant between the minimum size of the plant
that can produce some economic yield to the maximum size of the plant that can reach under
unlimited space and resources is the elasticity of the plant. The optimum plant density range
is high in indeterminate plants. For example, in indeterminate red gram varieties the optimum
plant density ranges from 55 to 133 thousand plants/ha. The elasticity of plants is due to
branching or tillering. For determinate plants like maize, sorghum etc., the elasticity is less
and hence the optimum plant density range is small. The removal of auxiliary buds is done to
get uniform and early maturity in castor.
(iii) Foraging area or soil cover - The crop should cover the soil as early as possible so as to
intercept maximum sunlight. More interception of solar radiation leads to more dry matter
production. Closely spaced plants intercept more radiation than widely spaced plants. Area of
root spread also decides the density.
(iv) Dry matter partitioning - Dry matter production is related to the amount of solar
radiation intercepted by the canopy, which depends on the plant density. As the plant density
increases, the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is intercepted and more dry
matter is produced.
B. Environmental Factors (management factors)
The primary management factor affecting the plant density of any crop varieties is the
method of stand establishment/sowings like transplanting or broadcasting. For
transplanting/direct drilling, the genetic factors are the deciding factors on the number of
plants per unit area. For broadcasting, the factors are:
(i) Time of sowing - The crop is subjected to different weather conditions when sown at
different periods. Among the weather factors, the most important factors that influence
optimum plant density are day length and temperature. Photosensitive varieties respond to
day length resulting in change in size of the plant. As low temperature retards the growth,
higher density is established for quicker ground cover.
(ii) Rainfall/irrigation - Plant density has to be less under rainfed than irrigated conditions.
Under higher plant densities, more water is lost through transpiration. Under adequate
irrigation or under evenly distributed rainfall conditions, higher plant density is
recommended.
(iii) Fertilizer application - Higher plant density is necessary to fully utilize higher level of
nutrients in the soil to realize higher yield. Nutrient uptake increases with increase in plant
density. Higher density under low fertility conditions leads to development of nutrient
deficiency symptoms. For example, rice does not respond to plant density without nitrogen
application.
(iv) Seed rate - Quantity of seed sown/unit area, viability and establishment rate decides the
plant density.

3. CROP GEOMETRY
Crop geometry refers to the shape of the space available for individual plants. It
influences crop yield through its influence on light interception, rooting pattern and moisture
extraction pattern. Crop geometry is altered by changing inter and intra-row spacing
(Planting pattern).
• Wider spaced crops have advantage under this geometry
• Plants which requires no restriction in all directions are given square geometry
• Usually perennial vegetations like trees/shrubs are under this arrangements
(i) Square planting - Square arrangements of plants will be more efficient in the utilization of
light, water and nutrients available to the individual plants than in a rectangular arrangement.
(ii) Rectangular planting - Sowing the crop with seed drill, wider inter-row and closer intra-
row and closer intra-row spacing leads to rectangularity. Rectangular arrangement facilitates
easy intercultivation. Rectangular planting mainly suits annual crops, crops with closer
spacing etc., the wider section (row) is given for irrigation, intercultural operation etc.
• It is an arrangement to restrict the endless growth habit in order to switch over from
Vegetation to the productive phase.
• This method accommodate high density planting
 • It can facilitate intercropping also.
(iii) Triangular planting - It is a method to accommodate plant density under perennial/tree
crops.
(iv) Miscellaneous planting - In rice and ragi transplanting is done either in rows or at
random. Skipping of every alternate row is known as skip row planting. When one row is
skipped the density is adjusted by decreasing inter-row spacing. When the inter row spacing
is reduced between two rows and spacing between two such pair are increased then it is
known as paired row planting. It is generally done to introduce an inter crop.

4. AFTER CULTIVATION
It refers to the cultural operations like thinning, gap filling, harrowing, tilling and
other operations carried out in a field after the crop has emerged. Thinning and gap filling are
done to keep optimum density.
(i) Thinning is done to reduce higher density due to over seed rate or more seeds/hole and
uneven broadcasting.

(ii) Gap filling is done to fill the gaps that exist due to (i) poor quality seed, (ii) soil crusting,
(iii) very shallow or very deep placement of seeds, and (iv) poor moisture availability in dry
land. Gap filling is done to maintain density by replacing with seedlings reserved for this
purpose or resowing with seeds.
Gap filling is done reasonably early so that plants come to maturity along with other
plants. Time may vary with duration of crops. For example, in sugarcane it may be done even
30 days after planting. But in short duration crops like maize, sorghum, rice etc., it should be
done within about 10-15 days.
Lecture No. 8
Crop nutrition: Essential nutrients-classification of essential nutrients

Crop nutrition: Essential nutrients-classification of essential nutrients

Growth is the development of a plant as a whole or of a specific organ. Besides the
genetic factors, the environmental factors grouped as climatic factors and soil factors
influence plant growth. The supply of mineral nutrient elements to the plants is discussed in
this chapter. A complete analysis of plants detects large number of elements. But only certain
elements are essential. An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life
cycle without it, and if the malady (deficiency) that develops in plants in its absence can be
remedied only by that element. Earlier 17 elements were considered as essential for plant
growth. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron, chlorine and nickel.
Carbon dioxide, water and molecular oxygen are the forms in which C, H and O are
assimilated by plants. Others are taken up by plants from the soil. Nutrient uptake by plants
accounts for about 10 percent of total dry weight of crops, the remaining percentage being
water. The chemical symbol and the ionic forms in which the essential elements are absorbed
by the plants are given in Table.1.
Table 1. The Chemical Symbol and the Ionic Forms of essential Elements

17. Nickel Ni Ni+

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 CLASSIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
Essential elements needed for the crop growth are broadly classified:
1.1 Based on the relative Quantity that is normally present in Plants
• Macro nutrients (Major Nutrients/primary nutrients): C, H, O, N, P, K
• Secondary nutrients: Ca, Mg, S
• Micro Nutrients (Minor/Tertiary/Trace elements): Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl, and Ni
1.2 Based on their Chemical Nature
• Metals: K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, and Ni
• Non-Metals: C, H, O, N, P, S, B, Mo, C1, Si, etc.
• Cations: NH4+ , K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ and Ni+
• Anions: NO3−, HPO42−, H2PO4−, SO42−, BO33−, MoO42−, C1−
12.1.3 Based on General Function
• As a constituent of either organic or inorganic compounds–N, S, P, Ca, B, Fe and Mg.
• As an activator, cofactor in prosthetic group of enzyme systems–K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn,
Cu,
Mo, Ni and Cl.
• As a charge carrier in oxidation–reduction reactions–P, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo.
• As an osmosis regulator and for electron chemical equilibrium in cells–K, and Cl.
1.4 Based on the Mobility in Plants
• Highly mobile : N, P, K
• Moderately mobile : Zn
• Less mobile : S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Cl, Mo, Ni
• Immobile : Ca, B
Lecture No. 9
Nutrients: Role and deficiency- control of deficiency and toxicity
2 NUTRIENTS–ROLE, DEFICIENCY, METHOD OF CONTROL AND TOXICITY
The role of nutrients, deficiency, control of deficiency and toxicity are given in Table 2.
Table 12.2. Role of Nutrients, Deficiency, Control of Deficiency and Toxicity
14. Nickel (Ni) Necessary for pro
-per functioning of
the enzyme, urease,

3 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Plant symptoms can be grouped into five types as follows:
Chlorosis: Yellowing, either uniform or interveinal of plant tissue due to reduction in
the chlorophyll formation process.
Necrosis: Refers to death of plant tissue leading to dead spots.
Lack of new growth or terminal growth resulting in “rosetting”.
Accumulation of anthocyanin and an appearance of a reddish colour.
Stunting or reduced growth with either normal or dark green colour or yellowing.
Nutrients are continuously removed from the soil by crops in addition to losses by
leaching, volatilization and erosion. These nutrients are added to the soil by external sources
to maintain soil fertility and sustainable production. Manure is the organic material derived
form animal, human and plant residues, which contains plant nutrients in complex organic
forms. The major organic sources are manures are farm waste, cattle shed waste, human
habitation waste, slaughter house waste, fish meal, by-products of agro-industries etc. The
manures are bulky, concentrated, green and green leaf manures depending on their volume
and nutrient content. Of these two sources, most widely used all over the world, one is
organic in nature–the organic manures simply called manures and the other comprises the
synthetic or naturally occurring chemical fertilizers simply called fertilizers.
Lecture 10
Organic manures: classification and methods of preparations
ORGANIC MANURES
Organic manures include plant and animal by-products such as oil cakes fish manures
and dried blood from slaughter houses. Before their organic nitrogen used by the crops it is
converted through bacterial action into readily usable ammonical N and nitrate N. These
manures are therefore, relatively slow acting, but they supply available N for a longer period.
Advantages - Organic manures supply plant nutrients including micronutrients. Organic
manures improve physical properties of the soil, water holding capacity, hydraulic
conductivity, infiltration capacity of the soil. CO2 released during decomposition combines
with water and forms carbonic acid and act as CO2 fertilizer. Organic manures supply energy
(food) for microbes and increase availability of nutrients and improve soil fertility. Green
manures have the additional advantage of fixing atmospheric nitrogen leading to nitrogen
economy in crop production and green manures draw nutrients from lower layers and
concentrate them in the surface soil for the use of succeeding crop.

Classification
A. Bulky organic manures
(i) FYM: (a) Cattle manure, (b) Sheep manure, (c) Poultry manure
(ii) Compost:
(a) Village/rural compost from farm-wastes
(b) Town/urban compost from town refuses
(iii) Sewage and sludge
B. Concentrated organic manures
1. Oil cakes
(a) Edible oil cakes (i.e., used for cattle feeding) - (i) Mustard cake, (ii) Groundnut cake,
(iii) Sesame cake, (iv) Linseed cake
(b) Non edible oil cakes (i.e., used as manures) - (i) Castor cake, (ii) Neem cake, (iii)
Sunflower cake, (iv) Mahua cake, (v) Karanja cake
2. Slaughter house wastes - (i) Blood meal, and (ii) Bone meal
3. Fish meal
4. Guano - Material obtained from the excreta and dead bodies of sea bird
C. Green manures
(a) Leguminous plant (example: Sunn hemp, Sesbania sp., mungbean, cowpea, guar, senji,
berseem)
(b) Non-leguminous plant (example: Sorghum, pearl millet, maize, sunflower)
D. Green leaf manures
Green leaves of trees like neem, pungam, glyricidia, etc.

1 Bulky Organic Manures

Bulky organic manures are those manures, which are generally bulk in quantities and
poor in plant nutrients (low quantities of plant nutrients). Example: Farm yard manure,
compost, sewage and sludge
etc.
A. Farm Yard Manure (FYM)
It is the manure produced in the farm which is made up of excreta (dung and urine) of
farm animals, the bedding materials provided for them and miscellaneous farm and house
hold wastes. Straw, peat and saw dust, dry leaves etc., are used as bedding material for farm
animal and accounts to 3–4 kg per animal per day. The bedding material is called ‘litter’ and
it absorbs urine voided by animals. It is not a standardized product and its value depends on
the kind of feed fed to the animal, the amount of straw used and the manner of storage. In
general FYM contains 0.8% N, 0.41% P2O5 and 0.74% K2O. The excreta of horses and sheep
are drier than other and do not get compacted in the heap. There is considerable aeration,
bacterial activity and rise in temperature in the manure. They are therefore called ‘hot
manures’ in the temperate countries. Pig and cattle manure contain more moisture and
compacted in the manure pit. Their decomposition is not as vigorous as that of hot manures
and the rise of temperature is also low. Therefore pig and cattle manures are called “cold
manures”. The decomposition of cattle manures may be slower comparatively under
temperate regions but it is rapid enough under tropical condition.
B. Compost
It is a manure derived from decomposed plant residues usually made by fermenting
waste plant materials heaped or put in a pit usually in alternate layers with a view to bring the
plant nutrients in a more readily available form.
Super compost: Compost fortified with super phosphate is called as super compost. Starters
are the materials added to the composting organic wastes, which provide the decomposing
organism. Pig dung slurry is a valuable starter and provides necessary organisms. Even cow
dung slurry can be used as starter. Generally ammonium sulphate and super phosphate are
added to the layers at the time of furrowing the composting heap to enrich nitrogen and
phosphorus status of compost respectively. Fertilizers accelerate and hasten the
decomposition of organic matter or wastes.
C. Sewage and Sludge
In cities human excreta are flushed out with large quantities of water, which is known
as sludge. It contains two components, one is solid portion called sludge and another is liquid
portion called sewage water. In general, the sludges are rich in N and P, and low in K. The
sewage water is used for irrigation after proper treatments.
Table 1. Nutrient Content of the Bulky Organic Manures

2 Concentrated Organic Manures

 Concentrated organic manures are those manures which are rich in particular nutrients
(N) but relatively having low volume of organic materials. Example: Oil cakes, blood and
bone meal, fishmeal, press mud etc.
A. Oil cakes
Oil cake is the residue left after the oil is extracted from oil containing seed. The
manurial values of oil cake lie mainly in its nitrogen contribution though it is in small
quantities. The nitrogen content varies between 3% and 9% (Table 12.4). The C:N ratio is
usually 3–15 for most of the oil cakes.

