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Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Contents
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Government and politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Geography, environment and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.5 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.6 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.7 Culture and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 History 48
2.1 History of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1.1 Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.3 Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.4 Classical Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.5 Medieval Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.6 British rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.7 Pakistan Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.8 State and constitution: Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2 History of South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Geography 208
4.1 Geography of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.1 International boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.2 Geographical regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.1.3 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.1.4 Natural resources and primary industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.1.5 Environment and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.1.6 Suffix of regions and towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2 Geology of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2.1 Tectonic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2.3 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3 Climate of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3.1 Extreme weather events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.3.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Introduction
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Etymology
The name Pakistan literally means “land of the pure” in
Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning
pure in Persian and Pashto[36] while the suffix -stān is a Per-
sian word meaning place of, cognate with the Sanskrit word
sthāna (Devanagari: स्थान [st̪ʰaːnə]).[37]
It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhry Rahmat
Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in
his pamphlet Now or Never,[38] using it as an acronym
(“thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN”)
referring to the names of the five northern regions of
the British Raj: Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and
Baluchistan.[39][40][41] The letter i was incorporated to ease
pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and mean-
ingful name.[42]
1.1.2 History
Main article: History of Pakistan
See also: Outline of South Asian history
1526 AD). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sul-
tanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857
AD). The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high
culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in
the region.[66] In the early 16th century, the region re-
mained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emper-
ors.[67] By the early 18th century, the increasing European
influence slowly disintegrated the empire as the lines be-
tween commercial and political dominance were increas-
ingly blurred.[67] Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–98),
whose vision formed the basis of Pakistan
1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul- secured largest votes in the elections of 2008, appointing
Haq become the president in 1978. From 1977 to 1988, party member Yousaf Raza Gillani as Prime Minister.[129]
President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation Threatened with facing impeachment, President Mushar-
initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest- raf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by
growing economies in South Asia.[118] While consolidat- Asif Ali Zardari.[130][131][132] Clashes with the judicature
ing the nuclear development, increasing Islamization,[119] prompted Gillani's disqualification from the Parliament and
and the rise of homegrown conservative philosophy, Pak- as the Prime Minister in June 2012.[133] By its own finan-
istan helped subsidize and distribute U.S. resources to fac- cial calculations, Pakistan’s involvement in the war on ter-
tions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in rorism has cost up to ~$67.93 billion,[134][135] thousands
communist Afghanistan.[120][121] of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians.[136]
The general election held in 2013 saw the PML(N) almost
President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir
Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the achieve a supermajority, following which Nawaz Sharif be-
came elected as the Prime Minister, returning to the post
country’s first female Prime Minister. The Pakistan Peoples
Party followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League for the third time after fourteen years, in a democratic
transition.[137]
(N), and over the next decade whose two leaders fought
for power, alternating in office while the country’s situa-
tion worsened; economic indicators fell sharply, in con- 1.1.3 Government and politics
trast to the 1980s. This period is marked by prolonged
stagflation, instability, corruption, nationalism, geopolitical Main articles: Government of Pakistan, Politics of Pak-
rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing-right wing istan, Political history of Pakistan, and Human rights in
ideologies.[122][123] As PML(N) secured a supermajority in Pakistan
elections in 1997, Sharif authorised the nuclear testings Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal repub-
(See:Chagai-I and Chagai-II), as a retaliation to second nu-
clear tests ordered by India, led by Prime Minister Atal Bi-
hari Vajpayee in May 1998.[124]
Parliament House
lic with Islam as the state religion.[138] The first set was
President Bush meets with President Musharraf in Islamabad dur- adopted in 1956 but suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958
ing his 2006 visit to Pakistan. who replaced it with the second set in 1962.[82] Complete
and comprehensive Constitution was adopted in 1973—
Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985—
district led to the Kargil War of 1999, and a turbulence in is the country’s most important document, laying the foun-
civic-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf dations of the current government.[139] The Pakistani mil-
took over through a bloodless coup d'état.[125][126] Mushar- itary establishment has played an influential role in main-
raf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to stream politics throughout Pakistan’s political history.[82]
2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008— a period of There were military coups which resulted in imposition of
enlightenment, social liberalism, extensive economic re- martial law and military commanders continued govern-
forms,[127] and direct involvement in the U.S.-led war on ing as de-facto presidents from 1958–1971, 1977–1988,
terrorism. When the National Assembly historically com- and 1999–2008.[140] As of now, Pakistan has a multi-
pleted its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007, the party parliamentary system with clear division of pow-
new elections were called by the Election Commission.[128] ers and responsibilities between branches of government.
After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP The first successful demonstrative transaction was held in
1.1. PAKISTAN 7
May 2013. Politics in Pakistan is centered and domi- • Executive: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of
nated by the homegrown conceive social philosophy, con- the majority rule party or a coalition in the National
sisting the ideas of socialism, conservatism, and the third Assembly— the lower house. The Prime Minister
way. As of the general elections held in 2013, the three serves as the head of government and is designated to
main dominated political parties in the country: the centre- exercise as the country’s chief executive. The Prime
right conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N (PML-N); Minister is responsible for appointing a cabinet con-
the centre-left socialist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP); and sisting of ministers and advisers as well as running the
the centrist and third-way Pakistan Movement for Justice government operations, taking and authorizing exec-
(PTI) led by cricketer Imran Khan. utive decisions, appointments and recommendations
that require executive confirmation of the Prime Min-
• Head of State: The President who is elected by an ister.
Electoral College is the ceremonial head of the state
• Provincial governments: Each of the four province
and is the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan
has a similar system of government, with a directly
Armed Forces (with Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff
elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of
Committee as its principal military adviser), but mili-
the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister.
tary appointments and key confirmations in the armed
Chief Ministers oversees the provincial governments
forces are made by the Prime Minister after review-
and head the provincial cabinet, it is common in Pak-
ing the reports on their merit and performances. Al-
istan to have different ruling parties or coalitions in
most all appointed officers in the judicature, military,
each provinces. The provincial assemblies have power
chairman joint chiefs and joint staff, and legislatures
to make laws and approve provincial budget which is
require the executive confirmation from the Prime
commonly presented by the provincial finance minis-
Minister, whom the President must consult, by law.
ter every fiscal year. Provincial governors who play
However, the powers to pardon and grant clemency
role as the ceremonial head of province are appointed
vest with the President of Pakistan.
by the President.[139]
• Legislative: The bicameral legislature comprises a
100-member Senate (upper house) and a 342-member
National Assembly (lower house). Members of the
National Assembly are elected through the first-past-
the-post system under universal adult suffrage, repre-
senting electoral districts known as National Assembly
constituencies. According to the constitution, the 70
seats reserved for women and religious minorities are
allocated to the political parties according to their pro-
portional representation. Senate members are elected
by provincial legislators, with all of provinces have
equal representation.
The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit– the Treaty on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Pakistan is
Baltistan have separate court systems. an influential member of the IAEA.[149] In recent events,
Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile
material, arguing that the “treaty would target Pakistan
Foreign relations of Pakistan specifically.”[150] In the 20th century, Pakistan’s nuclear de-
terrence program focused on countering India’s nuclear am-
Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan bitions in the region, and nuclear tests by India eventually
As the Muslim world's second most populous nation- led Pakistan to reciprocate the event to maintain geopolit-
ical balance as becoming a nuclear power.[151] Currently,
Pakistan maintains a policy of credible minimum deter-
rence, calling its program vital nuclear deterrence against
foreign aggression.[152][153]
Located in strategic and geopolitical corridor of the world’s
major maritime oil supply lines, communication fiber op-
tics, Pakistan has proximity to the natural resources of
Central Asian countries.[154] Pakistan is an influential and
founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooper-
ation (OIC) and is a major non-NATO ally of the United
States in the war against terrorism— a status achieved in
2004.[155] Pakistan’s foreign policy and geostrategy mainly
focus on economy and security against threats to its national
identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of
close relations with other Muslim countries.[156] Briefing
on country’s foreign policy in 2004, the Pakistani senator
reportedly explains: “Pakistan highlights sovereign equal-
ity of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-
interference in each other’s domestic affairs as the cardi-
nal features of its foreign policy.”[157] Pakistan is an ac-
tive member of the United Nations and has a Permanent
Representative to represent Pakistan’s policy in interna-
tional politics.[158] Pakistan has lobbied for the concept
of "Enlightened Moderation" in the Muslim world.[159][160]
Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Na-
tions,[161] the South Asian Association for Regional Co-
operation (SAARC), the Economic Cooperation Organi-
sation (ECO)[162][163] and the G20 developing nations.[164]
Pakistan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel;[165]
nonetheless some Israeli citizens have visited the country on
Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan) with US President John F.
a tourist visas.[166] Based on mutual cooperation, the secu-
Kennedy in 1961. U.S-Pak relations during the cold war
rity exchange have taken place between two countries using
Turkey as a communication conduit.[167] Despite Pakistan
state (after Indonesia) and its only nuclear power state,
being the only country in the world that has not established
Pakistan has an important role in the international
[141][142] a diplomatic relations with Armenia, the Armenian com-
community. With a semi-agricultural and semi-
munity still resides in Pakistan.[168]
industrialized economy, its foreign policy determines its
standard of interactions for its organizations, corporations Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic rela-
and individual citizens.[143][144] Its geostrategic intentions tions with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim
[169]
were explained by Jinnah in a broadcast message in 1947, World is a vital factor in Pakistan’s foreign policy. Pak-
which is featured in a prominent quotation on the homepage istan was the first country to have established diplomatic re-
of Pakistan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs website: “The lations with China and relations continues to be warm since
[170]
foundation of our foreign policy is friendship with all na- China’s war with India in 1962. In the 1960s–1980s,
tions across the globe.” [145] Pakistan greatly helped China in reaching out to the world’s
major countries and helped facilitate U.S. President Nixon's
Since then, Pakistan has attempted to balance its relations
state visit to China.[170] Despite the change of governments
with foreign nations.[146][147][148] A non-signatory party of
1.1. PAKISTAN 9
and intelligence community repelled the Afghan incursion in North-West Pakistan, mainly against the homegrown
in the Bajaur Agency near the Durand Line border.[212][213] Taliban factions.[228][229] Major operations undertaken by
Rising tensions with neighboring USSR in their involvement the Army include Operation Black Thunderstorm and
in Afghanistan, Pakistani intelligence community, mostly Operation Rah-e-Nijat.[230][231]
the ISI, systematically coordinated the U.S. resources to the
Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against the Soviet
Union's presence in the region. Military reports indicated Kashmir conflict
that the PAF was in engagement with the Soviet Air Force,
supported by the Afghan Air Force during the course of Main article: Kashmir conflict
the conflict;[214] one of which belonged to Alexander Rut-
skoy.[214] Apart from its own conflicts, Pakistan has been The Kashmir– the most northwesterly region of South
an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping mis- Asia– is a primary territorial dispute that hindered the
sions. It played a major role in rescuing trapped American relations between India and Pakistan. Two nations have
soldiers from Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993 in Operation fought at least three large-scale conventional wars in suc-
Gothic Serpent.[215][216][217] According to UN reports, the cessive years of 1947, 1965, and 1971. The conflict
Pakistani military are the third largest troop contributors to in 1971 witnessed Pakistan’s unconditional surrender and
UN peacekeeping missions after Ethiopia and India. a treaty that subsequently led to the independence of
Pakistan sent UN Peacekeeping forces to the former Yu- Bangladesh.[232] Other serious military engagements and
goslavia during the Yugoslav wars. During the war, Pak- skirmishes included the armed contacts in Siachen Glacier
istan supported Bosnia while providing technical and mili- (1984) and Kargil (1999).[178] Approximately 45.1% of
tary support. Approximately 90,000 Pakistani people went the Kashmir region is controlled by India while claiming
to Bosnia during the Yugoslav wars, accounting for 20% the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir, including most of
of the volunteer military force. The Inter-Services Intel- Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen.[178]
ligence (ISI) allegedly ran an active military intelligence The claim is contested by Pakistan, which approximately
program during the Bosnian War which started in 1992 controls the 38.2% of the Kashmir region, known as the
lasting until 1995. Allegedly executed and supervised by Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan.[178][233]
General Javed Nasir, the program distributed and coordi-
nated the systematic supply of arms to various groups of
Bosnian mujahideen during the war. The ISI Bosnian con-
tingent was organized with financial assistance provided by
Saudi Arabia, according to the British historian Mark Cur-
tis.[218] Despite the UN arms embargo in Bosnia, Nasir later
confessed that the ISI airlifted anti-tank weapons and mis-
siles to Bosnian mujahideen which turned the tide in fa-
vor of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the
siege.[219][220]
Pakistan has deployed its military in some Arab coun-
tries, providing defence, training, and playing advisory
roles.[221][222] The PAF and Navy's fighter pilots have volun-
tarily served in Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the
Azad Kashmir is part of Pakistan controlled Kashmir.
Six-Day War (1967) and in the Yom Kippur War (1973).
Pakistan’s fighter pilots shot down ten Israeli planes in the
India claims the Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of
Six-Day War.[215] In the 1973 war one of the PAF pilots,
Accession— a legal agreement with Kashmir’s leaders ex-
Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Is-
ecuted by Maharaja Hari Singh who agreed to accede the
raeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian
area to India.[234] Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of
government.[223][224][225] Requested by the Saudi monarchy
a Muslim majority and of geography, the same principles
in 1979, the special forces units, operatives, and comman-
that were applied for the creation of the two independent
dos were rushed to assist Saudi forces in Mecca to lead the
states.[235][236] India referred the dispute to the United Na-
operation of the Grand Mosque.[226] In 1991 Pakistan got
tions on 1 January 1948.[237] A resolution passed in 1948,
involved with the Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part
the UN's General Assembly asked Pakistan to remove most
of a US-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi
of its troops as a plebiscite would then be held. However,
Arabia.[227]
Pakistan failed to vacate the region and a ceasefire was
Since 2004, the military has been engaged in a war reached in 1949 with the Line of Control (LoC) was estab-
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
lished, dividing Kashmir between the two nations.[238] In- Rangers are an internal security force with the prime objec-
dia, fearful that the Muslim majority populace of Kashmir tive to provide and maintain security in war zones and areas
would secede from India, did not allow a plebiscite to take of conflict as well as maintaining law and order which in-
place in the region. This was confirmed in a statement by In- cludes providing assistance to the police.[242] The Frontier
dia’s Defense Minister, Kirshnan Menon, who said: “Kash- Corps serves the similar purpose in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa,
mir would vote to join Pakistan and no Indian Government and the Balochistan.[242]
responsible for agreeing to plebiscite would survive.''[239]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the people
1.1.4 Geography, environment and climate
of Jammu and Kashmir to determine their future through
impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,[240] Main articles: Extreme weather records in Pakistan,
while India has stated that Kashmir is an integral part of Geography of Pakistan, Environment of Pakistan, Climate
India, referring to the Simla Agreement (1972) and to the of Pakistan, Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan,
fact that elections take place regularly.[241] In recent de- and List of beaches in Pakistan
velopments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe The geography and climate of Pakistan are extremely
that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pak-
istan.[178]
Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification
Law enforcement
ture Zone and overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh Flora and fauna
and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the
Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie Main articles: Flora of Pakistan and Fauna of Pakistan
along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to vi-
olent earthquakes. This region has the highest rates of seis- The diversity of landscapes and climates in Pakistan al-
micity and largest earthquakes in the Himalaya region.[248] lows a wide variety of trees and plants to flourish. The
Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees
mountains of the north, Pakistan’s landscapes vary from such as spruce, pine and deodar cedar in the extreme north-
plains to deserts, forests, hills and plateaus .[249] ern mountains, through deciduous trees in most of the coun-
Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: try (for example the mulberry-like shisham found in the
the northern highlands, the Indus River plain and the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date
Balochistan Plateau.[250] The northern highlands contain in southern Punjab, southern Balochistan and all of Sindh.
the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse
(see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the grasses and scrub plants. Mangrove forests form much of
world’s highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight- the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.[254]
thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000
feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all to 4,000 metres in most of the northern and northwestern
over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and highlands. In the xeric regions of Balochistan, date palm
Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[251] The Balochistan and Ephedra are common. In most of Punjab and Sindh,
Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The the Indus plains support tropical and subtropical dry and
1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries flow moist broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrub-
through the country from the Kashmir region to the Ara- lands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, and
bian Sea. There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in eucalyptus.[255] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870
Punjab and Sindh.[252] km2 ) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.[256]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid The fauna of Pakistan reflects its varied climates too.
conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon sea- Around 668 bird species are found there:[257][258] crows,
son with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons and eagles commonly oc-
season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There cur. Palas, Kohistan, has a significant population of western
are four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from Decem- tragopan.[259] Many birds sighted in Pakistan are migratory,
ber through February; a hot, dry spring from March through coming from Europe, Central Asia and India.[260]
May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon pe-
The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares,
riod, from June through September; and the retreating mon-
the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat and
soon period of October and November.[71] Rainfall varies
the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the In-
greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding
dus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines and small rodents are
and drought are common.[253]
common in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands
of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped
• K2 is the second-highest mountain on Earth hyenas, wildcats and leopards.[261][262] The lack of vege-
tative cover, the severe climate and the impact of grazing
• Swat District on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious po-
sition. The chinkara is the only animal that can still be
• Naran, Kaghan Valley found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small num-
ber of nilgai are found along the Pakistan-India border and
• Lulusar-Dudipatsar National Park
in some parts of Cholistan.[261][263] A wide variety of an-
imals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco
• Gilgit-Baltistan
Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), markhor
• Cold Desert, Skardu is world’s highest desert and ibex goats, the Asian black bear and the Himalayan
brown bear.[261][264][265] Among the rare animals found in
• Hawke’s Bay Beach in Karachi the area are the snow leopard,[264] and the blind Indus river
dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100
• Derawar Fort is located within the Cholistan Desert remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve
in Sindh.[264][266] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22
• Shangrila Lake and the adjoining resort amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Overview Economists estimate that Pakistan has been
Pakistan.[257][258] part of the wealthiest region of the world throughout the
The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of first millennium CE having the largest economy by GDP.
problems. Pakistan has the second-highest rate of defor- This advantage was lost in the 18th century as other regions
[268]
estation in the world. This, along with hunting and pollu- edged forward such as China and Western Europe. Pak-
[269][270][271]
tion, is causing adverse effects on the ecosystem. The gov- istan is considered as a developing country and
ernment has established a large number of protected areas, is one of the Next Eleven, the eleven countries that, along
wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to deal with these with the BRICs, have a high potential to[272]become the world’s
[257][258] largest economies in the 21st century. However, after
issues.
decades of social instability, as of 2013, serious deficiencies
in macromangament and unbalanced macroeconomics in
basic services such as train transportation and electrical en-
National parks and wildlife sanctuaries
ergy generation had developed.[273] The economy is consid-
ered to be semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along
Main articles: Protected areas of Pakistan and National
the Indus River.[274][275][276] The diversified economies of
parks of Pakistan
Karachi and Punjab’s urban centres coexist with less de-
As of present, there are around 157 protected areas in Pak-
veloped areas in other parts of the country particularly in
Balochistan.[275] Pakistan is the 70th largest export econ-
omy in the world and the 89th most complex economy ac-
cording to the Economic complexity index (ECI). In 2013,
Pakistan exported $28.2B and imported $44.8B, resulting
in a negative trade balance of $16.6B.[277]
Agriculture and primary sector Main articles: Manufacturing Main articles: Textile industry in Pak-
Agriculture in Pakistan, Fuel extraction in Pakistan, and istan and Industry of Pakistan
Mining in Pakistan Manufacturing is the third largest sector of the economy,
accounting for 18.5% of gross domestic product (GDP),
The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from and 13 percent of total employment. Large-scale manu-
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Transport
an early and vital figure in other science projects. Apart in the world. Since the 2000s, Pakistan has made significant
from participating in Pakistan’s atomic bomb project, he amount of progress in supercomputing, and various institu-
made major contributions in molecular morphology, physi- tions offers research in parallel computing. Pakistan gov-
cal martensite, and its integrated applications in condensed ernment reportedly spends ₨. 4.6 billion on information
and material physics.[372][373] technology projects, with emphasis on e-government, hu-
[385]
In 2010, Pakistan was ranked 43rd in the world in terms of man resource and infrastructure development.
published scientific papers.[374] The Pakistan Academy of
Sciences, a strong scientific community, plays an influential
Education
and vital role in formulating the science policies recommen-
dation to the government.[375]
Main articles: Education in Pakistan and Higher Education
The 1960s era saw the emergence of the active space pro- Commission
gram led by the SUPARCO that produced advances in do- The constitution of Pakistan requires the state to provide
mestic rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy.[376] The space
program recorded a few notable feats and achievements.
The successful launch of its first rocket into space made
Pakistan the first South Asian country to have achieved such
a task.[376] Successfully producing and launching the na-
tion’s first space satellite in 1990, Pakistan became the first
Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a
satellite into space.[377][378]
Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific pro-
ductivity in the past decade surging from approximately
2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles
in 2015. Making Pakistan’s cited article’s higher than than
the BRIC countries put together.
—Thomson Reuters's Another BRIC in the Wall 2016
report[379]
As an aftermath of the 1971 war with India, the clandes-
tine crash program developed atomic weapons in a fear
and to prevent any foreign intervention, while ushering in
the atomic age in the post cold war era.[152] Competition
with India and tensions eventually led Pakistan’s decision of
conducting underground nuclear tests in 1998; thus becom-
ing the seventh country in the world to successfully develop
nuclear weapons.[380]
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is the only Muslim coun-
try that maintains a research station in Antarctica and it has
maintained a presence there since 1991.[381] After estab- Government College University is one of the oldest universities in
Pakistan as well as one of the oldest institutions of higher learning
lishing an Antarctic program, Pakistan is one of the small
in the Muslim world.
number of countries that have an active research presence
in Antarctica. The Antarctic program oversees two sum-
free primary and secondary education.[387][388]
mer research stations on the continent and plans to open
another base, which will operate all year round.[382] Energy At the time of establishment of Pakistan as state, the
consumption by computers and usage has grown since the country had only one university, the Punjab University in
1990s when the PCs were introduced; Pakistan has over Lahore.[389] On immediate basis, the Pakistan government
20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top established public universities in each four provinices in-
countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet cluding the Sindh University (1949), Peshawar University
penetration, as of 2011.[383] Key publications has been pro- (1950), Karachi University (1953), and Balochistan Uni-
duced by Pakistan, and domestic software development has versity (1970). Pakistan has a large network of both public
gained a lot international praise.[384] and private universities; a collaboration of public-private
universities to provide research and higher education in the
Overall, it has the 27th largest population of internet users
country, although there is concern about the low quality of
1.1. PAKISTAN 21
teaching in many of the newer schools.[390] It is estimated BBA, and MBA programs. The higher education mainly su-
that there are 3193 technical and vocational institutions in pervises by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) that
Pakistan,[391] and there are also madrassahs that provide sets out the policies and issues rankings of the nationwide
free Islamic education and offer free board and lodging universities. In October 2014, education activist Malala
to students, who come mainly from the poorer strata of Yousafzai became by far the youngest ever person in the
society.[392] Strongly instigated public pressure and popu- world to receive the Nobel peace prize.[405]
lar criticism over the extremists usage of madrassahs for
recruitment, the Pakistan government has made repeated
efforts to regulate and monitor the quality of education in Water supply and sanitation
the madrassahs.[393][394]
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan
Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels:
nursery (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through
five); middle (grades six through eight); matriculation Despite high population growth the country has increased
(grades nine and ten, leading to the secondary certificate); the share of the population with access to an improved wa-
intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher ter source from 85% in 1990 to 92% in 2010, although this
secondary certificate); and university programmes leading does not necessarily mean that the water from these sources
to graduate and postgraduate programs.[391] Network of is safe to drink. The share with access to improved san-
Pakistani private schools also operate a parallel secondary itation increased from 27% to 48% during the same pe-
education system based on the curriculum set and adminis- riod, according to the Joint Monitoring Program for Wa-
tered by the Cambridge International Examinations of the ter Supply and Sanitation.[406] There has also been consid-
United Kingdom. Some students choose to take the O-level erable innovation at the grass-root level, in particular con-
and A level exams conducted by the British Council.[395] cerning sanitation. The Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi[407]
According to the International Schools Consultancy, Pak- and community-led total sanitation in rural areas are two
istan has 439 international schools.[396] examples of such innovation.
Initiatives taken in 2007, the English medium educa- However, the sector still faces major challenges. The qual-
tion has been made compulsory to all schools across the ity of the services is poor, as evidenced by intermittent wa-
country.[397][398] Additional reforms taken in 2013, all edu- ter supply in urban areas and limited wastewater treatment.
cational institutions in Sindh began instructions in Chinese Poor drinking water quality and sanitation lead to major
language courses, reflecting China’s growing role as a su- outbreaks of waterborne diseases.[408] major outbreaks of
perpower and increasing influence in Pakistan.[399] The lit- waterborne diseases swept the cities of Faisalabad, Karachi,
eracy rate of the population is ~58 %. Male literacy is Lahore and Peshawar in 2006.[408] Estimates indicate that
~70.2% while female literacy rate is 46.3%.[297] Literacy each year, more than three million Pakistanis become in-
rates vary by region and particularly by sex; for instance, fected with waterborne diseases.[409] In addition, many ser-
female literacy in tribal areas is 3.0%.[400] With the launch vice providers do not even cover the costs of and main-
of the computer literacy in 1995, the government launched tenance due to low tariffs and poor efficiency.[410] Conse-
a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating quently, the service providers strongly depend on govern-
illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.[401] ment subsidies and external funding.[411] A National San-
Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the MoEd itation Policy and a National Drinking Water Policy have
expects to attain 100.00% enrollment levels among children been approved in 2006 and 2009 respectively with the
of primary school age and a literacy rate of ~86% among objective to improve water and sanitation coverage and
people aged over 10.[402] Pakistan is currently spending 2.2 quality.[412][413] However, the level of annual investment
percent of its GDP on education;[403] which according to (US$4/capita) still remains much below what would be nec-
Institute of Social and Policy Sciences is one of the lowest essary to achieve a significant increase in access and service
in South Asia.[404] quality.
Languages
Main articles: British heritage of Pakistan, Culture of Pak- The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is
istan, and Public holidays in Pakistan worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab,
Civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasis- Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa as well as in
ing local cultural etiquettes and traditional Islamic values FATA and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style
1.1. PAKISTAN 25
acclaim.[491]
Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music
and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to
modern forms fusing traditional and western music.[492][493]
Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of
Afghan refugees in the western provinces has stimulated in-
Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy has won terest in Pashto music, although there has been intolerance
Oscars in 2012 and 2016 for her documentaries. of it in some places.[494] Pakistani media has also played a
vital role in exposing corruption.[495]
Urbanisation
from other countries, mainly those in the neighbourhood, Pakistan increased its ranking to tenth in the world for re-
has further catalysed the process of urbanisation in Pak- mittances with a total sum of US$13 billion.[500][501] The
istani cities. Of particular interest is migration that oc- Overseas Pakistani Division (OPD) was created in Septem-
curred in the aftermath of the independence of Bangladesh ber 2004 within the Ministry of Labour (MoL), and has
in 1971,[496] in the form of stranded Biharis who were since recognized the importance of overseas Pakistanis and
relocated to Pakistan. Smaller numbers of Bengalis and their contribution to the nation’s economy. Together with
Burmese immigrants followed suit much later. The conflict Community Welfare Attaches (CWAs) and the Overseas
in Afghanistan also forced millions of Afghan refugees Pakistanis Foundation (OPF), the OPD is improving the
into Pakistan, particularly in the northwestern regions. In- welfare of Pakistanis who reside abroad. The division aims
evitably, the rapid urbanisation caused by these large popu- to provide better services through improved facilities at
lation movements has also brought new political and socio- airports, and suitable schemes for housing, education and
economic complexities.[496] In addition to immigration, health care—its largest effort is the facilitation of the reha-
economic events such as the green revolution and politi- bilitation of returning overseas Pakistanis.
cal developments, among a host of other factors, are also
important causes of urbanisation.[496]
Literature and philosophy
Diaspora
consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry, mystical and political philosophy.[515][516]
folkloric works. During the colonial age, the native literary
figures were influenced by western literary realism and took
up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fic- Architecture
tion is now very popular.[504][505]
Main articles: Pakistani architecture and Hindu and Bud-
dhist architectural heritage of Pakistan
Pakistani architecture has four recognised periods: pre-
1.1.9 Notes
[1] “Include data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad
Kashmir (13,297 km2 or 5,134 sq mi) and Gilgit–Baltistan
(72,520 km2 or 28,000 sq mi).[13] Including these territories
would produce an area figure of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq
mi).”
1.1.10 References
[1] James Minahan (23 December 2009). The Complete Guide
to National Symbols and Emblems [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO.
p. 141. ISBN 9780313344978.
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gural World Twenty20 (2007) in South Africa and won the of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
World Twenty20 in England in 2009. In March 2009, mili- Retrieved 27 May 2014.
tants attacked the touring Sri Lanka's cricket team,[530] after [4] “SC orders immediate implementation of Urdu as official
which no international cricket was played in Pakistan until language”. The Express Tribune. September 7, 2015. Re-
May 2015, when the Zimbabwean team agreed to a tour. trieved September 8, 2015.
In athletics, Abdul Khaliq participated in 1954 Asian [5] “Pakistan to replace English with Urdu as official language”.
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World Open Squash Championship several times dur- partments – Pakistan – Dunya News”. dunyanews.tv.
[533]
ing their careers. Jahangir Khan also won the British
[7] Irfan Haider. “PM, president to deliver speeches in Urdu on
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swimming, and shooting.[534] Pakistan’s Olympic medal [8] “Govt. submits plan to Supreme Court to promote Urdu as
tally stands at 10 of which 8 were earned in hockey.[535] official language”. The News Teller.
The Commonwealth Games and Asian Games medal tal-
[9] “Population by Mother Tongue”. Population Census Organi-
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[11] “Pakistan” The World Factbook — Central Intelligence
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Agency.
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[12] Ehsan Rashid (1977). “THE CONCEPT OF PAKISTAN
IN THE LIGHT OF IQBAL’s ADDRESS AT ALLA-
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• Index of Pakistan-related articles Allahabad address are interlinked.
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46 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
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General information
• Pakistan at DMOZ
• Pakistan from the BBC News
History
2.1 History of Pakistan of failing to protect “Muslim interests, amid neglect and
under-representation.” On 29 December 1930, philosopher
Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for an autonomous new state
in “northwestern India for Indian Muslims”.[6] The League
rose in popularity through the late 1930s. Muhammad Ali
Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the League
to adopt the Lahore Resolution[7] of 1940, demanding the
formation of independent states in the East and the West
of British India. Eventually, a successful movement led by
Jinnah resulted in the partition of India and independence
from Britain, on 14 August 1947.
On 12 March 1949, the second constituent assembly of
Pakistan passed the Objectives Resolution which was pro-
posed by the first Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, pro-
claimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not
be modeled entirely on a European pattern, but on the ideol-
ogy and democratic faith of Islam. The legislative elections
in 1954 saw the Awami League coming to power and its
leader Huseyn Suhrawardy becoming country’s first Bengali
Prime minister. Promulgation of Constitution in 1956 led
to Pakistan declaring itself Islamic republic (official name)
with the adoption of parliamentary democratic system of
government. The constitution transformed the Governor-
General of Pakistan into President of Pakistan (as head of
state). Subsequently, Iskander Mirza became the first pres-
A map outlining historical sites situated in -day Pakistan ident as well as first Bengali in 1956, but the democratic
system was stalled after President Mirza imposed a military
The history of Pakistan (Urdu: ِ ن ) رencompasses coup d'état and appointed Ayub Khan as an enforcer of mar-
the history of the region constituting modern Pakistan. Be- tial law. Two weeks later, President Mirza was ousted by
fore achieving independence in 1947, the territory of mod- Ayub Khan; his presidency saw an era of internal instability
ern Pakistan was a part of the British Indian Empire. Prior and a second war with India in 1965. Economic grievances
to that it was ruled in different periods by local kings and and political disenfranchisement in East Pakistan led to vio-
numerous imperial powers. The ancient history of the re- lent political tensions and armed repression, escalating into
gion comprising present-day Pakistan also includes some guerrilla war[8] followed by the third war with India. Pak-
of the oldest of the names of empires of South Asia[1] and istan’s defeat in the war ultimately led to the secession of
some of its major civilizations.[2][3][4][5] East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh.[9]
In the 19th century, the land was incorporated into British Democracy was resumed from 1972 to 1977 under the
India. Pakistan’s political history began in 1906 with the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali
birth of the All India Muslim League, established in opposi- Bhutto, until he was deposed in a bloodless coup by General
tion to the Indian National Congress party which it accused Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country’s third military pres-
48
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 49
ident. Pakistan’s British-imposed colonial but secular poli- dentistry.[1] Early residents lived in mud brick houses,
cies were replaced by the new Islamic Shariah legal code, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore,
which increased religious influences on the civil service and cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded
the military. With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed
1988, new general elections saw the victory of PPP led by (5500–2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts,
Benazir Bhutto who was elevated as the country’s first fe- including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and
male Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, metalworking. The site was occupied continuously un-
she alternated power with the conservative Pakistan Mus- til 2600 BCE,[12] when climatic changes began to oc-
lim League-N (PML(N)) led by Nawaz Sharif, as the coun- cur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more
try’s political and economic situation deteriorated. Military arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favour of the Indus
tensions in the Kargil conflict[10] with India were followed Valley,[13] where a new civilization was in the early stages
by yet another coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez of development.[14]
Musharraf assumed executive powers.
Appointing himself President after the resignation of Pres- 2.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization
ident Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nationwide general elec-
tions in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly Main article: Indus Valley Civilization
elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization
succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz. During the election
campaign of 2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which
lead to a series of important political developments includ-
ing the left-wing alliance led by the PPP. Historic general
elections held in 2013 marked the return of PML(N) with
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming the leadership of
the country for the third time in its history.
2.1.1 Prehistory
Soanian culture
and eastern Afghanistan, and the Himalayas.[19] Major ur- as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Vedic
ban centers were at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as well as text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally “black metal.”
an offshoot called the Kulli culture (2500–2000 BCE) in The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern
southern Balochistan, which had similar settlements, pot- India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[22] The Vedic Period
tery and other artifacts. The civilization collapsed around also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as
1700 BCE, though the reasons behind its fall are still un- early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas
known. Through the excavation of the Indus cities and anal- until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period cor-
ysis of town planning and seals, it has been inferred that the responds with an increasing movement away from the pre-
Civilization had high level of sophistication in its town plan- vious tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms,
ning, arts, crafts, and trade. called mahajanapadas.
along the river Indus as the name Hindush is analogous with Maurya Empire
the Indus and was derived by the Persians from the Sanskrit
word Sindhu.
Additionally, much of what constitutes Balochistan
province in southwest Pakistan formed part of the
Achaemenid satrap of Gedrosia.[26]
Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and ex- and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. To the south, the
ternal trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas, complet-
and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single ing the invasion by 175 BCE and were stopped by the In-
and efficient system of finance, administration, and secu- dian Shunga Empire to the east. Meanwhile, in Bactria, the
rity. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in a battle. Although
religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and the Indo-Greeks lost part of the Gangetic plain, their king-
of knowledge. Mauryans were followers of Buddhism and dom lasted nearly two centuries.
Hinduism. Chandragupta Maurya’s embrace of Jainism in-
creased social and religious renewal and reform across his
society, while Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism has been said
to have been the foundation of the reign of social and politi- Indo-Greeks
cal peace and non-violence across all of South Asia. Ashoka
sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka,
Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.[31]
After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a cen-
tury of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan Em-
pire’s decline began 60 years after Ashoka’s rule ended, and
it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Shunga
dynasty in Magadha.