Table 2. Nutrient Content of some Concentrated Organic Manures

3 Green Manure and Green Leaf Manure

Green manuring is the act of growing of quick growing crop preferably legumes and
ploughing in situ and incorporated into the soil. Whereas green leaf manuring is incorporation
of green matter into the soil transported from elsewhere. The percentage N of some of the
green/green leaf manures is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Nutrient Content of Green Manure Crops and Green Leaf Manures
 (a) Stem nodulating green manure - Leguminous green manure plants produce root nodules
and fix atmospheric N. Sesbania rostrata produces nodules on their stem besides root
nodulation. This special feature adds their green manurial value. It is tropical legume of
Senegal origin and thrives well under flooded and water logged conditions. It is capable of
producing 22 tones of fresh biomass and could accumulate 150 kg N/ha in 45 days. It
contains 3.3% N.
(b) Daincha in reclamation of saline and alkali soils - Green manuring practice in sodic soil
has an unique importance since it adds acids in the reclamation process, besides improving
the fertility status of the soil. Usually the fertility status of sodic soil is very poor because of
its high pH and exchangeable sodium percentage. The soil organic matter content, a measure
of available nitrogen, is very low i.e., 0.1-0.5% in sodic soil because sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate salts in solution dissolve the humus. Further the available nitrogen is
much lower in the subsoil layers of the sodic soils.
Reclamation of alkali soils basically involves replacing Na on the exchange complex
with more favourable cations. The solubility of lime, which is always present in alkali soils in
significant amounts, is very low, because the potassium content of alkali soil is high. There is
an intimate relationship between soil pH, partial pressure of CO2 and calcium ion activity in
calcareous alkali soils. Increase in CO2 production in the soil enables to increase the soluble
Ca status of soils. This in turn, replaces exchangeable Na, resulting in the improvement of
alkali soils. Soil incorporation of easily decomposable plant material results in increased and
rapid production of CO2. For this reason, green manuring has been suggested as an important
management practice for the reclamation of alkali soils.
 Sesbania aculeata and Delonix elata are very effective green manures and green leaf
manures respectively used for reclamation of sodic soils. Daincha (Sesbania aculeata) is
highly resistant to both drought and water stagnation and salinity and alkalinity. It can be
grown in soils with pH 4.5 to 9.5. It produces green matter of 20 t/ha in 90 days. Daincha
contains 3.2% N and 34% Ca on dry weight basis which helps to replace Na from sodic soils.
The acid juice (pH 4.0) and high seed protein content (58%) seems to be the cause of its
resistance to sodicity stress. During the reclamation of sodic soils gypsum @ 50% of gypsum
requirement (GR) has to be spread uniformly over the field. The surface soil is to be
ploughed to mix the gypsum in the sodic soil. Irrigate the field with 10-15 cm depth of water
and maintain the same water depth for 3-4 days. At this stage, the sodium content in clay
particles are replaced by the calcium ions from the gypsum, allowing the sodium to wash out
of the field as Leachate. The field has to be kept with stagnant water for 3–4 times after each
drainage process. Apply the waykaran (Delonix elata) leaves and daincha @ 5 t/ha without
allowing the soil to dry. After four to five days of incorporation of green leaves, the field crop
like rice with preferably a tolerant variety CO 43, TRY 1 etc.
Lecture No. 11
Biofertilizers and their types.
BIO FERTILIZERS
Bio fertilizers are the living organisms capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen or making
native soil nutrients available to crops. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed effectively by the
microorganisms either in symbiotic association with plant system (Rhizobium, Azolla) or in
associative symbiosis (Azospirillum) or in free living system (Azotobactor,
phosphobacterium, blue green algae) or in micorhizal symbiosis (VAM fungi).
(a) Rhizobium - Rhizobium bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically. They live in
the nodules of host plants belonging to the family leguminoceae. The quantities of nitrogen
fixed by
Rhizobia differ with the rhizobial strain, the host plant and the environmental conditions
under which the two develop. The species of the genus Rhizobium are numerous and require
certain host plants. For example, the bacteria that live symbiotically with soybean will not do
so with alfalfa. A list of common legumes and the rhizobial strains by which they are
inoculated is given in the Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of Rhizobium–Legume Associations

Fixation of nitrogen by the leguminous plants will be at maximum only when the
level of available soil nitrogen is at the minimum. It is sometimes advisable to include a small
amount of nitrogen in the fertilizer of legume crops at sowing time (as a starter dose) to
ensure that the young seeding will have an adequate supply until the rhizobia can become
established. Larger quantity of nitrogen or continued applications of nitrogen, however
reduce the activity of the rhizobia and therefore they are generally uneconomical. Rhizobial
inoculation was found to fix 15-35 kg N per ha in a season on different pulse crops. Rhizobial
inoculation can save up to 25% N fertilizer application to crops.
(b) Azolla - It is a small water fern of worldwide distribution under natural conditions. It
contains the heterocystous blue green algae Anabaena azollae as a symbiont in an enclosed
chamber in the dorsal leaf lobes. Azolla derives all its total nitrogen requirement by the
symbiotic association with the algae. The Azolla–Anabaena system is agronomically most
signification plant algal association and this is being employed as a nitrogen source for rice
culture. There are six species of Azolla. They are Azolla caroliniana, Azolla filiculoides,
Azolla mexicana, Azolla nilotica, Azolla microphylla and Azolla pinnata.
Azolla contains 3.1-4.2% N; 0.16% P2O5 and 0.18% K2O on dry weight basis.
(c) Azospirillum - This bacterium is associated with cereals like rice, sorghum, maize, cumbu,
ragi, tenai and other minor millets and also for cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds and fodder grasses.
These bacteria colonizing in the roots not only remain on the root surface, but also a sizable
proportion of them penetrates into the root tissues and lives in harmony with the plants. They
do not, however, produce any visible nodules or out growth on the root tissue. In the absence
of any plant, azospirillum live in the soil just like any other micro organism saprophytically,
however, when a suitable crop is raised, they are attracted towards the root system, where
they colonize and grow in almost a symbiotic manner.
(d) Azatobacter - The beneficial effects of Azatobacter on plants was associated (non-
symbiotically) not only with the process of nitrogen fixation but also with the synthesis of
complex of biologically active compounds such as nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, biotin,
gibberellins and probably other compounds which stimulate the germination of seeds and
accelerate plant growth. Azatobacter population in soil or near the root zone of crops
(Rhizosphere) is very low when compared to other soil bacteria.
The nitrogen fixation potential of this bacterium is also not very high and appreciable (20 to
30 kg of N per ha per year). A fairly high population is required for substantial nitrogen
fixation. Enormous energy is required by Azatobacter for nitrogen fixation. The possible
source of energy for Azatobacter is the soil organic matter. The energy generated during the
utilization of organic matter is used for nitrogen fixation.
(e) Blue green algae - The blue green algae occur under a wide range of environmental
conditions. They are completely auto tropic and require light, water, free nitrogen (N2),
carbon dioxide (CO2) and salts containing the essential mineral elements. They play a major
role in the nitrogen economy of paddy soils in tropical countries. Different algal species
available are:
• Tolypothric tenuis,
• Nostoc,
• Plectonema,
• Chlorococous,
• Aulosira fertilization,
• Anabaena, and
• Chorococcum
(f) Phosphobacterium - In most of the acid and clayey soils, the applied phosphorus either as
super phosphate or mussoriphos will not be available to crops due to fixation. It is essential to
use the phosphobacteria (a free living bacteria in soils like Bacillus megatherium) for proper
solubilisation of fixed P and release them in the available form for the crop to take-up for its
growth. Dual inoculation of the phosphobacteria with rhizobium or azospirillum can provide
both N and P to the crop.
(g) Mycorrhizae (VAM) - Vesicular Arbiscular Mycorrhiza is a fungi used as bio-fertilizer.
The mycorhizal symbiosis is an intimate association between plant root system and certain
group of soil fungi. The plant provides carbon as energy source to the fungus which in turn
helps the plant in better uptake of nutrients (especially P). The VAM fungi form either a
mantle of hyphae around the root or penetrate inside the roots spreading intra or
intercellularly in the cortical region. The fungal mycelium also extends several centimeter,
away from the root in the soil. The area that the plant can explore for nutrients thus greatly
increase due to colonization of plant roots by the mycorrhizal fungi. The development of
mycorrhiza network is much more in soils with low fertility. In nutrient rich soils, there is
very little extension of mycelial network. The mycelial growth is confined to the close
proximity of roots. Mycorrhiza increases crop yield, protect against certain root pathogen,
helps in uptake of P, Cu, Zn and B and increases tolerance to environmental stress.
Lecture No.12
Fertilizers: Classification - methods and time of application-nutrient use
efficiency
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are synthetic (commercially manufactured) or naturally occurring chemical
compounds either dry solid or liquid that added to the soil to supply one or more plant
nutrients for crop growth.
1 Classification
The fertilizers are classified based on whether the fertilizer supplies a single or more
than one nutrient, their chemical nature and commercial mode of supply as straight,
compound, complex and mixed.
1.1 Straight Fertilizers
When a fertilizer contains and is used for supplying a single nutrient, it is called a
straight fertilizer. This is further classified as nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers
depending on the specific macro nutrient present in the fertilizer.
A. Nitrogenous fertilizers
N fertilizers are those fertilizers containing N as major nutrient. It may be either a
nitrate or ammonium or amide fertilizer depending on the form of nitrogen present. The
nutrient composition of different N fertilizers are listed in Table.1.
Table 1. Nutrient Composition of different N Fertilizers

B. Phosphatic fertilizers
They are classified into three groups, based on the solubility of phosphate contained in the
fertilizer.
(i) Water soluble phosphate (Mono calcium phosphate) Ca (H2PO4)2
Single super phosphate 16% Ca(H2PO4)2, H2O
Double super phosphate 32% 2Ca (H2PO4)2, H2O
Triple super phosphate 48% 3Ca (H2PO4)2, H2O
(ii) Citric acid soluble phosphate (Di-calcium phosphate) Ca(H2PO4)2
Basic slag (CaO)3 P2O5SiO2 14-18% (by-product from steel industry)
Di-Calcium Phosphate 34-39% Ca2 (H2PO4)2
(iii) Insoluble phosphate (Tri-calcium phosphate)Ca3(PO4)2
Rock phosphate 20-40% Ca3(PO4)2 CaF2
Raw bone meal 20-25% Ca (PO4)3 CaF2 (2–4% N)
Steamed bone meal 22%–30%
(C) Potassic fertilizers
Muriate of potash (KCI) 60%
Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) 48–52%
 Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 48% (N-13%)
Schoenite (K2SO4, MgSO4) 6H2O 22–24%
1.2 Compound Fertilizers
Compound fertilizers are the commercial fertilizers in which two or more primary
nutrients are chemically combined. For example: DAP. DAP contains 18% N and 46% P2O5.
Table 2. Compound Fertilizers

1.3 Complex Fertilizers

Complex fertilizers are the commercial fertilizers containing at least two or more of
the primary essential nutrients at higher concentration in one compound. The nutrients in
complex fertilizers are physically mixed.
Table 3. Complex Fertilizers

1.4 Mixed Fertilizers/Fertilizers Mixtures

They are physical mixtures of two or more straight fertilizers. Sometimes a complex
fertilizer is also used as one of the ingredients. The mixing is done mechanically. The
fertilizer mixtures are usually in powder form but techniques have been developed for
granulation of mixtures so that each grain will contain all the nutrients mixed in the mixture.
Table 4. Standard Fertilizer Mixtures for specific Crops
(a) Salts containing secondary nutrients
Calcium, sulphur and magnesium are termed as secondary nutrients since they are
required comparatively less in quantity than primary nutrients (N, P, K) but more than
micronutrients. They are added to the soil through some fertilizers, like ammonium sulphate,
calcium ammonium nitrate and phosphatic fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers containing these
secondary nutrients are: (i) Magnesium sulphate (Epsum) – 9.6% Mg and 13% S, and (ii)
Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) – 9% Ca and 23% SO4.
(b) Salts containing micronutrients
Copper, zinc, boron, manganese, molybdenum, iron and chlorine are termed as
micronutrients since they are required in micro quantities. They are added to the soil through
some commercial fertilizers (Table 10).
Table 5. Salts containing Micronutrients
Lecture 13
Factors affecting manures and fertilizer use- Concept of
integrated nutrient management
FACTORS AFFECTING MANURES AND FERTILIZERS USE
Major factors influencing the selection, quantity, time and method of application of manures
and
fertilizers are:
Soil factors - They most important factors are, soil physical condition (texture), soil fertility
and
soil reaction.
• Poor physical condition of the soil leads to poor plant growth due to impeded drainage,
restricted aeration and unfavourable soil temperature. In this condition nutrients will not be
used efficiency.
• Optimum soil moisture regime is essential for efficient use of fertilizers by crops.
• The availability of nutrients is poor in coarse textured soil when compared to fine textured
soils.
The coarse textured soil needs more frequent application of fertilizers when compared to
heavy textured soil.
• The higher the fertility of soil, the lower is the response to manures and fertilizers.
• When the organic matter of the soil is higher, the response to fertilizer by crops is more.
• Soil reaction is important for selection of right type of fertilizers Rock Phosphate is
advantageous in acid soils.
Crop factors
• The response of crop to fertilizers varies with the nature of crop and variety of the crop.
• The fertilizer responsiveness of a plant depends on the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of
the roots. The root CEC of dicotyledonous plants is much higher than that of
monocotyledonous plants. Plants with higher CEC absorb more of divalent cations (Ca, Mg)
whereas plants with low CEC absorb more of monovalent ions (K, Na).
• The ability of the crop to absorb nutrients from the soil depends upon the size of the root
system (root length and spread) and characteristics like root surface and root hair density etc.
Large ramifying root system absorbs more nutrients.
• The association of mycorrhizal fungi with the roots of plants grown under conditions of low
soil fertility, increases the ability of plants to absorb nutrients such as P, K, Cu and Zn.
Normally N, P and complete fertilizer application reduce the presence and activity of
Mycorrhiza.
Agronomic factors - Fertilizer responsiveness of crops depends on timely sowing, proper
spacing, proper dose, time and method of fertilizer application.
Other factors
• Climatic factors - Under drought and excess moisture condition, foliar spray can be
recommended.
In high rainfall area, split application of fertilizers and application of slow release nitrogenous
fertilizers are recommended.
• Yield goal - The economic yield or potential yield or targeted yield decides the quantity of
manures and fertilizers application. For higher crop yield optimum or maximum amount of
fertilizers are to be applied.
• Cost of fertilizers - Not only the cost of fertilizers and manures but also the cost of together
produce decide the quantity of manures and fertilizer to be applied i.e., depend on the profit
from the crop. It may be maximum profit or maximum rate of return per rupee invested.
• Availability of manures and fertilizers - Timely availability of manures and fertilizers,
transport facility and labour for application decides the quantity. Now-a-days, manures are
not available to the required level due to various reasons.
Slow release fertilizers - are developed to prevent the loss of nutrients by leaching and
nitrification. It releases nutrients slowly and uniformly and increases the fertilizer use
efficiency. Examples: Neem coated Urea, Sulphur coated Urea, Lac coated Urea, Tar coated
Urea, N-Serve, Isobutylidine di Urea (IBDU), Thiourea etc.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (INM)
Judicious combination of inorganic, organic and bio-fertilizers which replenishes the soil
nutrients removed by the crops is referred as integrated nutrient management system.
A. Concept
The concept of INM is to integrate the nutrient sources and methods of organic and inorganic
nutrient application to maintain soil fertility and productivity i.e., the complementary use of
chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers to solve the problems of nutrient
supply, soil productivity and environment. Developing an INM system for a particular crop
sequence to a specific location requires a thorough understanding of (i) the effects of previous
crop, (ii) contribution of legume in the cropping system, (iii) residual effect of fertilizers, and
(iv) direct, residual and cumulative effect of organic manures for supplementing and
complementing the use of chemical fertilizers. The main components of the N supply system
are the organic manures green manures, crop residues, crop rotation and inter cropping
involving legumes and cereals, bio-fertilizers including rhizobium, azotobacter, azospirillum,
phosphorus solubilizing micro-organisms like mycorrhizal fungi, azolla, blue green algae and
cyanobacteria. All these can serve as an important supplementary source of nutrients along
with the chemical fertilizers. Thus, INM is environmentally non-degradable, technically
appropriate economically viable and socially acceptable.
Lecture No.14
Irrigation : Introduction, Importance, Definition & Objectives