Gandhara civilization
Indo-Scythians
Gupta Empire
Indus river
Ayodhya
Pataliputra
Gupta Empire
Tributary States
7th century.
Sassanid Empire
Ror dynasty
White Huns, were a nomadic confederation in Central
Asia. The White Huns, who seem to have been part of
Main article: Ror Dynasty
the predominantly Buddhist group, established themselves
in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with
their capital at Bamiyan. Led by the Hun military leader The Ror dynasty ruled from Rori, the capital of Sindh now
Toramana, they overran the northern region of Pakistan town of Sukkur, Pakistan, which was built by Dhaj, Ror Ku-
and North western India and made their capital at the city mar, a Ror Kshatriya, in the 5th century BCE. Rori has been
of Sakala, modern Sialkot in Pakistan, under Toramana’s known by names such as Roruka and Rorik since antiquity.
son, Emperor Mihirakula, who was a Saivite Hindu. Hiuen Buddhist Jataka stories talk about exchanges of gifts be-
Tsiang narrates Mihirakula’s merciless persecution of Bud- tween King Rudrayan of Roruka and King Bimbisara of
dhists and destruction of monasteries.[59] The Huns were Magadha.[66] Divyavadana, the Buddhist chronicle has said
defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and that Ror historically competed with Pataliputra in terms of
Narasimhagupta of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century and political influence.[67] The scholar T.W. Rhys Davids has
were driven out of India.[60][61] White Huns are believed to mentioned Roruka as one of the most important cities of
be among the ancestors of modern-day Pashtuns.[62][63] the Indian Subcontinent in the 7th century BCE.[68]
Main article: List of Rajput dynasties and states Main article: Rai Dynasty
The territory of modern Pakistan have been home to many According to Arab chroniclers, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh (c.
Rajput dynasties during 7th to 20th century.[64][65] 489–632) arose after the end of Ror Dynasty. They were
56 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
practitioners of Hinduism and Buddhism. At the time of Although soon after conquering the Middle East from the
Rai Diwaji (Devaditya), influence of the Rai-state exdended Byzantine empire and the Sassanid Empire, Arab forces
from Kashmir in the east, Makran and Debal (Karachi) had reached the present western regions of Pakistan, dur-
port in the south, Kandahar, Sistan, Suleyman, Ferdan and ing the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that
Kikanan hills in the north. a young Arab general called Muhammad bin Qasim con-
quered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire,
to be made the “As-Sindh” province with its capital at Al-
Pāla Empire Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in
Sindh. But the instability of the empire and the defeat in
Main article: Pala Empire various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers in-
cluding the Caliphate campaigns in India, where the Hindu
The Pāla Empire was an Indian imperial power. It was ruled rulers like the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the
by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of Chalukya dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty
the Indian subcontinent. At the time of their greatest extent defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained till only
from 770 to 850 A.D., they ruled over Northern parts of Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion
present-day Pakistan.[69] to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu
and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hin-
dus and Buddhists remained numerous.[70] By the end of
Chacha Brahmin dynasty the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu
Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.
Chach of Alor a former chamberlain of Rai Sahasi II as-
cended to the throne by marrying the king’s widow. Chach
expanded the kingdom of Sindh, and his successful efforts
to subjugate surrounding monarchies and ethnic groups into Hindu Shahi
an empire covering the entire Indus valley and beyond were
recorded in the Chach Nama. The Chacha dynasty lasted Main article: Kabul Shahi
till 712 when Chacha’s son Raja Dahir was killed in battle
against the Umayyad forces. The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and
Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the
decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the
2.1.5 Medieval Period early 9th century.[71] The Shahis are generally split up into
two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with
the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around
870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Rat-
belshahan from 565-670, when the capitals were located in
Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as
Hund[72] for its new capital.[73][74][75]
The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his strug-
gles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the
modern-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region. Jaya-
pala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids
The expansion of the Arab Caliphate. and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign
Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632 of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initi-
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 ated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.[76]
Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to
pay an indemnity.[76] Jayapala defaulted on the payment and
took to the battlefield once more.[76] Jayapala however, lost
control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley and
Arab Empire Indus River.[77]
Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of
Main articles: Rashidun Caliphate and Umayyad Empire Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his
Further information: Caliphate campaigns in India army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable
host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta:
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 57
“The two armies having met on the confines racked by bitter succession struggles. The Hindu Rajput
of Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill to kingdoms of western India reconquered the eastern Pun-
view the forces of Jeipal, which appeared in ex- jab, and by the 1160s, the line of demarcation between the
tent like the boundless ocean, and in number Ghaznavid state and the Hindu kingdoms approximated to
like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The
But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf Ghurid Empire of central Afghanistan occupied Ghazni
about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, there- around 1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to
fore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to Lahore.Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid
glory, and issued to each his commands. His kingdom, occupying Lahore in 1187.[78]
soldiers, though few in number, were divided
into squadrons of five hundred men each, which
were directed to attack successively, one particu- Soomra dynasty
lar point of the Hindoo line, so that it might con-
Main article: Soomra dynasty
tinually have to encounter fresh troops.”[77]
However, the army was hopeless in battle against the The Rajput Soomra dynasty replaced the Arab Habbari dy-
western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of nasty in the 10th century. The dynasty lasted until the mid-
Ghazni.[77] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud 13th century. The Soomras are one the longest running dy-
came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids nasties in the history of Sindh, lasting 325 years.[79]
north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more
and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaz- Samma dynasty
navid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle
of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects Main article: Samma dynasty
thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi
dynasty.[76][77]
The Rajput Samma dynasty replaced the Rajput Soomra
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[76] who dynasty. They gained control of Thatta from the Soomra
along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dy- around 1335 A.D. The dynasty is believed to have origi-
nasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against nated in Saurashtra, and later migrated to Sindh. During the
the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu Sammas saw the rise of Thatta as an important commercial
rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik and cultural center. At the time the Portuguese took con-
Hills.[77] trol of the trading center of Hormuz in 1514 CE, trade from
the Sindh accounted for nearly 10% of their customs rev-
enue, and they described Thatta as one of the richest cities
Ghaznavid dynasty
in the world. Thatta’s prosperity was based partly on its
own high-quality cotton and silk textile industry, partly on
Main article: Ghaznavids
export of goods from further inland in the Punjab and north-
ern India.[80]
In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler Mahmud of Ghazni, took over
The Samma period contributed significantly to the evolu-
the Ghaznavid dynasty empire established by his father,
tion of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is fa-
Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting from the city
mous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the
of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan), Mehmood conquered the
Makli Hill.[81]
bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar against the Hindu
Shahis in Kabul in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of
Punjab (1007), deposed the Shia Ismaili rulers of Multan, Delhi Sultanate
(1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of
his reign in 1030, Mahmud’s empire briefly extended from Main articles: Muhammad Ghori, Delhi Sultanate, and
Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and Timurid Empire
the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary
historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described In 1160, Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic ruler, conquered
extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud’s Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in
support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts.1173. He for the first time named Sindh Tambade Gatar
Mahmud’s successors, known as the Ghaznavids, ruled for roughly translated as the red passage. He marched east-
157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was wards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gu-
58 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
jarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat’s Hindu from every region, notably doctors adept in Greek medicine
Solanki rulers. In 1186–87, he conquered Lahore, bring- and philosophers from everywhere.
ing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and
ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori’s suc-
cessors established the Delhi Sultanate. The Turkic ori- Sikhism
gin Mamluk Dynasty, (mamluk means “owned” and re-
Main article: History of Sikhism
ferred to the Turkic youths bought and trained as soldiers
who became rulers throughout the Islamic world), seized
the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several Central Asian Guru Nanak, Sikhism’s founder, was born into a Hindu
Turkic and a Lodhi Pashtun dynasty ruled their empires Khatri family in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (present
from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the Khalji (1290– day Nankana, near Sial in modern-day Pakistan). He was
1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–1451) an influential religious and social reformer in north India
and the Lodhi (1451–1526).[82] Although some kingdoms and the saintly founder of a modern monotheistic order and
remained independent of Delhi – in Gujarat, Malwa (central first of the ten divine Gurus of Sikh religion. At the age of
India), Bengal and Deccan – almost all of the Indus plain 70, he died at Kartarpur, Punjab of modern-day Pakistan.
came under the rule of these large sultanates.
The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations Mughal Empire
with rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance.
While the sultans ruled from urban centers, their military Main article: Mughal Empire
camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur
that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with
local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting
“Indo-Islamic” fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy
in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and
religious customs. In addition, the language of Urdu (liter-
ally meaning “horde” or “camp” in various Turkic dialects)
was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of
the mingling of speakers of native Prakrits, Persian, Turkish
and Arabic languages.
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was
its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the
Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13th century;
nonetheless the sultans eventually lost Afghanistan and Mughal Empire at its peak
western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate dy-
nasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Em- and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day
peror Timur, who founded the Timurid Empire, and was Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the
eventually conquered in 1526 by the Mughal Emperor Mughal Empire, covering modern-day Afghanistan, Pak-
Babar. istan, India and Bangladesh.[83] The Mughals were de-
The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire attracted scended from Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol
Muslim refugees, nobles, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, admixture). However, his son Humayun was defeated by
traders, scientists, architects, artisans, teachers, poets, the Pashtun warrior Sher Shah Suri who was from Bihar
artists, theologians and Sufis from the rest of the Muslim state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced
world and they migrated and settled in the South Asia. Dur- to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah died, his son Islam
ing the reign of Sultan Ghyasuddin Balban (1266-1286) Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose death his prime min-
thousands of Central Asian Muslims sought asylum includ- ister, Hemu ascended the throne and ruled North India from
ing more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles due to the Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor Akbar's
Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran. At the forces in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
court of Sultan Iltemish in Delhi the first wave of these Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler and an early
Muslim refugees escaping from the Central Asian genocide proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an
by the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan, brought admin- early form of multiculturalism. He declared “Amari” or
istrators from Iran, painters from China, theologians from non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled
Samarkand, Nishapur and Bukhara, divines and saints from back the jizya tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu
the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen and men and maidens people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 59
by 1600. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and
allied themselves with local maharajas. For a short time had re-consolidated control over them.[87]
in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the em-
pire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals in Lahore
includes the Shalimar Gardens built by the fifth Emperor The Sikh Empire
Shahjahan, and the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth Em-
peror, Aurangzeb, who is regarded as the last Great Mughal Main article: Sikh Empire
Emperor as he expanded the domain to its zenith. After his The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) was formed on the foun-
demise, different regions of modern Pakistan began assert-
ing independence. The empire went into a slow decline af-
ter 1707 and its last sovereign, ruling around Delhi region.
The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the ginning first by the East India Company — and continued
Punjabi Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting under the post-Sepoy Mutiny direct rule of Queen Victo-
from the death of Aurangzeb. The fall of the Mughal Em- ria of the British Empire — through a series of wars, the
pire provided opportunities for the Punjabi army to lead main ones being the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the
expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to gruelling Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849) and the Anglo-
a growth of the army, which was split into different Pun- Afghan Wars (1839–1919), to remain a part of British In-
jabi armies and then semi-independent “misls”. Each of dian Empire until the independence in 1947.
these component armies were known as a misl, each con- The physical presence of the British was minimal; they em-
trolling different areas and cities. However, in the period
ployed "Divide and Rule" political strategy to remain in
from 1762–1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be power.[91] The administrative units of British India under
coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Em-
the tenancy or the sovereignty of either the East India Com-
pire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by pany or the British Crown lasted between 1612 and 1947.
the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a
unified political state. All the misl leaders who were af-
filiated with the Army were nobility with usually long and 2.1.7 Pakistan Movement
prestigious family histories in Punjab’s history.[89][90]
Early period of Pakistan Movement
2.1.6 British rule
Main articles: All-India Muslim League, Pakistan Move-
British colonization, conquest, and cultural heritage ment, and Lahore Resolution
Main articles: British raj, Indian independence movement, In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had formed the Central Na-
Partition of India, and British heritage of Pakistan tional Muhammadan Association to work towards the polit-
The entire territory of modern Pakistan was occupied be- ical advancement of the Indian Muslims, who had suffered
grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failed Sepoy
Mutiny against the East India Company; the British were
seen as foreign invaders. But the organization declined to-
wards the end of the 19th century.
In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a
forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist
cause.[92] Although the Congress attempted to include the
Muslim community in the struggle for independence from
the British rule - and some Muslims were very active in the
Congress - the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the
party, viewing it as a "Hindu-dominated” organization.
A turning point came in 1900, when the British admin-
istration in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh ac-
ceded to Hindu demands and made Hindi, the version of
the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script,
the official language. The proslytisation conducted in the
region by the activists of a new Hindu reformist movement
also stirred Muslim’s concerns about their faith. Eventually,
the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to
suppress the rights of Muslims in the region following the
departure of the British.
Lord Minto met with the Muslim delegation in June 1906. The
Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 called for separate Muslim elec-
torates.
influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus nounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims,
- they called it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a
of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Com-
join the League until 1913, when the party changed its plat- mission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British
form to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress,
the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi.
which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held,
Muslims.[97] After vociferous protests of the Hindu pop- and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that
ulation and violence engineered by secret groups, such as a small committee should work on the constitution. The
Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the com-
and his brother etc., the British had decided to reunite mittee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and
Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in Mutual Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal’s son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its
co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India', al- secretary. The League, however, rejected the committee’s
though he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one- report, the so-called Nehru Report, arguing that its propos-
third of the seats in any Indian Parliament. als gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims –
the League had demanded at least one-third representation
in the legislature. Jinnah announced a “parting of the ways”
after reading the report, and relations between the Congress
and the League began to sour.
the report of the Simon Commission, the Indian Congress • "P" for Punjab
initiated a massive civil disobedience movement under
Gandhi; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the • "A" for Afghania (now known as Khyber
Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the Pakhtunkhwa)
matters should decided after consultations with the leaders • "K" for Kashmir
representing all communities in India.[99]
• "S" for Sindh
As the leaders of the Indian Congress were jailed and re-
strained, the Round-table conference was held, but these • "Tan" for Balochistan; thus forming
achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were un- “Pakstan”.[103][104]
able to reach a compromise.[99] Witnessing the events in
the Round-table conference, Jinnah had despaired of poli- After the publication of the pamphlet, the Hindu Press ve-
tics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the hemently criticized it, and the word 'Pakstan' used in it.[105]
Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this Thus this word became a heated topic of debate. With the
time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal addition of an “i” to improve the pronunciation, the name of
called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who Pakistan grew in popularity and led to the commencement
in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the of the Pakistan Movement, and consequently the creation
Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim of Pakistan.[106] In Urdu and Persian languages, the name
state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South encapsulates the concept of Pak (“pure”) and stan (“land”)
Asia.[6][100] and hence a “Pure Land”.[107] In the 1935, the British gov-
ernment proposed to hand over substantial power to elected
Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in
1937.[108] After the elections the League took office in Ben-
gal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of
the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the
League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing
technical difficulties.
Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for independence also felt
vindicated by the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar
at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party
Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. In it, this legendary revolu-
tionary - popularly called Veer Savarkar and known as the
iconic father of the Hindu fundamentalist ideology - pro-
pounded the seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or
ethnic exclusivism, which influenced Jinnah profoundly.
In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim
League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due
to the outbreak of the World War II and the Government of
India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The
meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to
the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of
1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jin-
nah criticized the Indian Congress and the nationalists, and
Dream of Iqbal and Ali's Now or Never idealized the merger of the espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the
four provinces into a nation-state, called Pakistan. demand for separate homelands.[109] Sikandar Hayat Khan,
the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolu-
tion, but disavowed the final version,[110] that had emerged
The name of the nation-state was coined by the Cambridge after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of
University's political science student and Muslim nationalist the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected
Rahmat Ali,[101] and was published on 28 January 1933 in the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-
the pamphlet Now or Never.[102] After coining the name of religious violence[111] and recommended the creation of
the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym formed independent states.[112] The resolution was moved in the
from the names of the “homelands” of Muslims in northwest general session by Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF
India: Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry
64 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was adopted on 23 The 1945 British general election saw the leftist Labour
March 1940.[7] The Resolution read as follows: Party forming the government in Britain and many Indians
were seeing independence within reach. But, Gandhi and
No constitutional plan would be workable Nehru were not receptive to Jinnah’s proposal and were also
or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographi- adamantly opposed to dividing India, since they knew that
cal contiguous units are demarcated into regions the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would
which should be so constituted with such terri- never agree to such a thing.[97] In the Constituent Assembly
torial readjustments as may be necessary. That elections of 1946, the League won 425 out of 496 seats re-
the areas in which the Muslims are numerically served for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes) on a pol-
in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern icy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with
zones of India should be grouped to constitute an implied threat of secession if this was not granted.[97]
independent states in which the constituent units By 1946, the British had neither the will, nor the financial
shall be autonomous and sovereign ... That ade- resources or military power, to hold India any longer. Po-
quate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall litical deadlock ensued in the Constituent Assembly, and
be specifically provided in the constitution for the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, sent a cabinet
minorities in the units and in the regions for mission to India to mediate the situation. When the talks
the protection of their religious, cultural, eco- broke down, Attlee appointed Louis Mountbatten as India’s
nomic, political, administrative and other rights last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and
of the minorities, with their consultation. Ar- India and immediate British withdrawal.
rangements thus should be made for the security
of Muslims where they were in a minority.[113] Mountbatten, of imperial blood and a world war admiral,
handled the problem as a campaign. Ignorant of the com-
plex ground realities in British India, he brought forward the
date of transfer of power and told Gandhi and Nehru that
if they did not accept division there would be civil war in
his opinion[97] and he would rather consider handing over
power to individual provinces and the rulers of princely
states. This forced the hands of Congress leaders and the
“Independence of India Act 1947” provided for the two do-
minions of Pakistan and India to become independent on
the 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively. This result was
despite the calls for a third Osmanistan in the early 1940s.
given any response to Ben-Gurion. In 1948 speech, Jin- In 1954, the controversial One Unit Program was imposed
nah declared “Urdu alone would be the state language and by the last PML Prime minister Ali Bogra dividing Pakistan
the lingua franca of the Pakistan state”, though he called on the German geopolitical model.[126] The same year, the
the "Bengali language as the official language of the Ben- first legislative elections were held in Pakistan, which saw
gal province.";[120] nonetheless, tensions began to grow in the Communists gaining the control of East-Pakistan.[127]
East Bengal.[120] Jinnah’s health further deteriorated and he The 1954 elections results clarified the differences in ide-
died in 1948. Bengali leader, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin suc- ology between West and East, with East under the influ-
ceeded as the governor general of Pakistan.[121] ence of communism nexus of Communist Party allying
with Workers Party and the Awami League.[127] The Pro-
American Republican Party gained majority in West, oust-
ing the PML government who secured only 10 seats in
East.[127]
In a vote of confidence movement in state parliament
and promulgation of 1956 constitution which granted Pak-
istan as Islamic republic, the notable Bengali figures,
Huseyn Suhrawardy became the Prime minister leading the
communist-socialist alliance, and Iskander Mirza became
the first President of Pakistan, both as first Bengali leaders
of the country.[128] Just two years later, the military would
take control of the nation.[129]
During the massive political rally in 1951, Prime minis- Suhrawardy’s foreign policy was directed towards the im-
ter Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated in Rawalpindi, and proving fractured relations with the Soviet Union, strength-
Nazimuddin became the second prime minister.[117] Ten- ening and establishing relations with the United States and
sions in Eastern Pakistan reached to its climax in 1952, China after paying first a state visit to both countries.[130]
when the East-Pakistani police opened fire on students near Announcing the new self-reliance program, Suhrawardy
the Dhaka Medical College protesting for Bengali language began building a massive military and launched the plan
to receive equal status with Urdu. The situation was con- of nuclear power program in the West in an attempt to
trolled by Nazimuddin who gave a waiver to Bengali lan- legitimize his mandate in West.[131] Foreign efforts by
guage as equal status, a right codified in the 1956 consti- Suhrawardy led to an assigning of American training pro-
tution. In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti- gram for country’s armed forces which met with great op-
Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of Muslims and de- position in East-Pakistan after his party in East-Pakistan
stroying their properties.[122] The riots were investigated by Parliament which threatened to leave the state of Pakistan.
a two-member court of inquiry in 1954,[123] which was crit- Furthermore, Suhrawardy gave verbal authorization of leas-
icised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of ing the ISI's secret installation to American CIA to conduct
inciting the riots.[124] This event led to the first instance of operations in Soviet Union.[131]
martial law in the country and began the inroad of military Differences in East Pakistan further encouraged the Baloch
intervention in the politics and civilian affairs of the coun- separatism, and in an attempt to intimidate the commu-
try, something that remains to this day.[125] nists in East, President Mirza initiated massive arrests of
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 67
Main articles: Cold war, 1958 Pakistani coup d'état, 1960 Iskandar Mirza
U-2 incident, Constitution of Pakistan of 1962, Indo-
Pakistani War of 1965, Tashkent Agreement, History of
coming the President, Ayub Khan was succeeded by Gen-
Pakistani pop music, Bangladesh Liberation War, Indo-
eral Muhammad Musa as chief of army staff in 1958.[136]
Pakistani War of 1971, and Instrument of Surrender (1971)
On October 1958, President Iskandar Mirza issued order
for massive naval, air, and troop mobilization of Pakistan Presidential republic (1962–1969) Main article:
Armed Forces all over the country and appointed chief Economic Coordination Committee
of army staff General Ayub Khan as Commander-in-chief The parliamentary system came to an end in 1958, follow-
of Pakistan armed forces.[133] In a quick move, President ing the imposition of martial law.[137] Tales of corruption in
Mirza declared state of emergency and imposed martial law civil bureaucracy and public administration had maligned
in 1958, having suspended the constitution, and dissolved the democratic process in the country as the public seemed
the socialist government in East and the parliamentary gov- supportive towards the actions taken by General Ayub
ernment in West.[134] Khan.[137] Major land reforms were carried out by the
His actions also approved General Ayub Khan as the Chief military government and enforced controversial Elective
Martial Law Administrator to enforce the martial law all Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) which ultimately
over the country who asserted his position in all over the disqualified Suhrawardy from holding the public office.[137]
country.[133] Within two weeks, President Mirza also at- Introducing a new presidential system called “Basic
tempted to dismiss General Ayub Khan after Khan’s action Democracy”, which featured the Local government system
made him incapable of taking any decisions.[133] This move in West-Pakistan and promulgate a 1962 constitution,[135]
backfired on President Mirza who was soon to be relieved by which an electoral college of 80,000 would select the
from his presidency and exiled to London, United Kingdom President.[135] In a national referendum held in 1960, Ayub
in 1958. The same year, General Ayub Khan appointed Khan secured nationwide popular and ground support
himself to the rank of a five-star Field Marshal and named for his bid as second President and replaced his military
a new civil-military government under him.[135] Upon be- government into civilian constitutional government.[137]
68 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
The PPP's democratic socialist and visionaries directed the left ori-
handed over the political power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of ented policies throughout the 1970s.
the Pakistan Peoples Party. With PPP’s coming to power,
the democratic socialists and visionaries came to the power In 1973, a serious nationalist rebellion also took place in
for the first time in the country’s history, under a democratic
Balochistan province and led to harsh suppression of Baloch
transition. Bhutto made critical decision after dismissing rebels with the Shah of Iran purportedly assisting with air
chiefs of army, navy and the air force while authorized
support in order to prevent the conflict from spilling over
home confinement orders for General Yahya Khan and sev- into Iranian Balochistan. The conflict ended later after an
eral of his collaborators. He adopted the East-Pakistan amnesty and subsequent stabilization by the provincial mil-
Commission's recommendations and authorized large-scale itary administrator Rahimuddin Khan. In 1973, Parlia-
court-martial of army officers tainted for their role in East ment approved a supreme, but a new constitution, which
Pakistan. To keep the country united, Bhutto launched a provided the basis for the parliamentary democracy in the
series of internal intelligence operations to crack down on country. Bhutto and his government carried out major and
the fissiparous nationalist sentiments and movements in the serious reforms for establishment and development and re-
provinces. Proponents of socialism were supported as part designing of the country’s infrastructure. First and fore-
of the internal policies and the PPP faced serious chal- most, Bhutto supervised the successful promulgation of
lenges, both on internal and foreign fronts. 1973 constitution that validated the parliamentary democ-
This period starting from 1971 until 1977 was a period racy in the country; the establishment of Joint Chiefs Com-
of left-wing democracy, the growth of national spirit, eco- mittee (as well Joint Strategic Forces Command), reorga-
nomic nationalization, covert atomic bomb projects, pro- nization of the military, special forces and chain of com-
motion of scientific, literary, cultural activities and the left- mands in the military. Steps were taken for democratization
wing socialism. Regarded as the period of reconstruction, of civil bureaucracy, election commission and the political
rehabilitation, re-establishment, and the rise of the left-wing structure, expansion of country’s economic and human in-
sphere of the country, the new industrial, manpower de- frastructure growth, starting first with the agriculture, land
velopment, and the labour policies were promulgated in reforms, and government-control (nationalization) of major
the ending weeks of December 1971. In 1972, the coun- private industries, industrialization and the expansion of the
try’s top intelligence services provided an assessment on higher education system throughout the country. In 1974,
Indian nuclear program, citing the evidences that: “India Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious
was close to developing a nuclear weapon under its nu- parties and helped Parliament to declare the Ahmadiyya ad-
72 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
herents as non-Muslims. Bhutto’s efforts undermined and contributors to it - Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Indira Gandhi and
dismantled the private-sector and conservative approach for Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman - died by unnatural and violent
political power in country’s political setup. death. Also, their off-spring perished later the same way.
Relations with the United States gradually went down, and Mujib’s one daughter, Sheikh Hasina, is the lone survivor
completing the gap after normalizing the relations with at this time.
the Soviet Union, the Eastern bloc, North Korea, China,
and the Arab world. With Soviet technical assistance, the
country’s first steel mill was established in Karachi, which Second military era (1977–1988)
proved to be a crucial step in industrializing the economy.
Bhutto promised in a speech to Pakistan’s National Assem- Main articles: Operation Fair Play, Muhammad Zia-
bly that “If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass and ul-Haq § Reign as President of Pakistan, Zia-ul-Haq’s
leaves, even go hungry. But we will get one of our own, we Islamization, Baloch Insurgency and Rahimuddin’s Stabi-
have no alternative.” Alarmed by India’s surprise nuclear lization, Siachen conflict, Operation Brasstacks, Soviet war
test in 1974, Bhutto accelerated Pakistan’s atomic bomb in Afghanistan, Operation Cyclone, Death of Zia-ul-Haq,
project.[160] This crash project reached a historical mile- and Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
stone in 1978 when the desired level of production of fissile See also: New wave of Pakistan rock music (1980-89),
core material was reached as well as first design of physics Ordinance XX, Hudood Ordinance, Terrorism in Pakistan,
package which eventually led to a secret subcritical testings Jam Saqi case, Far-right politics, and Fashion in Pakistan
("Kirana-I" and "Test Kahuta") in 1983. Relations with In-
dia soured and Bhutto launched aggressive diplomatic war This period of military rule, lasting from 1977 to 1988, is
and measures against India at the United Nations. Openly often regarded as a period of great purge and growth of
targeting Indian nuclear programme on multiple occasions state-sponsored religious conservatism. Although, Presi-
and pushing India on the defense, Bhutto’s covertly worked dent Zia’s long eleven-year rule era features the country’s
on expanding the atomic bomb project on a shortest time first successful technocracy, but other side, it also features
possible. From 1976 to 1977, Bhutto more densely empha- the tug of war between far-leftist forces in direct compe-
sized his political position and faced an intense and heated tition with populist far-right circles. President Zia made
diplomatic war with the United States and President Jimmy strong use of installing high-profile military officers from
Carter, who worked covertly to damage the credibility of joint services of joint forces in civilian posts, ranging from
Bhutto in Pakistan. Bhutto, with his scientist colleague Aziz central government to provisional governments. Gradually,
Ahmed, thwarted any U.S. attempts to infiltrate the atomic the socialist influence in the public policies were dismantled
bomb programme. In 1976, during a secret mission, Henry disbanded, instead a new system of capitalism was revived
Kissinger threatened Bhutto and his colleague using an in- with the introduction of corporatization and Islamization.
humane language. After the meeting, Bhutto aggressively The populist front against Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto scattered,
put efforts to successfully develop the atomic project before with far right-wing conservatives allying with General Zia’s
the coming elections. government and encouraging the military government crack
As the country entered 1976, the socialist alliance of Bhutto down on the Pro-Soviet left-wing elements in the country.
collapsed, forcing his left-wing allies to form an alliance The left-wing alliance led by Benazir Bhutto was brutalized
with right-wing conservatives, to challenge the power of by Zia who took every mean of aggressive measures against
Peoples Party. In 1977, the general elections were held the movement. Further, in his time, secessionist uprisings
which marked the Peoples Party as victorious but this was in Balochistan were put down successfully by the provincial
challenged by the opposition, which accused Bhutto of rig- governor, General Rahimuddin Khan.
ging the election process. An intensified political disor- In 1984, Zia held a referendum asking the civil society for
der took place against Bhutto and in a nexus of chief of the support of his religious programme that received over-
army staff general Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and chief of whelming support and extended the term of General Zia
naval staff Admiral Mohammad Shariff, took power in a as country’s administrator for next five years. He then in-
bloodless coup. Following this, Bhutto and his leftist col-troduced strict Islamic law in 1978, often cited as the con-
leagues were dragged into a two-year-long controversial tributing factor in the present climate of sectarianism and
trial in Supreme Court. Bhutto was later executed in 1979, religious fundamentalism in Pakistan. General Zia’s gov-
after being convicted of authorizing the murder of a polit-ernment disbanded the Western styled songs, only patriotic
ical opponent, in a controversial 4–3 split decision by thesongs were allowed in national television. The Ordinance
Supreme Court. XX was introduced to limit the Ahmadis from calling them-
A strange historical fact - related to the bloodshed prior selves Muslims.
to the creation of Bangladesh - is that all the three main After Zia assuming power, Pakistan’s relations with the So-
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 73
The 1988 elections results showing left-wing sphere (in red & gray Benazir Bhutto, 2004.
led under BB) in majority.
tions which were held after the death of President General Union from neighboring Communist Afghanistan. Soon
Zia-ul-Haq. The elections marked the return of Peoples after the evacuation, the alliance with U.S. came to end
Party back into the power whose leader, Benazir Bhutto, when the secret of a successful clandestine atomic bomb
became the first female Prime minister of Pakistan as well project was revealed to world which led to imposition of
as the first female head of government in a Muslim-majority economic sanctions by the United States. In 1989, she or-
country. This period, lasting until 1999, introduced the dered a military intervention in Afghanistan that brutally
parliamentary system and competitive two-party democ- failed, leading her to depose the directors of the intelligence
racy in the country, featuring a fierce competition between services. With offing American aid to the country, she
centre-right conservatives led by Nawaz Sharif and centre- hastily imposed the 7th Plan to restore the national economy
left socialists directed by Benazir Bhutto. The far-left pol- while centralizing the economy. Nonetheless, the economic
itics and the far-right politics had disintegrated from the situation worsened when the state currency of Pakistan lost
political arena with the fall of global communism and the the currency war with India. The country significantly en-
United States lessening its interests in Pakistan. It was dur- tered in era of stagflation during this period, and her gov-
ing the 1990s when various bands released their highly ac- ernment was soon dismissed by the conservative President
claimed and commercially successful albums which it led to Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
the boom of rock music in Pakistan’s music industry.[164] The 1990 General elections allowed the right-wing conser-
Following the success of Vital Signs and other bands, the vative alliance, the Islamic Democratic Alliance (IDA) led
rock music bands enormous popularity and success signif- by Nawaz Sharif, to form the government under a demo-
icantly opened a new wave of rock music and opened a cratic system for the first time in history. Attempts to
modern chapter in the history of Pakistan, bringing the sig- end the stagflation, Sharif launched the privatization and
nificant shift of country’s conservative transformation into economic liberalisation while on the other hand, adopted
semi-Western modernism during the 1990s.[165] a policy of ambiguity on atomic bomb programs. Sharif
Benazir Bhutto presided over the country during the penul- intervened in Gulf War in 1991, and ordered an operation
timate times of Cold war, and cemented pro-Western poli- against the liberal forces in Karachi in 1992. Institutional
cies due to common distrust of communism. Her gov- problems arose with president Ghulam Khan, whose at-
ernment oversaw the successful troop evacuation of Soviet tempt was to dismiss Sharif on the same charges as he had
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 75
pressed on Benazir Bhutto. Through the Supreme Court try. Focusing on culture development, her policies resulted
judgement, Sharif was restored and together with Benazir in shaping the rock and pop music industry in the country,
Bhutto ousted President Ishaq Khan from the presidency. and film industry made its notable comeback after intro-
Later in weeks, Sharif was forced to relinquish office by ducing new talent to the public. She exercised tough poli-
the military leadership. cies to banned the Indian media in the country, while pro-
moting television industry to produce dramas, films, artist
programs, and music, extremely devoting to the country.
The grievousness and public angst about the weaknesses of
Pakistan education led to large-scale federal support for sci-
ence education and research in the country by both Benazir
and Nawaz Sharif to meet with the competition with India.
tests for roughly two weeks, Sharif ordered PAEC to per- several hours. A counter coup d'état was initiated, the se-
form a series of nuclear tests at the remote area of Chagai nior commanders of the military leadership ousted Sharif’s
Hills in 1998 itself. The military forces in the country were government and took over the airport; the flight landed with
mobilize at a war-situation level on Indian border. only a few minutes of fuel to spare.[173] The Military Police
Internationally condemned, but extremely popular at home, seized the Prime Minister’s Secretariat and deposed Sharif,
Sharif took steps to control the economy and mobilized Ziauddin Butt and the cabinet staffers who took part in this
all the defence assets of Pakistan by closed all airspace assumed conspiracy, shifting placed him in infamous Adiala
routes by giving red-alerts orders to PAF and Pakistan Jail. A quick trial was set in Supreme Court which gave
Sharif a life sentence, with his assets being frozen based on
Navy. Sharif responded fiercely, and defused the interna-
tional pressure by targeting India for global nuclear prolif- a corruption scandal, and he was near receiving the death
sentence based on the hijacking case.[174]
eration while gave great criticism to the United States for
atomic bombings on Japanese cities of Atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Third military era (1999–2007): Musharraf–Aziz pe-
riod
If [Pakistan] had wanted, she would have
conducted nuclear tests 15–20 years ago ... but Main articles: 1999 Pakistani coup d'état; 2001–2002
the abject poverty of the people of the region India-Pakistan standoff; Legal Framework Order, 2002;
dissuaded ... [Pakistan] from doing so. But the War in North-West Pakistan; Assassination of Benazir
[w]orld, instead of putting pressure on (India) Bhutto; Pakistan’s role in the War on Terror; War on
... not to take the destructive road ... imposed Terror; and Lawyers’ Movement
all kinds of sanctions on [Pakistan] for no
fault of her.....! If (fellow) Japan had its own The news of the Sharif’s dismissal made headlines all over
nuclear capability.. (cities of) ... Hiroshima the world and under pressure by the US President Bill Clin-
and Nagasaki would not have suffered atomic ton and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, Musharraf succumbed
destruction at the hands of the ... United States to spare Sharif’s life in an agreement facilitated by Saudi
... Arabia. Departed to Saudi Arabia to be settled in a Jeddah
— Nawaz Sharif—Prime minister, on 30 May in King Fahd’s private residence, Sharif was forced to be
1998, televised at PTV, [171] out of politics for nearly ten years.