Importance of water in plant life

A. Physiological Importance
Of all the vital substances essential for plant growth and development, water is
needed in enormous amounts. It is present throughout the plant body. Water constitutes
more than 80% of the fresh weight of a plant and in some of the growing cells its level
may mount up to 90%. Water supply affects the growth rate of plants considerably.
Water plays several roles in the life of higher plants and some these are mentioned
below:
(i) It is a major component of the plant body.
(ii) Water is an essential solvent in which mineral nutrients are dissolved and
translocated from the roots to the apex of the plant body. Minerals are also
absorbed through water.
(iii) Large number of metabolic reactions take place in the water medium.
(iv) It maintains the structure of nucleic acids, proteins by supplying hydrogen
bonding.
(v) Several processes like photosynthesis use water as a reactant of raw material.
Thus formation of complex carbohydrates from the simple ones also involves the
removal of water while the reverse reaction requires water as a reactant.
(vi) This essential component is required to maintain the turgidity of the cell. Thus it
helps the cells to retain their tensile strength and provides proper shape to the
cells. Turgidity is essential for the opening of the stomata, and also activity of
several organelles, In addition opening of flowers, folding of leaves occurs due to
the changes in the turgidity of the cells.
(vii) Water also acts as a temperature buffer since it has an exceptionally high heat
capacity for. specific heat.
(viii) Water molecules have the unique property of adhesion and cohesion and thus
these processes keep the water molecules together. This property helps in upward
movement of water in the plant body.
(ix) The elongation phase of cell growth is mostly dependent on water absorption.
(x) Water is also a metabolic end product of respiration.
(xi) Plants absorb enormous quantities of water and simultaneously loose greater
amounts of water through transpiration,
B. Ecological Importance
(i) It helps to maintain soil temperature.
(ii) It helps to maintain salt balance.
(iii) It reduces salinity and alkalinity.
(iv) It influences weed growth.
(v) It influences atmospheric weather.
(vi) It helps the beneficial microbes.
(vii) It supports human and animal life.
(viii) It helps for land preparation like ploughing, puddling etc., weeding, fertilizer
application etc., by providing optimum conditions.

The multivarious uses of good quality water for the purpose of irrigation, industrial
purpose, power generation, livestock use, and domestic use for urban and rural development
are increasing the demand for water. Due to increasing cost of irrigation projects and limited
supply of good quality water, it becomes a highly valuable commodity and hence it is stated
as liquid Gold.

IRRIGATION DEFINED
Irrigation generally is defined as the application of water to soil for the purpose of
supplying the moisture essential for plant growth. However, a broader and more inclusive
definition is that irrigation is the application of water to the soil for any number of the
following eight purposes
1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts.
3. To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favorable environment for
plant growth.
4. To reduce the hazard of frost.
5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.
6. To reduce the hazard of soil piping.
7. To soften tillage pans and clods.
8. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling.
Lecture 15
Water resources of India and major irrigation projects
Surface Water Resources
India is blessed with an average annual rainfall of about 1194 mm. However, the bounty is
not evenly spread both in time and space with the result flood-drought-flood syndrome still
persists. As much as 85-90% of the rainfall is received only in the southwest monsoon season
of June to October. It is that during the four rainy months of June to September the Arabian
Sea branch of the monsoon carries moisture amounting to about 770 million ha meters and
the Bay of Bengal branch about 340 million ha meters of water. Of the monsoon moisture,
about 25 – 30% precipitates in the form of rainfall. During the remaining eight months an
approximate precipitation of 100 million ha meters including a small portion of snow pour
over the country. There are on average 130 rainy days in a year in the country. The rainfall
when considered over the geographical area of 329 million ha amounts to 392.8 million ha
meters. This may be rounded off to 400 million ha meters including snowfall whose potential
is not yet fully recorded (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Water resources of India

Out of the estimated 400 million ha meters precipitation, about 70 million ha meters is
lost to atmosphere as evaporation, about 115 million ha meters flows as surface run off and
the remaining 215 million ha meters infiltrates into the ground. The total surface water
resources of India after considering the above have been assessed at 180 million ha meters,
which is of the same magnitude as is available to United States of America annually, though
India’s geographical area is only about 40% of that of the United States. This 180 million ha
meters includes about 20 million ha meters brought in by streams and rivers from catchments
lying outside the country and about 45 million ha meters pertains to regenerated flow from
groundwater as assessed from river flows during non-rainy months. The remaining 115
million ha meters constitutes direct contribution by precipitation, of which about 10 million
ha meters is received as snowfall. Of the 180 million ha meters, due to limitations imposed by
topography, climate, soil conditions etc., only about 69 million ha meters are considered
utilizable. The present utilization of the surface water is estimated to be about 31.12 million
ha meters, of which about 95% is used for irrigation with the remaining being put to other
uses. The major surface river basins of India are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Major river basins of India

2 Groundwater Resources
Of the annual precipitation of 400 million ha meters, about 215 million ha meters has
been estimated to soak into the ground (Fig. 2.1). As much as 165 million ha meters is
retained as soil moisture and is used by vegetation, thus leaving only 50 million ha meters
(12.5%) of the total precipitation for the country as a whole to reach the ground water table.
This value is likely to increase with the development of water resources i.e., percolation
through rivers, streams, and irrigation systems, which add to recharge. The Central
Groundwater Board puts the annual exploitable groundwater potential at 43.3 million ha
meters. Presently, the groundwater utilization is about 12.8 million ha meters and here again
a major portion of 85% is being used for irrigation with the remaining going for other uses.
The total water resource availability in the country though remained constant, the per capita
availability of water has been steadily declined from 5300 in 1951 to the present level of
1700 m3 due to population growth, large scale urbanization & rapid industrialization (Fig.
2.3).
Fig. 3. India – Per capita water availability

The National Commission on Integrated Water Resource Development Plan

constituted by the Government of India in its report submitted in December, 1999 has
estimated the total water resource of the country as 195.3 Mham and the total water
requirement of the country as 69.4 to 71.0 Mham by the year 2010, 78.4 to 85.0 Mham by the
year 2025 and 97.3 to 118.0 Mham by the year 2050.

3 Irrigation developments in India

At the time of partition in 1947, about 8.8 million ha irrigated area went to Pakistan
and 19.4 million ha remained with India. To cope up with the demand of food grains for
growing population, a good number of Multipurpose River Valley Projects viz., Bhakra
Nangal, Damodar Valley and Hirakud dams were initiated soon after independence. At the
beginning of First Five Year Plan in 1950-51 the irrigated area was 22.6 million ha (9.7
million ha under major and medium irrigation projects and 12.9 million ha under minor
irrigation schemes from both surface and groundwater sources). The post independence era
through Five-Year Plans witnessed planned efforts in irrigation development in the country.
The Rajasthan Canal, Gandhisagar Dam, Gandak, Kosi, Nagarjunasagar, Tungabhadra,
Malprabha, Ghataprabha and Farakka irrigation projects were taken up during the first two
Five Year Plans (1950-51 to 1960-61). Subsequently projects such as Tawa, Ramganga,
SriRamsagar, Ukai, Kadana, Teesta, Tehri, Jayakwadi, Beas, Gandak, Sardar Sarovar,
Chambal, Mahi, Mahanadi delta, Idukki, Koyna, Narmada Sagar Valley etc., were initiated
(Table 1).
Table 1. Important major irrigation projects in India
 There was therefore a great spurt in irrigated area which increased from 22.6 million
ha in Pre-plan period to 87.23 million ha by the end of the 10th Five Year Plan (34.42 million
ha under major & medium irrigation projects and 52.81 minor irrigation schemes) (Fig. 2.4).
With an average irrigation intensity of 140%, the actual net irrigated area is likely to be
around 62.31 million ha, which is only 43% of the net sown area of the country (142 million
ha).

Fig. 4. Progressive irrigation development in India

According to latest estimates, it has been assessed that the gross cropped area that can
ultimately be irrigated would be 139.89 million ha without inter-basin sharing of water and
175 million ha with inter-basin sharing of water. Even after achieving the ultimate irrigation
potential of 139.89 million ha and considering the average irrigation intensity of 140%, the
ultimate irrigated area in the country would be only 70% of the net sown area. The source-
wise irrigated area in India is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Source-wise irrigated area in India

According FAO estimates of 2009, out of the total 1628 million ha of cultivated area
in the world, only 17.0% (277 million ha) is under irrigation (Fig. 2.6). The largest irrigated
area in the world is in India (62.3 million ha) followed by China (56 million ha) and USA(28
million ha) (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 6. World irrigated area

TABLE: PLANWISE POSITION OF IRRIGATION POTENTIAL

TABLE: MAJOR AND MEDIUM IRRIGATION PROJECTS
(EXPENDITURE INCURRED AND POTENTIAL CREATED)
Lecture 16
Water Resources of Rajasthan – Surface & Ground water
resources – Irrigation development in Rajasthan – Important
major irrigation projects in Rajasthan

Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Rajasthan

Rajasthan is the driest state having only 1.16 percent of country's surface water.
Average rainfall is 531 mm against national average of 1200 mm. 2/3 part of the state is
desert where average rainfall is only 380 mm. Total surface water available at 50%
dependability is 21.71 BCM, out of which only 16.05 BCM is techno economically utilizable,
but storage capacity generated as yet is 11.29 BCM only, which is about 71%, rest of the
water is yet to be harnessed. Rajasthan is receiving 18.08 BCM water as per interstate
agreements. Irrigation potential of 34 lac. ha. has been created against the ultimate potential
of 51 lac ha.
Condition of ground water is precarious. The ratio of ground water exploration to
annual replenishment was 35% in 1984, has reached a level of 125% in 2004. Out of 237
development blocks in the state, only 32 blocks are considered safe. In absence of surface
water, reliance on ground water is excessive as such water table is depleting at alarming rate
in most of the area except in canal command area.

WATER RESOURCES OF RAJASTHAN

Projection of Water Use:
Rajasthan is the driest state in India with scarce water resources. In the year 2001,
annual per capita availability of water in the state was only 840 m 3. With increasing
population, the scarcity will increase further and the per capita water availability in the state
is expected to be as low as 439 m3 by 2050, against the national average of 1,140 m 3 by the
year 2050 (Vision 2004a; Vision 2004b; X-th Five-Year Plan 2004). According to the State
Water Plan, the projected non-agricultural demand for water is to increase from 3.29 BCM
per year (the 1995 level) to 5.05 BCM per year in the year 2015, and it is estimated to reach
8.07 BCM per year in the year 2045. If all the 13.6 million hectares of cultivable land of
Rajasthan are used for irrigation, the agricultural water requirement will be nearly 100 BCM
per year, which obviously is not available. However, the State Water Plan has been prepared
to create the irrigation potential for about 40 percent of the cultivable land of 5.125 million
hectares (Vision 2004b).
Surface Water Resources in Major River Basins:
There are eight major river basins in the state but Chambal and Mahi are the only
perennial rivers that receive water from catchments located outside the state (figure 1). Water
resources data simulated for each basin suggest that the internal surface water resources in the
state during normal rainfall years amount to 48.01 BCM (table 1). However, only 16 BCM of
surface water is utilizable (Vision 2004a). Besides, inter-basin water transfer from other
states amounts to 17.9 BCM annually (Vision 2004b).
Figure 1. River basins in Rajasthan.