The presidency of Musharraf features the coming of liberal
forces in the national power for the first time in the history
Under Nawaz Sharif’s leadership, Pakistan became the sev-
of Pakistan.[175] Earlier initiatives taken towards the contin-
enth nuclear power country, the first country in the Mus-
uation of economic liberalization, privatization, and free-
lim world, as well as a declared nuclear-weapon state. The
dom of media in Pakistan in 1999.[176] The Citibank exec-
conservative government also adopted environmental poli-
utive, Shaukat Aziz, returned to country upon Musharraf’s
cies after establishing the environmental protection agency.
request to take the control of the national economy after
Sharif too continue Bhutto’s cultural policies, though he did
securing the appointment in Finance ministry in 1999.[177]
allowed Indian channels to be viewed in the country. The
next year, Kargil war by Pakistan-backed Kashmiri mili-
tants threatened to escalate to a full-scale war[10] and in-
creased fears of a nuclear war in South Asia. Internation-
ally condemned, the Kargil war was followed by Atlantique
Incident which came on a bad juncture for the Prime min-
ister Sharif who no longer a hold the public support for his
government.
On 12 October 1999, Prime minister Sharif’s daring at-
tempt to dismiss General Pervez Musharraf from the posts
of chairman joint chiefs and chief of army staff failed after
the military leadership refused to accept the appointment
of ISI director Lieutenant-General Ziauddin Butt as chair-
man and army chief.[172] General Musharraf returning to
Pakistan from a PIA commercial airliner, Sharif ordered After 1999, many rock music bands performed in open stage.
the Jinnah Terminal to be sealed to prevent the landing of
the PIA flight, which then circled the skies over Karachi for In 2000, the government issued a massive nationwide
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 77
amnesty to the political workers of liberal parties, sidelin- opponents to reach a concession on December 2003. The
ing the conservatives and leftists in the country.[178][179] Re- Musharraf-backed liberals mustered the two-thirds major-
viewing the policy to create a counter cultural attack on In- ity required to pass the 17th Amendment to the Constitution
dia, Musharraf personally signed and issued hundreds of of Pakistan. Transformation of country’s political system
license to private sector to open new media houses and set from parliamentary republic into semi-presidential repub-
up channels, free from government influence. On 12 May lic was made through 17th Amendment which retroactively
2000, the Supreme Court ordered the Government to hold legitimized Musharraf’s 1999 actions and many of his sub-
general elections by 12 October 2002. Ties with the United sequent decrees. In a vote of confidence on January 2004,
States were renewed by Musharraf who endorsed the U.S. Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 votes in the electoral col-
invasion of Afghanistan as reactionary to 9/11 attacks in lege, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of
the United States, in 2001.[180] Confrontation with India Pakistan, was elected to the office of President.[187] Soon
continued over the disputed Kashmir, which led to seri- after his presidential election, Musharraf increased the role
ous military standoff in 2002 after India alleged Pakistan- of Shaukat Aziz in the parliament and helped him to secure
backed Kashmiri militants laid the attack on Indian parlia- the party nomination for the office of Prime Minister.
ment in ending month of 2001.[181] Military formations and With Shaukat Aziz becoming the prime minister in 2004,
deployment continued in all over the country during this pe- his regime yielded positive results on economic front and
riod, with stationing of XI Corps in North-western Pakistan his proposed social reforms were met with resistance. The
while the rest of the components were positioned in eastern, far-right religious alliance mobilized itself in fierce oppo-
southern, and the northern borders of the country.[182] sition to Musharraf and Aziz who were dismayed by their
Attempting to legitimize his presidency[183] and assuring its Post-9/11 alliance with the United States and endorsement
continuance after the impending elections, Musharraf held of military support to the U.S. Forces in 2001 campaign
a controversial referendum in 2002,[184] which allowed the in Afghanistan.[188][189] In over two years, several attempts
extension of his presidential term to a period ending five were survived by Musharraf and Aziz hatched by al-Qaeda
years.[185] The LFO Order No. 2002 was issued by Mushar- including at least two instances where they had inside infor-
raf in August 2001, which established the constitutional ba- mation from a member of his military administration.[178]
sis for his continuance in office.[186] The 2002 general elec- On foreign fronts, the allegations of nuclear proliferation
tions marked the liberals, the MQM, and centrist PML(Q), further damaged Musharraf and Aziz’s credibility when
winning the majority in the parliament to form the govern- country’s scientists were accused of suspected activities of
ment. giving and sharing the technology to global atomic prolif-
eration. Repression and subjugation in Tribal line led to
a heavy fighting in Warsk between Pakistan Armed Forces
and 400 al-Qaeda operatives who were entrenched in sev-
eral fortified settlements on March 2004. The hunt for
Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri was launched in the border-
side of the country, contributing in sparking the sectarian
violence. This new war forced the government to sign a
truce with the militants on 5 September 2006; nonetheless
the sectarian violence continued.
Since 2001 and onward, Navaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto's
popular support was gaining a lot of momentum in the
country.[190] In 2007, Sharif made a daring attempt to re-
turn from exile but was refrained from landing at Islamabad
Terminal. Sharif was forcefully departed to Saudi Arabia
on a first given flight, whilst outside the airport there were
violent confrontations between Sharif’s supporters and the
police.[191] This did not deter another former prime min-
ister, Benazir Bhutto, from returning on 18 October 2007
after an eight-year exile in Dubai and London, to prepare
for the parliamentary elections to be held in 2008.[192][193]
General Pervez Musharraf, PA. While leading a massive rally of supporters, two deadly sui-
cide attacks were carried out in an attempt to assassinate Be-
nazir Bhutto, though she escaped unharmed but there were
The LFO effectively paralyzed the state parliament for over
136 casualties and at least 450 people were injured.[194]
a year, which Musharraf succumbed to his parliamentary
78 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
The 2002 elections resulted with liberals (light green and white)
gaining majority in the first time in history of Pakistan.
• Meluhha
• Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
• Politics of Pakistan
• Timeline of Karachi
• Timeline of Lahore
• Timeline of Peshawar
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2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 87
• Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. War and Seces- 2.2 History of South Asia
sion: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh
(1991)
This article is about the history of the Indian subcontinent
• Spear, Percival (1990) [First published 1965]. A His- with India in focus prior to the partition of India in 1947.
tory of India. Volume 2. New York: Penguin. ISBN For the modern Republic of India, see History of the
978-0-14-013836-8. Republic of India. For Pakistan and Bangladesh in focus,
see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh.
• Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1951). The Greeks in “Indian history” redirects here. For history of Native
Bactria and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Americans, see History of Native Americans in the United
Press. States.
• Thackston, Wheeler M.; Robert Irwin (1996). The The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements
Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the even-
509671-2. tual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic
Civilisation;[1] the development of Hinduism as a synthe-
• Thapar, Romila (1990) [First published 1965]. A His- sis of various Indian cultures and traditions; the rise of the
tory of India. Volume 1. New York: Penguin. ISBN Śramaṇa movement; the decline of Śrauta sacrifices and
978-0-14-013835-1. the birth of the initiatory traditions of Jainism, Buddhism,
Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism;[2][3] the onset of a
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1978). Imperial Mughal paint- succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more
ing. New York: George Braziller. ISBN 978-0-8076- than two millennia throughout various geographic areas of
0870-8. the subcontinent, including the growth of nomadic Central
Asian Muslim dominions during the Medieval period in-
• Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1950). Five thou- tertwined with Hindu powers;[4][5] the advent of European
sand years of Pakistan : an archaeological outline. traders resulting in the establishment of the British rule;
London: C. Johnson. and the subsequent independence movement that led to the
Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of In-
• Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1959). Early India dia.[6]
and Pakistan: to Ashoka. New York: Praeger.
Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian
subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or
• Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. New with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- 500,000 years ago.[7] Considered a cradle of civilisation,[8]
503412-7. the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished
in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from
3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South
Asia.[9] A sophisticated and technologically advanced ur-
ban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from
2600 to 1900 BCE.[10] This civilisation collapsed at the start
• 1
countries.[13][14][15] Various parts of India were ruled by nu- dence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British
merous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and
Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the
religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the clas- new states.
sical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects
of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion
(Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while 2.2.1 Chronology of Indian history
kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links
with the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Indian cul- See also: Outline of South Asian history
tural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia
which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British In-
Southeast Asia (Greater India).[16][17] dia (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of In-
The most significant event between the 7th and 11th cen- dia, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This
tury was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj that periodisation has been influential, but has also been criti-
lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Em- cised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influ-
pire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara Empire. ential periodisation is the division into “ancient, classical,
Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers medieval and modern periods”, although this periodisation
from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being has also been criticised.[26]
the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-
Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynasty conquered southern British periods of Indian history gives too much weight
India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri to “ruling dynasties and foreign invasions”,[27] neglect-
Lanka, Maldives and Bengal[18] in the 11th century.[19][20] ing the social-economic history which often showed a
The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced strong continuity.[27] The division into Ancient-Medieval-
the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim con-
world and the Hindu numerals were introduced.[21] quests occurred gradually during which time many things
Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th cen- came and went off, while the south was never com-
tury when the Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE pletely conquered.[27] According to Thapar, a periodisation
by nomadic Central Asian Turks;[22] though earlier Muslim could also be based on “significant social and economic
conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan changes”, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling
and Pakistan as early as the 8th century.[23] The Delhi Sul- powers.[28][note 1]
tanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early
14th century, but declined in the late 14th century when
several powerful Hindu states such as the Vijayanagara Em- 2.2.2 Prehistoric era (until c. 1750 BCE)
pire, Gajapati Kingdom, Ahom Kingdom, as well as Rajput
dynasties and states, such as Mewar dynasty, emerged. The Stone Age
15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism. In the 16th
century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually Main article: South Asian Stone Age
covered most of India. The Mughal Empire suffered a Further information: Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka rock shelters,
gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided and Edakkal Cave
opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire and Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the
Mysore Kingdom to exercise control over large areas of the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might
subcontinent.[24][25] have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleis-
tocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years
From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large ago.[29][30] Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been
areas of India were annexed by the British East India Com- dated back two million years have been discovered in the
pany of British Empire. Dissatisfaction with Company rule northwestern part of the subcontinent.[31][32] The ancient
led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British history of the region includes some of South Asia’s oldest
provinces of India were directly administered by the British settlements[33] and some of its major civilisations.[34][35]
Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development
of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the
half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for inde- palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[36][37][38]
pendence was launched with the leading party involved be- Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are
ing the Indian National Congress which was later joined now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.[39][40][41]
by other organisations. The subcontinent gained indepen- The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was fol-
90 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Sanskritisation
a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain.[89] The
called mahajanapadas, all across Northern India. Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence,
forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct
cultural area,[90] with new states arising after 500 BC[web 1]
Sanskrit Epics during the so-called “Second urbanisation”.[91][note 3] It was
influenced by the Vedic culture,[92] but differed markedly
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana from the Kuru-Panchala region.[90] It “was the area of the
In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hin- earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800
BC was the location of an advanced neolithic population as-
sociated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar”.[93] In this
region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism
and Buddhism originated.[89]
Mahajanapadas
as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas un- tion of the earliest Upanishads.[95][96] Upanishads form the
til the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as
was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general popula- Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[97] The older Upan-
tion of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many ishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual.
of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called
by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Up-
four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The Life anishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack
of Gautam Budhha was mainly associated with these four on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with
kingdoms.[94] an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and
[98]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the death.
Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries
BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements
which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[95] Mahavira (c.
Upanishads and Shramana movements 549–477 BC), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha
(c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most promi-
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, nent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the con-
and History of Jainism cept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara,
See also: Gautama Buddha and Mahavira and the concept of liberation.[99] Buddha found a Middle
Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the
philosophy, and Ancient universities of India Sramana religions.[100]
The 7th and 6th centuries BC witnessed the composi-
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara
in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later be-
come Jainism.[101] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the
teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and
scholars believe Parshvanath, accorded status as the 23rd
Tirthankara, was a historical figure. Rishabhdeo was the 1st
Tirthankara. The Vedas are believed to have documented
a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shra-
mana movement.[102]
Magadha dynasties
Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai in relation
to Alexander's Empire and neighbours.
The Magadha state c. 600 BCE, before it expanded from its capital Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to
Rajagriha.
seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the
trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).[106]
astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered By 520 BC, during the reign of Darius I of Persia,
the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day east-
republican communities such as the community of Rajaku- ern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the
mara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost
chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided territories. The area remained under Persian control for two
into executive, judicial, and military functions. centuries.[107] During this time India supplied mercenaries
to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.[106]
Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Aga-
mas and the Hindu Puranas, mentions Magadha being ruled Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila be-
by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE – came a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were
413 BCE. The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls Brihadratha mingled.[108] Persian ascendency in Northwestern South
the first ruler of Magadha. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka Asia ended with Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia
dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering in 327 BC.[109]
Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bim- By 326 BC, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Mi-
bisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King nor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the north-
Pasenadi, ruler of neighbouring Kosala and brother-in-law west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated
of King Bimbisara, promptly retook the gift of the Kashi King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day
province. Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[110]
During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Alexander’s march east put him in confrontation with the
Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal.
He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first ser- His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of fac-
mon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in ing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at
Rajgriha.[105] the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march
further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer,
The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga Coenus, and after learning about the might of the Nanda
dynasty. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassi- Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.
nated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the
so-called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons. The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the
Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The re-
gion of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and
Persian and Greek conquests in Northwestern South northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Per-
Asia sian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to
a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Alexander the Great, Nanda 5th century AD and influenced the artistic development of
Empire, and Gangaridai Mahayana Buddhism.
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 95
Maurya Empire time he died in c. 272 BC, a large part of the subconti-
nent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region
Main article: Maurya Empire of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside
See also: Chandragupta Maurya, Kautilya, Bindusara, and Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with
Ashoka the Great the south.[112]
Further information: Arthashastra and Edicts of Ashoka
Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted
The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire
for around thirty seven years until his death in about 232
BCE.[113] His campaign against the Kalingans in about
260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of
life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and
lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace
Buddhism.[112] The empire began to decline after his death
and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by
Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.[113]
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the pri-
mary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeo-
logically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based
on a modern and efficient economy and society. How-
ever, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by
the government.[114] Although there was no banking in
the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant
amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting
a prevalence thereof.[115] During this period, a high quality
The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great. steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and
was later exported to China and Arabia.[13]
Sangam Period
to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the In-
dian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Em-
pire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of
the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To
the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu
Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The em-
pire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by
Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when South India in Sangam Period.
he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty.[111] Chandragupta’s son
Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BC. By the from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During
96 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India
with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient
civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are red,
and the water routes are blue.
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan do- By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating
minions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak in-
and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[145][146]
scription.
Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under Classical period (c. 320-650 CE)
the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came of Gupta Empire - Golden Age Main article: Gupta Em-
an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe pire
called the Yuezhi,[137][138] a branch of which was known See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta
as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta
the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira,
Afghanistan,[139] and then the northern parts of the Indian Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana
subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala,
100 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian nu- Age of India[149] and was marked by extensive achieve-
merals, and Kama Sutra ments in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and
philosophy that crystallised the elements of what is gen-
erally known as Hindu culture.[150] The Hindu-Arabic nu-
merals, a positional numeral system, originated in India and
was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early
Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800
CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral
system.[151] The peace and prosperity created under leader-
ship of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic
endeavours in India.[152]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnifi-
cent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[153] The Gupta
period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made
great advancements in many academic fields.[154] The
Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the
Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule,
but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to pro-
vide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The mil-
itary exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II - brought much of
India under their leadership.[155] Science and political ad-
ministration reached new heights during the Gupta era.
Strong trade ties also made the region an important cul-
tural centre and established it as a base that would influ-
Gupta Empire expansion from 320 CE to 550 CE.
ence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka,
Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
Historian Dr. Barnett remarked:
dia. Toramana’s son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved Late Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE)
up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to the cen-
tral India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula’s merciless Main articles: Classical India, Decline of Buddhism in In-
persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, dia, and Tripartite struggle
though the description is disputed as far as the authentic- The “Late Classical Age”[176] in India began after the end
ity is concerned.[171] The Huns were defeated by the Indian 68 º 72 º 76 º 80 º 84 º 88 º 92 º 96 º
c750 - 900
others were assimilated in the Indian society.[172] SHAHIS
KASHMIR Ind
J he
us
lum
us
Ind Che
Empire:
na
b Rashtrakutas
32 º
Palas
Ravi
Gurjara - Pratiharas
s
Modern International Boundary
Bea
Sutlej
Ga
NEPAL
Sa
rd
ng
ARABS
a
GURJARA
Luni
- bal
na
Ya
mu
Kanauj
Gh ahmap
utra
Br
Gan
am aghr
Ch
Mansurah PRATIHARAS
Gwalior a
Ba
Go
da
gh
MAGADHA
k
m
nas
ma
Kos
at
Ba
ti
i
tw
i
ra
Be
KAMARUPA
ip
CHANDELAS Nalanda
Sh
24 º Barak
ti
rma
MALWA Damodar Paharpur
bati
Saba
Sindh
Rih
Hughli
Ujjain and
Par
Gulf of Kutch
a
Kali
ah
i
Dhar Narmad Suba
VANGA
Ka
GUJARAT M rn
sa
hadar PARAMARAS
are
i
kh
B a
nu
r
Tapi
et
ay
aj
Sh
Brah
Gulf
man
Baitar
Mouths of the Ganges
ainganga
of
Mah
UTKALA
20 º
i
War
Khambhat Pen
an
an
ga
adi
i
dh
ng
a
a
Ellora ORISSA
God
avari BERAR Pra Va
m
Puri
n sa Chilika Lake
ith Indravati dh
Manjra a ar
a
st
RASHTRAKUTAS
oa
ri
Bh lC
Saba
im
a de
an
EASTERN
G m
Manyakheta od
av Co
ra
16 º Krish Krishn ri a
na CHALUKYAS
a
Arabian Pattadakal
Konk
Badami
Tungabhadra
an
Bay
Co
Sea Tunga
ast
Pen
CHALUKYAS
nar
Bhadra
PALLAVAS Palar
Pulicat Lake
of
12 º
Kanchipuram
GANGAS Ponnaiyar Bengal
Mal
CHOLAS
abar
re
an
av
i
Beypo
Ka m
Bh
ve ri Kol
lida
Andaman
Co
Tanjore
ast
CHERAS
Peri
ya Vaig Sea
Vembanad Lake
r
ai Palk
Bay Ten Degree Channel
Ta
PANDYAS
mirap
ar
8º ani
Gulf
of
Mannar
Indian Ocean
Great Channel
Kalinga
younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar Western Pegu
Chalukyas Vengl
in present-day Haryana. At the height of his power his
Champa
kingdom spanned the Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bengal, Kanchipuram
Chenla
Sambor Prei Kuk
(Khmer) (Siem Reap)
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Odisha and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain north of the Thanjavur
Nagapattinam
Cahaya
Narmada River. (Chaiya)
Lanka Kadaram
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the mid-
(Kedah)
dle of the 6th century, North India reverted to small re- Trade Routes Panai
Chola Territory
publics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers. Chola Influence
Harsha was a convert to Buddhism.[173] He united the small Srivijaya
(Palembang)
some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the
of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of
century. the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states.
declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan
more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism ex- in the 6th century, and small Rajput[191][192] dynasties later ruled
[3]
panded in royal courts. This period produced some of much of northern India. One Gurjar Rajput of the
India’s finest art, considered the epitome of classical de- Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody
conflicts against the advancing Turkic sultanates.
velopment, and the development of the main spiritual and
philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Surya Sun temples of Late Classical India
Buddhism and Jainism.
North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th cen-
tury after the White Hun invasion, who followed their own
religions at the beginning such as Tengri, but later Indian
religions. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (mod-
ern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Bud-
dhism. The Chach Nama records many instances of con-
version of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.[178]
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his
school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the posi-
tion on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars Martand
note Bhaṭṭa’s contribution to the decline of Buddhism in Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya.
India.[179] His dialectical success against the Buddhists is The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the
confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports Karkota dynasty, Emperor Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the
that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on
Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.[180] the Indian Subcontinent.
In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the
Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doc-
trine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and
is credited with unifying the main characteristics of Konark
[181][182][183] Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Emperor
the current thoughts in Hinduism. He was
a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Narasimhadeva I (AD 1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga
[184][185][186][187] dynasty, it is now a World Heritage Site.
Hinduism; and founded mathas (monaster-
ies), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the
spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.[188]
Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of
Hindu gods “replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and
pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or sym-
bol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental
temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja
worship”.[189] Although Buddhism did not disappear from
India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivi-
ties for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism’s
position within the sociopolitical context and helped make Sun Tem-
[190] ple, Modhera, was built by Bhima I of Solanki dynasty in
possible its decline.
1026 CE.
Emperor Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting north-
ern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the col-
lapse of the Gupta dynasty. His empire collapsed after his The Chola empire emerged as a major power during the
death. reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who suc-
cessfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested
the 11th century.[193] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724 CE–
for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 105
760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dy- Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India
nasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then
625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.
Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya withThe Solanki dynasty of Gujarat were a branch of the
leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gu-
and Central Asia.[194][195][196] jarat) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-
7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha,
the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the Rashtrakuta Empire Main article: [197] Rashtrakuta dynasty
advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta
Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being
patrons of art and literature.
was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later
southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[201] Govinda III
centuries. During this period, they ruled as three re- and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of
lated yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavar-
as the “Badami Chalukyas”, ruled from Vatapi (modern sha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and
Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work
Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the de- on poetics.[198][202] Architecture reached a milestone in the
cline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the
rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contribu-
rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in tions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Ma-
the history of South India and a golden age in the his- harashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the
tory of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South In- Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka,
dia shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India- The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta
based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[203]
region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden
rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian
overseas trade and commerce and the development of new mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire
style of architecture called “Chalukyan architecture”. The and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian
106 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
mathematicians who lived after him.[204] The Rashtrakuta They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with
rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added
of languages from Sanskrit to the Apabhraṃśas.[198] greatly to the prosperity of the Pala kingdom. The Arab
merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in
his memoirs.[209]
Pala Empire Main article: Pala Empire
Ancient universities of India supported by the Palas
Chola Empire Main article: Chola dynasty
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle
Nalanda is
considered one of the first great universities in recorded
history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research
in the world from 450 to 1193 AD. It reached its height
under the Palas.
Brihadeeswara Temple entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.
However, the army was hopeless in battle against the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent,
western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of though non-Muslim population was left to their own laws
Ghazni.[234] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud and customs.[4][5] They also introduced new cultural codes
came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids that in some ways were very different from the existing cul-
north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more tural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture
and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaz- which was mixed in nature, though different from both the
navid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian
of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelm-
thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi ing majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives con-
dynasty.[233][234] verted to Islam. This factor also played an important role
in the synthesis of cultures.[239]
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[233] who
along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dy- The growth of Muslim dynasties also caused destruction
nasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against and desecration of politically important temples of enemy
the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu states,[240] cases of forced conversions to Islam,[241] pay-
rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik ment of jizya tax,[242] and loss of life for the non-Muslim
Hills.[234] population.[243] As noted by Historian Will Durant:
quered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccess- that emerged in medieval Hinduism[258] and later revolu-
ful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sul- tionised in Sikhism.[259] It originated in the seventh-century
tanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and
The resulting “Indo-Muslim” fusion of cultures left lasting spread northwards.[258] It swept over east and north India
syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, re- from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between
ligion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of the 15th and 17th century CE.[260]
Urdu (literally meaning “horde” or “camp” in various Tur-
kic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as
a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of San- • The Bhakti movement regionally developed around
skritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism
and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti god-
is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few desses), and Smartism.[261][262][263] The movement
female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240). was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from
(Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of
Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Advaita Vedanta.[264][265]
Delhi.[255] The Sultan’s army was defeated on 17 Decem-
ber 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked,
destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur’s army had killed • Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru
and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the Nanak, the first Guru,[266] and the ten successive Sikh
whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gob-
the “other Muslims” (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were ind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, be-
put to death in one day.[256] The Sultanate suffered signif- came the literal embodiment of the eternal, imper-
icantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the sonal Guru, where the scripture’s word serves as the
Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former. spiritual guide for Sikhs.[267][268][269]
112 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south
Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha So-
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire mayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India.[273] Effi-
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by cient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought
new technologies such as water management systems for
irrigation.[274] The empire’s patronage enabled fine arts and
literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil
and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current
form.[275]
The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian
history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hin-
duism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak
during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara
armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed
areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan
and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga,
while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subor-
dinates in the south.[276] Many important monuments were
either completed or commissioned during the time of Kr-
ishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the
defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).
Regional powers
victorious against the Sultanate army.[278] In the South, the Akbar’s son, Jahangir more or less followed father’s pol-
Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijaynagara icy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcon-
and gave Vijayanagara tough days many a times.[279] In tinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan was the golden
the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large mon-
Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate uments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at
power after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed.[280] Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the
It was established either by a Brahman convert or patro- Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal Em-
nised by a Brahman and form that source it got the name pire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the
Bahmani.[281] In the early 16th century, it collapsed and reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in
got split into five small Deccan sultanates.[282] In the East, his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji.
the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar wrote, “All seemed to have been
reckon with.[283] In the Northeast the Ahom Kingdom was gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost.”[290]
a major power for six centuries;[284][285] and the Kingdom The same was echoed by Vincent Smith: “The Deccan
of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb’s body
Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaish- but also of his empire”.[143]
navite culture.[286][287][288]
Mughal Empire
formed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of Sikh Empire
the Peshwas (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas de-
feated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself in Battle
of Delhi (1737). The Marathas continued their military Main article: Sikh Empire
campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and See also: History of Sikhism and Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. Gordon The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh reli-
explained how the Maratha systematically took control over
new regions. They would start with annual raids, followed
by collecting ransom from villages and towns while the de-
clining Mughal Empire retained nominal control and fi-
nally taking over the region. He explained it with the ex-
ample of Malwa region. Marathas built an efficient sys-
tem of public administration known for its attention to de-
tail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that re-
covered from years of raids, up to levels previously en-
joyed by the Mughals. For example, the cornerstone of the
Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax col-
lectors who advanced the Maratha ruler Peshwa a portion
of their district revenues at interest.[298] By 1760, the do-
main of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire
subcontinent.[299]
The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped
after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the
Maratha authority in the north was re-established within Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most
a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[300] The defeat of significant place of worship for the Sikhs.
Marathas by British in third Anglo-Maratha Wars brought
end to the empire by 1820. The last peshwa, Baji
Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-
Maratha War. With the defeat of the Marathas, no na- gion, was a political entity that governed the Northwest-
tive power represented any significant threat for the British ern regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The empire, based
afterwards.[301] As noted by Charles Metcalfe, one of the around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was
ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leader-
Governor-General, wrote in 1806: ship of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839) from an array
of autonomous Punjabi Misls.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern
India into an empire. He primarily used his highly disci-
India contains no more than two great pow- plined Sikh Khalsa Army that he trained and equipped with
ers, British and Mahratta, and every other state modern military technologies and technique. Ranjit Singh
acknowledges the influence of one or the other. proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well
Every inch that we recede will be occupied by qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated
them.[302][303] the Afghan armies and successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh
Wars. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces
of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Der-
[307][308]
The Marathas also developed a potent navy circa 1660s, ajat to his empire.
which at its peak, dominated the territorial waters of the At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from
western coast of India from Mumbai to Savantwadi.[304] the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to
For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also established its Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal
base at the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal.[305] It in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire
would engage in attacking the British, Portuguese, Dutch, weakened, leading to the conflict with the British East In-
and Siddi Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambi- dia Company. The hard-fought first Anglo-Sikh war and
tions. The Maratha Navy dominated till around the 1730s, second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh
was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist Empire; making it among the last areas of the Indian sub-
by 1818.[306] continent to be conquered by the British.
116 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
Other kingdoms
Mysore Palace in the evening. It is the official residence and seat of ecuted between the other Rajput states and Britain. The
the Wodeyars — the rulers of Mysore of the Mysore Kingdom, the Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of
royal family of Mysore. Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in
Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes re-
of India in the later medieval period prior to the British oc- mained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few po-
cupation. However, most of them were bound to pay reg- litical changes were made in Rajputana until Indian inde-
ular tribute to the Marathas.[299] The rule of Wodeyar dy- pendence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more
nasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State,
India in around 1400 CE by was interrupted by Hyder Ali Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.
and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century.
Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms
against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold
but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state
aid or promise of aid from the French. of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in
British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty.[309][310]
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of
Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was
their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six ex- formed by Gurkha rulers.
peditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which
Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas.
Beginning of European explorations and establishment
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of of Colonialism
Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif
Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and de- Main article: Colonial India
clared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It
was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948.
Both Kingdom of Mysore and Hyderabad State became
princely states in British India in 1799 and 1798 respec- Western explorers and traders In 1498, a Portuguese
tively. fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new
The 18th century saw the whole of Rajputana virtually sub- sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for
dued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set
distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. Goa
Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the became the main [311]
Portuguese base until it was annexed by
British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were India in 1961.
based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base
Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However,
protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in
Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been ex- the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, dur-
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 117
Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated were disorganised, had differing goals, and were poorly
expansion of Company territories.[322] This was achieved equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support or
either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and lo- funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British gov-
cal rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary ernment took control of the Company and eliminated many
alliances created the princely states or native states of theof the grievances that caused it. The government also was
Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. determined to keep full control so that no rebellion of such
[324]
By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of size would ever happen again.
the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pak- In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East In-
istan and Bangladesh also. Their policy was sometimes dia Company to the British Crown, which began to admin-
summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the ister most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown
enmity festering between various princely states and social controlled the Company’s lands directly and had consider-
and religious groups.[323] able indirect influence over the rest of India, which con-
sisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.
There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only
Indian indenture system Main article: Indian indenture 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large
system (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed
into the independent nation in 1947–48.[325]
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of in-
denture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indi-
ans were transported to various colonies of European pow- British Raj (c. 1858–1947)
ers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It
started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until Main article: British Raj
1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian di- After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and ex-
aspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion
and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the
growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.
The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909).
The princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow.
with the senior officers all British and many of the troops
from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal
and Sikhs.[349] The civil service was increasingly filled with
natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more
senior positions.[350]
India Act 1935 was a major success in this regard.[352] cal Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the vio-
lent reaction of Congress supporters. Key leaders were kept
in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in
World War II May 1944 because of his health. Congress, with its lead-
ers incommunicado, played little role on the home front.
Main article: India in World War II The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and
worked closely with the Raj authorities.
During the Second World War (1939–1945), India was con- Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with
trolled by the United Kingdom, with the British holding Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Ger-
territories in India including over five hundred autonomous many or Japan to gain independence. Japan helped him
Princely States; British India officially declared war on Nazi set up the Indian National Army (INA) which fought un-
Germany in September 1939.[354] The British Raj, as part der Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed
of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million vol- the Provisional Government of Free India, a government-
unteer soldiers to fight under British command against the in-exile based in Singapore. It controlled no Indian territory
Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States and was used only to raise troops for Japan.
provided large donations to support the Allied campaign
By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan,
during the War. India also provided the base for American
which by then had already captured the Indian territory of
operations in support of China in the China Burma India
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control
Theatre.
of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India
on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian
National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and
advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on
the mainland of South Asia reached its farthest point on In-
dia territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June
and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine
during 1940-43.
An old Sikh man carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were
uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts
and trains to their promised new home.
Dead and wounded after the 'Direct Action Day' which devel-
oped into pitched battles as Muslim and Hindu mobs rioted across 2.2.8 Historiography
Calcutta in 1946, the year before independence.
Historiography is the study of the history and methodology
of the discipline of history. The term historiography also
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic. In
16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal recent decades there have been four main schools of histori-
of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim home- ography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist,
land in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the and subaltern. The once common “Orientalist” approach,
cycle of violence that would be later called the “Great Cal- with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiri-
cutta Killing of August 1946”. The communal violence tual India, has died out in serious scholarship.[356]
spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus),
The “Cambridge School”, led by Anil Seal,[357] Gor-
to Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Mus-
don Johnson,[358] Richard Gordon, and David A.
lims), in Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where
Washbrook,[359] downplays ideology.[360] However,
Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi
this school of historiography is criticised for western bias
in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out
or Eurocentrism.[361]
by Muslims.
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi,
Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of
1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi’s 'Quit India' be-
gun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of
Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)
historiography has received criticism for Elitism.[362]
Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of The Marxists have focused on studies of economic develop-
India, History of Pakistan, and History of Bangladesh ment, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India
The British Indian territories gained independence in and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The
1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Marxists portrayed Gandhi’s movement as a device of the
Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial divi- bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary
sion of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of
between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and being “too much” ideologically influenced.[363]
spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 The “subaltern school”, was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit
dead.[355] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass mi- Guha and Gyan Prakash.[364] It focuses attention away from
grations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of the elites and politicians to “history from below”, looking at
12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs,
newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It fo-
independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[355] cuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically empha-
In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Ben- sises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the
gal, seceded from Pakistan. Marxist school.[365]
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 123
More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version [5] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
of history to support their demands for “Hindutva” (“Hin-
duness”) in Indian society. This school of thought is still in [6] The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by
Yasmin Khan
the process of development.[366] In March 2012, Diana L.
Eck, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Stud- [7] Bongard-Levin 1979, p. 11.
ies at Harvard University, authored in her book “India: A
Sacred Geography”, that idea of India dates to a much [8] “Indus River Valley Civilizations”. History-world.org. Re-
earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it wasn't trieved 4 January 2016.
just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or [9] Romila Thapar, A History of India (Penguin Books: New
racial.[367][368][369] [370] York, 1966) p. 23.
• Chronology of Indian history [12] A Social History of Early India by Brajadulal Chattopad-
hyaya p.259
• Economic history of India
[13] Technology and Society by Menon R.V.G. p.15
• History of the Republic of India
[14] The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Em-
• Indian maritime history pire in South India, by Carla M. Sinopoli p.201
2.2.10 Notes [18] Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath
Sen p.281
[1] See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Review
of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History. [19] Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600
to 1750 by Craig Lockard p.333
[2] See also Michael Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and
Development of the Kuru State. [20] Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy
in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H.
[3] The “First urbanization” was the Indus Valley O'Rourke p.67
Civilisation.[89]
[21] Essays on Ancient India by Raj Kumar p.199
[4] Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47. [28] Thapar 1978, p. 20.
124 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
[29] Mudur, G.S (21 March 2005). “Still a mystery”. KnowHow. [43] Khandekar, Nivedita (4 November 2012). “Indus Valley
The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 May 2007. 2,000 years older than thought”. Hindustan Times. Archived
from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 12 July
[30] “The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India”. 2013.
Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies. Geological Survey
of India. 20 September 2005. Archived from the original [44] http://globalvisiontours.com/kerala/wayanad/
on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 7 May 2007. edakkal-caves.aspx
[31] “Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan”. Department of [45] Protecting megaliths to keep history alive The Hindu daily
Archaeology, University of Sheffield. Retrieved 1 December
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Hindu. Chennai, India. 28 October 2007.
[32] Murray, Tim (1999). Time and Archaeology. London:
Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 0-415-11762-3. [47] “Edakkal Caves”. Wayanad.nic. Archived from the original
on 29 May 2006. Retrieved 7 April 2007.
[33] Coppa, A.; Bondioli, L.; Cucina, A.; Frayer, D. W.;
Jarrige, C.; et al. (6 April 2006). “Palaeontology: [48] Gaur, A. S.; Vora, K. H. (10 July 1999). “Ancient shorelines
Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry” (PDF). Nature. of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilisation (Late Mid-
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[142] https://books.google.com/books?id= [162] The precise number varies according to whether or not some
gdUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Kushan+ barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted.
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08YTKAhXMKyYKHXfhC4wQ6AEILDAE#v= rock which also include an unfinished one”, UNESCO and
onepage&q=Kushan%20Empire.&f=false Spink “about 30”. The controversies over the end date of
excavation is covered below.
[143] Oxford History of India - Vincent Smith
[163] Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, “Personal and geographical names
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[147] Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original
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2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 135
Primary in the 1940s that aimed for and succeeded in the creation of
Pakistan from the Muslim-majority areas of British Indian
• The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), Empire.
highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.
The movement progressed within India alongside the
online edition
Indian independence movement, but the Pakistan Move-
ment sought to establish a new nation-state that protected
2.2.14 External links the religious identity and political interests of Muslims in
South Asia.[1] The first organised political movements were
• History of India in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan
• History of India at DMOZ movement.[2] An educational convention held in 1906 with
joint efforts of Syed Ahmad Khan and Vikar-ul-Haq, the
• Hans William Brown research collection on 19th- Muslim reformers took the movement to the political stage
century missionary work in India, 1882-1932, Ms. in the form of establishing the mainstream and then newly
Coll. 1033, Kislak Center for Special Collections, formed All-India Muslim League (AIML), with promi-
Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsyl- nent moderate leaders seeking to protect the basic rights
vania of Muslims in the British Raj.[3] During the initial stages of
the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal
after addressing at the convention of the AIML’s annual
2.3 Pakistan Movement session.[4][5] Muhammad Ali Jinnah's constitutional strug-
gle further helped gaining public support for the movement
in the four provinces.[6] Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz
used literature, poetry and speech as a powerful tool for po-
litical awareness.[7][8][9] Feminists such as Sheila Pant and
Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistan’s
women and their participation in national politics.[10]
The Pakistan Movement was led by a large and diversified
group of people whose struggle ultimately resulted in the
British Empire announcing the Indian Independence Act
1947, which created the independent dominions of India
and Pakistan.[11][12] The Pakistan Movement was the re-
sult of a series of social, political, and intellectual trans-
formations in Pakistani society, government, and ways of
thinking.[13] Efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers
resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent
government.[14] In the following years, another nationally–
minded subset went on to established a strong government,
followed by the military intervention in 1958.[15] Grievous-
ness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an up-
heaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence
as the People’s Republic of Bangladesh in 1971.[16] Af-
ter a strong concessions and consents reached in 1973, the
new Constitution established a relatively strong government,
institutions, national courts, a legislature that represented
both states in the Senate and population in the National
Assembly.[17][18] Pakistan’s phase shift to republicanism,
and the gradually increasing democracy, caused an upheaval
of traditional social hierarchy and gave birth to the ethic that
has formed a core of political values in Pakistan.[19]
Minar e Pakistan where the bill of Lahore Resolution was passed.
Background
modern one.[21]
In attendance, Sir Syed advised the Muslim communities
to not participate in politics unless and until they got mod-
ern education.[26] He was of the view that Muslims could
not succeed in the field of western politics without know-
ing the system.[26] In the 1900s, Sir Syed was invited to
attend the first convention of Indian National Congress,
and many persuaded him to join the party but he report-
edly refused to accept the offer.[26] Instead, he urged the
Muslims to keep themselves away from the Indian National
Congress and predicted that this convention would prove to
be a Hindu party in the times to come.[26] In response to
this, Sir Syed called in and established the first All India
Muhammadan Educational Conference where he provided
Muslims with a platform on which he could discuss their
political problems. He also became an instrument of lead-
ing the Aligarh Movement to provide Western education to
Muslim communities.[26] This led the establishment of the
Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) which became pivotal
place of providing modern teachings on science and tech-
nology, modern politics, law and justice, literature, history,
and contemporary arts. Sir Syed’s writings and scholarly
works played a role in popularising the ideals for which the
Aligarh stood whilst also helped to create cordial relations
between the British Crown and the Indian Muslims.[26] One
of his biggest achievement was the removal of misunder-
standings about Islam and Christianity.[26] It was from this
platform that Syed Ahmad Khan strongly advised the Mus-
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became an inspiration for the Pakistan lims against joining the Hindu-dominated Congress and
Movement. also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two
distinct nations. His writings, arguments, theory, and ef-
forts later conjoined and his idea was now popular as the
"two-nation theory".[26] At the time of his death, Sir Syed
the other hand, the effects of Bengali renaissance made the
was known as the father of “two-nation theory” and earned
Hindus population to be more educated and gained lucra-
the title “Prophet of Education”.[26]
tive positions at the Indian Civil Service; many ascended to
the influential posts in the British government. The Aligarh movement and the two-nation theory provided
the basis of the Pakistan Movement. With the help of
During this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir
Sir Syed and Nawab Vakar-ul-Mulk, the All-India Muslim
Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the
League (AIML) was founded in 1906, followed by the vi-
British education.[21] Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who
sion of Sir Mohammad Iqbal of a homeland for the Muslims
was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British
floated in 1930, on to the Pakistan Resolution of 1940, and
Empire. Witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despon-
the League gaining strength to finally attaining a separate
dency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of
homeland for the Muslims of India.[27] Since his death and
progress within the Muslim community of British India.[21]
the establishment of Pakistan, his name continues to be ex-
At notable Muslim gatherings, he argued that the Muslims,
tremely respected in Pakistan, even as of today; Sir Syed
in their attempt to regenerate themselves, had failed to re-
University of Engineering and Technology is named after
alise that mankind had entered a very important phase of its
him.[25]
existence—an era of science and learning.[21] Despite harsh
criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince
many Muslim communities to realise that the very fact was
the source of progress and prosperity for the British.[21][25] Rise of organised movement and Muslims minority
Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his move-
ment for regeneration of the Indian Muslims. He tried to In 1876, Queen Victoria took the additional title of
transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a Empress of India. Passed by the Queen, the 1833 act ap-
138 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
5. Maulvi Syed Karamat Husain. (Allahabad). Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk,(left) who organised the Simla deputation,
with Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Centre), Sir Syed’s son Justice Syed
6. Maulvi Sharifuddin (Patna). Mahmood (extreme right). Syed Mahmood was the first Muslim to
serve as a High Court judge in the British Raj.
7. Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan (Bombay).
10. Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan. (Aligarh). 13. Khan Bahadur Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan.
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 139
26. Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai. (Bombay). On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with
27. Maulvi Abdul Raheem. (Calcutta). Germany.[40] The World War II became an integral for Pak-
istan Movement with the Muslim League playing a decisive
28. Syed Allahdad Shah. (Khairpur). role in the World War II in the 1940s and as the driving
force behind the division of India along religious lines and
29. Maulana H. M. Malik. (Nagpur).
the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in 1947.[41][42]
30. Khan Bahadur Col. Abdul Majeed Khan. (Patiala). In 1939, the Congress leaders resigned from all British In-
dia government to which they had elected.[43] The Muslim
31. Khan Bahadur Khawaja Yousuf Shah. (Amritsar). League celebrated the end of Congress led British Indian
government, with Jinnah famously quoting: “a day of deliv-
32. Khan Bahadur Mian Muhammad Shafi. (Lahore).
erance and thanksgiving.”[43] In a secret memorandum writ-
33. Khan Bahadur Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq. (Amritsar). ing to British Prime Minister, the Muslim League obliged to
support the United Kingdom’s war efforts— provided that
34. Syed Nabiullah. (Allahabad). the British had recognise it as the only organisation that
spoke for Indian Muslims.[43]
35. Khalifa Syed Muhammed Khan Bahadur. (Patna).[36]
The events leading the World War II, the Congress effec-
The Muslim League’s original goal was to define and pro- tive protest against the United Kingdom unilaterally involv-
tect the interests of educated upper and gentry class of the ing India in the war without consulting with the congress;
Indian Muslims.[37] Its educational activities were based on the Muslim League went on to support the British war ef-
AMU, Calcutta University, and Punjab University; though forts, which was allowed to actively propagandise against
its headquarter was in Lucknow.[37] British thinker, John the Congress with the cry of “Islam in Danger”.[44]
Locke's (1632–1704) ideas on liberty greatly influenced the The Indian Congress and Muslim League responded dif-
political thinking behind the party’s movement.[37] It was ferently over the World War II issue. The Indian Congress
the dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton refused to oblige with the Britain unless the whole Indian
and Thomas Paine at the AMU that initiated the emergence subcontinent was granted the independence.[45] The Mus-
of Muslim nationalism.[37] Sir Aga Khan III was appointed lim League, on the other hand, supported Britain, with the
its first and founding president; Ali Johar wrote party’s first means of political co-operation and human contribution.[45]
constitution.[37] Despite its activism and educated mass, the The Muslim League leaders’ British education training
party remained less influential in various areas as compared and philosophical ideas played a role that brought the
140 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
British government and the Muslim to be close to each University of Cambridge.[49] Again, Bengal was left out of
other.[45] Jinnah himself supported the British in World the proposal.[49]
War Two when the Congress failed to form any form of In a book written in 2004, Idea of Pakistan by American
collaboration.[45] The British government suddenly made a historian of Pakistan, Stephen P. Cohen, writes on the in-
pledge to the Muslims in 1940 that it would not transfer fluence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the Pakistan
power to an Independent India unless its constitution was movement:[50]
first approved by the Indian Muslims, a promise it did not
subsequently keep.[45]
It begins with a glorious precolonial empire
when the Muslims of South Asia were politically
The end of the war united and culturally, civilizationally, and strate-
gically dominant. In that era, ethnolinguistic
differences were subsumed under a common
In 1942, Gandhi called for the Quit India Movement against
vision of an Islamic-inspired social and political
the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the Muslim
order. However, the divisions among Muslims
League advised Prime Minister Winston Churchill that
that did exist were exploited by the British
Great Britain should “divide and then Quit”.[45] Negotia-
Empire, who practiced divide and rule politics,
tions between Gandhi and Viceroy Wavell failed, as did
displacing the Mughals and circumscribing other
talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944.[45] When World
Islamic rulers. Moreover, the Hindus were the
War II ended, the Muslim League’s push for the Pak-
allies of the British Empire, who used them to
istan Movement and Gandhi’s efforts for Indian indepen-
strike a balance with the Muslims; many Hindus,
dence intensified the pressure on Prime Minister Winston
a fundamentally insecure people, hated Muslims
Churchill.[45] Given the rise of American and Russian order
and would have oppressed them in a one-man,
in the world politics and the general unrest in India, Wavell
one-vote democratic India. The Pakistan
called for general elections to be held in 1945.[45] The
Movement united these disparate pieces of the
Muslim League won nearly all the seats in Muslim areas
national puzzle, and Pakistan was the expression
while Congress did the same in predominantly Hindu areas.
of the national will of India’s liberated Muslims.
Polarisation was now obvious and violence erupted through-
— Stephen Cohen, Idea of Pakistan (2004),
out the Subcontinent.[39]
source[50]
For Jinnah, Islam laid a cultural base for an ideology of eth-
nic nationalism whose objective was to gather the Muslim
community to defend the Muslim minorities in the subcon-
tinent. Jinnah’s representation of Indian Muslims was quite 1946 elections
apparent in 1928, when in the All-Party Muslim Confer-
ence, he was ready to swap the advantages of separate elec- The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning
torates for a quota of 33% of seats at the Capital. He main- 90 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. Thus the 1946
tained his views at the Round Table Conferences, while the election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Mus-
Muslims of Punjab and Bengal were vying for a much more lims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite
decentralised political setup. Many of their requests were which the Muslim League won.[51] This victory was assisted
met in the 1935 Government of India Act. Jinnah and the by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural
founding fathers played a peripheral role at the time and peasantry of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners
in 1937 could manage to gather only 5% of the Muslim of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied
vote. Jinnah refused to back down and went ahead with the Muslim League’s claim of being the sole representative
his plan. He presented the two-nation theory in the now fa- of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise that the
mous Lahore Resolution in March 1940, seeking a separate Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.[51] The British
Muslim nation-state.[46] had no alternative except to take Jinnah’s views into account
The idea of a separate state had first been introduced by as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson of India’s Mus-
Sir Iqbal in his speech in December 1930 as the President lims. However the British did not desire India to be par-
of the Muslim League.[47] The nation state that he visu- titioned and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the
alised, “within the British Empire, or without the British Cabinet Mission plan.[52]
Empire”,[48] included only four provinces of Northwest In-
dia: Punjab, Sindh, Afghania, and Balochistan. Three years
later, the name Pakistan was proposed in a pamphlet pub- 2.3.2 Political campaigns and support
lished in 1933 by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a graduate of the
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 141
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
u-din Baba, an ethinc Hazara. His strong activism with states like Hyderabad with military force.[68] The Mus-
the Muslim League captured a strong mandate of Haz- lim League’s Pakistan Movement programme was gener-
ara District and Attock District.[65] Many activists, such ally supported by the people of Baluchistan.[69] One of its
as Roedad Khan, Ghulam Ishaq, Sartaj Aziz, and Abdul leader and founding father of Pakistan, Jafar Khan Jamali
Qayyum Khan, helped up lifted the cause and image of (whose nephew later became the Prime Minister of Pak-
the Muslim League in the province.[65] Finally, a referen- istan in 2002) was an important and key figure of the Mus-
dum was held in 1946 to decide the fate of the NWFP lim League.[69] Jafar Khan Jamali's heavily lobbying for
as to whether the people of the NWFP ( now Khyber- Balochistan to accede with Pakistan highly benefited the
Pakhtunkhwa) want to vote for Pakistan or India. In this Muslim League.[69] Another influential Baloch figure was
referendum, majority of vote was cast in favour of Pakistan Akbar Bugti who well received Jinnah who came to visit
, despite Bacha Khan wanting to accede with India.[65] Balochistan.[70]
It is well documented when the Congress accepted the Bugti was a staunch supporter and loaylist of Jinnah
referendum without consulting the Khudai Khidmatgar, who played crucial role in supporting the idea of Pak-
Bacha Khan told the Congress “you have thrown us to the istan in Baluchistan.[70] Another young activist, Mir Hazar,
wolves.”[66] The spirit of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement helped initiate student rallies and public support for Pak-
took its last breath when it was proclaimed as a political istan Movement in Balochistan.[71][72] In 2013, Mir Hazar
party after the creation of Pakistan.[65] The aims and objec- Khoso, who noted and described Jinnah as his inspiration,
tives were changed and gradually people lost their interest also became Prime Minister of Pakistan in 2013.[71][72] In
in the movement and embraced the idea of pakistan.[65] 1947, the Balochistan Assembly passed the resolution and
cast its vote in favour of Pakistan, with a majority approving
the accession with Pakistan.[67]
Balochistan
Nawabs and local princely states, under the British In- Map of United Bengal: .
dian Empire.[67] Three of these states willingly joined with
Pakistan when the referendum was held in 1947 at the Although, Jinnah, Iqbal and other Founding Fathers of Pak-
Balochistan Assembly.[67] However, the Khan of Kalat istan were initially struggling for the independence of Four
chose independence as this was one of the options given to Provinces to create a nation-state, Pakistan.[11] The concept
all of the 535 princely states (out of which 534 accede with and phenomenon of Pakistan Movement was highly pop-
Pakistan) by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.[68] ular in the East Bengal, which was also the birthplace of
However, “Nehru persuaded Mountbatten to force the lead- the Muslim League, in the 1940s.[11] The Muslim League's
ers of the princely states to decide whether to join In- notable statesman and activists were hailed from the East
dia or Pakistan”,[68] and hence independence “was not an Bengal, including Husyen Suhrawardy, Nazimuddin, and
option”.[68] Nehru later went on to annexe other princely Nurul Amin, who later became Prime ministers of Pak-
144 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
istan in the successive periods of Pakistan.[73] Following ten representatives, less than the United Provinces of Agra
the partition of Bengal, the violence erupted in the region, and Oudh, which were home to only seven million Mus-
which mainly maintained to Kolkata and Noakhali.[74] It lims. Thus the creation of Pakistan became inevitable and
is documented by the historians of Pakistan that Huseyn the British had no choice but to create two separate nations
Suhrawardy wanted Bengal to be an independent state – Pakistan and India – in 1947.[88][89][90][91]
that would neither join Pakistan or India but to be But the main motivating and integrating factor was that
remained unpartitioned.[75] Despite the heavy criticism the Muslims’ intellectual class wanted representation; the
from the Muslim League, Jinnah realised the validity masses needed a platform on which to unite.[37] It was the
of Suhrawardy's argument gave his tacit support to the
dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton
Bengal’s plan for independence.[76][77][78] However, the and Thomas Paine, at the Aligarh Muslim University that
plan failed after a successful involvement of Congress in
initiated the emergence of Pakistan Movement.[37] Accord-
Western Bengali; therefore the Muslim-majority Eastern ing to Pakistan Studies curriculum, Muhammad bin Qasim
Bengal was left no choice but to become a part of
is often referred to as 'the first Pakistani'.[92] Muhammad
Pakistan.[79] Ali Jinnah also acclaimed the Pakistan movement to have
During the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s, Rohingya started when the first Muslim put a foot in the Gateway of
Muslims in western Burma had an ambition to annexe Islam.[93]
and merge their region into East-Pakistan.[80] Before the After the independence in 1947, the violence and up-
independence of Burma in January 1948, Muslim leaders heavals continued to be faced by Pakistan, as Liaquat
from Arakan addressed themselves to Jinnah, the founder of Ali Khan becoming the Prime Minister of Pakistan in
Pakistan, and asked his assistance in annexing of the Mayu 1947.[94] The issue involving the equal status of Urdu and
region to Pakistan which was about to be formed.[80] Two Bengali languages created divergence in the country’s po-
months later, North Arakan Muslim League was founded litical ideology.[16] Need for good governance led to the
in Akyab (modern: Sittwe, capital of Arakan State), it, too military take over in 1958 which was followed by rapid
demanding annexation to Pakistan.[80] However, it is noted industrialisation in the 1960s.[94] Economic grievances and
that the proposal was never materialised after it was report- unbalanced financial payments led to a bloody and an armed
edly turned down by Jinnah.[80] struggle of East Pakistan in the 1970s, in which eventu-
In 1947, another armed revolution took place in Jammu ally resulted with East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in
and Kashmir over the issue of referendum to either join In- 1971.[16]
dia or Pakistan.[81] Kashmir's Sikh maharaja, Hari Singh, Realizing the problems and causes of the East Pakistan’s
fearing the lost of control requested the Indian interven- separation led another nationalist subset to work on the
tion in Kashmir.[82] The conflict remained stalemate as the more reform constitution that guaranteed equals rights in
"Line of Control" became the permanent border of both the country.[19] Much of Islamic texture and basic rights
countries.[83] The Western Kashmir acceded with Pakistan defined by Holy Quran were inserted in the Constitution
while the Eastern Kashmir acceded with India in 1947– of Pakistan in 1973; the year when the Constitution of
48.[84] Pakistan was promulgated.[19] In the successive periods of
tragedy of East-Pakistan, the country continued to rebuild
and reconstruct itself in terms constitutionally and its path
2.3.3 Conclusion to transformed into republicanism.[13] After 1971 catas-
trophic episode, Pakistan’s phase shift to parliamentary
Further information: Partition of India, Indian Inde- republicanism and the gradually increasing in democracy
pendence Act 1947, Bangladesh Liberation War, 1969 caused an upheaval of traditional social hierarchy and gave
uprising in East Pakistan, and Breakup of East and West birth to the ethic that has formed a core of political val-
Pakistan ues in Pakistan.[19] The XIII amendment (1997) and XVIII
amendment (2010) transformed the country into becoming
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) philosophical ideas a parliamentary republic as well as also becoming a nuclear
plays a direct role in the Pakistan Movement.[37] His Two- power in the subcontinent.[18]
Nation Theory became more and more obvious during the
Congress rule in the Subcontinent.[85] In 1946, the Mus-
lim majorities agreed to the idea of Pakistan, as a response Non-Muslims contribution and efforts
to Congress’s one sided policies,[85][86] which were also the
result of leaders like Jinnah leaving the party in favour of Main articles: Christianity in Pakistan, Hinduism in Pak-
Muslim League,[87] winning in seven of the 11 provinces. istan, Sikhism in Pakistan, and Protestantism in Pakistan
Prior to 1938, Bengal with 33 million Muslims had only
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 145
The cause of Pakistan Movement became an inspiration in I would like to see the Punjab, North-West
different countries of the world. Protection of one’s beliefs, Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalga-
equal rights, and liberty were incorporated in the state’s mated into a single State. Self-government within
constitution. Arguments presented by Ali Mazrui pointed the British Empire, or without the British Em-
out that the South Sudan’s movement led to the partition pire, the formation of a consolidated North-West
of the Sudan into Sudan proper, which is primarily Mus- Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final
lim, and South Sudan, which is primarily Christian and destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West
animistic.[100] India.[112]
Main articles: Minar-e-Pakistan, Tomb of Muhammad At this solemn hour in the history of India,
Iqbal, Tomb of Jinnah, and Azme Alishan when British and Indian statesmen are laying the
The Pakistan Movement has a central place in Pakistan’s foundations of a Federal Constitution for that
memory.[101] The founding story of Pakistan Movement is land, we address this appeal to you, in the name
not only covered in the school and universities textbooks but of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty
also in innumerable monuments.[102] Almost all key events million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan –
are covered in Pakistan’s textbooks, literature, and novels as by which we mean the five Northern units of In-
well.[102] Thus, Fourteenth of August is one of major and dia, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province
most celebrated national day in Pakistan.[103] To many au- (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchis-
thors and historians, Jinnah’s legacy is Pakistan.[104] tan – for your sympathy and support in our grim
146 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
and fateful struggle against political crucifixion • Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi
and complete annihilation.[49]
• Maulana Zafar Ali Khan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah • Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan
• Fatima Jinnah
It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our
Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature • Abdullah Haroon
of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in
the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, dif-
ferent and distinct social orders, and it is a dream 2.3.7 See also
that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a
common nationality, and this misconception of • A Short History of Pakistan, a book edited by I H
one Indian nation has troubles and will lead In- Qureshi
dia to destruction if we fail to revise our notions • History of Pakistan
in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two
different religious philosophies, social customs, • National Monument, Islamabad
literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine
• Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan: Founda-
together and, indeed, they belong to two differ-
tional Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity,
ent civilizations which are based mainly on con-
1857–1947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2
flicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on
life and of life are different. It is quite clear that • Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan
Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from
different sources of history. They have different • Pakistani nationalism
ethics, different heroes, and different episodes. • Pakistan Zindabad
Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other
and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap.
To yoke together two such nations under a single 2.3.8 References
state, one as a numerical minority and the other
as a majority, must lead to growing discontent [1] Encyclopedia of Canada’s peoples – Paul R. Magocsi, Mul-
and final destruction of any fabric that may be so ticultural History Society of Ontario. Retrieved 31 January
built for the government of such a state.”[113] 2012.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah [3] “Establishment of All India Muslim League”. AIML in In-
dia. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
• Allama Muhammad Iqbal
[4] et al. administrators. “Allahabad Address”. Allahabad Ad-
• Liaquat Ali Khan dress. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
• Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar [5] Two-Nation Theory. “Two-Nation Theory”. Two-Nation
Theory. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
• Aga Khan III
[6] “Fourteenth Points of Jinnah”. Fourteenth Points of Jinnah.
• Muhammad Zafarullah Khan 2 June 2003. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
• A. K. Fazlul Huq [7] Ali, Faiz Ahmed Faiz ; translated with a new introduction by
Agha Shahid (1995). The rebel’s silhouette : selected poems
• Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi (Rev. ed.). Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
ISBN 0-87023-975-9.
• Ghulam Bhik Nairang
[8] Husein Khimjee (2013). Pakistan: A Legacy of the Indian
• Khwaja Nazimuddin Khilafat Movement. iUniverse. ISBN 1-4917-0208-7.
• Jalal-ud-din Jalal Baba [9] Kurzman, edited by Charles (2002). Modernist Islam, 1840–
1940 a sourcebook ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Oxford [u.a.]:
• Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515468-1.
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[10] Akbar, Ahmad (2012). Jinnah, Pakistan, and Islamic Iden- [29] http://pakistanmovement.org/PakMovement.html
tity. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-75022-6.
[30] Moore, Robin J. “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, in Porter, ed.
[11] Dani, edited by Ahmad Hasan (1998). Founding fathers of Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Cen-
Pakistan. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. ISBN 969- tury, (2001a), pp. 422–446
350830-0.
[31] John R. McLane, “The Decision to Partition Bengal in
[12] JasjitSingh, ed. by (1990). India and Pakistan : crisis of 1905,” Indian Economic and Social History Review, July
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6.
[13] Lieven, Anatol (2011). Pakistan: A Hard Country (1st ed.). [32] Pakistan was inevitable p. 51-52, Author Syed Hassan Riaz,
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[14] Hasnat, Syed Farooq (2011). Pakistan. Santa Barbara, [33] History of Pakistan Movement (1857–1947), p. 237-238,
Calif.: Praeger. ISBN 0-313-34697-6. Author Prof. M. Azam Chaudhary, published by Abdullah
Brothers, Urdu Bazar, Lahore
[15] Aziz, Mazhar. Military Control in Pakistan: The parallel
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Asghar Ali Shah Jafri, published by Evernew Book Palace,
[16] “Separation of East Pakistan”. Story of Pakistan documents. Circular road, Urdu Bazar, Lahore.
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[35] History of Pakistan, p. 58-59. Author Prof. Muhammed
[17] “Constitution of Pakistan”. Constitution of Pakistan. Re-
Khalilullah (Ex-Principal Federal Govt. Urdu College,
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[18] Chitkara, M.G. (1996). Nuclear Pakistan. New Delhi: published by Urdu Academy Sindh, Karachi.
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[36] History of Pakistan. p. 232 to 234. by Muhammed Ali Chi-
[19] Cohen, Stephen P. (2004). The idea of Pakistan (1. paper- ragh, published by Sang-e-Meel Publications, Lahore. ISBN
back ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 969-35-0413-5.
ISBN 0-8157-1502-1.
[37] Staff writers; et. al. “Establishment of All India Muslim
[20] Jalal, Ayesha (1994). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Mus- League”. Nazaria-e-Pakistan, AIML. Nazaria-e-Pakistan,
lim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge UK: AIML. Retrieved 18 March 2014.
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[38] R.Upadhyay. “ALLAMA IQBAL- The founder of Mus-
[21] Administration (1 June 2003). “Aligarh Movement”. Ali-
lim politics in the Indian Subcontinent”. R.Upadhyay, South
garh Movement, Story of Pakistan. Retrieved 14 March
Asia analysis. R.Upadhyay, South Asia analysis. Retrieved
2014.
19 March 2014.
[22] For text see “Minute by the Hon'ble T. B. Macaulay, dated
the 2nd February 1835” [39] et. al. (unknown writer). “Muhammed Jinnah”. Histo-
ryLearningSite.co.uk. HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. Retrieved
[23] Stephen Evans, “Macaulay’s minute revisited: Colonial lan- 19 March 2014.
guage policy in nineteenth-century India,” Journal of Mul-
tilingual and Multicultural Development (2002) 23#4 pp. [40] Bolitho, Hector (1954). Jinnah: Creator of Pakistan. Lon-
260–281 doi:10.1080/01434630208666469 don: John Murray.
[24] see “Minute by the Hon'ble T. B. Macaulay, dated the 2nd [41] “Muslim Leage and the impact of World War II”. Muslim
February 1835” League and the impact of World War II. Retrieved 14 Febru-
ary 2014.
[25] “Sir Syed Ahmad Khan”. Pakistan Herald. Retrieved 15
March 2014. [42] Jalal, Ayesha (1994) The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Mus-
[26] Staff. “Sir Syed Ahmad Khan”. Biography, Nazaria- lim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge Uni-
Pakistan. Biography, Nazaria-Pakistan. Retrieved 14 versity Press.
March 2014.
[43] Mukerjee, Madhusree (2011). “Empire at War”. Churchill’s
[27] http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2013\ secret war : the British empire and the ravaging of india dur-
char"005C\relax{}07\char"005C\relax{}06\char"005C\ ing world war II. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-
relax{}story_6-7-2013_pg3_5 02481-5.
[28] Muhammad Sheraz Kamran. “NPT – History of Pakistan [44] Pan-Islam in British Indian politics, pgs 57,245 by M.Naeem
Movement”. Nazariapak.info. Retrieved 31 January 2012. Qureshi
148 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
[45] Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz (2007). “Muslim League and [64] “Abdul Ghaffar Khan”. I Love India. Retrieved 24 Septem-
World War II”. Pakistan : a global studies handbook. Santa ber 2008.
Barbara, Calif. [u.a.]: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-85109-801-1.
[65] “Khudai Khidmatgar Movement”. Jan 1 2007. Khudai
[46] Pakistan: nationalism without a nation? – Christophe Jaf- Khidmatgar Movement. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
frelot. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
[66] Partition and Military Succession Documents from the U.S.
[47] Shafique Ali Khan (1987), Iqbal’s Concept of Separate National Archives
North-west Muslim State: A Critique of His Allahabad Ad-
dress of 1930, Markaz-e-Shaoor-o-Adab, Karachi, OCLC [67] Hasnat, Syed Farooq (2011). Pakistan. Santa Barbara,
18970794 Calif.: Praeger. 2011. ISBN 978-0-313-34697-2.
[48] Sir Muhammad Iqbal’s 1930 Presidential Address, [68] Williams, Kristen P. (2001). Despite nationalist conflicts :
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ theory and practice of maintaining world peace. Westport,
txt_iqbal_1930.html, from Columbia University site Conn.: Praeger, 2001. ISBN 0-275-96934-7.
[49] Choudhary Rahmat Ali, (1933), Now or Never; Are We to [69] Samina Vakar (21 April 2010). Interview of Mir Zafarullah
Live or Perish Forever?, pamphlet, published 28 January Khan Jamali (Television production). Islamabad, Pakistan:
Pakistan Television Corporation.
[50] The Idea of Pakistan. Stephen Philip Cohen. Washington:
Brookings Institution Press, 2004. [70] staff (25 October 2013). “Bugti meets with Jinnah”. Friday
Times. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
[51] Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies
Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 9781851098019. [71] Khoso, His excellency, Mir Hazar Khan. “Prime Minister
Justice (Retd.) Mir Hazar Khoso’s Address to the Nation”.
[52] Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC). Radio Pakistan.
Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 71. ISBN 9781851098019. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
[53] A.R. Tariq (ed.), Speeches and Statements of Iqbal (Lahore: [72] Islamabad (3 May 2013). “PM Khosa assures holding of
1973), free, fair, peaceful elections”. Jang News (in Urdu). Re-
trieved 3 May 2013.
[54] Full text of the pamphlet “Now or Never”, published
by Choudhary Rahmat Ali, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ [73] Chakrabarty – The partition of Bengal and Assam, page 135
mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_rahmatali_1933.html
[74] Jalal – The sole spokesman. Page – 3
[55] Choudhary Rahmat Ali, 1947, Pakistan: the fatherland of
the Pak nation, Cambridge, OCLC: 12241695 [75] Tripathi – স্বাধীনতার মুখ, page – 8
[63] “Abdul Ghaffar Khan”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved [85] “South Asia | India state bans book on Jinnah”. BBC News.
24 September 2008. 20 August 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 149
[86] Jaswant Singh. Jinnah: India-Partition-Independence. [106] Muhammad Adil Mulk (23 December 2012). “Being Jin-
nah”. Express Tribune, Mulk. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
[87] Sarojini Naidu. Muhammad Jinnah: An Ambassador of
Unity. [107] Nasr, Vali (2001). Islamic Leviathan : Islam and the Mak-
ing of State Power. Oxford U.K.: Oxford University Press.
[88] “Lahore Resolution [1940];". Storyofpakistan.com. Re- ISBN 0-19-803296-X.
trieved 31 January 2012.
[108] Ahmad, Akbar (4 July 2010). “Thomas Jefferson and Mo-
[89] Muhammad Munawwar. Dimensions of Pakistan movement. hammed Ali Jinnah: Dreams from two founding fathers”.
Washington Post. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
[90] Yusuf Ali Chowdhury; Muhammad Asad; Nawab Ziauddin
Ahmed; Amir Abdullah Khan Rokhri. Pakistan Movement [109] Enver, E.H. (1990). The modern Moses: A brief biograhpy
Activists. [sic] of M.A. Jinnah. Jinnah Memorial Institute (1990). pp.
164 pages.
[91] Sikandar Hayat. Aspects of the Pakistan movement.
[110] Allama Mashraqi
[92] “History books contain major distortions”. Daily Times.
[111] http://www.allamamashraqi.com/images/The_Khaksar_
[93] “Pakistan Movement”. cybercity-online.net. Martyrs_of_March_19,_1940_by_Nasim_Yousaf.pdf
[94] (Editor), Sohail Mahmood (2006). Good governance re- [112] Sir Muhammad Iqbal’s 1930 Presidential Address, from
forms agenda in Pakistan : current challenges. New York: Columbia University site
Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 1-60021-418-5.
[113] “Presidential address by Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Mus-
[95] Heyworth-Dunne, James (1952). Pakistan: the birth of a lim League Lahore, 1940”. Columbia University. Retrieved
new Muslim state. University of Michigan: Renaissance 24 October 2016.
Bookshop. p. 173. ASIN B000N7G1MG.
[103] Staff (14 August 2013). “Independence day: Hope, joy and
mausoleum climbing”. Tribune Express 2013. Retrieved 8
February 2014.
3.1 Government of Pakistan Minister and the Supreme Court.[2] The powers and duties
of these branches are further defined by acts and amend-
“GoP” redirects here. For other uses, see GOP (disam- ments of the Parliament, including the creation of exec-
biguation). utive institutions, departments and courts inferior to the
[2]
The Government of Pakistan (Urdu: ن ِ ) Supreme Court. By constitutional powers, the President
promulgates ordinances and passes bills. The President
acts as the ceremonial figurehead while the people-elected
Prime Minister acts as the chief executive (of the executive
branch) and is responsible for running the federal govern-
ment. There is a bicameral Parliament with the National
Assembly as a lower house and the Senate as an upper
house. The judicial branch systematically contains an apex
Supreme Court, high courts of four provinces, district, anti-
terrorism, Sharia, and the green courts; all inferior to the
Supreme Court.[2]
The full name of the country is the Islamic Republic of Pak-
istan. No other name appears in the Constitution, and this
is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in le-
gal cases. The “Pakistan Government” or “Government of
Pakistan” are often used in official documents representing
the federal government collectively.[2] Also, the terms “Fed-
eral” and “National” in government institutions or program
names generally indicate affiliation with the federal govern-
ment. Because the seat of government is in Islamabad, “Is-
lamabad” is commonly used as a metonym for the federal
government.[2]
150
3.1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN 151
The legislative branch is known as the parliament, a term for • Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other coun-
legislature inherited from the United Kingdom. The parlia- tries.
ment has two houses;
• The cabinet secretaries and directors in the adminis-
trative positions of the government.
• The National Assembly is the lower house and has 342
members, elected directly by the people. The Cabinet can have a maximum of 11 percent (50 mem-
bers including the Prime Minister) of the total strength of
[8]
• The Senate is the upper house and has ~104 senators the Parliament. Each [9] Cabinet member must be a mem-
elected indirectly by members of provincial assemblies ber of Parliament (MP). The Cabinet Ministers chair the
for six-year terms. Cabinet and are further assisted by the Cabinet Secretary,
whose appointment comes from the Civil Services of Pak-
istan. Other Ministers are Ministers of State, junior mem-
The Parliament enjoys parliamentary supremacy. All the bers who report directly to one of the Cabinet Ministers,
[9]
Cabinet ministers as well as the Prime Minister must be often overseeing a specific aspect of government.
members of Parliament (MPs), according to the constitu- Once appointed by the Prime Minister, all Cabinet Minis-
tion. The Prime Minister and the Cabinet Ministers are ters are officially confirmed to their appointment offices by
jointly accountable to the Parliament. If there is a policy the President in a special oath of ceremony.[9]
failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the mem-
bers of the cabinet are jointly responsible. If a vote of no
confidence is passed against the government, then the gov- President Main article: Pakistani presidency
ernment collapses and a new one must be formed.