Basin-wise analysis of population and total water availability (table 1) shows that the
highest per capita water availability of 1,798 m3 is in the Chambal basin, followed by the
Sabarmati (1,729 m3) and the Mahi (1,120 m3), whereas the lowest (190 m3) is in the
Banganga basin. The higher per capita water availability in the Chambal basin is mainly due
to the perennial nature of the river and inter-basin water input from outside the state. Lower
water availability is mainly in ephemeral (monsoonal) river basins, such as Banganga,
Gambhir, Luni, etc., receiving flow from high-intensity rainfall during the monsoon. As
compared to ephemeral river basins, the per capita water availability in areas located outside
of the basin is high due to their low population density. Overall per capita water availability
in the state during 2004 was 825 m3. The availability of water resources gets reduced by 40
to 60 percent during moderate and severe drought years causing serious water scarcity in the
affected regions.
Present Status of Surface Water Resources Projects
The estimated internal surface water resources in Rajasthan are around 48 BCM.
However, the assured availability is only 14-22 BCM, which is drastically reduced during
drought years. In addition, 17.9 BCM of water is available through inter-basin water transfer
of the Indira Gandhi Canal Project (IGNP), partially serving six districts.
At present, there are 203 major and medium tanks and reservoirs in the state, which
store about 13.72 BCM of water at their full capacity and a reduced volume of 11.51 BCM
during dry years (table 2). Besides, there are large numbers of minor rainwater harvesting
structures with a storage capacity of 2.28 BCM, thus increasing the total storage at full-
capacity level to 16 BCM. However, during droughts, the estimated total surface water
availability is reduced to 12.88 BCM creating a shortfall of 3.12 BCM. During the last 50
years, the irrigated land area has increased many times and it is 2.81 million hectares at
present. Thus, substantial development in the water resources sector has taken place
considering the financial, geographical and hydrological constraints. Besides, the ongoing
water resources projects when completed will create an additional 1.85 BCM water storage
capacity
Multipurpose/ Major Irrigation Projects
Narmada Project: Narmada Canal Project was taken up to utilize 0.5 MAF of Narmada
water allocated to Rajasthan. This water will be available to Rajasthan from Sardar Sarowar
Project, under construction in Gujrat. The share of water will be delivered at Rajasthan-
Gujrat boarder through 458 Km long Narmada Main canal (NMC). The canal system in
Rajasthan would provide irrigation in 2.46 lac ha. by adopting improved method of irrigation
i.e. sprinkler irrigation system which is mandatory in this project. This project would provide
drinking water facility to 1107 villages & 2 towns. The Revised cost of this project is
estimated as Rs. 1541.36 Crores.
Mahi Project: Mahi Bajaj Sagar is an interstate project between the States of Gujrat &
Rajasthan for the development of irrigation & power generation. This project would provide
irrigation in 80 thousand ha. land.
Bisalpur Project: Bisalpur project is a irrigation cum drinking water supply project. The
dam is constructed across river Banas near village Bisalpur in district Tonk to provide
irrigation facility in an area of 81.8 thousand ha. and to provide drinking water to Jaipur,
Ajmer, Beawar, Kishangarh, Nasirabad & other enroute villages. The revised estimated cost
of the project is Rs 657.91 Crore.
Isarda Drinking cum Irrigation Project: Isarda Dam is proposed across the river Banas
near village Isarda. The project cost is Rs. 360 crore. A coffer dam has also been proposed to
be constructed in upstream portion of the Isarda Dam for supplying drinking water to Tonk
District. Estimated cost of this dam is Rs. 16.50 crore. This coffer-dam will also be useful
during the construction of Isarda Dam.
Ratanpura Distributary: Ratanpura distributary work was started in the year 2000-01 to
provide irrigation facilities to cultivators of left over area of Sidhmukh & Nohar Irrigation
Project. The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 27.53 crore and ultimate potential is 18
thousand ha.
Gang Canal Modernization: The Gang Canal project is under operation since 1927 to
provide irrigation in Ganganagar district. The canal system had deteriorated over the years.
The project was prepared for the lining of Bikaner canal in the Punjab and canal system in
Rajasthan portion. The project was started in 2000-01. Likely expenditure on the project upto
2006-07 is Rs. 348.45 crores.
Yamuna Water Project: Two separate projects viz Yamuna Water Project for Bharatpur and
Yamuna Water Project for Jhunjhunu & Churu have been prepared for utilisation of 3198
cusec Yamuna Water allotted to Rajasthan by the Upper Yamuna River Board.
Medium Irrigation Projects:
Chauli: Chauli Irrigation Project has been constructed on Chauli river, which is a tributary of
Kalisindh river near village Himmatgarh in Tehsil Pidawa of Jhalawar district. The project
would provide irrigation in an area of 9 thousand ha. The project was started in 1994. The
estimated cost of the project is Rs. 98.55 crores.
Sukli Selwara: Sukli Selwara Irrigation Project is under construction on river Sukali, which
is a tributory of river West Banas. The dam site is located near village Selwara in district
Sirohi. The project would provide irrigation in an area of 5.6 thousand ha. The project was
started in 2003. The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 42.9 crore.
Gardada: Gardada Irrigation Project is under construction on river Mangli Dungari &
Ganesh Nallah, which is a tributary of river Chambal. The dam site is located near village
Polaspura in district Bundi. The project would provide irrigation in an area of 9 thousand ha.
The project was started in 2003. The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 83.41 Crore.
Bandi Sendra: Bandi Sendra Irrigation Project is under construction on river Bandi, which is
a tributary of river Luni. The dam site is located near village Sendra in Tehsil Bhinmal
district Jalore. The project would provide irrigation in an area of 4.6 thousand ha. The project
was started in 2003. The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 37.03 crore.
Flood Control: The major flood problem in Rajasthan is due to Ghaggar river in Ganganagar
& Hanumangarh, Bharatpur, Alwar, Dholpur, Dausa & Jaipur districts. The estimated cost of
the scheme is Rs. 101.61 crores.

Groundwater Resources:
Overall, the estimated groundwater resources in Rajasthan are limited due to deep
aquifers and low recharge. Increasing demand for water and shortfalls in surface water
resources have put tremendous
pressure on groundwater. At present, with intensive well irrigation and domestic water needs,
the annual groundwater exploitation is 11.63 BCM, which is much more than the recharge. It
is estimated that in the last 20 years, nearly 55.7 BCM of the nonrenewable water reserve has
been exploited. If the present trend continues, it will be difficult to meet the water
requirements of the future generations, especially during drought years.
Based on the ratio of annual pumping to annual recharge, the stages of groundwater
development have been categorized as safe (<70 %), semi-critical (70-90 %), critical (90-100
%) or overexploited (>100) %) (CGWA 1999). The groundwater is overexploited in Ajmer,
Alwar, Barmer, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Dausa, Dholpur, Jaipur, Jalore, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur,
Nagaur, Sikar and Udaipur districts, and, on average, over the entire state (table 3). In the last
10 years, out of the total 236 blocks (administrative zones) in the state, the number of safe
blocks decreased from 155 to 49. The impact of droughts on groundwater depletion was very
spectacular in the hard rock regions of Udaipur, Rajsamand, Dungarpur, Bhilwara,
Chittorgarh, Ajmer, Sirohi and Pali districts, which have a limited aquifer thickness. In these
districts, nearly 60 blocks have moved into the semi-critical, critical and overexploited stages
Lecture 17
Soil-water relations : Importance – Soil a three phase disperse system –
Physical properties of soil viz., Depth, Soil texture, Soil structure, Particle
density, Bulk density & Porosity influencing water retention, movement &
availability.
Soil Physical Properties Influencing Soil Water Relations
5.1 Introduction
Soil water relations deal with those physical properties of soils and water that affect
movement, retention and absorption of water by plants and which must be considered in
order to plan or improve an irrigation system.

5.2 Soil – A three phase disperse system

The soil is a heterogeneous, polyphasic viz., solid, liquid and gaseous, particulate, disperse
and porous system (Fig. 5.1). The solid phase constitutes the soil matrix, the liquid phase
consists of soil water, which always contains dissolved substances so that it should properly
be called the soil solution and the gaseous phase is the soil atmosphere.

Fig. 5.1. Volume composition & sectional view of soil

The solid matrix of the soil includes particles, which vary in chemical and
mineralogical composition as well as in size, shape, and orientation. It also contains
amorphous substances, particularly organic matter, which is attached to the mineral particles
and often binds them together to form aggregate. The organisation of the solid components of
the soil determines the geometric characteristics of the pore spaces in which water and air are
transmitted and retained. The liquid portion of the soil which consists of water, dissolved
minerals and soluble organic matter fills part or most of the spaces between the solid
particles. This water isabsorbed by the plant roots and must be periodically replenished by
rain or irrigation for the successful production of crops. Thus, the soil serves as a reservoir for
moisture. This moisture reservoir and knowledge of its capacity are principle factors
governing the frequency and amount of irrigation water to be applied to the land.
The gaseous or vapour portion of the soil occupies that part of the spaces between the
soils particles not filled with water. This is an important phase of the soil system, as most
plants require some aeration of the root system, with the exception of aquatic plants such as
rice. Irrigation practice is important in maintaining a reasonable balance between the soil
moisture and air. Finally, soil water and air vary in composition, both in time and space.

5.3 Soil properties influencing soil-water relations

5.3.1 Soil depth
Soil depth refers to the thickness of soil cover over hard rock or hard substratum
below which roots cannot penetrate. The soil depth is directly related to the development of
root system, water storage capacity, nutrient supply and feasibility for land leveling and land
shaping. Soil Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, recognizes the
following classes for irrigation purposes:

Table 5.1. Soil depth classification

Soil depth class
Less than 7.5cm Very shallow
7.5 – 22.5 Shallow
22.5 – 45.0 Moderately deep
45.0 – 90.0 Deep
More than 90 Very deep
oil depth (cm) Class
A shallow soil has limited moisture holding capacity, restricted feed zone and root
growth, therefore would need frequent irrigations with less water depth. Shallowness of soil
is further unfavourable in areas needing land leveling and shaping because it affects soil-
water relations besides nutrient retention & availability. Deep soil on the other hand, has
good moisture holding capacity, larger feeding zone and good possibilities for development
of root system. Soil depth is also important for interpreting water storage capacity.

5.3.2 Soil texture

Soil texture is the most important and fundamental property of the soil that is most
intimately related to soil water relationship. It refers to the relative proportion of mineral
particles of various sizes in a given soil i.e., the proportions of coarse, medium and fine
particles, which are termed sand, silt and clay, respectively. Various combinations of these
fractions are used to classify soil according to its texture. Using the name of the predominant
size fraction designates texture. Three broad and fundamental groups of soil textural classes
are recognized as sandy, loamy and clayey (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2. Common textural classes encountered in the field

Common
The textural class of a soil can be accurately determined in the laboratory by mechanical
analyses. Sand, silt and clay are size groupings of soil particles as shown below in Table 5.3:

Table 5.3. Size groupings of soil particles

Soil texture Siz e grouping in

The soil texture is closely related to:

a) Water holding capacity of the soil
b) Quantity of water to be given at each irrigation i.e., irrigation water depth
c) Irrigation interval and number of irrigations
d) Permeability i.e., ability of the soil to transmit water & air
e) Infiltration rate
For example, coarse textured soils (sandy soils) have low water holding capacity and
facilitate rapid drainage and air movement. Therefore, crops grown on these soils require
frequent irrigations with less irrigation water depth at each irrigation. On the other hand, fine
textured soils (clayey) have relatively high water holding capacity, however the permeability
for water and air is slow thus resulting in poor drainage and sometimes the soils get
waterlogged. Considering its various effects, the soils with loamy texture are the ideal soils
for growing most crops under irrigated conditions.

5.3.3 Soil structure

The structure of a soil refers to the arrangement of the soil particles and the adhesion
of smaller particles to form large ones or aggregates (Fig. 5.2). On the surface, soil structure
is associated with the tilth of the soil.
Fig. 5.2. Soil structure

The dominant shape of aggregates in a horizon determines their structural type, such as
speroidal (granular or crumbly subtypes), platy; prism like (columnar or prismatic subtypes)
and block like (cube and sub-angular subtypes) (Fig. 5.3). On surface the soil structure is
associated with tilth of the soil.
Fig. 5.3. Soil structural types

The soil structure influences primarily:

a) Permeability for air and water
b) Total porosity and in turn water storage capacity in a given volume of soil
c) Root penetration and proliferation
Soils without definite structure may be single grain types, sands or massive types such as
heavy clays. For example a structure-less soil allows water to percolate either too rapidly or
too slowly. Platy structure restricts the downward movement of water. Crumbly, granular and
prismatic structural types are most desirable for efficient irrigation water management and
normal crop growth (Fig. 5.4).
Fig. 5.4. Effect of structural type on permeability for water

5.3.4 Density of soil solids

There are two ways to express the soil weight – particle density and bulk density.

5.3.4.1 Particle density (rp): It is the ratio of a given mass (or weight) of soil solids to that of
its volume. It is usually expressed in terms of g/cm3. Thus if 1 cm3 of soil solids weigh 2.6g,
the particle density measures 2.6 g/cm3. Although considerable range may be observed in the
density of individual soil minerals, the values for most mineral soils usually vary between the
narrow limits of 2.6 to 2.75 g/cm3. This soil property is independent of size of the soil
particles and the arrangement of the soil solids. Knowledge of particle density is necessary
for determination of total, capillary and non-capillary porosity.
5.3.4.2 Bulk density (rb): It refers to the ratio of a given mass of an oven dried soil to that of
its field volume (i.e., solids + pore spaces). The bulk density is calculated by the following
formula:

Knowledge of bulk density is of particular importance in the determination of depth

of water for a given depth of soil and total, capillary and non-capillary porosity. The
permeability of soil for water, air and penetration of plant roots is also influenced by bulk
density. Compression or compaction of soil particles increases bulk density, consequently it
lowers the porosity in turn the soil water storage capacity; this directly affects the crop
performance particularly where water availability is sub-optimal, which is a characteristic
feature of light soils. The bulk density values for various soil textural classes are given in
Table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Bulk density values of various soil types (USDA - SCS)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sample problem: Calculate the bulk density from the following data
Fresh weight of soil = 2501g; Weight of water = 750g;
Height of core = 10cm and Diameter of the core = 12cm
Answer:

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5.3.5 Pore space
Soil total porosity _A_ is an index of pore volume in the soil. It is the space in a given
volume of soil that is occupied by air and water or not occupied by the soil solids. The total
porosity is calculated as follows:

Total porosity value generally lies in the range of 30 to 60% for arable soils. Coarse textured
soils tend to be less porous (35 – 50%) than the fine textured soils (40 – 60%),though the
mean size of individual pores is greater (>0.06mm in diameter) in the former than in the
latter. Total porosity is inclusive of both, capillary (micro pores) and non-capillary porosity
(i.e., macro pores). In a sandy soil, in spite of the relatively low total porosity, the movement
of air and water is surprisingly rapid because of the dominance of the macro pores. Therefore
the size of the individual pore spaces rather than their combined volume is an important
consideration for optimum soil-water relations. For ideal conditions of aeration, permeability,
drainage and water distribution, a soil should have about equal amount of macro and micro
pore spaces. Knowledge of porosity in a given volume of soil is very important with respect
to irrigation water management, because it is an index of moisture storage capacity and
aeration conditions, the two most important factors that influence the plant growth and
development.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sample problem:
Given – Bulk density = 1.32 g cm-2 and particle density = 2.65 g cm-2. Calculate what part
of
the soil is pore space (%).
Answer:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water Retention in Soil

6.1 Adhesion & Cohesion

Hydrogen bonding accounts for two basic forces responsible for water retention and
movement in soils:
Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and solid surfaces
Cohesion: Attraction of water molecules for each other.
By adhesion some water molecules are held rigidly at the surfaces of soil solids. In turn these
tightly bound water molecules hold by cohesion other water molecules farther away from the
solid surfaces (Fig. 6.1).
Fig. 6.1. The forces of adhesion and cohesion in a soil-water system

The adhesive force diminishes rapidly with distance from the solid surface. The cohesion of
one water molecule to another results in water molecules forming temporary clusters that are
constantly changing in size and shape as individual water molecules break free to join up
with others. The cohesion between water molecules also allows the solid to indirectly restrict
the freedom of water for some distance beyond the solid-liquid interface. Thus together, the
forces of adhesion and cohesion make it possible for the soil solids to retain water and control
its movement and use.