152 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The President of Pakistan is a ceremonial figurehead, a cer- of Anglo-Saxon countries. Institutional and judicial proce-
emonial head of state representing the unity of the country. dures were later changed, in 1950s, under the influence of
Elected for a five-year term by an indirect election, the American[4]legal system to remove the fundamental rights
electoral college consisting of members of the Senate, Na- problems. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court
tional Assembly and the four provincial assemblies, the of Pakistan, Provincial High Courts, District Courts, Anti-
president is eligible for reelection.[9] However no individual terrorism courts, Sharia courts, and Environmental courts
may hold the office for more than two consecutive terms. all over [2]
the country; Supreme Court being the superior
The president may resign or be impeached and removed court. The Supreme Court of Pakistan consists of a Chief
Justice, and Senior Justices appointed by the President after
from office for incapacity or gross misconduct by a two-
thirds vote of the members of the parliament.[9] consultation with the Chief Justice of Pakistan. The Con-
stitution does not fix the number of justices of the Supreme
The President enjoys all constitutional powers and exercises Court, though it can be fixed by Parliament through an act
them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per signed by the President.[12]
the aforesaid Article 41-Article 47.[10]
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of
Judicature transfer The Constitution grants powers to
appointments.[10]
the Supreme Court to make judicature transfers.[12] Al-
These include: though the proceedings in the Supreme Court arise out of
the judgement or orders made by the subordinate courts, the
• Governors of the Four Provinces Supreme Court reserves the right to transfer any case, ap-
peal or proceedings pending before any High Court to any
• The Chief Justice (after concluding the consultation other High Court.[12]
with the Prime Minister)
• The Chief Election Commissioner (Consultation re- Supreme Judicial Council Misconduct of judges is
quired from the Prime Minister) highly intolerable as is mentioned in the constitution. Un-
der the mainframe of the Supreme Judicial Council Article
• The Attorney General and Comptroller and Auditor
209 an inquiry into the capacity or conduct of a Judge, who
General
is a member of the Council, may be conducted.
personally with the various problems of modern adminis- ister also required to make such move), in regards to Article
tration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for 58 of the constitution.[14]
the civil servants to enforce it. There has been four times that the martial law has been
in effect, and controversially approved by the supreme
Cabinet secretaries court.[9] Through a general election where the leader of
the majority winning party is selected to be the Prime
Minister.[9] All members of the federal legislature, the Par-
liament, are directly elected. Elections in Pakistan take
place every five years by universal adult suffrage.[9]
Main articles: Politics of Pakistan, Military coups in Main articles: Taxation in Pakistan, 2014 Pakistan federal
Pakistan, and Elections in Pakistan budget, and Foreign trade of Pakistan
Since 1947, Pakistan has an asymmetric federal govern- Pakistan has a complex taxation system of more than 70
ment, with elected officials at the national (federal), provin- unique taxes administered by at least 37 tax collection insti-
cial, tribal, and local levels. Constitution has set the limit tutions of the Government of Pakistan.[17] Taxation is a de-
of government for five years, but if a Vote of no confidence bated and controversial issue in public and political science
movements takes place in the parliament (and prelude of circle of the country, and according to the International De-
movements are proved at the Judicial branch), the govern- velopment Committee, Pakistan had a lower-than-average
ment falls and immediately replaced with caretaker govern- tax take.[18] Only 0.57% of Pakistanis, or 768,000 people
ment initiated by the president (consultation of Prime Min- out of a population of 190 million pay income tax.[18]
154 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The Finance Minister of Pakistan presents the annual fed- istan the 34th most corrupt country in the world, tied with
eral budget in the Parliament in the midst of the year, and Azerbaijan, Kenya, Nepal, and Nigeria.[30]
it has to be passed by the both houses of the Parliament.[19]
The budget is preceded by an economic survey which out-
lines the broad direction of the budget and the economic Circular debt and spending priorities
performance of the country for the outgoing financial fiscal
year.[20] Main article: Federal Board of Revenue (Pakistan)
Since before the collapse of the USSR in 1991, progres-
• Pakistan Institute of International Affairs [18] “Stop extra UK aid to Pakistan unless taxes increase, urge
MPs”. BBC Pakistan Bureau. 4 April 2013. Retrieved 20
• Gazette of Pakistan June 2013.
• Economic Coordination Committee [19] Ghauri, Irfan (12 June 2013). “Economic plans: Govt set
to unveil Rs3.5tr budget today”. Express Tribune. Retrieved
• Types of Government Servants in Pakistan 12 June 2013.
[22] Sabir, Mohammad. “7th NFC and Its Implications” (PDF). • National Assembly of Pakistan
Social Policy and Development Centre,. Social Policy and
Development Centre,. Retrieved 4 May 2013. • Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan
[23] Susan Rose-Ackerman. Corruption and good governa. • Supreme Court of Pakistan
United Nations Development Programme. p. 4.
• List of E-Services provided by Government of Pak-
[24] “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices”, Bureau of istan
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, United States De-
partment of State, 4 August 2011, retrieved 10 December • Websites of Ministries and Government Departments:
2011 Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Dmoz Pakistan
|contribution= ignored (help)
intercept the IAF aircraft. Butt attempted to bring down strikes.[18] The PAF had achieved far more in terms of en-
the Canberra by firing his Sabre’s machine guns, but the emy aircraft destroyed on the ground but without doubt,the
Canberra was flying at an altitude of more than 50,000 feet IAF had achieved much more in the close support role.[18]
— beyond the operational ceiling of the F-86F. When Yu- The two countries have made contradictory claims of com-
nis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost bat losses during the war and few neutral sources have ver-
height while executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis fired ified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot
a burst that struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF
and brought it down over Rawat, near Rawalpindi. Marking claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 59.[19] Ac-
the first aerial victory of the PAF . Both crew members of
cording to the independent sources, the PAF lost some 20
the IAF Canberra, ejected and were captured by Pakistani aircraft while the Indians lost 60–75.[20][21] Despite the in-
authorities and were subsequently released after remaining
tense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate.[22]
in detention for some time.[6]
strikes by the PAF against Indian Air Force installations in A letter of agreement for up to 28 F-16A’s and 12 F-16B’s
Srinagar, Ambala, Sirsa, Halwara and Jodhpur. However, was signed December 1981. The contracts, Peace Gate I
the IAF did not suffer significantly because the leadership and Peace Gate II, were for 6 and 34 Block 15 models re-
had anticipated such a move and precautions were taken.[26] spectively which would be powered by the F100-PW-200
The Indian Air Force was quick to respond to Pakistani air engine. The fist Peace Gate I aircraft was accepted at Fort
strikes, following which the PAF carried out mostly defen- Worth in October 1982. Two F-16A and four F-16B were
sive sorties.[27] delivered to Pakistan in 1983, the first F-16 arriving at PAF
Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, Base Sargodha (now known as PAF Base Mushaf) on 15
January 1983 flown by Squadron Leader Shahid Javed. The
after the fall of Dacca on 15 December. The PAF flew about
2,840 sorties and destroyed 45 IAF aircraft while Pakistan 34 remaining Peace Gate II aircraft were delivered between
[28] 1983 and 1987.[34][35]
lost 75 aircraft.
Between May 1986 and November 1988,[36] PAF F-16s
have shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan.
1973 Arab-Israeli 'Yom Kippur' War The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22,
and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots from No. 9
Main article: Yom Kippur War Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remain-
ing five intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-
25).[37] Most of these kills were by the AIM-9 Sidewinder,
During the war, sixteen Pakistan Air Force pilots volun-
but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon fire.
teered to leave for the Middle East in order to support Egypt
Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three
and Syria but by the time they arrived Egypt had already
of these kills. One F-16 was lost in these battles during
agreed on a cease-fire. Syria remained in a state of war
an encounter between two F-16s and four Soviet Air Force
against Israel so the PAF pilots became instructors there and
MiG 23s on 29 April 1987. The pilot, Flight Lieutenant
formed the A-flight of 67 Squadron at Dumayr AB. One of
Shahid Sikandar Khan, ejected safely.[38]
the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot
down an Israeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the The PAF is believed to have evaluated the Dassault Mirage
Syrian government.[29][30][31] 2000 in early 1981 and was planning to evaluate the F-16
Fighting Falcon afterwards.[39]
After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, PAF was put on high alert. Pakistani air force Mirage III aircraft drops two 500-pound bombs
It deployed to all its wartime locations and started combat during Falcon Air Meet 2010 at Azraq Royal Jordanian Air Base
in Azraq, Jordan.
air patrols. The speed and intensity of the deployment and
PAF’s readiness took the Indian Army High Command by
surprise and later reports suggest was the main factor in the
tack helicopters were not sufficient to provide adequate sup-
Indian decision of not going for cross border raids inside
port to the infantry. The PAF was sent into action against
Pakistan.[45][46] PAF was issued a Standing Order to launch
the Taliban to make up for the lack of helicopter gunships.
an immediate counter-attack in case of an air attack from
Because the PAF was trained and equipped to fight a con-
India, after a call from the Indian Foreign Minister Pranab
ventional war, a new “counter-terrorist doctrine” had to be
Mukherjee to the Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari (the
improvised.[52]
call later turned out to be a hoax).[45][46][47][48][49]
The PAF’s Saffron Bandit 2009/2010 exercise focused on
extensive training of combat personnel to undertake COIN
2011 Abbottabad Operation operations. New equipment was inducted to improve the
PAF’s joint intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance
An initial investigation report revealed that the Pakistan Air (ISR) capabilities. A C-130 transport aircraft was indige-
Force (PAF) reported the movement of some half-a-dozen nously modified for day/night ISR operations.[52][53]
planes near the Jalalabad border at 11 pm before the US
Use of laser-guided bombs was increased to 80% of muni-
helicopters entered Abbottabad to kill Osama bin Laden.
tions used, as compared to 40% in the previous 2008 Bajaur
“One aircraft was identified as a US AWACS and the re-
campaign. A small corps of ground spotters were trained
maining five were recognised as F-18 jets of the US. These
and used by the PAF, in addition to PA spotters, to identify
planes flew near the Pakistani border, but did not cross into
high-value targets.[54]
the airspace of Pakistan,”[50]
Prior to the PA’s offensive into South Waziristan the PAF
On detection of intrusion, PAF jets on air defence alert were
attacked militant infrastructure with 500 lb and 2000 lb
scrambled and the PAF immediately took adequate opera-
bombs.[54]
tional measures as per standard operating procedure. The
PAF aircraft continued their presence in Abbottabad area A number of civilian deaths occurred during PAF air strikes
until early morning and later returned to their air bases.[51] on 10 April 2010 in the Khyber tribal region. According to
a Pakistani military source, the first bombing was targeted
at a gathering of militants in a compound. Local people,
2001-present Counter-insurgency operations in north- who had quickly moved onto the scene to recover the dead
west Pakistan and wounded, were then killed during a second air strike.
There was no confirmed death toll but at least 30 civil-
See also: War in North-West Pakistan ian deaths had occurred according to the military source,
The Pakistan Army faced several problems during its 2009 whereas a local official stated at least 73 locals, including
offensive against the Taliban in north-west Pakistan. Hun- women and children, were killed.[55] A six-member com-
dreds of thousands of Pakistanis vacated the area when the mittee of tribal elders from the area, tasked with finding the
offensive was announced and, eventually, over 2 million exact number of civilian casualties, reported that 61 civil-
had to be accommodated in refugee camps. The offen- ians were killed and 21 wounded. This was not confirmed
sive was to be completed as quickly as possible to allow by military or political leaders but Pakistan’s Chief of Army
the refugees to return to their homes but the army’s fleet at- Staff, General Ashfaq Kayani, gave a public apology on
160 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
17 April.[56][57] It is reported that BBC news and several 1. Air Vice Marshal Allan Perry-Keene (15 August 1947
other media correspondences were not allowed to take in- – 17 February 1949)
terviews from injured which makes the whole episode more
mysterious.[58] 2. Air Vice Marshal Richard Atcherley (18 February
1949 – 6 May 1951)
3. Air Vice Marshal Leslie William Cannon (7 May 1951
3.2.2 Structure – 19 June 1955)
Commands 4. Air Vice Marshal Arthur McDonald (20 June 1955 –
22 July 1957)
• Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC), Islamabad
5. Air Marshal Asghar Khan (23 July 1957 – 22 July
• Northern Air Command (NAC), Peshawar 1965)
• Central Air Command (CAC), Lahore 6. Air Marshal Nur Khan (23 July 1965 – 31 August
1969)
• Southern Air Command (SAC), Karachi
7. Air Marshal Abdul Rahim Khan (1 September 1969 –
• Air Defence Command (ADC), Chaklala, Rawalpindi 2 March 1972)
8. Air Marshal Zafar Chaudhry (3 March 1972 – 15
Bases April 1974)
Main article: List of Pakistan Air Force bases 9. Air Chief Marshal Zulfiqar Ali Khan (16 April 1974
– 22 July 1978)
The PAF has a total of 17 air bases, which are classified into 10. Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim (23 July 1978 – 5
two categories: flying bases and non-flying bases. Flying March 1985)
bases are operational bases from which aircraft operate dur-
11. Air Chief Marshal Jamal A. Khan (6 March 1985 – 8
ing peacetime and wartime; whereas non-flying bases con-
March 1988)
duct either training, administration, maintenance, or mis-
sion support.[59] 12. Air Chief Marshal Hakimullah (9 March 1988 – 9
March 1991)
Rank structure 13. Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze Khan (9 March
1991 – 8 November 1994)
Main article: Air Force Ranks of Pakistan
14. Air Chief Marshal Abbas Khattak (8 November 1994
– 7 November 1997)
Civilians 15. Air Chief Marshal Parvaiz Mehdi Qureshi (7 Novem-
ber 1997 – 20 November 2000)
• Civilian Gazetted Officer
16. Air Chief Marshal Mushaf Ali Mir (20 November
• Stenographer 2000 – 20 February 2003)
• Stenotypist 17. Air Chief Marshal Kaleem Saadat (18 March 2003 –
18 March 2006)
• Storeman
18. Air Chief Marshal Tanvir Mahmood Ahmed (18
• Clerk March 2006 – 18 March 2009)
19. Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman (19 March
3.2.3 Personnel 2009 – 19 March 2012)
20. Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt (19 March 2012
List of Air Chiefs – 19 March 2015)
Main article: Chief of Air Staff (Pakistan) 21. Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman (19 March 2015 –
present)[5]
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 161
List of Serving Air Marshals 17. Air Vice Marshal Tahir Abdul Majeed Ranjha, SI(M),
GD (P) — DG Logistics (DG Log) at Joint Staff HQ
1. Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman, NI(M), GD (P) — (JSHQ), Chaklala.
Chief of Air Staff (CAS), AHQ.
18. Air Vice Marshal Salman Ahsan Bukhari, SI(M), GD
2. Air Marshal Asad Abdur Rehman Khan Lodhi, (P) — Air Officer Commanding, Southern Air Com-
HI(M), GD (P) — Vice Chief of Air Staff (VCAS), mand (AOC SAC), Karachi.
AHQ.[60]
19. Air Vice Marshal Rizwan Pasha, SI(M), Engg — Di-
3. Air Marshal Muhammad Iqbal, HI(M), GD (P) — rector, Precision Engineering Complex (Dir PEC) at
Chief Project Director, JF-17 Thunder (CPD JF-17), PIA, Karachi.
AHQ.
20. Air Vice Marshal Usaid Ur Rehman Usmani, SI(M),
4. Air Marshal Farooq Habib, HI(M), GD (P) — Deputy GD (P) — Deputy DG, Civil Aviation Authority
Chief of Air Staff, Training (DCAS T), AHQ. (DDG CAA), Karachi.
5. Air Marshal Muhammad Salman, HI(M), Engg — 21. Air Vice Marshal Syed Noman Ali, SI(M), GD (P) —
Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Engineering (DCAS E), .
AHQ.
22. Air Vice Marshal Zaheer Ahmad Babar, SI(M), GD
6. Air Marshal Mujahid Anwar Khan, HI(M), GD (P)
(P) — Air Officer Commanding, Northern Air Com-
— Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Operations (DCAS O),
mand (AOC NAC), Peshawar.
AHQ.
23. Air Vice Marshal Javad Saeed, SI(M), GD (P) — Air
7. Air Marshal Arshad Mahmood Malik, HI(M), GD (P)
Officer Commanding, Central Air Command (AOC
— Chairman, Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC),
CAC), Lahore.
Kamra.[61]
8. Air Marshal Aasim Zaheer, SI(M), T Bt, GD (P) — 24. Air Vice Marshal Shah Masroor Hussain, SI(M), AD
Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Administration (DCAS A), — Air Officer Commanding, Air Defence Command
AHQ.[61] (AOC ADC), Chaklala.
9. Air Vice Marshal Ahmed Ejaz Nadeem, SI(M), Engg 25. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Khalid Dabir, SI(M),
— Principal, Research Center for Modeling and Sim- GD (P) — .
ulation (RCMS) at NUST, Islamabad.
26. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Haseeb Paracha,
10. Air Vice Marshal Pirzada Kamaluddin Ahmed Sid- SI(M), GD (P) — .
diqui, SI(M), GD (P) — Commandant, PAF Air War
27. Air Vice Marshal Tameez Uddin Shakir Qazi, SI(M),
College (Comdt PAF AWC), Karachi.
GD (P) — .
11. Air Vice Marshal Khawar Hussain, SI(M), GD (P) —
. 28. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Zahid Mehmood,
SI(M), GD (P) — .[61]
12. Air Vice Marshal Shahid Akhtar Alvi, SI(M), GD (P)
—. 29. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Athar Shams, SI(M),
GD (P) — .[62]
13. Air Vice Marshal Shahid Niaz, SI(M), Engg — DG
Air Weapons Complex (DG AWC), Wah Cantonment. 30. Air Vice Marshal Aamir Masood, SI(M), S Bt, GD (P)
—.
14. Air Vice Marshal Ahmar Shahzad, SI(M), GD (P) —
. 31. Air Vice Marshal Sarfraz Khan, SI(M), GD (P) — .
15. Air Vice Marshal Rana Muhammad Imran, SI(M), 32. Air Vice Marshal Noor Abbas, SI(M), Engg — MD
Engg — Advisor to Chairman Pakistan International Aircraft Rebuild Factory, Pakistan Aeronautical Com-
Airlines, Karachi. plex (PAC), Kamra.
16. Air Vice Marshal Imran Khalid, SI(M), GD (P) — 33. Air Vice Marshal Nadeem Tariq, SI(M), Engg —
Additional Secretary-II (PAF) at Ministry of Defence Deputy MD (JF-17 project), Aircraft Manufacturing
(MoD), Rawalpindi. Factory (AMF), Kamra.
162 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
34. Air Vice Marshal Fawad Yunus Hussain, SI(M), Engg the PAF to be awarded the Nishan-e-Haider for sacrificing
— MD Mirage Rebuild Factory (MRF), Kamra. his life to save an aircraft from being hijacked to India.[63]
Other awards include:
35. Air Vice Marshal Shahab Shafqat, SI(M), Engg — As-
sistant Chief of Air Staff (Electronics), AHQ.
• Squadron Leader Muhammad Mahmood Alam —
awarded for downing nine fighters,[64] five in a
Awards for valour minute,[65][66][67][68][69] of the Indian Air Force in air-
to-air combat.[70]
Special Forces
Combat aircraft In 2006, 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block 52+ were ordered
with a further 18 aircraft optional. 14 of the optional fight-
Main article: List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force ers were ordered in 2010.[80][81] The first batch of 3 F-
See also: List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons 16C/D fighters landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacacobad, on
The PAF currently operates approximately 450 combat air- 26 June 2010.[82][83] Pakistan also received 14 used F-16s
craft of 4 different types, planned to be reduced to 3 types from the US free of cost.[84]
by 2015. There are around 20 front-line squadrons.[77] The PAF is to induct a number of the Chinese Chengdu
The most capable fighter in PAF service from 1983 to FC-20, an advanced PAF-specific variant of the Chengdu
164 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Transport aircraft
Drone technology
JF-17 Thunder
On 7 September 2015, Pakistan became the ninth nation to
develop and use an armed unmanned combat aerial vehi-
cle (drone) named Burraq. Pakistan, first started exploring
the drone technology when it acquired Falco drones from
Selex Galileo of Italy for $40 million in 2008. Since then
Pakistan have been developing Falco in Pakistan Aeronau-
tical Complex in collaboration with the Italian firm. Then,
Burraq was developed which was based on the same Falco
technology. By March 2015, Pakistan was able to test-fire
Burraq armed with an air-to-surface missile named Barq
with pin-point precision. Burraq were used majorly during
the Operation Zarb-e-Azb.[103]
In light of Pakistan’s significant contribution to the War on AFFDP 2019 (Armed Forces Development Programme
Terror,[104][105] 2019) would oversee the modernisation of the Pakistan Air
[106]
The modernisation stall ended in April 2006 when the Force from 2006 to 2019.
Pakistani cabinet approved the PAF’s proposals to procure The Bush administration on 24 July 2008 informed the
new aircraft and systems from several sources, including US Congress it plans to shift nearly $230 million of $300
modern combat aircraft from the U.S. and China. The million in aid from counterterrorism programs to upgrad-
166 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
July 2010.[122]
On 13 December 2008, the Government of Pakistan stated
that two Indian Air Force aircraft were intercepted by the
PAF kilometres within Pakistani airspace. This charge was
denied by the Indian government.[123]
During talks with a delegation from the French Senate on
Monday 28 September 2009, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza
Gilani stated that the PAF had used most of its stockpile
of laser-guided munitions against militants in the Malakand
and FATA regions and that replacements for such types of
equipment were urgently required.[124]
December 2009 saw the delivery of the PAF’s first Saab
PAF ZDK-03 AEW&C inflight 2000 Erieye AEW&C from Sweden and Il-78MP Mi-
das aerial refuelling tanker/military transport aircraft from
Ukraine.[125][126][127]
ing Pakistan’s aging F-16s.[107] The Bush administration
previously announced on 27 June 2008 it was proposing The PAF is reported to be considering purchasing the
to sell Pakistan ITT Corporation's electronic warfare gear Hongdu L-15 advanced jet trainer to train pilots for high-
valued at up to $75 million to enhance Islamabad’s exist- tech fighters such as the FC-20. Extensive evaluations
ing F-16s.[108] Pakistan has asked about buying as many of the aircraft took place in Pakistan during December
as 21 AN/ALQ-211(V)9 Advanced Integrated Defensive 2009.[128][129]
Electronic Warfare Suite pods, or AIDEWS, and related On 26 June 2010 the first batch of 3 F-16C/D Block
equipment.[109] The proposed sale will ensure that the exist- 52+ fighters were delivered to PAF Base Shahbaz,
ing fleet is “compatible” with new F-16 Block 50/52 fighters Jacobabad.[130] According to Air Chief Marshal Rao Qa-
being purchased by Islamabad. mar Suleman (the then Chief of Air Staff) the new fighters
After 9/11 the U.S. and Pakistan began discussing the re- would eliminate the PAF’s limitations in precision night-
lease of the embargoed F-16s and a purchase of new air- time strike operations,[131] the existing capability being
craft. Of the 28 F-16A/B built under the Peace Gate III/IV based on around 34 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters upgraded
contracts and embargoed in 1990, 14 delivered as EDA with new avionics for night-time precision strike missions
(Excess Defense Articles) from 2005 to 2008.,[110] two of under the Retrofit Of Strike Element (ROSE) programme
which were delivered on 10 July 2007.[111] during 1999-2004.[132][133][134] SABIR (Special Airborne
Mission Installation & Response System) which is a FLIR
Between 2005 and 2008, 14 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fight-
System that has Brite Star II and Star Safire III EO/IR sen-
ers were delivered to the PAF under renewed post-9/11 ties
sors installed on the one C130. (this a 'bolt on system' and
between the U.S. and Pakistan. These had originally been
is installed in place of the parachute door) This system was
built for Pakistan under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts but
extensively used during operation in FATA.
were never delivered due to the U.S. arms embargo imposed
in 1990.[112]
To upgrade the F-16A/B fleet, 32 Falcon STAR kits were Planned acquisitions Pakistan have been in talks with
purchased for the original Peace Gate I aircraft and 35 Mid- China to acquire 30 to 40, JF-31 Stealth fighters also known
Life Update (MLU) kits were ordered, with 11 more MLU as Shenyang FC-31 or J-31 for short.[135]
kits optional, in . 4 F-16A/B being upgraded in the U.S.
to F-16AM/BM, delivery expected December 2011.[110] F-
16A/B in PAF service to be upgraded starting October 2010 3.2.5 Exercises
by Turkish Aerospace Industries, 1 per month.[113][114]
The Peace Drive I contract for 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block The PAF sent a contingent of six F-16A/B fighters
52+ (Advanced Block 52) aircraft, powered by F100-PW- to the international Anatolian Eagle 2004 exercise in
229 engines was signed on 30 September 2006.[115][116] The Turkey.[136][137]
first F-16 to be completed, an F-16D, was rolled out on 13 After around 1 year of planning, in 2005 the PAF launched
October 2009 and began flight testing.[117][118][119][120][121] the High Mark 2005 exercise which lasted for one month
The first batch of F-16C/D Block 52+, two F-16D and one and also involved the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy.
F-16C, landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad, on 26 The scenario saw two opposing forces, Blueland and Fox-
June 2010[82][83] and one more F-16C was received by 5 land, engaging in simulated combat involving both offen-
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 167
dit exercise with the aim of training the PAF’s entire combat
force to undertake such anti-terrorist operations.[142][143]
In December 2009 the PAF sent six Chengdu F-7PG fight-
ers, of No. 31 Wing based at PAF Base Samungli, to the
United Arab Emirates to take part in the Air Tactics Lead-
ership Course (ATLC), also known as Exercise Iron Falcon,
at Al Dhafra Air Base.[144][145][146]
The PAF’s High Mark 2010 exercise was launched on 15
March 2010, the first time a High Mark exercise had been
conducted since 2005, after all PAF received their Air
Tasking Orders (ATO). The country-wide exercise involved
units based all over Pakistan, from Skardu to the Arabian
A PAF F-7PG flies alongside a Mirage 2000-9 and F-16E/F Block Sea, at all Main Operating Bases and Forward Operating
60 fighters of the UAEAF and a RJAF F-16 during ATLC 2009. Bases. Joint operations involving the Pakistan Army and
Pakistan Navy were also conducted, aiming to test and im-
prove integration and cooperation between the three arms.
sive and defensive operations. It was stated that the exercise Operations emphasised a near-realistic simulation of the
would have 3 stages and PAF aircraft would fly 8200 sorties. war-time environment, exposure of PAF aircrews to con-
Involvement of army and navy units was aimed at provid- temporary concepts of air combat, new employment con-
ing more realistic operational scenarios. High Mark 2005 cepts and joint operations between air force, army and
followed the Tempest-1 exercise which was focused purely navy. New inductions such as the JF-17 Thunder fighter,
on air power but differed in terms of duration, intensity and Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and Il-78 Multi-Role Tanker
complexity of air operations.[138] Transports also took part.[147] On 6 April 2010 the end
A contingent of six F-16A/B fighters was sent to Turkey’s of the first phase of exercise High Mark 2010 was cele-
international Anatolian Eagle 2006 exercise. In 2008 the brated with a firepower demonstration at the PAF’s firing
Turkish Air Force sent five F-16C/D fighters and 50 per- range facility in the deserts of Thal. The 90-minute demo
sonnel of 191 Kobras Filo (191 Cobras Squadron) to Pak- involved the new JF-17 Thunder fighter, Saab 2000 Eri-
istan to take part in the joint Operation Indus Viper 2008 eye AEW&C and Il-78 MRTT aircraft. The H-2 SOW
exercise at PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha).[137] (Stand-Off Weapon) was also shown to the public for the
first time, being launched from around 60 km away before
In the summer of 2005 a PAF team of 20 airmen, including hitting its target, and a mock counter-insurgency operation
pilots, navigators, engineers, maintenance technicians and a was performed by troops. The demo heralded the beginning
C-130E was sent to the U.S. to take part in the AMC (Air of High Mark 2010’s second phase where the PAF would
Mobility Command) Rodeo.[139] The PAF later took part in practice joint operations with the Pakistan Army during the
the July 2007 AMC Rodeo.[140][141] army’s exercise Azm-e-Nau-3 (New Resolve 3).[148] During
High Mark 2010 a Chengdu F-7 and Mirage 5 fighter (flown
by Squadron Leader Nasir Mehmood and Wing Comman-
der Atta ur Rehman respectively) practised landing, refu-
elling and take-off operations from a Pakistani motorway.
It was reported that the PAF is in negotiations with the Min-
istry of Communications to set up all required facilities for
Air Force operations on the motorways and highways of
Pakistan.[149][150]
In July 2010 the PAF sent six F-16B fighters of No. 9
Griffins Squadron and 100 PAF personnel to Nellis Air
Force Base in the U.S. to participate in the international
Red Flag exercise for the first time. During the exercise
the PAF pilots practised in-flight refuelling of their F-16s
[151][152][153][154][155]
A PAF Mirage III of No. 7 Bandits Squadron alongside a US Navy with the KC-135 Stratotanker.
F-18 and F-16s of the USAF and RJAF In October 2010 the PAF’s No. 7 Bandits Squadron sent a
team of its Dassault Mirage III ROSE fighters to Jordan to
In 2009, while undertaking combat operations against mili- participate in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise at Azraq
tants in FATA and Swat, the PAF initiated the Saffron Ban-
168 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
A PAF Mirage III competes in the Alert Scramble Competition dur- In times of natural disaster, such as the great floods of 1992
ing Falcon Air Meet 2010 in Jordan. or the October 2005 devastating earthquake, air force engi-
neers, medical and logistics personnel, and the armed forces
played a major role in bringing relief and supplies.[164]
Royal Jordanian Air Base.[156][157] January 2011 saw a PAFThe Pakistan Air Force has been involved in relief activi-
contingent of F-16A/B and Dassault Mirage fighters take ties not only in Pakistan but also in many other countries of
part in the Al-Saqoor II exercise in Saudi Arabia with thethe world, such as the relief activities after Bangladesh was
Royal Saudi Air Force.[158][159][160] hit by floods.[164] The Air Force also dispatched relief to In-
In March 2011 a joint Sino-Pakistani exercise, Shaheen 1, donesia, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka after they were hit by the
was conducted involving a contingent of Chinese aircraft 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the resulting tsunami.
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 169
The Pakistan Army, Air Force, and Navy sent ships and • Pakistan Navy
helicopters to assist in the tsunami relief operation.[164]
• List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force
• List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons
3.2.7 In popular Pakistani culture
• List of Pakistan Air Force bases
• List of Dassault Mirage III operators
• List of F-104 Starfighter operators
• Pakistan Naval Air Arm
3.2.9 References
[1] World Air Forces 2014 November 28, 2014
[5] "http://arynews.tv/en/air-chief-marshal-sohail-aman-takes-over-charge-of-paf/
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[14] Ahmad Faruqui, “The right stuff”, published by Dawn News [32] Khan, Iftikhar A. (28 May 2010). “Threat to destroy Indian
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[outlookindia.com], URL: http://www.outlookindia.com/ [33] Shamim, M. Anwar (2010). Cutting Edge PAF: A Former Air
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[15] India’s ad hoc arsenal: direction or ... - Google Books.
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[17] The Illustrated Directory of Fighters - Google Books.
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[18] IAF and PAF combat kills 1965 War by B. Harry
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[19] Archived 5 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
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[40] How China keeps the PAF flying. Southasiaanalysis.org.
[22] Coggins 2000, pp. 163–164.
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[23] Pakistani Pilots in Arab Israel War. Retrieved on 9 March
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[24] Sisson & Rose 1991, p. 229
[42] “1994 | 1938 | Flight Archive”. Flightglobal.com. 1994-08-
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[26] “Newsweek : the international newsmagazine: US edition”.
Newsweek: 34. 20 December 1971. ISSN 0028-9604. Try- [44] “1994 Flight Archive”. Flightglobal.com. 1994-11-29. Re-
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launched a Pakistani version of Israel’s 1967 air blitz in
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[46] Nelson, Dean (2011-03-23). “WikiLeaks: hoax phone call
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[28] M. Leonard, Thomas (2006). Encyclopedia of the Devel-
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[29] Bidanda M. Chengappa (1 January 2004). Pakistan: Islami-
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174 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
[161] “Pak Air force conducts joint exercise with China”. Times The Army has also been an active participant in United Na-
of India. 19 Mar 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2011. tions peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role
in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Ser-
[162] Zambelis, Chris (20 May 2011). ""Shaheen 1” Exercise Sig-
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23 May 2011. in-Chief. The Chief of Army Staff (COAS), by statute a
four-star general, is appointed by the President with the
[163] Mazhar Aziz (2008). Military control in Pakistan: the paral- consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Min-
lel state. Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor and ister.[6] The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by
Francis-e-Library. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-415-43743-1. General Raheel Sharif.[7][8]
[164] “Air Force statistics on relief operations”. Air Force statis-
tics on relief operations. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
3.3.1 Mission
[165] “National Symbols of Pakistan”. Government of Pakistan.
Retrieved 2013-08-23. Chapter 2 of PART XII of the Constitution of Pakistan de-
fines the purpose of the Army along with the other parts of
[166] “Pakistan Air Force Drama Sherdil”. Retrieved 28 Novem-
the Armed Forces as:[9]
ber 2014.
1969–1971 government.[35][36][37]
Taliban forces. However, the offensive was poorly coordi- by October a new leader had emerged, Hakimullah Mehsud.
nated and the Army suffered heavy casualties, while pub- Under his leadership, the Taliban launched another wave
lic support for the attack quickly evaporated. After a two- of terrorist attacks throughout Pakistan, killing hundreds of
year conflict from 2004 until 2006, the Pakistani military people. After a few weeks of air strikes, artillery and mor-
negotiated a ceasefire with the tribesmen from the region tar attacks, 30,000 troops moved on into South Waziristan.
in which they pledged to hunt down Al-Qaeda members, The Army eventually re-took all of South Waziristan.
stop the "Talibanization" of the region and stop attacks in In April 2012 an avalanche struck the 6th Northern Light
Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, the militants did not Infantry Battalion headquarters in Ghyari sector of Siachen,
hold up their end of the bargain and began to regroup and
entrapping 135 soldiers.[44]
rebuild their strength from the previous two years of con-
flict.
Militants took over the Lal Masjid in Islamabad. After 3.3.3 UN peacekeeping missions
a six-month standoff fighting erupted again in July 2007
when the Pakistani military decided to use force to end
the Lal Masjid threat. Once the operation ended, the then
newly formed Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), an um-
brella group of militants based in the Federally Adminis-
tered Tribal Areas (FATA), a semi-autonomous region of
Pakistan, vowed revenge and launched a wave of attacks
and suicide bombings which erupted all over North-West
Pakistan and major Pakistani cities, including Karachi,
throughout 2007.
The militants then expanded their base of operations and
moved into the neighbouring Swat Valley, where they im-
posed Sharia law. The Pakistan Army launched an offen-
sive to re-take the Swat Valley in 2007, but was unable to
clear it of the militants who had fled into the mountains Bell 412 is imported by Pakistan from the U.S.
and waited for them to leave before taking over the valley
again. The militants then launched another wave of terror- Main article: United Nations peacekeeping missions
ist attacks inside Pakistan. The Pakistani government and involving Pakistan
military tried another peace deal with the militants in Swat
Valley in 2008. This was roundly criticized in the West as
In the wake of the new world power equilibrium, a more
abdicating to the militants. After initially pledging to lay
complex security environment has emerged. It is character-
down their arms if Sharia law was implemented, the Pak-
ized by growing national power politics and state implosions
istani Taliban subsequently used the Swat Valley as a spring-
which have necessitated involvement of the United Nations
board to launch further attacks into neighbouring regions,
peace keeping forces for conflict resolution.
reaching to within 60 kilometres (37 mi) of Islamabad.
The United Nations has been undertaking peace keeping
Public opinion then turned decisively against the Taliban
operations since its inception, but the need for employment
terrorists. This opinion was highlighted following the re-
of peace keeping forces has increased significantly since the
lease of a video showing the flogging of a girl by the Pak-
Gulf War. In 1992, there were 11,000 Blue Berets deployed
istani Taliban in the Swat Valley. Similar events and ter-
around the world, by the end of the year the figure rose to
rorist attacks finally forced the Pakistan Army to launch a
52,000. Presently, it exceeds 80,000 troops. Pakistan has
decisive attack against the Taliban occupying Swat Valley
given the largest number of troops for the UN peacekeeping
in April 2009, after having orders received from the politi-
mission which gives Pakistan an eminent position among
cal leadership.[43] After heavy fighting, the Swat Valley was
rest of the nations. Pakistan has always been very active
largely pacified by July 2009, although isolated pockets of
and serious to make its efforts for peace-making process
Taliban remained in the area.
not only in its own region but the whole world despite of
The next phase of the Pakistan Army’s offensive was the many challenges and terrorism activities it has faced.
formidable Waziristan region. A US inmanned combat
The table below shows the current deployment of Pakistani
aerial vehicle (UCAV) bomb strike in FATA killed the
forces in UN Peacekeeping missions.
leader of the Taliban, Baitullah Mehsud, in August. A
power struggle engulfed the Taliban during September, but
• The total number of Pakistani troops serving in
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 179
3.3.4 Organization
Operational commands
Main articles: Structure of the Pakistan Army and List of
serving generals of the Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army operates three commands during peace
time. Each command is headed by General Officer
Commanding-in-Chief with the rank of Lieutenant Gen-
eral. Each command is directly affiliated to the Army HQ
Command structure in Rawalpindi.
According to Globalsecurity.org, drawing on Pakistani me-
The President of Pakistan is the civilian supreme comman-
dia sources, three commands, supervising a number of
der of the Pakistan Armed Forces by statute. The Chief
corps each, have been formed: Northern Command, Cen-
of the Army Staff (COAS), a four-star general, is the high-
tral Command, and Southern Command.[48][49]
est general officer (unless the four-star general is Chairman
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee), a field and opera-
tional commander as well as a highest Army four-star gen- Corps
eral officer, directs the non-combat and combatant oper-
ations from army combatant headquarters in Rawalpindi. A corps is an Army field formation responsible for a zone
The Principal Staff Officers (PSO) assisting him in his within a command theatre. There are three types of corps
duties at the Lieutenant-General level include a Chief of in the Pakistani Army: Strike, Holding and Mixed. A com-
General Staff (CGS), under whom the Military Operations mand generally consists of two or more corps. A corps has
and Intelligence Directorates function; the Chief of Logis- Army divisions under its command. The Corps HQ is the
tics Staff (CLS); the Adjutant General (AG); the Quarter- highest field formation in the army.
Master General (QMG); the Inspector General of Training
There are 13 Corps in Pakistan Army, split between Com-
and Evaluation (IGT and E); the Military Secretary (MS);
bat and Services Arms. The Combat Arms are composed
and the Engineer-in-Chief, a top Army topographer. A ma-
of a mix of Infantry, Mechanized, Armored and Artillery
jor reorganization in GHQ was done in September 2008
Divisions, while the Air Defense, Aviation and Strategic
under General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, when two new PSO
Forces Commands are organized as separate corps. The
positions were introduced: the Inspector General Arms and
Strategic Forces Command is responsible for training, de-
the Inspector General Communications and IT, thus raising
ployment and activation of Pakistan’s nuclear missiles. The
the number of PSO’s to eight.[47]
last Corps is called the Force Command Northern Area
The headquarters function also includes the Judge Advocate (FCNA) which is Headquartered at Gilgit and is reported
General (JAG), and the Comptroller of Civilian Personnel, to have 5 Infantry Brigades.[50][51][52][53][54][55]
the Engineer-in-Chief of the Corps of Engineers who is also
Forces in action or poised for action include XI Corps,
head of Military Engineering Service (MES), all of them
which has been heavily engaged in fighting the Taliban
also report to the Chief of the Army Staff.
and other extremists along Pakistan’s north-western border,
and the 323rd Infantry Brigade, part of Forces Command
Commissioned officers rank Northern Areas, on the Siachen Glacier.
The peace time commands are given below in their correct
Main article: Army ranks of Pakistan order of raising, and location (city).
• Regiment: A regiment is commanded by a Colonel. The Special Services Group (SSG) is an independent
commando regiment/corps of the Pakistan Army. It is an
• Battalion: A Battalion is commanded by a Lieutenant-
elite special operations force similar to the United States
Colonel and is the Infantry’s main fighting unit. It con-
Army Special Forces (Green Berets) and the British Army's
sists of more than 900 combat personnel.
SAS.
• Company: Headed by the Major/Captain, a Company
comprises about 120–150 soldiers.
3.3.5 Combat doctrine
• Platoon: An intermediate between a Company and
Section, a Platoon is headed by a Lieutenant or de- The Pakistan Army has developed a doctrine called the Ri-
pending on the availability of Commissioned Offi- poste which is a limited “offensive-defence”[57] doctrine.
cers, a Junior Commissioned Officer, with the rank It has refined it consistently starting in 1989 during the
of Subedar or Naib-Subedar. It has a total strength of Exercise Zarb–e–Momin. This doctrine is fully focused to-
about 30–36 troops. wards Pakistan’s primary adversary, India.
[58]
• Section: Smallest military outfit with a strength of The doctrine is derived from several factors:
about 9–13 personnel. Commanded by a Non-
commissioned officer of the rank of Havildar Major 1. The vulnerability of Pakistan is that so many of its ma-
or Sergeant Major. jor population centers and politically and military sen-
sitive targets lie very close to the border with India. As
such Pakistan can ill-afford to lose large territories to
Regiments
an Indian attack.
There are several battalions or units associated together in 2. 'Strategic depth' in the form of a friendly Afghanistan
an infantry regiment. The infantry regiment in the Pakistani is deemed vital by military planners.
Army is an administrative military organisation and not a
field formation. All the battalions of a regiment do not fight 3. India has substantially enhanced its offensive capabil-
together as one formation, but are dispersed over various ities, with the Cold Start Doctrine. Any counterattack
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 181
would be very tricky against the large number of In- 3.3.6 Political and corporate activities
dian troops involved. The response of the Pakistani
army includes the development of the Nasr missile.
4. Holding formations in both Pakistan and India can See also: Askari Bank
man their forward defensive positions and fortifica-
tions in less than 24 hours. However, Corps level re- The Pakistan Army has always played an integral part in lo-
serves with large stockpiles of munitions will take be- cal politics since its inception mainly on the pretext of lack
tween 24 and 72 hours for mobilization after being of good civilian leadership, corruption, and inefficieny.[59] It
given their orders. In this regard, both armies will be has virtually acted as a third party that has repeatedly seized
evenly matched in the first 24 hours since the Pakistani power in the name of stabilizing Pakistan and ending cor-
units have to travel a shorter distance to their forward ruption. However, according to the political observers, po-
positions. litical instability, lawlessness and corruption are direct con-
sequences of army rule.[60][61]
This doctrine entails Pakistan in the event of hostilities with
The tradition of insubordination of the army towards the le-
India will not wait for the enemy’s offensive, but rather
gitimate leadership of can be traced back to Lt. Gen Frank
launch an offensive of its own. The offensive will be a lim-
Messervy who resisted the orders of Pakistan’s founding
ited advance along narrow fronts with the aim of occupying
father Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This was described as
territory near the border to a depth of 40–50 km. Since In-
the main reason for his early retirement. However it did
dian forces will not reach their maximum strength near the
not prevent him being honored and promoted to general.
border for another 48–72 hours, Pakistan might have parity
Later Douglas Gracey, the C in C of the Pakistan Army
or numerical superiority against the Indians.
did not send troops to the Kashmir front and refused to
The Pakistan hopes to accomplish three things under this obey the order to do so given by Mohammad Ali Jinnah,
strategy:[58] Governor-General of Pakistan.[62] Gracey argued that Jin-
nah as Governor-General represented the British Crown of
1. The enemy is kept off-balance as it will be tied up con- which he himself was an appointee. The same tradition was
taining the Pakistani offensive into its territory rather continued by their successors, Ayub Khan, Zia and Mushar-
than launching an offensive into Pakistani territory. raf, all of whom received honours instead of being tried for
indiscipline, corruption and insubordination.
2. The Pakistani Army hopes to contain the fighting on
the Indian side of the border so that any collateral or The army runs the largest real estate business in Pakistan
other damage will be suffered by India. under the auspices of Defense Housing Societies and other
welfare societies. However out 46 housing schemes directly
3. Indian territory of strategic importance once seized, built by the armed forces, none is for ordinary soldiers or
will give the Pakistani Army a bargaining chip to be civilian officers and personnel employed by the army.[63]
used in the aftermath of a ceasefire brought about by The Army is also engaged in other corporate activities such
international pressure after 3–4 weeks of fighting. as stud and dairy farms meant for the army’s own use. Oth-
ers enterprises perform functions in local civilian economy
Kashmir, Line of Control and the Northern Punjab areas such as bakeries, security services and banking. Army fac-
are heavily fortified and ill-suited for large mechanized of- tories produced such goods as sugar, fertilizer, and brass
fensives. The most likely area where Pakistan and India castings and sold them to civilian consumers albeit at prices
might launch its offensive is the semi-desert and desert sec- higher than those charged from military personnel.[64]
tors in southern Punjab and Sindh provinces. To supple-
ment this doctrine, the Army in the 1990s created a strong Pakistan military has the biggest share in Pakistan’s
centralized corps of reserves for its formations. The force is stock exchange. It operates commercial bank, airline,
known as Army Reserve South and is a grouping of several steel, cement, telecom, petroleum and energy, education,
powerful Corps from Pakistan’s Order of Battle. These for- sports, health [65]
care and even chains of grocery shops and
mations have been rapidly equipped with assets needed for bakeries.
mechanized capability. These reserve formations are dual- Several Army organizations operate in the commercial sec-
capable, meaning they can be used for offensive as well as tor across the country. For example, the National Logis-
defensive (holding) purposes. Pakistan has also increased tics Cell was responsible for trucking food and other goods
its ammunition, fuel and other military stockpiles to last for across the country; the Frontier Works Organization built
45 days in case of a conflict. During the 1965 war for in- the Karakoram Highway to China; and the Special Com-
stance, Pakistan only had 13-day reserves which hampered munication Organization maintained communications net-
its military operations. works in remote parts of Pakistan.
182 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
3.3.7 Involvement in Pakistani society during which they participate in regular training cycles and
have the opportunity to take academic courses to help them
See also: 2009 refugee crisis in Pakistan advance.
In times of natural disaster, such as the great floods of 1992 Academic institutions
or the October 2005 devastating earthquake, army engi-
neers, medical and logistics personnel, and the armed forces The Army has twelve other training and educational es-
played a major role in bringing relief and supplies. tablishments, including schools concentrating on specific
skills such as infantry, artillery, intelligence, engineering,
The Pakistan Army has been involved in relief activities
or mountain warfare. The National University of Sci-
not only in Pakistan but also in many other countries of the
ences and Technology (NUST) has been established which
world, such as the relief activities after Bangladesh was hit
has absorbed the existing colleges of engineering, signals,
by floods. The Army also dispatched relief to Indonesia,
electrical engineering and medicine. At the apex of the
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka after they were hit by the 2004
army training system is the Command and Staff College at
Indian Ocean earthquake and the resulting tsunami.
Quetta, one of the few institutions inherited from the colo-
nial period. The college offers a ten-month course in tac-
3.3.8 Personnel tics, staff duties, administration, and command functions
through the division level. Students from foreign countries,
According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies including the United States, have attended the school but
(IISS) the Pakistan Army has an active force of 642,000 reportedly have been critical of its narrow focus and fail-
personnel as of 2015.[1] ure to encourage speculative thinking or to give adequate
attention to less glamorous subjects, such as logistics.
The senior training institution for all service branches is
Enlisted ranks the National Defence University, Islamabad. Originally
established in 1971 at Rawalpindi, to provide training in
Most enlisted personnel used to come from rural families, higher military strategy for senior officers, the institution
and many have only rudimentary literacy skills, but with was relocated to Islamabad in 1995. According to Aqil
the increase in the literacy level the requirements have been Shah, the NDU is significant for understanding the insti-
raised to Matriculate level (10th Grade). Recruits are pro- tutional norms of military tutelage in Pakistan because it
cessed gradually through a paternalistically run regimental constitutes the “highest forum where the military leadership
training center, taught the official language, Urdu, if nec- comes together for common instruction.” Without graduat-
essary, and given a period of elementary education before ing from the NDU (or a foreign equivalent), no officer can
their military training actually starts. become a general. Besides, the NDU training program rep-
In the thirty-six-week training period, they develop an at- resents a radical shift from the emphasis on operational and
tachment to the regiment they will remain with through staff functions in the training of junior officers (for exam-
much of their careers and begin to develop a sense of be- ple, majors at the Staff College) to educating colonels and
ing a Pakistani rather than primarily a member of a tribe brigadiers about a broad range of strategic political, social,
or a village. Enlisted men usually serve for eighteen years, and economic factors as they affect national security. In
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 183
ledge 6,000m up the peak known as “killer mountain”. [2] CIA world Fact BOOK http://www.theodora.com/
wfbcurrent/pakistan/pakistan_military.html
The Slovenian President presented Lt Col Rashid Ullah Beg
and Lt Col Khalid Amir Rana with the Golden Order for [3] http://www.servetopakistan.com/lcc.html
Services in the country’s capital, Ljubljana, for risking their
lives during the rescue mission, a Pakistan Army statement [4] “History of Pakistan Army”. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
said.[76]
[5] https://www.ispr.gov.pk/zarbeazb. Missing or empty |title=
Pakistan Army team was awarded a gold medal at the presti- (help)
gious Cambrian Patrol Exercise held in Wales in 2010. Ac-
[6] “Article 243”. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
cording to ISPR, “Rawalpindi based X Corps team repre-
sented Pakistan Army in Exercise Cambrian Patrol – 2010, [7] AMIR QURESHI (2011). “Pakistan’s Top Military Officer
held from 11–13 October 2010 and by the Grace of Al- Cancels Trip to US”. ABC news. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
lah, the team showed an excellent performance by winning
a Gold Medal in the event, which is a big honour not only [8] BBC (29 September 2010). “New Pakistan Chairman of
for Army but for the Country as a whole.”[77][78][79][80] Joint Chiefs of Staff named”. BBC Pakistan. Retrieved 18
January 2013.
Main article: Equipment of the Pakistan Army [10] "[Chapter 2. Armed Forces] of [Part XII: Miscellaneous]".
Pakistani.org. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
The equipment currently in use by the Pakistan Army is di- [11] Praagh, David. The greater game: India’s race with destiny
vided into the following main sections: small arms, armour, and China. McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP, 2003. p. 294.
artillery, aircraft and air defence systems.Domestic suppli- ISBN 978-0-7735-2639-6. ISBN 0-7735-2639-0.
ers provides most of the hi-tech equipment to the Pakistan
[12] Musharraf, In the Line of Fire, page 45.
Army, whereas foreign hi-tech equipment are of either Chi-
nese, European or American origin. [13] Melville de Mellow (28, November 1965). “Battle of
Burki was another outstanding infantry operation”. Sainik
Samachar.
3.3.10 Sports
[14] Hagerty, Devin T. (2005). South Asia in World Politics.
Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2.
See also: Pakistan Army basketball team
[15] William M. Carpenter, David G. Wiencek. Asian secu-
rity handbook: terrorism and the new security environment.
The Pakistan Army has a noteworthy sports program with
M.E. Sharpe, 2005. ISBN 0-7656-1553-3.
elite athletes in many sports disciplines.[81] An example of
the program’s success is its basketball program which reg- [16] John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press, 2001. ISBN
ularly provides the Pakistan national basketball team with 0-275-97779-X.
key players.[82]
[17] “The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965”. Memory.loc.gov. 5 July
1977. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
3.3.11 See also [18] Sumit Ganguly. “Pakistan”. In India: A Country Study
(James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, editors). Library
• Pakistan of Congress Federal Research Division (September 1995).
• List of serving generals of the Pakistan Army [19] “Indo-Pakistan Wars”. Microsoft Encarta 2008. also
Archived 31 October 2009.
[22] Spencer Tucker. Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Im- [36] Simon Dunstan (20 April 2003). The Yom Kippur War 1973
pact. ABC-CLIO (2004), p. 172. ISBN 978-1-57607-995- (2): The Sinai. Osprey Publishing. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-1-
9. 84176-221-0. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
[23] Hagerty, Devin T. (2005). South Asia in World Politics. [37] P.R. Kumaraswamy (11 January 2013). Revisiting the Yom
Rowman & Littlefield. p. 26. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2. The Kippur War. Routledge. pp. 75–. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-
invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts 4. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan’s
second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened [38] “HISTORY OF PAF”. Pakistan Air Force. Retrieved 20
on 22 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat. December 2011.
[24] “Pakistan :: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965”. Library of [39] Curtis, Mark. Secret Affairs Britain’s Collusion with Rad-
Congress Country Studies, United States of America. April ical Islam. (New updated ed.). London: Profile. ISBN
1994. Retrieved 2 October 2010. Quote: Losses were rel- 1847653014.
atively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 [40] "'Pak defied UN, supplied arms to Bosnia'". Press Trust of
tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan’s army had been able to India. 4 September 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting
would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for [41] “Javed Nasir”. ISI Directorship. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
Pakistan.
[42] Masood, Salman (1 August 2009). “Musharraf Decree in
[25] Wolpert, Stanley (2005). India (3rd ed. with a new pref- '07 Was Illegal, Court Rules”. The New York Times.
ace. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 235.
ISBN 0520246969. Quote: India, however, was in a po- [43] Alexander, Paul (11 June 2009) Pakistan public opinion
sition to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan’s turning against Taliban. Associated Press via Yahoo News
capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and
[44] “Huge search for trapped Pakistani soldiers”. Al Jazeera. 7
controlled Kashmir’s strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to
April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
Ayub’s chagrin.
[45] “UN Mission in Democrative Republic of Congo
[26] Kux, Dennis (1992). India and the United States : Estranged (MONUC)". Web.archive.org. 26 September 2007.
democracies, 1941-1991. Washington, DC: National De- Archived from the original on 26 September 2007.
fense University Press. p. 238. ISBN 0788102796. Quote: Retrieved 15 May 2012.
India had the better of the war.
[46] “Ranking of Military and Police Contributions to UN Op-
[27] “Asia: Silent Guns, Wary Combatants”. Time. 1 Oc- erations” (PDF). UN Peacekeeping. United Nations. 31 Au-
tober 1965. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Quote: India, gust 2015. p. 1. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Alternate
link: http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/printout/0, [47] Iftikhar A. Khan. “Kayani shakes up army command” Dawn
8816,834413,00.html (Pakistan), 30 September 2008
[28] “Delhi plans carnival on Pakistan war- Focus on 1965 con- [48] :: India Strategic::. Indiastrategic.in.
flict and outcome”.
[49] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Corps. Globalsecurity.org.
[29] “Modi govt plans 1965 war carnival”.
[50] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Corps. Globalsecurity.org
[30] The Story of My Struggle By Tajammal Hussain Malik (20 May 2009).
1991, Jang Publishers, p. 78
[51] Army Air Defence Command. Globalsecurity.org.
[31] Khaki Shadows by General K.M. Arif, Oxford University
[52] History. Army Air Defence. Pakistanarmy.gov.pk.
Press, ISBN 0-19-579396-X, 2001
[53] Army Aviation. Globalsecurity.org.
[32] Ṣiddīq Sālik (1977). Witness to surrender. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. pp. 63, 228, 229. ISBN 978-0-19-577257-9. [54] Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). Army Strategic
Retrieved 4 June 2011. Forces Command (ASFC). Global Security.
[33] Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, pp. 2–3 [55] Military. Northern Area Command. Globalsecurity.org.
[34] Major (Ret) A.H. Amin, The Pakistan Army from 1965 to [56] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Divisions. Globalsecu-
1971, Defence Journal, November 2000 rity.org.
[35] Bidanda M. Chengappa (1 January 2004). Pakistan: Islami- [57] General Mirza Aslam Beg. 50 Years of Pakistan Army: A
sation Army And Foreign Policy. APH Publishing. pp. 42–. Journey into Professionalism, Pakistan Observer, 21 August
ISBN 978-81-7648-548-7. Retrieved 22 February 2013. 1997.
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 187
[58] BHARAT RAKSHAK MONITOR: Volume 3(6). Bharat- [79] “Inter Services Public Relations – PAKISTAN”. ISPR. Re-
rakshak.com. trieved 15 May 2012.
[59] Pamela Constable, Kamran Khan (16 October 1999). [80] Times of Pakistan. “When going gets tough, tough get go-
“Army Gets A Foothold In Pakistan; Coup Leader, U.S. En- ing | Times of Pakistan”. Timesofpakistan.pk. Retrieved 15
voy Discuss New Government”. Washington Post. May 2012.
[60] Shaheen Sehbai Corrupt Musharraf’s Generals, Exposed by [81] Pakistan Army – Sports, www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk. Re-
Musharraf’s Generals. antisystemic.org trieved 19 June 2012.
[61] Shyam Bhatia (17 September 2003) Corruption rooted in [82] Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games, www.
Pak army: PPP. Rediff nation.com.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
[63] Siddiqa, Ayesha (2007) Military Inc. Karachi: Oxford Uni- • Cloughley, Brian. A History of the Pakistan Army:
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547495-4 Wars and Insurrections (4th ed. 2014); 416pp
[64] Pakistan Army. Globalsecurity.org. • International Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett,
James (ed.) (3 February 2010). The Military Balance
[65] http://www.fascistarmy.org/ 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-557-5.
[66] Mazhar Aziz (2008). Military control in Pakistan: the paral-
lel state. Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor and • Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and
Francis-e-Library. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-415-43743-1. Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Indepen-
[67] Aqil Shah, The Army and Democracy: Military Politics in
dence to Kargil, 1947–1999. RoseDog Books. ISBN
Pakistan (Harvard University Press, 2014), pp. 8–9 9780805995947
[70] John Pike. “Army Rank”. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 27 • Official website of Pakistan Army launched on 6 April
November 2012. 2009
[71] Punjab’s dominance in Army being reduced: ISPR -DAWN • Official website of Inter Services Public Relations
– Top Stories; 14 September 2007. Archives.dawn.com (14 (ISPR)
September 2007).
• Official website of International Defence Exhibition
[72] “Pakistan Female Sky Marshals”. BBC News. 23 July 2002.
and Seminar (IDEAS)
Retrieved 21 January 2007.
[74] “Pakistan is the only country in the Islamic world to have • GlobalSecurity.org
women Major Generals”. Retrieved 16 April 2007.
• defence.pk – Pakistan Defence
[75] http://www.dawn.com/news/1189939/
where-should-a-pakistani-hindu-go • PakSoldiers.Com – Pakistan Military & Defence
News
[76] BBC: Pakistan pilots get bravery award. BBC News (15 June
2007).
[77] “Pakistan Army Wins Gold Medal @ International Cam- 3.4 Pakistan Navy
brian Patrols Exercise – Page 3 – Iran Defense Forum”. Iran-
defence.net. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
The Pakistan Navy (Urdu: ن ; � )
[78] “Leading News Resource of Pakistan”. Daily Times. 21 Oc- (reporting name: PN) is the naval warfare branch of
tober 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2012. Pakistan Armed Forces, responsible for Pakistan's 1,046
188 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
kilometres (650 mi) of coastline along the Arabian Sea, The Pakistan Navy came into existence on the Fourteenth
and the defence of important civilian harbours and mili- of August, 1947 with the establishment of the State of
tary bases. The Pakistan Navy came into the existence af- Pakistan.[9] The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee
ter the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The President of (AFRC) divided the Royal Indian Navy between India and
Pakistan serves as the Supreme Commander of the Navy Pakistan. The Royal Pakistan Navy secured two sloops, two
under Article 243 (2) of the Constitution of Pakistan, and frigates, four minesweepers, two naval trawlers, four har-
the Chief of Naval Staff heads the Navy. Navy Day is cel- bour launches and some 358 personnel (180 officers and 34
ebrated on 8 September in commemoration of the Indo- ratings). Because of the high percentage of delta areas on its
Pakistani War of 1965.[3] coast, Pakistan also received a number of harbour defence
The Pakistan Navy’s current and primary role is to protect motor launches. As part of the Commonwealth of Nations,
the prefix “Royal” was used until the state was proclaimed
the country’s economic and military interests at home and [9]
abroad, executing the foreign and defence policies of the a republic in 1956.
Government of Pakistan through the exercise of military The Navy endured a difficult history, only 200 officers
effect, diplomatic activities and other activities in support of and 3000 sailors were inherited to the Navy, the most se-
these objectives.[4][5] In the 21st century, the Pakistan Navy nior being Captain HMS Choudri who had little experience
also focuses on limited overseas operations, and has played in military staffing.[10] The Navy suffered perennial prob-
a vital role in the establishment of the Pakistan Antarctic lems with inadequate staff, lack of operational bases, and
Programme.[6][7] poor technological and personnel resources. It was also the
The Pakistan Navy is supported by the Pakistan Coast smallest branch of the armed forces in terms of technical
Guard, and the Maritime Security Agency (MSA), the staff, equipment, [10]
and officers, as compared to the army and
paramilitary forces of Pakistan. air force.
To overcome these difficulties, the Navy launched a re-
The Navy is undergoing extensive modernisation and ex-
pansion as part of Pakistan’s role in the War on Terror. cruitment program for the young nation, starting in East-
Pakistan but it proved to be very difficult to sustained the
Since 2001, the Pakistan Navy has increased and expanded
its operational scope, and has been given greater national program; therefore, program was moved back to Pakistan
to concentrate the preferred recruitments for the Western
and international responsibility in countering the threat of
sea-based global terrorism, drug smuggling, and piracy. In Pakistanis.[10]
2004, Pakistan Navy became a member of the primarily
NATO Combined Task Forces CTF-150 and CTF-151.[8]
The beginning
The Constitution of Pakistan makes the President of Pak-
istan the civilian Commander-in-Chief. The Chief of Naval
Staff (CNS), by statute a four star admiral, is appointed by
the President with the consultation and confirmation needed
from the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The Chief of Naval
Staff is subordinate to the civilian Defence Minister and
Secretary of Defence, and commands the Navy.
3.4.1 History
Today is a historic day for Pakistan, doubly
so for those of us in the Navy. The Dominion Frigate Shamsher in 1951
of Pakistan has come into being and with it a
new Navy – the Royal Pakistan Navy – has been During the first war with India in 1947–48, the Navy saw no
born. I am proud to have been appointed to action as all fighting was restricted to land] and air combat
command it and serve with you at this time. In missions. On operational planning, Captain HMS Choudri
the coming months, it will be my duty and yours engaged on commandeding a destroyer from Karachi to
to build up our Navy into a happy and efficient Mumbai to oversee the evacuation of Indian emigrants to
force Pakistan.:474[11] In 1948, Pakistan Navy engaged in hu-
— Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of manitarian missions to evacuate Indian immigrants trapped
Pakistan, addressing the Naval Academy in in disputed and hostile areas, with its frigates operating
March 1948., [9] continuously.[10] The Chief of Naval Staff, Rear-Admiral
James Wilfred Jefford, had created a “Short-term Emer-
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 189
On the night of 7/8 September, a Pakistani squadron com- At then end of East-Pakistan crisis.... We
prising four destroyers, one frigate, one cruiser, and one (Pakistan Navy, Eastern Command) had no
submarine, under the command of Commodore S.M. An- intelligence and hence, were both deaf and blind
war, launched Operation Dwarka, an attack on radar facili- with the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force
ties used by the Indian Air Force in the small coastal town pounding us day and night....
of Dwarka. The operation ended with limited damage to — Admiral Mohammad Sharif, to U.S. Admiral
the area. Zumwalt in 1971, .[14]
Ghazi was deployed against the Indian Navy’s western fleet
at Bombay (Mumbai).On 23 September, Ghazi ended her
operations and proceeded to Karachi Naval Dockyard.
Operation Dwarka had greatly increased the prestige of the
Pakistan Navy.[13] It had also alerted Indian commanders to
the significant threat posed by the Pakistan Navy, and to its
own naval shortcomings.[13] The Pakistanis did, however,
acquire three Daphné class submarines from France, while
operating Tench class submarine from the United States,
and established the Naval special forces in 1966.[10] The
Navy also attempted to establish a naval air service, com-
posed of fighter jets, but this proved impossible due to
budgetary constraints and the opposition of the Air Force,
which was reluctant to risk and lose its aircraft in open-sea
operations.[10]
Indifference toward naval affairs by then-President General
Ayub Khan further deteriorated and jeopardized the oper-
ational scope of the Navy. In 1970, General Yahya Khan
began a series of reforms which increased the Navy’s role
in national defense.
Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 PNS Nazim, which previously took part in the Vietnam and Korean
Wars in the US Navy as USS Wiltsie (DD-716).
Main articles: Operation Barisal, Operation Jackpot, and
Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 In 1969, former Commander of the Navy Admiral Syed
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 191
Mohammad Ahsan was sent to East Pakistan, and became missile boat.”.[18] After the friendly attack, all naval surface
overall commander of Pakistani armed forces there.[15] Un- operations came to a halt under the orders of chief of naval
der his direction, the navy’s presence in East Pakistan was staff.[18]
tripled.[15] Command-size naval assets were expanded, with The Navy’s only long range submarine, Ghazi, was deployed
an administrative unit operating in East Pakistan. The East-to the area but, according to neutral sources, it sank en
ern Naval Command posed a significant threat to the Indian route under mysterious circumstances.[19] Pakistani author-
Navy’s counterpart Eastern Naval Command.[15] Therefore, ities state that it sank either due to internal explosion or det-
the Indian Navy launched an operation (somewhat con- onation of mines which it was laying at the time.[20] The In-
fusingly, also codenamed 'Jackpot'), to disrupt the East-
dian Navy claims to have sunk the submarine.[21][22][23][24]
ern High Command and threaten its existence in the East- The submarine’s destruction enabled the Indian Navy to en-
ern wing. With East Pakistan having been surrounded
force a blockade on then East Pakistan.[25] According to the
on all three landward sides by the Indian Army, the PN defence magazine, Pakistan Defence Journal, the attack on
was attempting to prevent India from blocking the coast as
Karachi, Dhaka, Chittagong and the loss of Ghazi, the Navy
well.[15] no longer was able to match the threat of Indian Navy as it
On 4 December, the Indian Navy launched a naval attack, was already outclassed by the Indian Navy after the 1965
Operation Trident, consisting of 3 OSA class missile boats war.
escorted by two anti-submarine patrol vessels. Nearing The damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and Indian Air
Karachi’s port area, they launched SS-N-2 Styx anti-ship Force on the PN stood at seven gunboats, one minesweeper,
missiles, which the obsolescent Pakistani naval ships had two destroyers, three patrol craft belonging to the Pakistan
no viable defense against.[16] PNS Muhafiz and PNS Khy- Coast Guard, 18 cargo, supply and communication ves-
ber were both sunk, while PNS Shahjahan was damaged sels, and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and
beyond repair. It was a stunning victory for India, with no docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant
damage to their navy’s attacking squadron. navy ships; Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi;[26] and
On 8 December 1971, the Hangor, a Daphné class subma- ten smaller vessels were captured.[27] Around 1900 person-
rine, sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri off the coast of nel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by In-
Gujarat, India. This was the first sinking of a warship by dian forces in Dhaka.[28] The Indian Navy lost 18 officers
a submarine since World War II, and resulted in the loss and 176 sailors[17][29] and a frigate, while another frigate
of 18 officers and 176 sailors of the Indian navy. The same was damaged and a Breguet Alizé naval aircraft was shot
submarine also severely damaged another warship, INS Kir- down by the Pakistan Air Force. According to one Pakistan
pan.[17] Attempts were made by Pakistan to counter the scholar, Tariq Ali, the Pakistan Navy lost a third of its force
Indian missile boat threat by carrying out bombing raids in the war.[30] Despite the limited resources and manpower,
over Okha harbour, the forward base of the missile boats. the Navy performed its task diligently by providing support
The Indian Navy retaliated with an attack on the Pakistani to inter-services (air force and army) until the end.[31] The
coast, named Operation Python, on the night of 8 Decem- primary reason for this loss has been attributed to the cen-
ber 1971. A small group of Indian vessels, consisting of tral command’s failure in defining a role for the Navy, or the
a missile boat and two frigates, approached Karachi. The military in general, in East Pakistan. Since then the Navy
Indian ships sank the Panamian vessel Gulf Star, while the has sought to improve the structure and fleet by putting spe-
Pakistan Navy’s PNS Dacca and the British ship SS Har- cial emphasis on sub-surface warfare capability as it allows
mattan were damaged. Python was a complete success for for the most efficient way to deny the control of Pakistani
the Indian Navy, and a psychological trauma for Pakistan sea lanes to an adversary.