6.2 Soil moisture tension

The moisture held in the soil against gravity may be described in terms of moisture tension.
Thus, soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the
soil and reflects the force per unit area that must be exerted by plants to remove water from
the soil. Several units have been used to express the force (energy) with which water is held
in the soil. A common means of expressing tension is in terms of abar, which equals the
pressure exerted by a vertical water column. For instance, a pressure of one bar is
approximately equal to the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a vertical column of water having
a height of 1023 cm or a hydraulic head of 1023 cm. Similarly 1.0 bar is equivalent to 0.9869
atmospheres. This value approximates the standard atmosphere, which is the average air
pressure at sea level i.e., equal to 14.7 lbs/in2 or a mercury head of76 cm or 760mm. The
suction of water having a height of 10cm is equal to 0.01 bars or 10millibars, that of a column
of 100 cm high about 0.1 bar or 100millibars. Similarly 1.0 bar is equal to 100 centibars.
Thus the higher the height of water column or bars or atmospheres the greater the tension or
suction measured.

6.3 pF
In attempting to express the matric potential (or soil moisture tension) of soil water in terms
of an equivalent hydraulic head (or energy per unit weight), it is understood that this head
may be of the order of −100 cm or even −100000 cm of water. To avoid the use of such
cumbersomely large numbers, Schofield (1935) suggested the use of pF (by analogy with the
pH acidity scale), which is defined as the logarithm of the negative pressure (soil water
tension or suction) head in cm of water. A tension of 10 cm of water is, thus, equal to a pF of
1. Likewise, a tension head of 1000 cm is equal to a pF of 3, and so forth. Approximate
equivalents among expressions of soil water tension are given below in Table
6.1.
Table 6.1. Approximate equivalents among expressions of soil water tension

Soil moisture Soil water Hydraulic pF value

tension (bars) potential (kPa) head (cm)

−0.01 1 10.2 1.0

−0.33 10 102 2.0
−0.1 33 337 2.50
−1.0 102 1023 3.0
−15.0 1534 15345 4.2
−31.0 3171 31713 4.5

6.4 Soil moisture characteristic curves

The graphical representation of the relationship between soil moisture suction or tension and
soil water content is known as soil moisture characteristic curve or water retention curve. The
soil moisture characteristic curves are determined in the laboratory using pressure plate and
pressure membrane apparatus. The relationship between soil water tension and moisture
content for various soil types varying in texture is shown through Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2. Soil moisture characteristic curves for soils varying in texture

The soil moisture characteristic curve is strongly affected by soil texture. The greater the clay
content, in general, the greater the water retention at any particular suction, and the more
gradual the slope of the curve (Fig. 6.2). In a sandy soil, most of the pores are relatively large,
and once these large pores are emptied at a given suction, only a small amount of water
remains. In a clay soil, the pore size distribution is more uniform, and more of the water is
adsorbed, so that increasing the suction causes a more gradual decrease in water content. The
soil moisture characteristic curves have marked practical significance. They illustrate
retention-energy (suction) relationships, which influence various field processes, the two
most important of which are the movement of water in soils and the uptake and utilization of
water by plants. Thus help in scientific scheduling of irrigation’s to field crops at optimum
time and in proper quantity.

Water Movements in Soil

7.1 Infiltration
Infiltration is the entry of fluid from one medium to another. In irrigation practice it is the
term applied to the process of water entry into the soil, generally by downward flow through
all or part of the soil surface is termed as infiltration. Infiltration rate or infiltrability is
defined as the volume of water flowing into the profile per unit of soil surface area per unit
time. It is mathematically expressed as:

Where,
i= Infiltration rate (mm or cm/min or h)
Q = Volume quantity of water (m3) infiltrating,
A = Area of the soil surface (m2) exposed to infiltration, and
T = Time (min or h).
Fig. 7.1. Infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration

The infiltration rate is not constant over time. Generally, infiltration rate is high in the initial
stages of infiltration process, particularly where the soil is quite dry, but tends to decrease
monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate, which is often
termed as basic intake rate or steady state infiltration rate (Fig. 7.1). Whereas, the cumulative
infiltration, being the time integral of the infiltration rate, has curvilinear time dependence,
with a gradually decreasing slope as shown in Fig. 7.1. The infiltration rate of a soil may be
easily measured using a simple device known as a double ring infiltrometer in situ. The
variation of infiltration rate in different soil textures is shown in Fig. 7.2. The steady state
infiltration rate for various soil types is given in Table 7.1. The factors influencing infiltration
rate are time from the onset of rain or irrigation, initial water content, hydraulic conductivity,
presence of impeding layers in the profile and vegetative cover.
Fig. 7.2. Infiltration rate in different soil types

Table 7.1. Steady state infiltration rates of various soil types

7.2 Seepage
The lateral movement of water through soil pores or small cracks in the soil profile under
unsaturated condition is known as seepage.
7.3 Permeability
It indicates the relative ease with which air and water penetrate or pass through the soil pores.
Permeability of soils is generally classified as rapid, moderate and slow. Thus the
permeability is rapid in coarse textured soils and slow in fine textured soils.
7.4 Deep percolation
Infiltration is a transitional phenomenon that takes place at the soil surface. Once the water
has infiltrated the soil, the water moves downward into the profile. This post infiltration water
movement downward with in the soil profile under the influence of both gravity and
hydrostatic pressure is termed as deep percolation. Sandy soils facilitate greater percolation
when compared to clayey soils due to dominance of macro pores. Likewise the loss of water
by percolation in cropped fields is generally less than that in bare soils.
7.5 Hydraulic conductivity
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is a measure of the soil's ability to transmit water when
submitted to a hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic conductivity is defined by Darcy's law, which,
for one-dimensional vertical flow, can be written as follows:

Where, V is Darcy's velocity (or the average velocity of the soil fluid through a geometric
cross-sectional area within the soil), h1 and h2 are hydraulic heads, and L is the vertical
distance in the soil through which flow takes place. The coefficient of proportionality, K, in
the equation is called the hydraulic conductivity.
Fig. 7.3. Soil hydraulic conductivity versus

Thus, the hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ratio of Darcy's flow velocity at unit
hydraulic gradient. The dimension of K is the same as that for velocity, that is, length per unit
of time (L/T). In a soil having a stable structure the hydraulic conductivity is more or less
constant, but as the soil structure, density and porosity change, there is a change in the
hydraulic conductivity. With variation in soil texture the hydraulic conductivity values are
different. For example a clay soil with a large proportion of fine pores shows poor hydraulic
conductivity as compared to a sandy soil with higher proportion of larger pores (Fig. 7.3).
Higher bulk density and massive structure reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity for a particular soil is always constant, whereas unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity is a function of soil water content (Fig. 7.3).

7.6 Types of water movement

Movement of water in the soil is complex because of various states and directions in which
water moves and because of the forces that cause it to move. As water is dynamic soil
component, generally three types of water movement within the soil are recognized –
saturated flow, unsaturated flow and water vapour flow. The former two flows involve liquid
water in contrast to water vapour flow. In all cases water flows in response to energy
gradients, with water moving from a zone of higher to one of lower water potential.

7.6.1 Saturated water movement

The condition of the soil when all the macro and micro pores are filled with water the soil is
said to be at saturation, and any water flow under this soil condition is referred to as saturated
flow. The flow of water under saturated conditions is determined by two factors viz., the
hydraulic force driving the water through the soil (hydraulic gradient) and the ease with
which the soil pores permit water movement (hydraulic conductivity). The quantity of water
per unit of time K,) that flows through a column of saturated sol can be expressed by Darcy’s
law, as follows:

Where, A is the cross-sectional area of the column through which the water flows, K sat is
the saturated hydraulic conductivity, is the change in water potential between the ends of
the column (for example, , and L is the length of column) (Fig. 7.4).
For a given column, the rate of flow is determined by the ease with which the soil transmits
water (Ksat) and the amount of force driving the water, namely the water potential gradient
. For saturated flow this force may also be called the hydraulic gradient. By analogy,
think of pumping water through a garden hose, with Ksat representing the size of the hose
(water flows more readily through a larger hose) and representing the size of the pump
that drives the water through the hose. The units in which K sat is measured are length/time,
typically cm/s or cm/h.

7.6.2 Unsaturated water movement

The soil is said to be under unsaturated condition when the soil macro pores are mostly filled
with air and the micro pores (capillary pores) with water and some air, and any water
movement or flow taking place under this soil condition is referred to as unsaturated flow.
Under field conditions most of the soil water movements occurs only when the soil pores are
not completely saturated with water. However, water movement under these conditions is
very sluggish compared to that when the soil is at saturation. This is because at or near zero
tension, the tension at which saturated flow occurs the hydraulic conductivity is orders of
magnitude greater than at tensions of 0.1 bars and above, which characterize unsaturated
flow.
Fig. 7.4. Saturated flow in a column of soil

Further under unsaturated soil conditions at low tensions, the hydraulic conductivity is higher
in sandy soils compared to clayey soils. The opposite is true at higher tension values.
Unsaturated flow is governed by the same general principles affecting saturated flow i.e., its
direction and rate are related to the hydraulic conductivity and to a driving force, which in
this case is moisture tension gradient or moisture suction gradient. This gradient is the
difference in tension between two adjoining soil zones. Thus, the water movement will
always be from a zone of low tension (high matric potential) to one of high tension (low
matric potential) or from a zone of thick moisture films to where the films are thin. The force
responsible for this tension is the attraction of soil solids for water (i.e. adhesion). The higher
the water contents in the moist zone, the greater is the tension gradient and more rapid is the
flow.
Lecture No. 18
Plant-water relationships : Root characteristics – Soil properties
influencing root development – Effective root zone depth – Moisture
extraction pattern
1 Introduction
To design a successful irrigation system, it is essential to know the plant rooting
characteristics, effective root zone depth, moisture extraction pattern and moisture sensitive
periods of crops.

2 Rooting characteristic of plants

The purpose of irrigation is to provide adequate soil moisture in the immediate
vicinity of the plant roots. All plants do not have the similar rooting pattern i.e., root
penetration and proliferation. Some plants have relatively shallow root system (for example
annual crops), while others develop several meters under favourable conditions (for example
tree crops). It is obvious, therefore, that if one is to plan an efficient irrigation schedule for
providing adequate soil moisture to plant roots, it is necessary to understand rooting habits of
plants.

2.1 Soil properties influencing root development

a) Hard pan: Root penetration is seriously affected by presence of a hard pan or compacted
layer in the soil profile. Thus roots cannot penetrate a hard layer except through cracks, if any
(Fig. 1). Thus, in shallow soils, crop roots may be confined to a thin layer of soil irrespective
of their normal genetic rooting pattern in a soil having uniform structure and texture.
b) Soil moisture: Since roots cannot grow in soil that is depleted in moisture down to and
below the permanent wilting point, a layer of dry soil below the surface in the profile can
restrict root penetration (Fig..1).

Fig. 1. Soil properties influencing root development

c) Water table: A high water table limits root growth, and a rising water table may kill roots
that have previously grown below the new water level (Fig.1).
d) Toxic substances: Presence of toxic substances in the sub-soil also limits root growth and
development. Saline layers or patches in the soil profile therefore inhibit or prevent root
penetration and proliferation.

3 Effective root zone depth

 The soil depth from which the crop extracts most (nearly 90%) of the water needed to
meet its evapotranspiration requirements is known as effective crop root zone depth. It is also
referred to as design moisture extraction depth, the soil depth used taken into account to
determine the irrigation water requirements for scheduling irrigation’s to crops.
For best results, it is the depth in which optimum available soil moisture must be maintained
for higher productivity of crops. It is not necessarily the maximum rooting depth for any
given crop, especially for plants that have a long tap root system.
Since root development for any one crop varies in different agro-climatic zones because of
soil and climatic differences, the design depth should be based on local moisture-extraction
data for locally adapted crops. If two or more plant species with different rooting
characteristics are to be grown together, the design depth should be that of the plant having
the shallower root system. In the absence of any local moisture extraction pattern data for
design, the information given below in Table 1 may be used as a guide.