Navy, the human and material cost severely cutting into its
combat capability.[18] Civilian pilots from Pakistan Inter-
national Airlines volunteered to conduct surveillance mis- Cold war operations
sions with the PAF, but this proved less than helpful when
they misidentified a Pakistan Navy frigate, PNS Zulfikar, as See also: Operation Umeed-e-Nuh, Operation United
an Indian missile boat.[18] PAF planes made several attack Shield, Operation Parakram, and Soviet war in Afghanistan
runs before finally identifying the Zulfikar.[18] The friendly
attack resulted in further loss of navy personnel, as well
Pakistan fully endorse the requirements of a
as the loss of the ship, which was severely damaged. The
strong navy, capable of safeguarding Pakistan’s
Pakistan Navy’s operational capabilities were now virtually
sea frontiers and her Lines of Communication,
extinct, and morale plummeted.[18] Indian Navy observers
monitoring and protecting her exclusive eco-
noted that the “PAF pilots failed to recognize the differ-
nomic zone. Continuous efforts are at hand to
ence between a large PNS Zulfikar frigate and a small Osa
provide the best available equipment to the Navy
192 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
despite all economic constraints. fleet from 8 to 16 surface combatants in 1989. In 1982,
— Pervez Musharraf, 1999, [32] the Reagan administration approved US$3.2 billion mili-
tary and economic aid to Pakistan. Pakistan acquired eight
Brooke and Garcia-class frigates from United States Navy
After the 1971 war, the Navy had to be re-organized, re- on a five-year lease in 1988. A depot for repairs, USS Hec-
visioned, and re-established after being destroyed its facil- tor followed the lease of these ships in April 1989. How-
ities, manpower, and operational basis during the war by ever, after the Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan in
the Indian Navy.[31] The coming Chief of Naval Staff Ad- 1989 US President George Bush was advised to no longer
miral Muhammad Sharif reconstituted the Navy and gave certify that Pakistan was not involved in the development of
commissioned to Naval Air Arm of the Navy.[31] During the nuclear weapons and the Pressler amendment was invoked
course of war, the co-ordination between Inter-services was on 1 October 1990. The lease of the first Brooke class
limited, lack of communication, poor execution of joint- frigate expired in March 1993, the remaining in early 1994.
operations, this led to the establishment of Joint Chiefs This seriously impaired the Pakistan Navy, which was com-
of Staff Committee.[31] In a small span of time, the navy posed almost entirely of former US origin ships. Realiz-
facilities, manpower and profile of Navy was quickly ar- ing the US U-turn policy, Pakistan began to concentrate on
ranged and raised by Admiral Muhammad Sharif, and his self-reliance for its military equipment needs. Prime Min-
services to Navy led him to be appointed as first navy admi- ister Benazir Bhutto successfully negotiated and signed an
ral Chairman of Joint Chiefs Committee of Pakistan Armed agreement with France to sell the Agosta class submarine
Forces.[31] for Pakistan Navy, including the technology transfer of Air-
The Pakistan Navy came into public notice in 1974 after independent propulsion to Pakistan. This agreement was re-
it had reportedly applied a naval blockage and played an portedly highly controversial but it had tripled the war capa-
integral role to stop the arm smuggled in Balochistan con- bilities of Pakistan Navy, despite Indian protests that were
flict.[31] After the discovery of Arms in the Iraqi Embassy in lodged internationally. The United Kingdom approved the
Pakistan, the Navy made an effort to apply a naval blockade sale of Westland Lynx and Sea King helicopters, equipped
to prevent arms smuggling in the Province. Later, the navy with ASW missiles which further enhanced the capabilities
provided logistic support to the Army and the Air Force in of Pakistan Navy.
the conflict.[31] After the success of atomic project in 1998, several propos-
als were called and made for Pakistan Navy to transformed
into a nuclear navy. In 1990, the Navy began negotiations
with People’s Liberation Army Navy to lease a nuclear sub-
marine, a Chinese Type 091 Han class submarine after ri-
val India Navy leased a Russian-based Charlie 1 class nu-
clear from Soviet Union.[34] However, the Navy cancelled
the negotiations with the Chinese Navy after the learning
the Indian Navy had returned the Russian submarine was
returned in 1991.[34] In 1991, the Navy became involved
with Operation Restore Hope after learning the death of
personnels of Pakistan Army in Somalia. The Navy dis-
patched one submarine and two destroyer frigates to support
the US Navy’s operations in Somalia. The Navy also took
participation in Operation United Shield in 1995 with the
The Daphne class submarine Ghazi (S-134) deployed during the United States, dispatching two destroyers to support the US
Operation Restore Hope. Navy’s operation and concluded its side of operation after
evacuating personnel and equipments of army and air force.
From her inception, the Navy sought to diversify its pur-
During the Kargil War episode, the Pakistan Navy was
chases instead of depending solely on the United States,
deactivated along with the Pakistan Air Force, according
which had placed an arms embargo on both India and
to Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Fasih Bokhari. How-
Pakistan.[33] After 1971, the Navy sought more combat-
ever, when Indian Navy launched Operation Talwar, Pak-
ant vessels from friendly countries notably, France and
istan Navy responded by deploying the submarines and de-
China.[33] Thus, its extreme modernization programme led
stroyers combatant ships to keep Indian Navy from Ports
the Pakistan Navy to become the first navy in South Asia
of Karachi and Baluchistan.[32] The Naval Air Arm main-
to acquire land-based ballistics missile capable long range
tained its reconnaissance and patrol operations near at the
reconnaissance aircraft.[33] During the 1980s, the Pakistan
Arabian sea. In 1999, another proposal was raised to
Navy enjoyed unprecedented growth, doubling its surface
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 193
switched the Air-independent propulsion of Agosta sub- The international observers noted that the wreckage fell
marine to substitute with Nuclear propulsion, however the well within Pakistan’s territory, giving credence to the Pak-
proposal was dismissed.[32] During the 2001–2002 India- istan’s claim. But the investigation conducted by the Naval
Pakistan Standoff, the Pakistan Navy was a put on high- Intelligence revealed that the crash site was spread over 2
alert and more than a dozen warships were deployed near km on both sides of the border and the majority of the
at the Arabian Sea. In 2001, the Navy took considera- wreckage was on the Indian side. The Indian government
tion of deploying the nuclear weapons on its submarines al- released the bodies of all the 16 personnel killed in the
though none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in crash, asserting their point that the aircraft crashed in India.
the submarines.[34] The Indian Air Force stated that “the Atlantique was trying
to return to Pakistan’s airspace after intruding more than
10 nautical miles (19 km) and as such was headed towards
Indo-Pakistani war of 1999 Pakistan....” This incident resulted in escalated tensions be-
tween the two neighbouring countries.[35]
Main articles: Atlantique Incident and Indo-Pakistani War
of 1999 In October 1999, another mishap claimed the loss of Navy’s
P3C Orion (anti-submarine warfare) aircraft crashed while
on routine exercise towards the coastal town of Pasni in
Although the Navy was restricted from participating in the Balochistan Province.[36] In this non-combat mission, the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 (or the Kargil war), it came un- casualties stood with twenty one personnel, including two
der much pressure to protect the civilian and military bases navy fighter pilots, eleven sailors and ten senior officers died
in Pakistan while performing non-combat missions in the in the incident. The cause of the incident was stated as a
coastal areas. The Indian Navy’s rapid movement pushed technical failure. The P3C Orion was originally developed
the Navy to take active measures and responded by deploy- for the US by Lockheed Martin.[37]
ing a large formation of submarines to gather intelligence on
the movement of Indian naval vessels, their activities and
presence. However the Navy did not undertake any mili- Naval Strategic Force Command
tary engagement with the Indian Navy. In the post Indo-
Pakistani war of 1999, the Navy became involved in a mil- In August 2012, the Pakistan Navy inaugurated the Naval
itary engagement with the Indian Air Force when the local Strategic Force Command headquarters, described by the
Pakistan media reported that the Navy had suffered seri- military as the custodian of the country’s nuclear second
ous casualty in non-combat missions in terms of losing air- strike capability.[38]
craft and personnel, roughly occurred just two weeks since
the end of Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 in Northern Pak-
istan. On 10 August 1999, the Indian Air Force's two MiG Multi-national operations
21FL fired and shot down the reconnaissance navy plane,
the Atlantic, with sixteen personnel, including four naval Between 11–21 May 2008, Pakistani warships PNS Badr
fighter pilots on board. All hands and the aircraft were (D-182), PNS Shahjahan (D 186), and PNS Nasr (A-47),
lost when it was shot down in the border area of the Rann as well as the Pakistan Air Force Explosive Ordnance Dis-
of Kutch region by Indian Air Force, with both countries posal team, participated in Exercise Inspired Union – multi-
claiming the aircraft to be in their respective airspace. national exercises in the North Arabian Sea that also in-
cluded the American destroyers Curts and Ross.[39]
dered their assistance to Government of Maldives for evac- far more difficult operations in Northern Pakistan, and its
uation of stranded tourists/locals from islands. Pakistan combatant assets fought Taliban insurgency in Western bor-
Navy continued this humanitarian assistance through ren- der with the ground forces. On 22 May 2011, the Navy’s
dering diplomatic and material support by sending two first engagement with Pakistani Taliban took place in PNS
more ships with sizeable relief efforts to Indonesia and Sri Mehran, the headquarters of the Navy’s Naval Air Arm and
Lanka.[41] Pakistan Navy later assigned another relief mis- the most populous Pakistani military installation, located
sion to Sri Lanka dispatching two more combatant vessels. near the PAF’s Faisal Air Force Base of Karachi, Sindh.
PNS Khaiber and PNS Moawin were dispatched to assist In the course of the event, around 15 attackers killed 18
Sri Lanka.[42] These vessels had three helicopters, a 140th naval personnel and wounded 16 in a sophisticated terror-
Marine Expeditionary Force, military and civilian doctors, ist attack. According to the United States and Western in-
and paramedics. Besides, relief goods – medicines, med- telligence sources, the attack was far more dangerous than
ical equipment, food supplies, tents, blankets- are being the 2009 Pakistan Army General Headquarters attack, and
sent in huge quantities.[43] The diameter of relief operations was better planned and more rehearsed than the previous
were expanded to Bangladesh. And, Pakistan Naval ves- attacks. It was the biggest attack on the Navy and its as-
sels, carrying other Pakistan Armed Forces units, landed in sets since 1971, and is believed to be the last major at-
Bangladesh for the first time since December 1971. The tack of militant mastermind Ilyas Kashmiri before being
Navy, Army, and the Air Force had carried out the relief killed in the drone strike. The Special Service Group Navy
operations in the Bangladesh, where the Pakistani forces (SSG(N)), carried out the counter-attack, which was the
also anticipated reconstruction of civil infrastructure in the largest operation led by SSG(N) since Operation Jackpot
country.[44] of 1971.
Main articles: Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy) and 2010 Main articles: Operation Rah-e-Nijat, PNS Mehran Op-
Pakistan floods eration, Operation Black Thunderstorm, and Operation
Umeed-e-Nuh
Since 1995, the operational scope of Navy has increased,
As Army and Pakistan Air Force (PAF) gained momen-
tum on militancy, the Navy took the whole responsibility
of conducting the largest search and rescue operations in
the 2010 floods. The Navy rescued and evacuated more
than 352,291 people after launching the Operation Madad
(English: “Help”) throughout Pakistan in August 2010.[45]
Since then, the Navy had provided 43,850 kg of food and
relief goods to flood victims; 5,700 kg of ready-to-cook
food, 1,000 kg of dates and 5,000 kg of food has been dis-
patched to Sukkur. The Pakistan Naval Air Arm had air
dropped more than 500 kg of food and relief good in Thal,
Ghospur and Mirpur areas.[46] As of January 2011, under
the program PN Model Village, the Navy is building the
model houses in the affected areas. More than 87 houses
were built and had been distributed to the local internally
Admiral Bashir meets with the US Army General David Petraeus,
displaced person (IDPs). About 69,011 people have been top commander of US forces in Afghanistan, to initiate peace ini-
treated in PN medical camps.[47] tiatives and counter-terrorism operations against Taliban forces in
Afghanistan.
War in North-West
first participating in combat operation, Operation United
Shield with the United States Navy. Since 2007, the Navy
Main article: PNS Mehran Operation has shifted into focusing the large-scale special operations
and strike operations. The Navy plays an active role in the
The Navy has been active as early as 2006–07 to track down multinational NAVCENT, CTF-150, CTF-151, Operation
the terrorist elements and al-Qaeda operatives around the Enduring Freedom.[48] The command of the force was
country as part of the campaign against the terrorism. To give to Pakistan from 24 March 2006, until 25 February
limit the pressure on army and air force, the Navy executed 2008. Under Pakistan’s leadership, CTF 150 coordinated
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 195
patrols throughout their area of operations to help commer- NOR) under a rear-admiral, conducted overland, signal in-
cial shipping and fishing operate safely and freely in the telligence, and bombing missions in the Tribal belt while
region. Additionally, CTF 150 Coalition ships made 11 its navy fighter jets attacked the hidden secretive places
successful at-sea rescues and made the largest drug bust of militants.[54] In the anti-terror, naval-based airborne
in the CTF 150 AOO since 2005.[49] Pakistan has con- missions using precision bombing tactics provided by the
tributed 13 different ships to CTF 150 and the current US Navy, the Pakistan Navy played a vital role in force-
one being PNS Tariq.[50] Development continues on new projection of its naval forces that played a significant role
warships, weapons, weapons technology, and as well as in controlling the insurgency, terrorism as well as proved
building the nuclear submarine for its current operational the ability to conduct successful operations far from coastal
capabilities.[51] areas won many presidential citations and praised by the
government and the international recognition.[54]
Since 2007, the Navy actively participated in Operation
Black Thunderstorm, Operation Rah-e-Nijat, Operation
Mehran, Operation Maddad, and is a major participant in
War on Terror and the War in tribal areas of Pakistan. Due 3.4.2 Command structure
to its operational capabilities and ability to project force far
from coastal areas of Pakistan, for instance the Northern According to the Constitution, the President of Pakistan is
Pakistan and abroad, the Navy remains potent asset for the the civilian commander-in-chief of Pakistan Armed Forces
Commander-in-Chief (the President of Pakistan) as well as while the Prime Minister of Pakistan served as the chief ex-
the chief executive of the country (the Prime minister of ecutive of Pakistan Armed Forces, both the people-elected
Pakistan). civilians, the President and Prime minister, maintains a
civilian control of the military.
The Chief of Naval Staff (CNS), a four-star admiral, is a
member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee as well as
the National Security Council (NSC) and the Nuclear Com-
mand Authority, and is responsible for the sea defence of
the country. They direct the non-combat and combatant
operations from naval combatant headquarters (NHQ) in Is-
lamabad, near army combatant headquarters (GHQ).
The Chief of Naval Staff has seven Deputy Chiefs of
Naval Staff, ranging from Rear Admirals to Vice-Admirals;
the Chief of Staff (COS) under whom the Naval Oper-
ations and Intelligence Directorates functions; the Naval
Secretary (NS); the Quarter-Master General (QMG); the
Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN); the Engineer-in-Chief;
An elite member of Navy’s Special Service Group Navy (SSGN) is
silhouetted by the setting sun abroad PNS Babur while under way
the Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST); the Director-General
in the Arabian Sea 25 November 2007 of Training and Joint Warfare (DG Trig); the Directorate-
General for Naval Technologies Complex (NTC); and the
Despite its seaborne mission, the Navy had played an ac- Chief of Naval Logistics (CNL). The responsibilities of
tive role in controlling the insurgency in Tribal Belt in Deputy Chief of Naval Staff are listed below:
Western Pakistan, mostly taking roles in managing logistics
and intelligence gathering as well as conducting ground op-
erations with the army in Western areas to track down the Deputy chiefs
al-Qaeda operatives. In 2011, the major terror bombing
took place in Navy’s assets in various locations of Karachi • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations
by Al-Qaeda; the first of the bombings took place on 21 (DCNS Operations)
April 2011 on two naval buses and second bombing incident
on 28 April 2011 on a naval coaster. An estimated 12 lives • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evalua-
have been lost since the start of the bombing. [52]
A third tion (DCNS Training and Evaluation)
bombing, and final bombing took place on 22 May 2011.
• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Personnel
The attack was on the PNS Mehran base in Karachi.[53]
(DCNS Training and Personnel)
Since 2004, the Navy has been readily used in overland
counter-insurgency operations, to ease off the pressure to • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (DCNS Ma-
Army and Air Force.[54] The Northern Command (COM- terials)
196 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The Pakistan Navy has six major combatant commands Pakistan Naval Combatant Headquarters, The NHQ, is lo-
cated in Islamabad, at the neighbourhood of the GHQ of
• Commander of Pakistan Naval Fleet (COMPAK) Pakistan Army. The NHQ function also includes the Judge
– The command heads the surface, sub surface and Advocate General Corps of Navy, and the Comptroller of
aviation commands.[55] COMPAK is headquartered in Civilian Personnel, the Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)
Karachi, Sindh. Previously, it included the 25th and of the Hydrographic Corps; the Engineer-in-Chief of Naval
18th Destroyer Squadron (with Gearing class D16O, Engineering Corps (NEC).
D164-168).
• Commander Naval Air Arm (COMNAV) – 3.4.3 Personnel
Looks after the Naval air stations, and is the
commander of the Naval Aviation, reporting into
COMPAK.[56]
• Commander Karachi (COMKAR) – The Comman-
der Karachi is responsible for the command of the
shore establishment, naval facilities within Karachi.
The COMKAR also provide services and training fa-
cilities for the Navy. The COMKAR also looks after
the military protocol at Karachi. This command’s re-
sponsibilities also include harbour defence.
• Commander COAST (COMCOAST) – The special
command of SSG(N), Marines and Coastal stations.
• Commander Logistics (COMLOG) – This com-
mand looks after the repair, maintenance and logistic
infrastructure of PN. Pakistan Navy Officers on Guard By the Standard of the Navy and
• Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST) Conducts all the Naval Jack
types of operational training at Sea
As of 2008, the Pakistan Navy has approximately 25,000
• Commander North (COMNOR) – Looks after the active duty personnel.[1] With additional 1,200 Marines and
Naval installations in the north of Pakistan. The more than 2,500 Coast Guard; 2,000 active-duty Navy per-
COMNOR commands the naval facilities in North- sonnel in the Maritime Security Agency. In addition there
west Pakistan, Azad Kashmir, and Northern Areas of were 5,000 reserves, total combing forces exceeding 35,700
Pakistan. The COMNOR is also a major part of Pak- personnel.[1] In 2007, Navy gave commissioned to the first
istan’s Northern Naval Command. Baloch naval squadron, consisting of around 53 women of-
ficers and 72 Baloch sailors.[58] In 2012, the Navy pushed its
• Commander WEST (COMWEST ) – Looks after
personnel strength to Baluchistan after sending a large for-
the Naval installations in the west of Pakistan. The
mation of Baloch university students to Navy Engineering
naval bases are Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar and Jiwani.
Colleges and War College as well as staff schools to com-
The COMWEST is a major component of the West-
plete their officer training requirements.[59] The Navy es-
ern Naval Command of Pakistan Navy.
tablished three additional facilities in Balochistan to super-
• Commander Central Punjab (COMCEP)[57] vise the training to its personnel.[59]
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 197
The Pakistan Navy maintains large educational organisa- 3.4.5 Science and technology
tions, accredited institutions and scientific organisations to
support the combatant and non-combatant missions, oper-Apart from executing military operations, the Navy also
ations and shores activities on land. Its academic and ac-
maintains its own science and technology organisations and
credited four-year university, the Pakistan Naval Academy,
commands to promote scientific activities, knowledge, and
is the home of naval cadets for the future officers of Pak-
engineering facilities in the navy. The Navy operates the
istan Navy, and offers academic degrees programmes at Naval Directorate for Hydrography, served as the opera-
its academy. The Pakistan Naval Academy also has pro- tional scientific naval oceanographic program for the Navy.
vided education, athletic programs and military training
The Navy also administer and operates the astronomical
programmes to the officers of allied navies, among notables
observatory known as Pakistan Naval Observatory, with
including the Chief of Staff of the Qatar Royal Navy (QRN)
primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation, and
and many high-ranking officers of Royal Saudi Navy (RSN) Timing (PNT) for the Navy and the Ministry of Defence
as well as other navies in the Gulf were graduates of the
(MoD), though the Navy has also played a vital role in na-
Pakistan Naval Academy. The academy is a full-fledged tion’s civilian space authority, the Space Research Com-
academic and scientific institution catering to the needs to
mission in conducting studies on Astrophysics, Astronomy
Pakistan junior naval officers. and Mathematics. The Naval Strategic Forces Command
The Pakistan Navy also managed, administers, and man- served as the primary scientific and military organisation
aged the various academic research universities in the for the Navy, the command is charged with battling with
country, including the Naval Educational Establishment naval-based nuclear weapons and controlling the operations
198 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
by Admiral S.M. Ahsan, but they were decommissioned in The Navy also maintains a paramilitary division which pre-
1974 due to their poor performance. However, after the
Navy first reorganised, re-established, and re-visioned it-
self, proposals to establish Pakistani marines roughly equiv-
alent to the United States Marines Corps were kept un-
der consideration.[61] Finally on 14 April 1990, the Pak-
istan Marines were again re-commissioned in the Navy with
about 2,000 men who were drafted[62] with plans to signif-
icantly expand the force to the size of a corps of approxi-
mately 45,000, by 2015. The Marines are under the control
of the Pakistan Navy, using the same naval ranks. They are
headquartered at PNS Qasim in Karachi.[61]
3.4.8 Branches
• Operations
• Marine Engineering
• Mechanical/ Propulsion
• Electrical
• Hull/ Shipwright
• Weapon Engineering
• Radio
• Fire Control PNS Alamgir
• ordnance
• Air Engineering
• Avionics
• Aerospace
• Logistics
• Medical Service
• Supply Branch
• Maintenance Offices
Frigates
• Special Branch (IT)
The names of commissioned combat and non-combat ships
of the Pakistan Navy are prefixed with the capital letters
3.4.9 Naval fleet “PNS” (“Pakistan Naval Ships”). The names of ships are
selected by the Ministry of Defence, often to honour im-
Main article: List of active Pakistan Navy ships portant people or places in the history of Pakistan. The of-
fensive surface fleet of the Navy comprises 10 combat ships,
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 201
Fleet composition
See also: Khalid class submarine, Karachi Shipyard, and the rest would be completed successively in 12 months”.[75]
Karachi Naval Dockyard However, in 2009, it was reported that the Navy had can-
celed its plans with HDW, the German government adjourn
the deal further deliberation leading the Navy to cancel the
The programme of (submarine technology contract with HDW while the German government seemed
transfer) Agosta class submarine, envisages not-interested to transfer the submarine technology to Pak-
a very high degree of transfer-of-technology, istan. However, the German government insisted that “a
which is bound to benefit the local industry in final decision should be made soon”.[73] In 2012, an undis-
improving our indigenous capability of building closed navy officials confirmed to media and news chan-
air-independent propulsion, which is a viable nels that the plan of acquiring German submarines has been
substitute of nuclear propulsion.... scrapped, dismissed as the Navy is no longer interested in
— Rear Admiral Gulzaman Malik, Commander the German submarines. Instead, the Navy has stepped
of Submarine Service Force, 1999, [32] into build the nation’s first indigenously built nuclear sub-
marine, which will be built by the Navy’s PNEC nuclear
engineers, assisted by the civilian PAEC's nuclear engineers
The Submarines Service Force (SSF) is the major com- and scientists.[73]
mand and aggressive command of Pakistan Navy, with pri- The X-Craft submarines are charged with carrying out
mary mission including the commencing of peaceful en- the mine laying, torpedo attacks, frogman operations and
gagement, surveillance and intelligence management, spe- commando landing, roughly for special forces operations.
cial operations, precision strikes, battle group operations, Three submarines of this class are operated by the Navy.
and the control of Pakistan’s border seas. The Subma- In 1985, the Italian Navy signed an understanding memo-
rine command also takes responsibility to protect coun- randum with the Navy and assisted the Navy to locally built
try’s sea lanes of communication as well as to protect the these midget submarines.[76] The Italian defence contrac-
economical interests, foreign trade and development of the tor, the COSMOS, supervised the first construction of the
country.[73][74] submarine while other two were built by Pakistan.[76]
In mid-2006, the Navy announced its requirement of three All of the Navy’s submarines have been equipped with Anti-
new fast-attack submarines to replace the two Agosta-70 ship missile (AShM) which can be fired while submerged.
submarines and rebuild its submarine fleet— after retiring The three submarines, the Khalid class, are equipped and
the four Daphne Class.[73] Immediately, the French defence capable of firing Exocet missiles, while the older Agosta
consortium, the DCN, offered its latest export design— the 70A submarines have been equipped with United States
Marlin class submarine— which is based on the Scorpène Harpoon missiles. The PNS Hamza submarine has an AIP
class submarine, but also uses technology from the Bar- reactor, containing the MESMA Air Independent Propul-
racuda nuclear attack submarine.[73] However, the Navy sion system, while the PNS Khalid and PNS Saad were up-
chose the Type 214 submarine, during the “IDEAS 2008 graded with the same MESMA AIP reactor system. The
exhibition”, the HDW director Walter Freitag told the me- Navy also plans to integrate the Boeing Harpoon Block-II
dia that: “The commercial contract has been finalized up to missile on to its Agosta-90B submarines; and the Agosta-
95%. The first submarine would be delivered to the Pak- 90Bs are capable of firing Black Shark torpedo, an Italian
istan Navy in 64 months after signing of the contract while made naval variant.
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 203
Since 2001, the Navy has been seeking to enhance its strate-
gic strike and precision capability by developing naval vari-
ants of the Babur land attack cruise missile (LACM).[73]
The Babur LACM has a range of 700 km and is capa-
ble of using both conventional and nuclear warheads.[73]
Future developments of LACM include capability of be-
ing launched from submarines, surface combatants and
aircraft.[73]
Since 1964, the submarines have been active with Pak-
istan Navy, and five active-duty diesel electric submarines
and three midget submarines, MG110, are in SSGN
command.[77]
In April 2014, the Pakistan Navy announced that it is in the A Pakistan Navy P-3C Orion in 2010
process of shifting primary operations and naval assets, in-
cluding its entire fleet of diesel-electric submarines (SSKs),
from Karachi to the Jinnah Naval Base in Ormara.[80] become a full-fledged and potent service of the Navy. From
1993 to 1994, the Navy stepped in its efforts in sea-airborne
operations when PAF donated and inducted five Mirage 5
Patrol Craft ROSE fighter jets, later transferred the entire squadron to
Navy armed with Exocet missiles.[13] Since then, the Mi-
Pakistan currently operates a range of patrol vessels pro- rage 5 are piloted by the navy fighter pilots after passing the
cured from Turkey, China and the USA, as well as some course with PAF Academy and certifying a diploma from a
domestically built. They are primarily divided among weapons system and combat training school.[13] The Mirage
the 10th Patrol Craft Squadron and the Fast Patrol Craft 5 belonged to the PAF as well as operated by the air force,
Squadron.[81] but are piloted by the Navy fighter pilots who are under the
command of senior ranking Navy officer.[13] The Westland
On 10 June 2015, a formal agreement was signed be-
lynx helicopters have now been removed from active ser-
tween the Pakistani government and the “China Ship Trad-
vice and a tender has been issued for their removal.[84]
ing Company” for the sale of total six patrol boats which
will eventually replace the ageing Barkat Class Boats of Pakistan Naval Air Arm Pakistan Naval Aviation is an im-
PMSA. Of these ships four will be 600ton while two will portant arm of the Pakistan Navy and assists in the surface
be 1500 ton. Three (600 ton) and one 1500 ton boats will and submarine flights to guarantee the safety of Pakistan
be built in China, and one 600ton and ond 1500 ton at sea borders.
the “Karachi Shipyards and Engineering Works”. The con- The PN Aviation Force consists of:
tract price was not disclosed but a senior Pakistani official
said at least USD 130 million had been allocated. CSTC
(China) has launched two 600 ton boats three months ahead • 3 ATR-72−500 -Anti submarine Warfare. 2 Atr72
of scheduled time.PMSA Basol is the second ship launced acquired on 16 August 2013 while 3rd one on 22
by CSTC.while one 600 ton boat is under construction at September 2015. Both are currently having modern-
KSEW which is expected to be delivered in early 2017. [82] ization in a German Firm for ASW role Scheduled to
be delivered at end of 2017.
November 2009. Another two advanced P-3C Orion 3.4.11 See also
aircraft to be delivered soon .[87][88]
• Pakistan Coast Guard
• 7 Fokker F27-200 Friendship – Naval surveillance
• Pakistan Naval Academy
aircraft[89]
• Pakistan Navy War College
• 4 Hawker 850 – Charged with electronic warfare as
well transporting VIP personalities, individuals, or • Kalmat Naval Base
groups.
• Ahsan Naval Base
• 32+ Dassault Mirage V – Anti-ship attack aircraft • Jinnah Naval Base
flown by Navy fighter pilots which are based at PAF
base Masroor in Karachi[89] (the fighter jets are oper- • Makran Naval Base
ated by the Pakistan Air Force but piloted by the Navy
• Mehran Naval Base
fighter pilots who served under the command of the se-
nior ranking Navy officer) scheduled to be retired and • Qasim Naval Base
replaced by JF-17 Thunder(Block II) in 2015 but are
in active-duty service with the Navy.
3.4.12 References
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles include NESCOM Burraq,
Satuma Spy, Satuma Informer and the UQAB-II[90] Citations
drone.
[1] The Military Balance 2010, p. 367, International Institute
• 12 Harbin Z-9EC anti-submarine warfare helicopters for Strategic Studies (London, 2010).
equipped with a surface-search radar, low frequency
[2] Flightglobal - World Air Forces 2015 (PDF),
dipping sonar, radar warning receiver, Doppler navi-
Flightglobal.com
gation system and armed with torpedoes.
[3] Pakistan Times | Top Story: Defence Day in Pakistan to-
day; President, PM ask nation to imbibe spirit of ’65 War
Pakistan Naval Air Defence Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
[4] Pakistan Navy (18 March 2008). “Pakistan Navy: Roles and
Main article: Pakistan Naval Air Arm Function”. Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR).
Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs. Retrieved 2011.
In 2010, the Navy established another command after Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
launching an air defence system, using the infrared hom- [5] Khan, Pakistan Navy (retired), current research officer
ing man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADs) system. at Pakistan Naval War College, Commander Muhammad
The new command which is known as Pakistan Naval Air Azam (2011). “Options for Pakistan Navy: § Pakistan Navy:
Defence (PNAD) are consisted the members of Pakistan A sentinel for energy and economic security”. United States
Marines and Navy’s ground officers after the first battalion Naval Academy: Commander Muhammad Azam Khan, re-
graduated from the Naval School of Weapon System Engi- tired. Current, research officer at the Pakistan Naval War
neering.[91] In 2010, the command air-launched and tested College: 7.
its first naval air defence system from Sonmiani Terminal— [6] Mills, J.M. (2003). Exploring polar frontiers: a historical
a space center of Space Research Commission (SRC) in the encyclopedia. 1 (A–M). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
North Arabian Sea.[92] Along with the members of Pakistan
Marines, the PNAD members are deployed in all over the [7] PN, Pakistan Navy. “Pakistan Navy: Hydrography”. Naval
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[35] “16 dead as India shoots down Pakistani naval plane”. The
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[39] Lt. (j.g.) Bryan Boggs, USN (6 June 2008). “USS Curts,
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trieved 28 May 2010. On December 9, the Navy announced trieved 24 December 2014.
that they had sunk the Ghazi on December 4, after the start
[41] “Jang Group Online Defence Day Supplement”. Retrieved
of the war. Later, officers were decorated for their role and
24 December 2014.
the offensive action of their ships in the sinking of the Ghazi.
After the war, however, teams of divers confirmed that it [42] PN ships to arrive in Indonesia for relief operation in
was an internal explosion that sank the Ghazi. The log of tsunami-hit areas
the Ghazi was recovered and the last entry as far as I can
recall was on November 29, 1971. Sadly, that too has been [43] Quake-Tsunami Devastation: Pakistan Joins Global Task
destroyed. Force for Aid
206 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
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[46] “Pakistan Navy continues relief operations”. The News In- [65] Pakistan Gets New Chinese Frigate Defence News
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Pakistani Naval Modernization Efforts”. www.defensenews.
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[48] PN. “Pakistan Navy and Operation OEF”. PN Second. [67] MRTP-33 missile boats THE 33 METRE Fast Patrol / At-
Archived from the original on 26 July 2007. Retrieved 11 tack Craft Archived 16 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
April 2012.
[68] Official Website – Frigates Archived 16 May 2012 at the
[49] Pakistan Navy Hands Command of CTF 150 to France Wayback Machine.
Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
[69] Official Website – Missile Boats Archived 27 May 2012 at
[50] Pakistan Navy Participation In Coalition Maritime Cam- the Wayback Machine.
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[70] Globalsecurity.org Archived 28 September 2006 at the
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Navy Boasted of Role in Fight Against Taliban”. NYTimes –
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[75] http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?208366|
[56] http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/admin_Authorities.html
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Retrieved 11 April 2012. site. Archived 9 June 2009 at WebCite
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[84] http://www.historyofpia.com/board/october_12/lynx_
oct31.jpg
[87] “US to provide Pak two advanced P-3C Orion naval surveil-
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Internet
Geography
208
4.1. GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN 209
of the tribunal’s award, the final stretch of Pakistan’s bor- The northern highlands
der with India is about 80 kilometers long, running east and
southeast of Sindh to an inlet of the Arabian Sea. The northern highlands include parts of the Hindu Kush,
the Karakoram Range, and the Himalayas. This area in-
cludes such famous peaks as K2[3] (Mount Godwin Austen,
at 8,611 meters the second highest peak in the world).
Outline of Pakistan More than one-half of the summits are over 4,500 me-
ters, and more than fifty peaks reach above 6,500 meters.
4.1.2 Geographical regions Travel through the area is difficult and dangerous, although
the government is attempting to develop certain areas into
tourist and trekking sites. Because of their rugged topogra-
phy and the rigours of the climate, the northern highlands
and the Himalayas to the east have been formidable barriers
to movement into Pakistan throughout history.
K2, at 8,619 metres (28,251 ft), is the world’s second highest peak
The Indus plain The Sulaiman Mountains dominate the northeast corner and
the Bolan Pass is a natural route into Afghanistan towards
Main article: Indo-Gangetic plain Kandahar. Much of the province south of the Quetta region
is sparse desert terrain with pockets of inhabitable towns
mostly near rivers and streams. The largest desert is the
The name Indus comes from the Sanskrit word sindhu,
Kharan Desert which occupies the most of Kharan District.
meaning ocean, from which also come the words Sindh,
Hindu, and India. The Indus, one of the great rivers of the This area is subject to frequent seismic disturbances be-
world, rises in southwestern Tibet only about 160 kilome- cause the tectonic plate under the Indian plate hits the plate
tres west of the source of the Sutlej River, which joins the under Eurasia as it continues to move northward and to
Indus in Punjab, and the Brahmaputra, which runs eastward push the Himalayas ever higher. The region surrounding
before turning southwest and flowing through Bangladesh. Quetta is highly prone to earthquakes. A severe quake
The catchment area of the Indus is estimated at almost in 1931 was followed by one of more destructive force in
1 million square kilometres, and all of Pakistan’s major 1935. The small city of Quetta was almost completely de-
rivers—the Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej—flow stroyed, and the adjacent military cantonment was heavily
into it. The Indus River basin is a large, fertile alluvial plain damaged. At least 20,000 people were killed. Tremors
formed by silt from the Indus. This area has been inhabited continue in the vicinity of Quetta; the most recent ma-
by agricultural civilizations for at least 5,000 years. jor earthquake occurred in October 2008. In January
1991 a severe earthquake destroyed entire villages in the
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, but far fewer people were killed in
Sistan Basin the quake than died in 1935. A major earthquake centred in
the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa’s Kohistan District in 1965 also
caused heavy damage.
4.1.3 Climate
Main article: Climate of Pakistan
Pakistan lies in the temperate zone, immediately above the
Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly The environmental issues is a great problem for the nature
sizable natural gas reserves, petroleum oil reserves, coal and nation of Pakistan and has been disturbing the balance
fields and large hydropower potential. between economic development and environmental protec-
tion. As Pakistan is a large importer of both exhaustible
and renewable natural resources and a large consumer of
Agriculture fossil fuels, the Ministry of Environment of Government
of Pakistan takes responsibility to conserve and protect the
Main article: Agriculture in Pakistan environment.
Current issues: water pollution from raw sewage, indus-
About 97% of Pakistan’s total land area is under cultiva- trial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh
tion and is watered by one of the largest irrigation systems water resources; a majority of the population does not
in the world. The most important crops are cotton, wheat, have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion;
rice, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, millets, pulses, oil seeds, desertification.
barley, fruits and vegetables, which together account for
more than 75% of the value of total crop output.
Natural disasters
Main article: Fishing in Pakistan Pakistan is subject to frequent earthquakes which are
often severe (especially in north and west) and severe
Fishery and fishing industry plays an important role in the flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August).
national economy of Pakistan. With a coastline of about Landslides are common in the northern mountains.
814 km, Pakistan has enough fishery resources that remain
to be fully developed. It is also a major source of export
Protected areas
earning.