Table 1. Design moisture extraction depths for crops grown on very deep, well drained
soils
Rootin

g depth Crop (s)

4 Moisture extraction pattern
The moisture extraction pattern refers to the amount of soil moisture expressed as
percentage extracted from different layers in the soil profile. In most plants, the concentration
of absorbing roots is greatest in the upper part of the root zone (usually in the top 45cm) and
near the base of the plant. Hence extraction of water from the topsoil layers is usually more as
compared to lower layers. Since water also evaporates from upper few inches of soil, it is lost
rapidly from the upper layers. As the amount of moisture in the upper part of root zone in the
vicinity of roots is diminished, soil moisture tension increases and a moisture suction gradient
is created between the upper layers and the far away lower layer from where moisture has not
been extracted previously. This causes water to move towards the upper layers to attain
equilibrium between two zones, thus, the plants get moisture from lower parts of the root
zone.
In uniform soils that are fully supplied with available soil moisture, plants use water rapidly
from the upper part of the root zone and slowly from the extreme lower part. The basic
moisture extraction curve indicates that for all crop plants growing in a uniform soil with
adequate available water supply exhibits similar moisture-extraction pattern. The usual
extraction pattern (Fig.2) shows that about 40% of the soil moisture extracted is contributed
from upper quarter of the root zone, 30% from the second quarter, 20% from the third
quarter, and 10% from the bottom quarter. Values for individual crops may vary within the
range of 10%.
 Fig. 2. Basic soil moisture extraction curve

Any barrier in the soil that restricts root development changes the basic moisture extraction
pattern for a given crop. Similarly, if the moisture level in the upper layers of the soil drops
much below field capacity, a plant’s extraction pattern differs greatly from its usual pattern.

5 Moisture sensitive periods

The optimal moisture for plant growth varies with the stage of crop growth i.e., it is
low in the initial stages (establishment & early development), increases with advancement of
crop life and attains peak value during reproductive stage, thereafter it decreases towards
ripening and maturity phases. Thus, not all the crop growth phases are equally sensitive,
certain stages are more sensitive to soil moisture/stress when compared to other stages. These
are known as moisture sensitive periods or critical growth stages for moisture.
“Critical growth period is the stage or stages of growth of the crop at which moisture stress
has the greatest effect on quality & quantity of yield. Therefore, any stress during these stages
will irrevocably reduce the yield and provision of adequate water and other management
practices at other growth stages will not compensate the yield lost”.
In general moisture stress during germination and early seedling stage may have deleterious
effect on field crop emergence and plant establishment because of soil crusting and small root
system resulting in low plant population per unit area. Stress during vegetative stage has little
effect on subsequent production unless it is so severe as to drastically reduce leaf area index
and leaf area duration. Moisture stress during flowering causes flowers drop & pollen
desiccation and affects fertilization; while that during grain development leads to production
of shriveled grains and low mean test weight. Critical stages for various fields, vegetable and
fruit crops are presented in Table 2, which serve as a guideline for management of limited
water supplies.

Table 2. Critical growth periods of crops for water supply

Lecture 19
CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
Crop water requirement (WR) is the quantity of water utilized by a crop, irrespective
of its source for obtaining maximum yield in a particular area without any/minimum adverse
effect on soil properties. In a cropped field water evaporates (E) from the bare soil, is
transpired through plants (T) and some quantity is retained in plants body for metabolic
activities (Wm), added together (E+T+Wm) known as crop consumptive use of water (CU).
Water retained in crop plants at any time is a very small fraction compared to quantity lost
through evaporation and transpiration, together known as evapo-transpiration (ET). Both CU
and ET, therefore, are used interchangeably. Besides, some losses do take place in field
during application and some time water is also needed for special operations such as land
preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts etc. The water requirement (WR) thus can be
expressed as:
WR = CU + Application losses + Water needed for special operation
= Irrigation + Effective rainfall + Ground water contribution + Change in soil
moisture
WR = IR + ER + SMS + GWC
IR = WR – (ER+ SMS +GWC)
Where, IR= Irrigation Requirement
WR= Water Requirement
ER= Effective Rainfall
SMS= Soil moisture Storage
GWC= Ground Water contribution
Some times, water requirement is also called as transpiration ratio. Water requirement
is a demand where as the supply consists of contribution from irrigation water, effective
rainfall and soil profile contribution including that from shallow water table.
Factors affecting water requirement of crops
i) Season: Water requirement varies with season. Paddy grown in different seasons
have
different water requirement.
ii) Crop: Water requirement varies with crops as different crops have different water
requirement. Water requirement is also varied with the variety of crops. Long duration
variety of crop has more water requirement than short duration variety of the same
crop. Water requirement also varies with the stage and duration of crop. Water
requirement of crop varies from growth stages to growth stages, species to species,
duration of crops, rooting depth( deeper the roots greater would be the water need),
type of culture i.e. rainfed crops need lesser water than irrigated ones, even the same
variety grown under irrigated conditions needs lesser water than grown under
irrigated conditions. During the growth of crop, consumptive use is maximum during
flowering and grain filling in cereals compared to that in seedling stage. Crops differ
in producing leaf area and covering the ground. Evapotranspiration also differs with
height of the crop. Tall crops intercept more solar radiation and have more
evapotranspiration than short crops.
iii) Soil: Water requirement varies with the soil type. Water requirement for sandy
soils is
more than the clay soil. Level lands require less water than unleveled lands. Soil
having impervious layers in root zone prevents the percolation loss and this helps to
reduce water requirement. Colour of the soil also has considerable influence on
evapotranspiration from the soil surface. Dark coloured soils absorb more of solar
radiation and thus increase evaporation. Soils of lower fertility and lower organic
 matter contents, shallow depth, light sandy texture and efficient drainage system need
frequent irrigation and hence, their water requirement is more and vice- versa.
iv) Depth of irrigation water: When more water is applied in the field than
necessary, the excess water will be lost as deep percolation and this will increase the
water requirement of a crop, so it is essential to maintain the proper depth of irrigation
water.
v) Climatic factors: Lower rainfall, higher temperature, lower humidity, high wind
velocity and bright and longer photoperiod result into higher Evapo transpirational
loss of water but corresponding lower values of aforesaid factors cause a lower water
requirement.
vi) Crop management practices: All the management practices that provide
favourable environment to the crop increase leaf area and thus increase
evapotranspiration. Tillage practices influences rooting characteristics and thus
influences evapotranspiration. Weeding reduces competition for moisture and
increases irrigation interval. Similarly, mulching reduces evapotranspiration
considerably.
vii) Methods of irrigation: Wastage of water depends on the method of irrigation. It
is more in case of surface method of irrigation as compared to drip and sprinkler method of
irrigation. So water requirement for surface method of irrigation is more than sprinkler and
drip methods. The former equation is termed as demand equation, whereas, the later one is
the supply equation. Both equations are together termed as water balance equation.
Lecture No. 20
IRRIGATION AND WATER USE EFFICIENCY
1 Irrigation efficiency
There are considerable losses of irrigation water during its application and distribution
in the field. Keeping these losses in view, the actual amount of water is greater than the net
amount needed in the soil. The extent of irrigation water losses is indicated by irrigation
efficiency, which can be defined as the ratio of amount of water stored in the soil for plant
growth to total amount of water applied. Irrigation efficiency can be expressed as:

As the irrigation water is lost at several stages during the irrigation, the irrigation
efficiency can be monitored at various stages of the irrigation process. The overall irrigation
efficiency can be classified into following categories:
1.1 Water conveyance efficiency
It is related to the conveyance sources such as canal networks, water courses, farm
channels and of water conveyance from an individual well/tubewell to a field. It is ratio of
quantity of irrigation water diverted from source (Ws) to the quantity delivered or received at
the field head (Wf).

1.2 Water application efficiency

It denotes the losses of water received at the field head during its application in the
field. It is the ratio of quantity of water actually stored in the root zone of the crop (Wr) to
quantity delivered to the field head (Wf).

1.3 Water storage efficiency

This is also referred to as the water requirement efficiency. It is ratio of amount of
irrigation water stored in the root zone during irrigation (Wr) to the amount of water actually
needed in the root zone prior to the irrigation i.e, potential soil moisture storage volume
(Wn).

The storage efficiency indicates the efficiency of the irrigation water in meeting its
objective of refilling the root zone. The value of the storage efficiency is important when
either the irrigation tends to leave major portions of the field under-irrigated or where under
irrigation is purposely practiced to use the precipitation as and when it occurs. This parameter
is the most directly related with the crop yield since it reflects the degree of soil moisture
stress.
1.4 Water distribution efficiency
It is concerned with the distribution of water over the entire field. Water distribution
efficiency may be estimated as under:
 Where, d = average infiltrated depth along the field
y = average deviation of the depths from d

For example, If 10% water is lost in irrigation channel, 20% during application and
25% during distribution, it means the water conveyance efficiency, water application
efficiency and water distribution efficiency are 90%, 80% and 75%, respectively. The
irrigation efficiency in this case will be Ic x Ia x Id or 0.90 x 0.75 x 0.80 = 0.54 or 54%.

1.5 Water requirement efficiency

Water requirement efficiency (Er) is the ratio of the amount of water beneficially used
(Wu) during an irrigation interval to the requirement during that interval (Wi).

1.6 Project efficiency

Project efficiency (Ep) is the ratio of average depth of water stored in the root zone
soil depth during irrigation (Ws) to the water diverted from the reservoir (Wr)

1.7 Operational efficiency

It is the ratio of the actual project efficiency compared to the operational efficiency of
an ideally designed and managed system using the same irrigation method and facilities.

1.8 Economic irrigation efficiency

It is the ratio of the total production (net or gross profit) attained with operation of
irrigation system, compared to the total production expected under ideal conditions. It is a
measure of the overall efficiency, as it relates to the final output to input.
1.9 Consumptive use efficiency
Consumptive use efficiency (Ecu) is the ratio of the normal consumptive use of water
(Wcu) to the net amount depleted from root zone of the soil (Wd)

1.10 Field water use efficiency

It is the ratio of the crop yield to the amount of water used in the field, which include
ET, deep percolation and that used in plant metabolic processes. Since, water used in
metabolic processes is very small, field water use efficiency (Ef) is the ratio between
marketable yield (Y) and water used in ET plus deep percolation losses (ET+DP)

1.11 Deep percolation ratio

The loss of water through drainage beyond the root zone is reflected in the deep
percolation ratio (DPR). It is measured as under:
High deep percolation losses aggravate water logging and salinity problems and leach
valuable crop nutrients from the crop root zone. Depending upon the chemical nature of the
ground water basin, deep percolation may cause a major problem of water quality on the
regional basis. These losses can return to receiving streams heavily laden with salts and other
toxic elements and thereby degrade the quality of water to be used by others.
1.12 Tail water ratio
Losses of irrigation water from the irrigation system through surface runoff from the
end of the field are indicated in the tail water ration, TWR. This is defined as

Runoff losses pose additional threats to irrigation systems and regional water resources.
Erosion of the top soil on a field is generally associated with the run-off. The sediments can
then obstruct conveyance and control structures downstream, including dams and regulating
structures.

Factors affecting irrigation Efficiency

i. Soil texture: Finer the soil texture, higher the surface run-off and lesser the deep
percolation losses compared with coarse sandy soils.
ii. Land topography: Irregular land surface, compact shallow soils reduce the irrigation
efficiency
iii. Stream size: irrigation efficiency will be low with small or too large irrigation streams
iv. Frequency of irrigation: Long irrigation runs and excessive single applications
contribute to large losses of irrigation water.

2 Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

It is defined as yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used in
consumptive use of water or evapo-transpiration.
WUE = Y/ET
Where WUE= water use efficiency (kg/ha-cm)
Y= Yield (kg/ha)
ET = Evapotranspiration (cm)

If yield is proportional to ET, water use efficiency has to be a constant, but it is not so.
Actually, yield and ET are influenced independently or differently by crop management and
environment. Yield is more influenced by crop management practices, while ET is mainly
dependent on climate and soil moisture. Any practice that promotes plant growth and the
more efficient use of sunlight in photosynthesis without causing a corresponding increase in
ET will increase water use efficiency.

Factor affecting water use efficiency

i. Nature of the plant: There are considerable differences between plant species to produce a
unit of dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting in widely varying values of WUE.
There are also differences in WUE between varieties of same crop. Selection of properly crop
with good rooting habits, low transpiration rates and improved energy consumption in
photosynthesis will increase WUE.
ii. Climatic conditions: Weather affects both yield and ET. Manipulation of climate to any
great extent is not possible. However, ET can be reduced by mulching, use of antitranspirants
to a limited extent, but may not be economical or practical. Weed control is the most effective
means of reducing ET losses and increasing the amount of water available to the crop,
thereby increasing WUE.
iii. Soil moisture content: Inadequate supply of soil moisture as well as excess moisture
supply to the crop have an adverse effect on plant growth and productivity and are conducive
to low WUE. Proper scheduling of irrigation will increase WUE.
iv. Fertilizers: Nutrient availability is highest for most crops when water tension is low. All
available evidence indicates that under adequate irrigation, suitable fertilization, generally,
increase yield considerably with a relatively small increase in ET and therefore, markedly
improves WUE.
v. Plant Population: Higher yield potential made possible by favourable water regime
provided by irrigation, the high soil fertility level resulting from heavy application of
fertilizers and the genetic potential of new varieties and hybrids could be achieved only with
appropriate adjustments of the plant population. Highest yield and water use efficiency is
possible only through optimum levels of soil moisture regime, plant population and
fertilization.
vi. Method of irrigation: Field WUE is generally greater with sprinkler and drip irrigation
methods than surface irrigation methods. Among the various surface irrigation methods,
WUE is highest with furrow and border strip methods.
Lecture No. 21
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops – Soil Water Regime Approach
1 Introduction
Scientific irrigation scheduling is a technique providing knowledge on correct time
and optimum quantity of water application at each irrigation to optimize crop yields with
maximum water use efficiency and at the same time ensuring minimum damage to the soil
properties.
2 Criteria for scheduling irrigation
With the advancement of knowledge in the field of soil-plant-atmospheric system
several criteria for scheduling irrigations are now available and are being used by
investigators and farmers. All the available criteria can be broadly classified into the
following three categories:

However, criteria most suitable for scheduling irrigation’s would vary with soils,
plants, climatic and management factors.
2.1 Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling
Irrigation scheduling offers several advantages:
a) It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various fields to minimize crop
water stress and maximize yields.
b) It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through fewer irrigations, thereby making
maximum use of soil moisture storage.
c) It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation (leaching) to a
minimum.
d) It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
e) It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage requirements.
f) It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled leaching.
g) It results in additional returns by using the “saved” water to irrigate non-cash crops that
otherwise would not be irrigated during water-short periods.
2.2 Soil water regime approach
In this approach the available soil water held between field capacity and permanent
wilting point in the effective crop root zone depth described in several ways is taken as an
index or guide for determining practical irrigation schedules. Alternatively soil moisture
tension, the force with which the water is held around the soil particles is also sometimes
used as a guide for timing irrigations. Different methods of scheduling irrigation following
soil moisture regime approach are as follows:
2.2.1 Feel and appearance of soil
This is one of the oldest and simple methods of determining the soil moisture content.
It is done by visual observation and feel of the soil by hand (Fig. 1). The accuracy of
judgement improves with experience.

Fig. 1. Feel and appearance of soil

Based on several years of experience guidelines have been developed (Table 1) which help
the farmers to judge the soil moisture present in the soil samples drawn from the crop root
zone depth and based on depletion of available soil moisture (DASM) irrigations are
scheduled. Though it is a crude method it can be used satisfactorily for some purpose if
experience is backed by other local information. Further this method is subjective. Thus,
different people who examine the same soil condition may obtain different answers.
Table 1. Guidelines for judging soil moisture by feel & appearance of soil
2.2.2 Depletion of the available soil moisture (DASM)
In this method the permissible depletion level of available soil moisture in the
effective crop root zone depth is commonly taken as an index or guide for scheduling
irrigations to field crops. In general, for many crops scheduling irrigation’s at 20 – 25%
DASM in the soil profile was found to be optimum at moisture sensitive stages. While at
other stages irrigations scheduled at 50% DASM were found optimum. Some of the examples
are given in Table 2.
Table 18.2. Optimum DASM levels for various crops

2.2.3 Soil moisture tension

Soil moisture tension a physical property of film water in soil, as monitored by
tensiometers (Fig. 18.2) at a specified depth in the crop root zone could also be used as an
index for scheduling irrigations to field crops.

Fig. 2. Tensiometers for irrigation scheduling

Pertinent water storage properties of soil and water use rated as affected by climatic
conditions and plant vigour are intrinsically accounted for in such an irrigation schedule
programme without measuring them. Tensiometers are installed in pairs, one in the maximum
rooting depth and the other below this zone. Whenever critical soil moisture tension is
reached say for example 0.4 or 0.6 or 0.75 bars etc in the upper tensiometer the irrigation is
commenced. While the lower one (tensiometer) is used to terminate the irrigations based on
the suction readings in the below soil profile zone. It is generally used for irrigating orchards
and vegetables in coarse textured soils because most of the available soil moisture is held at
lower tensions. Further the determination of critical soil moisture tension at which irrigation
should be given has been the subject of much research, as summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Threshold soil moisture tension values for scheduling irrigation

Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops – Climatological Approach

1 Introduction
The potential rate of water loss from a crop is primarily a function of evaporative
demand of the atmospere under adequate soil water conditions. Thus in this method the water
loss expressed in terms of either potential evapotranspiration (PET) or cumulative pan
evaporation (CPE) over short periods of time are taken as an index for scheduling
irrigation’s. Different climatological approaches are described below:
1.1 Potential evapotranspiration (PET)
Penmen (1948) introduced the concept of PET and he defined it as “the amount of
water transpired in a unit time by short green crop of uniform height, completely covering the
ground and never short of water”. He further stated that PET cannot exceed pan evaporation
under the same weather conditions and is some fraction of pan evaporation. PET can be
estimated by several techniques viz., lysimetric methods, energy balance, aerodynamic
approach, combination of energy balance and empirical formulae etc., and irrigation’s can be
scheduled conveniently based on the knowledge of PET or water use rates of crops over short
time intervals of crop growth.
1.1.1 Lysimeter
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes
that are difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be
determined with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated
tanks filled with either disturbed or undisturbed soil (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. schematic view of Lysimeter

Different types of lysimeters vary widely in the accuracy with which changes in soil water
are detected. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly measured by
the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy of a few hundredths
of a millimetre, and small time periods such as an hour can be considered. In non-weighing
lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined by deducting the
drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside
of the lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). Lysimeters provide
the direct estimates of water balance components viz., E, T, ET, drainage, runoff, effective
rainfall etc in a cropped field against which other methods can be tested and calibrated. As
lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and maintenance
require special care, their use is limited to specific research purposes.

1.2 Cumulative pan evaporation

Earlier investigations have shown that transpiration of a crop is closely related to free
water evaporation from an open pan evaporimeter (Fig. 19.2). Thus, the open pan
evaporimeter being simple and as they incorporate the effects of all climatic parameters into a
single entity i.e., pan evaporation could be used as a guide for scheduling irrigation’s to
crops. For example,
¨ Wheat required 75 to 100 mm CPE at Ludhiana
¨ Sugarcane required 75 mm CPE in Maharashtra
¨ Greengram required 180 mm CPE at Ludhiana
¨ Sunflower required 60 mm CPE at Bangalore

Fig. 2. USWB Class A Pan evaporimeter

Based on the same analogy, an alternative, simple can evaporimeter was devised by
Jain (1975). The evaporation from it was shown to be closely related to pan evaporation as
well as soil moisture depletion, hence it could also be satisfactorily employed in place of
evaporimeter for scheduling irrigation to crops.
1.3 IW : CPE ratio
Prihar et al. (1974) advocated irrigation scheduling on the basis of ratio between the
depth of irrigation water (IW) and cumulative evaporation from U.S.W.B. class A pan
evaporimeter minus the precipitation since the previous irrigation (CPE). An IW/CPE ratio of
1.0 indicates irrigating the crop with water equal to that lost in evaporation from the
evaporimeter. Few examples of optimal IW/CPE ratios for important crops are given in
Table 1.
Table.1. Optimum IW/CPE ratios for scheduling irrigation in important crops
Crop Optimum IW/CPE ratio

However, the criterion does not take into consideration the critical growth stages for
irrigation. It may also not hold well under the following situations.
1. For crops requiring 1-2 irrigations only
2. Determining timing of first and last irrigation
3. Under low temperature/ frost/ salt stresses
Further, the optimum value of CPE for fixed/ variable depth of irrigation has to be worked
out for different crops and locations.
Lecture No. 22
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops – Plant Indices Approach
1 Introduction
The plant in one form or the other expresses water deficits in the soil, since it is the
one, which is affected by the water, stress. Any plant character, related directly or indirectly
to water deficits and which responds readily to the integrated influences of soil water, plant
and environmental parameters may serve as a criterion for timing irrigation to crops. Some of
the plant indices commonly used are discussed below:
1.1 Visual plant symptoms
In this method the visual signs of plants are used as an index for scheduling irritations.
For instance, plant wilting, drooping, curling and rolling of leaves in maize is used as
indicators for scheduling irrigation (Fig. 20.1). Change in foliage colour and leaf angle is
used to time irrigations in beans. Water stress in some crops leads to appearance of
carotenoid (yellow and orange colour) and anthocyanin pigments; shortening of internodes in
sugarcane and cotton; retardation of stem elongation in grapes; leaf abscission and lack of
new growth and redness in terminal growth points of almond, which can be used as indices
for scheduling irrigations to crops.

Fig..1. Rolling of leaves in maize and change of leaf angle in beans

1.2 Soil-cum-sand mini-plot technique

This method is also referred to profile modification technique and is commonly used
for scheduling irrigations to crops. The principle involved in this technique is to reduce
artificially the available water holding capacity of soil profile (i.e., effective root zone depth)
in the mini-plot by mixing sand with it. When this is done plants growing on the sand mixed
plot show wilting symptoms earlier than in the rest of the field. An area of 1.0 x 1.0m is
selected in the field and a pit of 1.0m depth is excavated. About 5% of sand by volume is
added to the dug up soil and mixed well. The pit is then filled back with the mixture and
while filling up every 15 cm layer is well compacted, so that the soil in the pit retains the
original bulk density as that of surrounding soil. Crop is sown normally and is allowed to
grow as usual with the rest of the field. As and when the plants in the mini-plot show wilting
symptoms it is taken as a warning of impending water need and cropped field is irrigated.
1.3 Plant population
Increase in plant population by 1.5 to 2.0 times that of optimum in some
representative spots of (1 m x 1m area) in the cropped field alternative to mini-plot technique
also serves as a reliable index for scheduling irrigation’s to crops. This happens because
when more plants are there per unit area, the available water within that zone is depleted
rapidly as compared to other area wherein optimum number of plants is maintained per unit
area. This result in drooping or wilting of plants earlier, which can be taken as an indication
of water deficits and accordingly irrigations are scheduled to crops.
1.4 Rate of growth
Growth of a plant is dependent on turgor, which in turn is dependent on a favourable
soil water balance. So fluctuations in the water balance are reflected by parallel fluctuations
in the growth rate of expanding organs. Stem elongation is markedly reduced when the
available soil moisture level approaches the critical level, but accelerates again after
irrigation. In cotton elongation of internodal length by 0.5 to 1.0-cm day-1 indicated the
approach of critical available soil moisture level. Likewise in oranges, when the growth rate
of fruit circumference falls below 0.2 to 0.3-mm d-1, irrigations have to be scheduled.
1.5 Relative water content
This concept was proposed by Weatherly (1950). It is the actual water content of the
leaf or plant when sampled relative to water at saturation or turgid. It is expressed as relative
water content (RWC) and is calculated as follows:

It depends on the lag between evaporative demand of the atmosphere and the rate of water
absorption by the roots and has been found to be one of the reliable indices of plant water
stress for scheduling irrigation. For instance the critical RWC level (below which reduction in
growth occurs) for cotton and sesame was 72% and 75% respectively. Whenever the plant
exhibits these values, irrigations can be scheduled. However, the main drawback is it is
tedious and time consuming.
1.6 Plant water potential
This method measures the energy status of plant water analogous to the tension of film water
in the soil, and serves as a better index of physiological and bio-chemical phenomena
occurring in the plant. Plant or leaf water potential can be precisely measured either by a
pressure bomb or pressure chamber apparatus (Fig. 2) in situ or by the dye method in the
laboratory.

Fig. 2. Pressure chamber apparatus

The critical plant water potential values for cotton below which yield reductions are expected
were 1.2 to 1.25 MPa throughout the crop life. While for sunflower they were 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4
MPa at vegetative, pollination and seed formation, respectively.
1.7 Canopy temperature
Several studies have shown that plant temperature or canopy temperature adequately
reflects the internal water balance of the plant, and can be used as a potential indicator for
scheduling irrigation to crops. It can be measured by several instruments, which are
commercially available viz., porometer, infrared thermometer (Fig. 3) etc.
 Fig. 3. Infrared thermometer for scheduling irrigations to crops
For maize it is shown that if the canopy temperature rises to more than 0.70C over ambient
temperature during 1330 to 1400 hour’s irrigations need to be scheduled. However, tomato
showed no sensitivity to water stress with respect to temperature variations.
1.8 Indicator plants
Some workers have suggested the use of indicator plants as a guide for scheduling
irrigations. In wheat, scheduling irrigations on the basis of wilting symptoms in maize and
sunflower gave the highest grain yields.
1.9 Critical growth stages
The crop plants in their life cycle pass through various phases of growth, some of
which are critical for water supply. The most critical stage of crop growth is the one at which
a high degree of water stress would cause maximum loss in yield. Further, studies on
irrigation at growth stages may give an indication as to whether scarce water can be used
more efficiently by scheduling irrigation’s at critical stages.
Scheduling of irrigations on the basis of critical growth stages is simple and easy for
the farmers. However, it does not take into account the available soil water in the crop root
zone depth. Excessive irrigations without significant soil/ plant water deficit could be harmful
to crop plants and might reduce their yield under certain situations. The criterion may not
hold well in long duration crops like sugarcane, cotton; crops requiring frequent irrigation’s
viz., potato or standing/nearly standing water (rice) and where there is interference by rainfall
of different amounts. The critical growth stages of various crops for moisture supply are
presented in Table 1.
Lecture No. 23
Surface Methods of Irrigation
1 Introduction
Surface irrigation method refers to the manner or plan of water application by gravity
flow to the cultivated land wetting either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or part of the
field (furrows, basins, border strips). Most irrigated areas have characteristic land features
and differ from those in other areas. Hence, for efficient application of water it is important to
select such method of irrigation, which fits one’s own land. In doing so it may be necessary,
or desirable, to use more than one method of irrigation in an area or a given farm (Fig. 1).

Fig. 21.1. Different methods of irrigation on a farm

The adoption of a certain method need not be necessarily based on convention or that
followed in the adjoining farm. The factors, which determine the suitable method of irrigation
are local conditions (soil type - its permeability & water storage capacity; land topography,
climate, water availability & water quality), crop type, type of technology, previous
experience with irrigation, required labour inputs etc. Good yield of crops can be obtained
from irrigated land only if the water is applied judiciously to meet the needs of the plant, but
not to cause waste and damage. Irrigation water is applied to cultivated land by the following
surface methods of irrigation:

2 Wild flooding
 It consists of applying water to the field without any bunds to guide the flow of water
wetting the soil surface completely. Generally it is practiced only when irrigation water is
abundant and where land levelling is not followed. Sometimes it is also adopted in the initial
stages of land development. This method is most commonly used for irrigation of crops sown
by broadcasting method viz., rice, low value pastures, lawns and millets etc.
Advantages
1. No land levelling & land shaping
2. Low labour and land preparation costs
3. Less skill required by irrigator
Disadvantages
1. Applied water is lost by deep percolation & surface runoff
2. Low irrigation application efficiency
3 Controlled flooding
3.1 Check basin method
In this method the field is divided into square or rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m2
guided by bunds on all the sides (Fig. 2). This method is usually practiced in nearly levelled
lands, thus no run-off of soil or water takes place and wetting depth is more uniform.
However, it is particularly useful on fine textured soils with low permeability rate where it is
necessary to hold the water on the surface to secure adequate penetration. The field channels
supply water to each basin, during which the basins are filled to desired depth and water is
retained until it infiltrates into the soil. This method is most commonly used for irrigating
crops like groundnut, finger millet, sorghum, vegetable crops etc. Check basins are also used
for leaching salts below the crop root zone depth by percolating water in the reclamation of
saline soils.

Fig. 2. Check basin method of irrigation

Advantages
1. Water can be applied uniformly.
2. Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops efficiently.
3. Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing bunds
Disadvantages
1. Unless the land is levelled, distribution of water in plot is uneven.
2. Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e. nearly 30% of area.
3. Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment
4. More labour is required for field layout and irrigation

3.2 Ring basin method

This method is a modification of check basin method and is suitable for sparsely grown
orchard crops and cucurbits (Fig. 3).

Fig 3
In this method a circular bund is constructed around each tree/plant or group of plants/trees
to create a basin for irrigation. These basins are suitably connected to irrigation conveyance
channels is such a way that either each basin is irrigated separately or group of basins by
flowing water from one basin to another through inter- connections.
Advantages
1. High irrigation application efficiency can be achieved with properly designed system
2. Unskilled labour can be used, as there is no danger of erosion
Disadvantages
1. High labour requirement
2. Bunds restrict use of modern machinery in the field
3. Limited to relatively uniform lands
3.3 Border strip method
The cultivated field to be irrigated is divided into a number of long parallel strips,
generally 5 to 15 m in width and 75 to 300 m in length separated by small border ridges or
low dykes of about 15 cm high, laid out in the direction of the slope (Fig. 21.4).

Fig. 4. Border strip method of irrigation

The objective is to advance a sheet of water down the narrow strip of land, allowing it
to enter the soil as the sheet advances. Irrigation water is released into each strip connected
directly to irrigation channel situated at the upstream end of the border strip. After sufficient
water has been applied to one strip, the irrigation stream is turned into another strip. A
specific requirement in border irrigation is that the longitudinal slope must be uniform, and
the transverse slope must be zero or negligible (< 0.03%). This method is suitable for
irrigating a wide variety of close growing crops such as wheat, barley, groundnut, bajra and
berseem.
Advantages
1. Large water streams can be used safely
2. Provides uniform wetting of soil profile
3. Low labour requirement
Disadvantages
1. Requires relatively large water streams for quick advance of water to minimize deep
percolation losses at the upper end of the border strip.
2. Wastage of water by deep percolation in coarse textured soils.
3.4 Deep furrow method
In furrow method of irrigation, the flat bed surface is converted into a series of ridges
and furrows running down the slope (Fig. 5). The spacing of the furrow is ordinarily
determined by the spacing of row crop. The length of the furrow and slope depends on
several factors viz., texture, intake rate etc.

Fig. 5. Furrow method of irrigation

Depending on the soil, crop spacing, farm equipment used etc spacing between furrows
varies from 60 to 120 cm. Depending on the soil texture furrow length ranges from 20 to 300
m or even more. To avoid overtopping and scouring problems furrow inflow rates are
normally limited to 2 to 15 m3/hr/furrow. This method can be used either with small or large
streams of irrigation water because it can be diverted into any number of furrows. Slope
along the furrows may range from 0.2 to 2%. Where the land is too slopy (>5%), the furrows
must be constructed on contours. Among the various surface irrigation methods, there is a
relative saving of water in furrow method; hence efficient use of water is possible. In case of
limited water, alternate furrows may be irrigated without much adverse effect on the crop
yield. This method is commonly used for irrigating crops like potato, sugarcane, maize,
cotton, melons, sugarbeets and vegetables like lettuce. When furrow irrigation is practiced
under saline and alkaline conditions, the lateral movement of soil moisture coupled with
evaporation causes salt to accumulate in the ridges between furrows. If the salt accumulation
reaches harmful levels, planting is advocated on the relatively salt free bottom of the furrows
following pre-plant irrigation.
Advantages
1. Fairly high irrigation application efficiency among surface irrigation methods
2. Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy rainfall
3. Low evaporation losses
Disadvantages
1. Not suitable in coarse textured soils with high infiltration rates
2. Possibility of intra-furrow soil erosion
3. Labour intensive
3.5 Corrugations
This is a special method of furrow irrigation. Corrugations or rills are shallow
furrows running down the slope from head ditches or laterals, which are sometimes very
close to each other (Fig.6).

Fig. 6
Water moves down through several corrugations simultaneously and soaks laterally through
the soil, wetting the area between the corrugations. This method is used for irrigating close
growing crops, which do not require inter-culture operations and may also be used in
conjunction with border irrigation. Corrugations are often used in fine textured soils that take
water slowly and in soils, which tend to seal over and crust when flooded. The spacing and
size of the corrugations vary with soil type, but in general, the more porous the soil, the more
closely spaced the corrugations to permit rapid wetting between them without excessive deep
percolation losses. The length of the corrugations should be such that upper end of the field
has not been over irrigated by the time the lower end has received sufficient water.
2 Sub-irrigation
Sub-irrigation is the method of applying water beneath the soil surface; close to the plant
roots so that either water seeps from the sides of the channels towards the plant roots or
through capillary movement upward. It is usually done by creating an artificial water surface
at some pre-determined depth, about 30 – 75 cm below the ground, depending upon the
texture and rooting characteristics of the crop. Application efficiencies vary from 30-80%
depending upon conditions. Water having high salt content cannot be used. This method is
expensive, difficult to maintain and operate, and suitable only for few crops. Because of high
investment required, it has not been widely adopted in India.
Lecture No. 24
Sprinkler Method of Irrigation
1 Introduction
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural
rainfall (Fig. 1). Water is conveyed under desired pressure (2 to 5 kg/cm2) developed by a
pump through a network of pipes, called mainlines and submains to one or more laterals and
is sprayed in to the air through sprinkler nozzles or perforations so that it breaks up in to
small water drops (0.5 to 4mm in size) which fall over the land or crop surface in an uniform
pattern at a rate (0.06-5000 LPH) less than the infiltrability of soil. The pump supply system,
sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform application of
water.

Fig. 1 Sprinkler irrigation system

Sprinkler irrigation systems may be classified as portable, semiportable, semipermanent or
permanent. They are also classified as set-move (hand-move, tow-move, side-roll and gun-
type systems), solid-set or continuous move sprinkler (center-pivot, traveler and linear-move)
systems (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Centre pivot, Linear move and traveler sprinkler irrigation systems

2 Advantages
a) Elimination of field channels and their maintenance, which increase the production area
b) Harmful ditch weeds, which have allelopethic effects, do not appear with sprinkler
irrigation.
c) No water losses in conveyance, which amounts to 35% in surface irrigation methods
d) Close control over water application i.e., no runoff losses because water is applied below
or equal to infiltration rate.
e) Convenient for giving light and frequent irrigations.
f) Higher application efficiency over surface methods of irrigation.
g) Sprinklers give a gentle rain that does not clog or compact the soil ensuring better and
quicker germination of seeds resulting in more plants per unit area
h) Suitable in undulated lands, soils with shallow depth and areas located at higher elevation
than the water source.
i) Feasibility of frequent, short water applications for germination, cooling & frost protection
to plants, etc.
j) Higher yield and water saving over surface irrigation methods
3 Limitations
a) Uneven distribution of water due to high wind velocities particularly during summer
season.
b) Higher evaporation losses when operating under high temperatures.
c) Mechanical difficulties such as sprinklers fail to rotate, nozzles may clog, couplers
may leak or engine may require repair.
d) Initial investment and recurrent operating costs are much higher than in surface
irrigation methods.
e) Moving the portable lines, when the soil is wet results in the destruction of soil
structure
f) Use of saline water for irrigation is not possible since it will be harmful to crops
g) Higher water pressure required hence extra energy cost

4 Sprinkler System Components & Layout

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of a pumping unit, pump connector, non-
return valve, water meter, pressure gauge, pressure regulators, mainline & submainlines,
laterals, control valves, hydrants, sprinkler base, sprinkler heads, bends, tees, reducers, end
plug, nipples, flanges etc (Fig. 3).
The most common type of sprinkler system layout is shown below in Fig. 4. The pump unit is
usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and provides adequate pressure
for delivery into the pipe system.

Fig..3. Sprinkler system components

Fig. 4. Sprinkler system layout

5 Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most field crops viz., wheat, lucerne, groundnut, bengal
gram, green gram, black gram, potato, leafy vegetables, sunflower, barley, bajra, maize,
wheat etc wherein water can be sprayed over the crop canopy (Fig. 5). However, large
sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the
large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop. Water containing specific
ions such as sodium and chlorides in concentration of more than 3 meq/litre are not suitable
for irrigation by overhead sprinklers.

Fig. 5. Sprinkler irrigation in maize and lettuce

Lecture No. 25
Drip Method of Irrigation
1 Introduction
Irrigation advancements within the last 2 decades have been astounding. Drip or
trickle irrigation is one of the latest innovations for applying water, and represents a definite
advancement in irrigation technology. Drip irrigation is defined as the precise, slow and
frequent application of small quantities of water to the soil in the form of discrete drops,
continuous drops, and tiny streams through emitters located at selected points along a water
delivery lateral line. It differs from sprinkler irrigation by the fact that only part of the soil
surface is wetted. Current drip irrigation technology dates back to the work of Symcha Blass
(1964). Based on the observation that a large tree near a leaking faucet exhibited a more
vigorous growth than other trees in the area, he developed the first patented drip irrigation
system. From Israel, the concept spread to Australia, North America and South Africa by the
late 1960s, and eventually throughout the world. The availability of low cost plastic pipe for
water delivery lateral lines helped to speed up the field use of drip irrigation system. At
present the largest area is in the USA and Spain (1.5 million ha each) followed by India (1.43
million ha). Total coverage in the world has increased from 4000 ha in 1972 to over 8 million
ha in 2008.
1.1 Surface drip irrigation: The application of water to the soil surface as drops or tiny
streams through emitters with discharges rate for point-source emitters less than 8 L/h for
single outlet emitter and for line-source emitters less than 4 L/h (Fig. 1). Often the terms drip
and trickle irrigation are considered synonymous.

Fig. 1. Surface drip irrigation in bhendi and mango crop

1.2 Subsurface drip irrigation: The application of water below the soil surface through
emitters, with discharge rate generally in the range of 0.6 to 3 L/h. This method of water
application is different from and not to be confused with the method where the root zone is
irrigated by water table control, herein referred to as subirrigation (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Subsurface drip irrigation in potato

2 Advantages
Many reports have listed and summarized potential advantages of drip irrigation as
compared to other irrigation methods.
a) Enhanced plant growth, crop yield and premium quality produce
b) Water Saving due to increased beneficial use of available water and higher water
application efficiency
c) Precise and uniform delivery of water to crops due to controlled water application
d) Maintenance of higher soil water potential in the root zone
e) Compact and efficient root system
f) Combined water and fertilizer (fertigation) application minimizes nutrient losses and
improves fertilizer use efficiency and contributes to fertilizer saving in some crops
g) Reduced salinity hazards to crop plants when low quality saline water is used for irrigation
h) Suitable for irrigating high-value crops raised in greenhouses, plastic tunnels, potted plants
and under plastic mulches
i) Lower operating pressures means reduced pumping energy costs
j) Limited weed growth because only a fraction of the soil surface is irrigated
k) Reduced operational and labour costs due to improved weed control and simultaneous
application of water, fertilizers, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and other additives through
the drip irrigation system
l) Feasible to irrigate crops raised in small & irregularly shaped narrow lawns, and on
undulated land terrains
m) Maintenance of dry foliage means improved disease and pest management
n) Suitable to highly permeable & low water holding sandy and desert soils, saline and slowly
permeable alkaline soils, wastelands, slopy lands and rocky hills, road embankments,
abandoned mine areas etc
o) Improved and continuous cultural operations such as spraying, weeding, thinning and
harvesting of tree and row crops is possible without interrupting the drip irrigation cycle for
any prolonged period of time.
p) Environmental protection and ecological security
3 Limitations
Despite observed successes, some important possible limitations of drip irrigation as
compared to other irrigation methods have been encountered for some soils, water quality and
environmental conditions, which include:
a) Sensitivity to emitter clogging
b) Salt accumulation in soil
c) Mechanical damage to system components
d) Lack of microclimate control such as frost protection and evaporative cooling.
e) Operational constraints such as high technical skills, stringent filtration and operating
pressures etc
4 Drip Irrigation System Layout and Components
The drip irrigation system consists of three subsystems viz., control head unit, water carrier
system and water distribution system besides water source & pumping station (Fig. 3).
a) Head control unit – Non return valve, Air release valve, Vacuum breaker, Filtration unit,
Fertigation unit, Throttle valve, Pressure gauge, Water meter, Pressure regulator and Pressure
relief valve.
b) Water carrier system – PVC main pipeline, PVC submain pipeline, Control valve, Flush
valve and other fittings
c) Water distribution system – Drip lateral, Emitters, Grommet, Start connecter, Nipple, End
cap.
5 Suitable crops
Drip irrigation, like other irrigation methods, will not fit every agricultural crop, specific site
or objective. Presently drip irrigation has the greatest potential in the following crops:

Fiig.. 3.. Drip head control unit and system components

a) Fruit crops – Mango, citrus, grapes, guava, pomegranate, banana, papaya, watermelon,
Litchi, Fig, Ber, Amla, Sapota etc
b) Vegetable crops – Tomato, Brinjal, Bhendi, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Capsicum, Chillies
gourds etc
c) Plantation crops – Oil palm, Coconut, Arecanut, Cashewnut, Coffee, Tea etc
d) Field crops – Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Sugarbeet, Castor etc
e) Tuber & Bulb crops – Potato, Cassava, Onion, Sweet potato, Radish, Colocasia etc
f) Spices – Turmeric, Ginger, Cardamom etc
g) Flowers – Roses, Rose, Gerbera, Orchids, Anthurium, Gladiolus, Carnations, Jasmine,
Chrysanthemum, Marigold etc.
Further this method of irrigation continuous to be important in greenhouse production
of vegetables & flowers. Drip irrigation is also used for landscaping of parks, highways,
commercial developments and residences. As labour, water and land preparation costs
increase, more drip irrigation systems will be substituted for conventional irrigation methods.