Main article: Protected areas of Pakistan
Forestry
There are 14 national parks, 72 wildlife sanctuaries, 66
Main article: Forestry in Pakistan game reserves, 9 marine and littoral protected areas, 19 pro-
tected wetlands and a number of other protected grasslands,
shrublands, woodlands and natural monuments.
About only 4% of land in Pakistan is covered with forests.
The forests of Pakistan are a main source of food, lumber,
paper, fuel wood, latex, medicine as well as used for pur- International agreements
poses of wildlife conservation and Eco tourism.
Pakistan is a party to several international agreements re-
lated to environment and climate, the most prominent
Mining among them are:
4.1.8 References
[2] “Pakistan: Geography”. US Country Studies. Retrieved Main article: Tectonics zones of Pakistan
2008-05-05. Pakistan geologically overlaps both with the Indian and
the Eurasian tectonic plates where its Sindh and Punjab
[3] K2 – Britannica.com provinces lie on the north-western corner of the Indian plate
while Balochistan and most of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa
lie within the Eurasian plate which mainly comprises the
4.1.9 External links Iranian plateau, some parts of the Middle East and Central
Asia. The Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir lie mainly in
• Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan Central Asia along the edge of the Indian plate and hence
are prone to violent earthquakes where the two tectonic
• Pakistan Geographic plates collide.
4.3. CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN 215
4.2.4 References
[1] Geological Survey of Pakistan
4.2.2 Earthquakes
in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temper- 207 millimetres (8.1 in) of rain fell in 24 hours.[8] In 1992
ature ever recorded on the continent of Asia.[4][5] and the flooding during Monsoon season killed 1,834 people across
fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth. The the country, in 1993 flooding during Monsoon rains killed
highest rainfall of 620 millimetres (24 in) was recorded in 3,084 people, in 2003 Sindh province was badly affected
Islamabad during 24 hours on 24 July 2001. The record- due to monsoon rains causing damages in billions, killed
breaking rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rain- 178 people, while in 2007 Cyclone Yemyin submerged
fall in Islamabad in the previous 100 years. lower part of Balochistan Province in sea water killing 380
people. Before that it killed 213 people in Karachi on its
way to Balochistan.
Tropical cyclones and tornadoes
Main article: Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan 2010 Floods Main article: 2010 Pakistan floods
Each year before the onset of monsoon that is 15 April to 2010 July floods swept 20% of Pakistan’s land, the flood
15 July and also after its withdrawal that is 15 September is the result of unprecedented Monsoon rains which lasted
to 15 December, there is always a distinct possibility of the from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
cyclonic storm to develop in the north Arabian Sea. Cy- North eastern Punjab were badly affected during the mon-
clones form in the Arabian sea often results in strong winds soon rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By mid-
and heavy rainfall in Pakistan’s coastal areas. However tor- August, according to the governmental Federal Flood Com-
nadoes mostly occur during spring season that is March and mission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least
April usually when a Western Disturbance starts effecting 1,540 people, while 2,088 people had received injuries,
the northern parts of the country. It is also speculated that 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million peo-
cycles of tornado years may be correlated to the periods of ple had been displaced.[9] One month later, the data had
reduced tropical cyclone activity. been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with in-
juries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed.[10] The
flood affected more than 20 million people exceeding the
Drought combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake and the 2010
Main article: Drought in Pakistan Haiti earthquake.[11][12] The flood is considered as worst in
Pakistan’s history affecting people of all four provinces and
The drought has become a frequent phenomenon in the Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan.[13]
country. Already, the massive droughts of 1998-2002 has
stretched the coping abilities of the existing systems to the
limit and it has barely been able to check the situation from 2011 Sindh floods Main article: 2011 Sindh floods
becoming a catastrophe. The drought of 1998-2002 is con-
sidered worst in 50 years. According to the Economic Sur- The 2011 Sindh floods began during the monsoon season in
vey of Pakistan, the drought was one of the most significant mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in
factors responsible for the less than anticipated growth per- Sindh, Eastern Balochistan, and Southern Punjab.[14] The
formance. The survey terms it as the worst drought in the floods have caused considerable damage; an estimated 270
history of the country. According to the government, 40 civilians have been killed, with 5.3 million people and 1.2
percent of the country’s water needs went unmet.[6][7] million homes affected.[15] Sindh is a fertile region and of-
ten called the “breadbasket” of the country; the damage and
toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy is said to be
Floods
extensive. At least 1.7 million acres of arable land has been
inundated as a result of the flooding.[15] The flooding has
Main articles: Monsoon of South Asia and List of floods in
been described as the worst since the 2010 Pakistan floods,
Pakistan
which devastated the entire country.[15] Unprecedented tor-
rential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts
Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most de- of Sindh province.[16]
structive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, other floods
which caused destruction in the history of Pakistan, in-
clude the flood of 1950, which killed 2910 people; on 1 4.3.2 See also
July 1977 heavy rains and flooding in Karachi, killed 248
people, according to Pakistan meteorological department • Climate of Islamabad
218 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY
• Climate of Karachi [14] “Pakistan floods: Oxfam launches emergency aid response”.
BBC World News South Asia. 14 September 2011. Retrieved
• Climate of Lahore 15 September 2011.
• Climate of Rawalpindi [15] “Floods worsen, 270 killed: officials”. The Express Tribune.
September 13, 2011. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
• Climate of Peshawar
[16] http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Latest-News/Latest-News.
• Climate of Quetta html
• Climate of Multan
• Climate of Hyderabad
• Climate of Nawabshah
• Climate of Gwadar
• 2001 Islamabad Cloud Burst
• List of extreme weather records in Pakistan
4.3.3 References
[1] http://www.pakmet.com.pk/latest%20news/Latest%
20News.html
[2] http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/
comment.html?entrynum=1559&tstamp=
[3] http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/25.htm
[6] http://www.ndma.gov.pk/Publications/livingwithdisasters.
pdf
[7] http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/publication/9%
20sept/Drought/drought%20coping%20in%20afghanistan.
pdf
[11] South Asia, BBC News (14 August 2010). “Floods affect
20m people – Pakistan PM Gilani”. British Broadcasting
Corporation. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
5.1 Text
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Tjenssen, Abhinav, Podzemnik, Parkjunwung, Senzangakhona, Drmies, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Rambo4u, Shovon76, Komala412,
Puchiko, Excirial, Jusdafax, TonyBallioni, SBC-YPR, Andy pyro, Resoru, Skeerti, Tiniti, Joa po, Wiki dr mahmad, Jayantanth, NuclearWarfare,
Jotterbot, TheRedPenOfDoom, Incognitus scriptor, Dekisugi, Audaciter, ChrisHodgesUK, Pyule, Bobbytheonlyone, Thingg, Lord Cornwallis,
SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, AgnosticPreachersKid, Nathan Johnson, Vayalir, BodhisattvaBot, Feinoha, Amit20081980, Bhuvann, Airplaneman,
Amul.saha, Addbot, ERK, Altetendekrabbe, DOI bot, Manjunath Doddamani Gajendragad, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, Ka Faraq Gatri, Download,
Lihaas, AnnaFrance, LemmeyBOT, SamatBot, AtheWeatherman, LinkFA-Bot, Vyom25, Kahasabha, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Ias2008,
Jarble, Odder, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, Babban12, WellsSouth, QueenCake, AjitDongre, James-
bose4u, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, AmritasyaPutra, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Keithbob, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Materialscientist,
Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Samar60, Davidgutierrezalvarez, Dewan357, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Capricorn42, Jubileeclipman, Nasnema,
Tazz41, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, ManasShaikh, Balapur444, Myxp009, J04n, Jezhotwells, RibotBOT, Vij singh121, Creez34, Lobyk, For4me,
Persontgssbdx, Rajvaddhan, Shadowjams, Rtlevel, Rajender Sethi, Mughalnz, A.amitkumar, Undsoweiter, Fruchogurt, FrescoBot, Skylark2008,
Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Cracker.online.wizard, Sneha.desai, Deepak.pathak, Swapnil.bose, Mightymrt away, D'ohBot, Jgw71, Rhyme3,
Manohar.gupta, Inderkk, Lordharrypotter, Ladril, Apoorva.sen, Citation bot 1, Prakash2009, Taeyebar, SpacemanSpiff, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, Elockid, Jonesey95, Mathew.danel, Calmer Waters, Hamtechperson, Moonraker, RedBot, MondalorBot, Serols, Srath12345, Deshab-
hakta, Full-date unlinking bot, Dewan753, Trappist the monk, Vinay84, Chhora, Callanecc, Dinamik-bot, Clarkcj12, Extra999, Swift&silent,
Περίεργος, Cowlibob, Aurorion, Diannaa, Pankajbgarh, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, World8115, Keegscee, Onel5969, Shardaprasad001,
Chipmunkdavis, Generalboss3, Moondras, Topkiller161, LcawteHuggle, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Wikisurf1, Tommy2010,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Skylark2007, Piggy1956, Hashemi1971, Josve05a, Traxs7, Krishnagopi06, Razdev2003, Mar4d, Drupada, H3llBot, Alveerana,
SporkBot, Makecat, Mdmday, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, 8ankitj, Common Senser, Philafrenzy, Donner60, LibertyOrDeath,
Lacobrigo, Bhurshut, Chewings72, GermanJoe, Nayansatya, Mittgaurav, PiMaur, Helpsome, Locomotive999, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-
Jones, MelbourneStar, LogX, , Winston786, Frietjes, Ntrikha, Dru of Id, Asukite, Rurik the Varangian, Wllmevans, Secret of success, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Thisthat2011, AnsarParacha, Gob Lofa, Harpi711, Bibcode Bot, Amitexo, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Soubhagya18198,
Hz.tiang, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, HIDECCHI001, MusikAnimal, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, Joshua Jonathan, Difiicult, Ar-
injatt, TejasDiscipulus2, Amitrochates, Gyrodoor33, Haryana-shakti, David.moreno72, The Dawn of Husk, Mdann52, SaibAbaVenkatesh,
Ashish-Sharma-Dilli, Cyberbot II, EuroCarGT, Stumink, Kumaonkings, Cpt.a.haddock, Dexbot, Mogism, Mitra2412, Abitoby, RaniPatel,
Copperchloride, Frosty, SFK2, Kmj764, Ashish57, Stewwie, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Bhonsale, Reynold Franco, Hillbillyholiday, Jodosma, Urnan-
abha, Tentinator, Hendrick 99, Soham, DavidLeighEllis, LouisAragon, Haminoon, Bvpanek, Wikiuser13, Ugog Nizdast, Interpréteur, Zaketo,
NottNott, Pops7003, Hitdarbway, Asha2jagdish, Logical1004, Ramsingh12, Radharani11, Bladesmulti, Bananaw, Mansinghj, Robevans123,
Adba123, Manish.chandel, Stinson20001, Arjunkrishna90, JaconaFrere, Lakun.patra, Skr15081997, Mathnerd89, Acharyanamaste, Rajive14,
Realfacts123, Arunvrparavur, Sandesh N, Tanu sachhar, Monkbot, VictoriaGrayson, Ajaythomas0007, Yakirf, StratMan001, Madhanmohan-
coimbatore, Magmar3, Adinpap, Boby1187, Sparta3, JijL2341, Khannishat29, Rupertgrint1, Ghatus, Shiggy1, Avantiputra7, Jonathanarpith,
Dileepqwerty, TranquilHope, Jonesmith4, Dot.porter, Santhapriya, Buddyonline77, Kautilya3, Takafumi1, Vreswiki, Julesbiggie, FourViolas,
Bongan, Lakhan jain, BudChrSch, NZ 2014, Ahmedwaheed1234, A.v.vyas, Cartakes, Rubbish computer, ScrapIronIV, Cjflanker7, Weighty,
Isambard Kingdom, Farhankahout, N schav 88, Luckysydney77, Jyotheeswar kichili, Bharat-bhoomi, Nidafatimashahi, , SaNj1234,
Lorstaking, Knight91B, Fcukindia, Pusancaito, 3 of Diamonds, Capankajsmilyo, AusLondonder, Rakeshsngh060, Sandy Shet, Anentai, Chintu-
5.1. TEXT 225
magnet, Amal Kuruvilla Babu, Vanished user ija0qfr2o3ijfi 4i4tijwci823irnf, Parvezans88, Raj Bag, MD SHAZID MOZIB, Someone from us,
Eniskates, RefCafe, Hinono134, Filpro, AJUDIA DARSHAN P, Bishina, Sanket Edits Wiki, Kanavkamal, Saurabh Umar, Rohit Chaser, Wasiq
9320, Varunvenu1000, TurkicDelight, Boomer Vial, Vijaykumarmadanu, IndigoTiger, Anadimishra2, GreenC bot, Raheem-ejaz, MPVK, Panda
Man.3, Gurbar Akaal, Rameshchandrasrivatsa, FirstKabir, Bender the Bot, Dheeraj2291, Acopyeditor, IndrajithNaik, Charit0222, Darth Maul
with a black lightsaber, Ashish.singh8912 and Anonymous: 1190
• Pakistan Movement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Movement?oldid=748781476 Contributors: Menchi, Raven in Orbit,
Dsmdgold, Bobblewik, Sohailstyle, Pasquale, Bender235, Neko-chan, El C, VishalB, Art LaPella, Awais141, Varungarde, Bastin, Woohookitty,
RHaworth, Dwaipayanc, Koavf, The wub, Ground Zero, Crazycomputers, Gareth E. Kegg, Bgwhite, Deeptrivia, PaulGarner, Ozzykhan,
Siddiqui, Srinivasasha, Stallions2010, Emersoni, Tachs, Szhaider, Zakksez, Caballero1967, Eenu, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Bolasanibk,
AnonUser, Spasage, Hmains, Bluebot, Hibernian, Rama’s Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Pepsidrinka, Muhammad Hamza, Ronaz,
Ohconfucius, Jidanni, Johanna-Hypatia, Fast track, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, JorisvS, Green Giant, Prof786, Makyen, Deepak
D'Souza, Dl2000, Falcon007, Heer Sayyal, CmdrObot, Amalas, JohnCD, ShelfSkewed, Chicheley, Farrukh Hashmi, Thijs!bot, Islescape,
Davidelit, THEunique, Random user 8384993, Salizaf, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, DrKay, Fowler&fowler, KylieTastic, TopGun,
Neobaba, Al-minar, Haroon.tauqir, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Suprah, Noor Aalam, SieBot, Eshfaq, Aguenther, Caltas, Atmamatma,
Gr8opinionater, Deavenger, MenoBot, ArdClose, EoGuy, Sherazkamran, Mild Bill Hiccup, Shovon76, Abrahamlast, Excirial, Muhandes, Io-
hannes Animosus, DumZiBoT, Kuddyc, Kurdo777, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Granpuff, Amirobot, AnomieBOT,
LilHelpa, The Banner, A Fantasy, Raja1020, Bellerophon, Yodaspirine, Jaagpkpk, Suneet87, Shadowjams, Skcpublic, FrescoBot, S.K.Q,
D'ohBot, Inlandmamba, Nazariapakistantrust, Talhamian, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, TheoloJ, Jethwarp, Dabamizan48, WikiTome,
Onel5969, Generalboss3, John of Reading, Look2See1, Qasimcheema42, Dcirovic, Mar4d, SporkBot, Foresomenteneikona, Murtazawi82, Jca-
neen, Meh.ahd, Justice007, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Naved77, MelbourneStar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Andrew Gwilliam, BG19bot, Umais
Bin Sajjad, Sahara4u, PhnomPencil, Darkness Shines, MMKhan22, IluvatarBot, Asadcheema 2020, Dharampanthi, BattyBot, TheJJJunk, Sub-
altern Historian, Stumink, Futurist110, Br'er Rabbit, Delljvc, PeerBaba, 93, Rafeh96, Ngrewal1, Jodosma, Tentinator, Wamiq, Nikhilmn2002,
Monkbot, Miniman77, Tigercompanion25, Andymii, UsmanKhan, Nimrainayat6290, Kashifsaeed79, Crystallizedcarbon, Mvkaushik, Rubbish
computer, Arvansages, Human3015, Ahmerawan, Maxmalerights, Filpro, Laksh Talreja123, Hassan hussain vic, Towns Hill, Robert Brukner
and Anonymous: 154
• Government of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan?oldid=747300135 Contributors: William Avery, Ed-
ward, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Moriori, Graeme Bartlett, Ragib, SoWhy, Sohailstyle, Antandrus, Ukexpat, Mike Rosoft, D6, Bishonen,
MarkS, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Pokereth, Laurascudder, Giraffedata, Alansohn, Arthena, Neonumbers, Skyring, Natcase, Camw, Rjwilmsi,
Chipuni, Lockley, Bhadani, FayssalF, CStyle, Bgwhite, Guptadeepak, Joshdboz, Siddiqui, Stallions2010, Szhaider, Zakksez, Schajee, NeilN,
Sardanaphalus, YellowMonkey, Slarre, Haymaker, Rrius, Spasage, Bluebot, Jahiegel, Aacool, Pepsidrinka, Evlekis, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Fast
track, Kashmiri, Green Giant, Acetylcholine, Drfighar, Kikiam, DangerousPanda, Kylu, Neelix, AndrewHowse, KevinPuj, Jvandy 2610, Vi-
noo202, HokieRNB, Muhammadhani, Badark, Anandhanju, Dynaflow, DumbBOT, H ahsan, Gimmetrow, Islescape, Rzafar, Mereda, Marek69,
John254, Sulaimandaud, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Obiwankenobi, Prolog, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Samar, MER-C, VoABot II, Jyothis, River-
torch, Avicennasis, Truthspreader, Philg88, Pauly04, Jim.henderson, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, Jahanas, Ryan Postlethwaite, DadaNeem,
Flatterworld, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Dzenanz, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rollo44, Pahari Sahib, LeaveSleaves, Shareyar khan, Razzsic,
ARUNKUMAR P.R, Mrs87, Aec is away, Logan, Irtiqaa, Calliopejen1, Smsarmad, Bentogoa, Tiptoety, Florentino floro, Denisarona, Mr.
Granger, Elassint, ClueBot, Faran86, Myopia123, Karrar-commando, Raawais, Brewcrewer, Jusdafax, Zdravljica, Rehanafzal, Lablinks, Razor-
flame, SchreiberBike, Kakofonous, Acabashi, Kslall8765, Anoopan, XLinkBot, Amaan akter, NellieBly, UnknownForEver, MatthewVanitas,
Addbot, Mihirbhojani, Misaq Rabab, Fahadsobani, Fahadmubarak, Nabil rais2008, Glane23, Lihaas, Mnaumanm, Favonian, Yobot, Ata Fida
Aziz, Thelonerex, AnomieBOT, InfantGorilla, Jim1138, 9258fahsflkh917fas, 90, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, TinucherianBot II, Sehrish143,
Nasirkhan, Aashaa, Maven 007, FrescoBot, Worky worky, Bad employee, Bloody0079, Coolprosu, Sayyam4u, TimonyCrickets, StaticVision,
AhmadJawad, Pekayer11, I dream of horses, MJ94, A8UDI, Akkida, Fawadlauhany, Pedir, Hrs87, DC, Vrenator, Robertiki, IRISZOOM,
Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Bane310, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Rameezraja001, The Pakistani Falcon, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki,
Mfano, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Gimmetoo, Danyr1099, Mar4d, Drustaz, Imtiazarain, Jayngz34, TheDramatist, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar,
AStannard, Frietjes, Trunks ishida, BG19bot, Sahara4u, Compfreak7, Hostager, RGloucester, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, JurgenNL, Lugia2453,
Faizan, I am One of Many, Stylistica, Comp.arch, Maan Tujay Salam, Tusdec, Keshetsven, Arif Mehmood Qureshi, Monkbot, Sacred Falcon,
Ameertamoor90, ChopSticksChan, None-of-your-beeswax-bro-so-quit-looking, User37374, User267, User373738 and Anonymous: 399
• Pakistan Air Force Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Air_Force?oldid=749524647 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Gsl, Rmher-
men, William Avery, Hephaestos, Rbrwr, Edward, Varunrebel, Snoyes, Rlandmann, Stefan-S, Jiang, Smack, Dysprosia, Astrotrain, Nv8200pa,
Topbanana, Ironman419, Fvw, RedWolf, Altenmann, Dukeofomnium, ThaGrind, DigiBullet, Cyrius, Greyengine5, Cobaltbluetony, Grant65,
Gzornenplatz, Ragib, Sohailstyle, Gdr, Sam Hocevar, Faraz, Gscshoyru, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Chem1, Mennonot, Moverton, Rich
Farmbrough, Loganberry, Stereotek, Bender235, Loren36, Zscout370, El C, Zegoma beach, Adambro, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson,
Idleguy, Nsaa, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Csabo, Mr Adequate, Andrew Gray, Denniss, Hohum, Harisnajam, Awais141, Rentastrawberry, Mm-
sarfraz, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, Yousaf465, Lkinkade, Angr, Woohookitty, Blackeagle, Urnonav, Ardfern, Tabletop, Blacksun, Zzyzx11,
Kralizec!, Salmansignals, GraemeLeggett, Paxsimius, Graham87, BD2412, JamesBurns, Melesse, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tan-
gotango, Gd, Ian Dunster, Sumanch, Titoxd, Usmanreddy, RexNL, Gurch, Intgr, Alphachimp, OpenToppedBus, Russavia, Cpcheung, Ahunt,
Perm, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, Noclador, TexasAndroid, Eraserhead1, John Smith’s, SluggoOne, Napoleon12, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Cam-
bridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, (Clone)Stephen P. Cohen, Siddiqui, Welsh, Megapixie, Wisesabre, Brian Crawford,
Misza13, MySchizoBuddy, Cerejota, DeadEyeArrow, Szhaider, Salman4paf, Melanchthon, Jkelly, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k,
JoanneB, Tierce, Nick-D, Street Scholar, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Prodego, Waqas.usman, Spasage, Sam8, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Beta-
command, Chris the speller, Quinsareth, Saira khalid, Freedom skies, Colonies Chris, Tarikash, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Greenshed, Iqy007,
Cheenamalai, Pepsidrinka, Emre D., Evil Merlin, Nakon, Legaleagle86, Dreadstar, Lcarscad, Godanov, DMacks, Panchitaville, Antheii, John,
Scientizzle, SilkTork, Fast track, MilborneOne, Shadowlynk, Green Giant, Umair101, JohnWittle, Yasirniazkhan, MarkSutton, Andrwsc,
Dl2000, Iridescent, Spartian, Skapur, SohanDsouza, Woodshed, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Aliyusuf, Mmab111, J Milburn, Zaku Two, JFor-
get, Tere naam, CmdrObot, Alizia~enwiki, Mark Sien, Stefan Jansen, Fnlayson, Warhorus, SyntaxError55, Gogo Dodo, Muhammadhani,
Chasingsol, Bhalli619, Jaiiaf, Prateik, Omicronpersei8, Aldis90, PKT, Aditya Kabir, Qwyrxian, Rzafar, Sanjaysaigal, SGGH, Esemono, Su-
laimandaud, Dsouzaron, Hcobb, Nick Number, Mm11, Escarbot, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Dr. Blofeld, Uppal340, MECU, Ksquareku-
226 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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the monk, Hector2009, Zahidb, Dinamik-bot, SoulBrotherKab, XzQshnR, Goodboy2009, Dabamizan48, Reaper Eternal, Vineethvaishukon-
damareddy, Innotata, Asitpathak, Gr8personality, Woogee, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Umer.rd, EmausBot, John of Reading, Scotteaton92,
Dewritech, Calix468, Sp33dyphil, TheKrazyDude, Tommy2010, Dr.farukh, Pralhad258, Rapidraw12, ZéroBot, Susfele, Purim Spiel, Adeelay-
oub, Lateg, Ironeaglemoiz, Mar4d, Anir1uph, Sherwani nadeem, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Pakistanfanforeva, H3llBot, Powereditor, Superashahzad,
Fahad885, L Kensington, Sheikh111, JANJ, Naachhi, Conservative-yogy, FalconsforPAF, Vensudy, Indian1985, Power32221, ClueBot NG,
Hamza1992~enwiki, Zain.uas007, Lion44, Chester Markel, Amerali008, Code16, Lm 997, Buklaodord, Snotbot, Frietjes, Shimily, Paffalcons-
dotcom, Kevin Gorman, 149AFK, Warisali72, Thebhatti1980, Helpful Pixie Bot, Adammatt1985, DBigXray, Akshat.kale, Lowercase sigmabot,
BG19bot, Wasbeer, Nikhil199029, Jigben, Hassaanch, Pak soldier007, Darkness Shines, Kazimali101, Sainath19, Syoneiros, Iamtrhino, Safe-
haven86, Katangais, Deepsikha, Udeekan, Earlyriser10, Pervezbilgrami, Rajaomair, Karan Kamath, Muffin Wizard, BattyBot, Kool777456,
Najamkhan16, Fajjuify, Donsomani, Cyberbot II, Aliwal2012, Adnan bogi, Khazar2, Farhan Khurram, Faheem siddiq, Irfioo7, Uzidon92,
AllamShaikSarwar, Cerabot~enwiki, PeerBaba, Kwisha, Verecund8, Rao Asghar, Faizan, Maxx786, Zarghun11, Wamiq, Pvpoodle, Achmad
Fahri, Asadwarraich, Irfanbodla, Haseeb Ahmed Malik 786, Filedelinkerbot, Malik Haseeb Ahmed, Zeshan Mahmood, Ghatus, SheriffIsIn-
Town, Nicky mathew, Cyborg.pk, FreeatlastChitchat, Rowland938, Sacred Falcon, Ataurrehman.994, Shaw Knowledge, Boris Lewis, MBlaze
Lightning, Armghan3071, InternetArchiveBot, Ahmadshahzad11, Bukhari.Furqan, MethaneK, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 1214
• Pakistan Army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Army?oldid=749265560 Contributors: Zundark, Ed Poor, Michael Hardy, Dan
Koehl, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, AWhiteC, WhisperToMe, Nv8200pa, Ironman419, Fvw, Modulatum, Pingveno, Academic Challenger, Ujmi,
HaeB, Carnildo, DocWatson42, Gardenmaster, MSGJ, Everyking, Varlaam, Mboverload, Falcon Kirtaran, Bobblewik, Ragib, Utcursch, Sohail-
style, Subsailor, Billposer, Mzajac, Martin Wisse, Necrothesp, Faraz, Neutrality, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Acsenray, Rich Farmbrough,
Bender235, ESkog, Pedant, Zscout370, MBisanz, El C, Art LaPella, Pablo X, Hajenso, Idleguy, Thatguy96, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Mr Ad-
equate, Ricky81682, Andrew Gray, Hohum, Harisnajam, Dalillama, Sciurinæ, Awais141, GabrielF, Pauli133, Mmsarfraz, Yousaf465, Bo-
brayner, Firsfron, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, TomTheHand, Tabletop, I64s, Kralizec!, Siqbal, Graham87, Dpv, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
Tim!, Coemgenus, Sparten, Valentinejoesmith, MarnetteD, Leithp, Titoxd, Usmanreddy, Dan Guan, Mark83, RexNL, Intgr, Cpcheung, DVdm,
JesseGarrett, Bgwhite, Ankmin, Noclador, Wavelength, Borgx, Shemrez, RussBot, SpuriousQ, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas,
Wimt, NawlinWiki, Siddiqui, Rjensen, Thiseye, Retired username, StarChaser, T, M2k41, Kewp, Haemo, Deepak~enwiki, Thegreyanomaly,
Szhaider, Johndrinkwater, Wpollard, Alkubaiba, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k, Taptee, Nirav.maurya, Caballero1967, Tierce,
FriendOfPanda, RG2, NeilN, Nick-D, Street Scholar, Sardanaphalus, RaiderAspect, SmackBot, WilliamThweatt, YellowMonkey, Derek An-
drews, Reedy, Somizulfi, Vald, Fvguy72, Jagged 85, Spasage, Taz Manchester, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, Ittaskforce, Hi-
bernian, Kungming2, Colonies Chris, MyNameIsVlad, Ammar shaker, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Jaida, Huon, Cheenamalai, Khoikhoi, Shadika-
murgha, Salamurai, Ohconfucius, Ali 786, Chymicus, Sambot, Fast track, MilborneOne, Green Giant, Drumzandspace2000, Mr. Lefty,
Bostonbrahmin20, Bluewind, Osyed, Zain Sadullah Khan, Publicus, Meco, Bharadsm, Iridescent, Haus, Woodshed, FairuseBot, Mmab111,
Omarshehab, JForget, SuperTank17, Tere naam, Wikist, CmdrObot, Zero.Unit, Ahmad R Shahid, Imdabs, Funnyfarmofdoom, Fnlayson,
Samuell, Marwatt, Huma1509, Bhalli619, Pascal.Tesson, SAWGunner89, Christian75, DumbBOT, Teratornis, IComputerSaysNo, Biblbroks,
Gimmetrow, Aldis90, Epbr123, Barticus88, Marek69, Sulaimandaud, Nathraq, Dsouzaron, Hcobb, Mm11, Natalie Erin, Hamzakahn, Kraka-
toaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Muhammad Shemyal Nisar, Lyricmac, Trueblood786, THEunique, MECU, MikeLynch, Samar, Has-
sanpak30, MER-C, Chanakyathegreat, Fetchcomms, Zaindy, PhilKnight, Doctorhawkes, Acroterion, Haseebuddin, Magioladitis, Advil, Vick-
ydevil000, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Buckshot06, Jbalocki, Avicennasis, Gabriel Kielland, BilCat, Shammi123, JTGILLICK, TelusFielder,
Jedi-gman, Stephenchou0722, Raza0007, MartinBot, Kiore, Shahroze, Fahadumer, Rettetast, Bissinger, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64,
Rko 0907, EdBever, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, OohBunnies!, McSly, Ayubm, Jeepday, Skier Dude, Ahsaniqbal 93, Warrior
on Terrorism, ElinneaG, Hariswaheed, Juliancolton, Bogdan~enwiki, Vanished user 39948282, TopGun, Bonadea, Squids and Chips, MI245,
Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Nameerb, Indubitably, Umar420e, W. B. Wilson, Philip Trueman, Jomasecu, Anticorruption, NPrice,
Guillaume2303, Abhishekgoel80, Qxz, Someguy1221, Monaimpk90, Blunta, Steven J. Anderson, Nazgul02, Mannafredo, Razzsic, Wpktsfs,
Carinemily, Rnbhatti, AjitPD, Eurocopter, Kermanshahi, Adeelkhan87, Aliimran900, Fawazrob, Talooman, Waseem.Azhar, Julekmen, Pdf-
pdf, SieBot, Sarata~enwiki, Ødipus sic, WereSpielChequers, Tbo 157, Anklefear, Skybolt101, Kerk999, Hbtila, Smsarmad, Yasir Yousaf, Dr.
Daredevil, Hazel eyed khan, Keilana, PookeyMaster, Flyer22 Reborn, Chromaticity, Oda Mari, Sas311, JSpung, Indoles, Black1928, Miami
5.1. TEXT 227
bingo, KPH2293, Lightmouse, Mesoso2, PakSniper786, Mr. Stradivarius, Ibericus Lusitanus, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Jons63, ImageRe-
movalBot, YSSYguy, ClueBot, Asifask, Noorkhanuk85, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Think2big, EoGuy, Gaia Octavia Agrippa,
Mild Bill Hiccup, Kaiser22312, Boing! said Zebedee, Mezigue, Veshi, Cpq29gpl, Niceguyedc, RafaAzevedo, Karrar-commando, Otolemur
crassicaudatus, Cirt, Auntof6, SamuelTheGhost, Pk-user, Ktr101, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Panyd, Wonder scorpio2005, Keysersoze25, Iohannes
Animosus, SoxBot, Razorflame, Banime, Staygyro, SyedNaqvi90, DavidDCM, Uzairsagitarian, Thehelpfulone, Nem1yan, One last pharaoh,
Versus22, Kashifmania 7, Antalope, Rhp1462, M2ask, Berean Hunter, Habibfriend, Heretheycometosnufftherooster, DumZiBoT, AjitParkash,
XubayrMA, XLinkBot, Gnowor, DaL33T, Dr.faizanali, WikHead, ErkinBatu, UnknownForEver, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The,
Milstuffxyz, Dave1185, Addbot, 88877762u4hfm, Jownawan, Misaq Rabab, DougsTech, Alimetalfalcon, TutterMouse, Omrwyn, Shirtwaist,
CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, Faizantcs, Talha, Debresser, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Numbo3-bot, Bwrs, Tide rolls, Jan eissfeldt, Emperor Genius,
Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, I m da pimp, Sherbazjan, Umairtunio, QueenCake, Lime123456789, Magog the Ogre,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, MianJiFromPakistan, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Circuitbaba, Kingpin13, Julnap,
Skkamath, Materialscientist, Deviljin60, Kapitop, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Gsmgm, Xqbot, A Fantasy, Tashkeel, Date delinker, AbigailAber-
nathy, Alyhasnain, Sehrish143, Coretheapple, Zenoxas, GrouchoBot, Thelonesomerex, Ute in DC, Ahmed4995, Signalian, Bezerk86, Hj108,
Shayanshaukat, Circuitboy09, Nsgcommando, Lunar Dragoon, Brutaldeluxe, Doulos Christos, Man han2006, AzanGun, AustralianRupert, In-
cidious, Shadowjams, Žiedas, Mughalnz, Spongefrog, Farhan 9909, Adirai666, Rashtra, Skcpublic, Manju.Sidgour, FrescoBot, Smirkykey-
board, 12jh900, Ironboy11, StaticVision, Sakartvelos, Cowboy forth worth, Mikehunthatesu, Politicalpandit, Sweetgirl1965, Ahmer Jamil Khan,
Xaveq, Hussainhssn, Mikhan81, I dream of horses, Pink Bull, Elockid, Degen Earthfast, Nuclearram, Hoo man, Saadsaleemmalik, Ammarshk,
Partha ceg, NarSakSasLee, SaadMuhammad, Sarmadhassan, Barras, Ahsaninam, Elitedrago, Declan Clam, D climacus, Dodi1234, LogAntiLog,
Lam Kin Keung, Samr19, Muhsaeed, EMP, Vineethvaishukondamareddy, Lammidhania, Tumna, Wildds, Jacksbikes, TheMesquito, Sidd555,
DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Stephreef, Pakistan897, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Muhammad asad raza khan, Armyoptimist, Mid-
nighthawk, Kiernander, Raheel134, Bagh71, EmausBot, John of Reading, Rc3003, AEC Tripp, AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, Sc303, Going-
Batty, Sentinel R, RenamedUser01302013, Wikipelli, K6ka, Sanabil Mirza, Yaya2, Sundostund, Josve05a, ObscureReality, Mar4d, Alpha Quad-
rant (alt), Jenni.anti, Seattle, Δ, Superashahzad, Lestephenois1, KazekageTR, Zuggernaut, Donner60, Shahid Durez, Mantisnpb, Carmichael,
Zakeria9494, Abbaszeb, Nabil 05, Pakistanghul, Jayngz34, Umair1808, 28bot, Ahmad Nauman, Mfaisal1973, ClueBot NG, Muzammil.butt,
Borninusa100, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Om996jo, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Code16, Paybc01, Hassan Riaz Chaudhry, Raam Das, Teepusultan,
Doh5678, Ijaz-qaiser, Gr8alee, Cntras, Netasif2009, Taqi1286, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Xtreme.stars, Upite, Widr, Gabriel431, MMUs-
manNazakatAli, Nalsra, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, Electriccatfish2, Creativeshahzad, DBigXray, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Pakarmyfanpage,
AxeEffect (usurped), Jigben, Musab.raja, MusikAnimal, Darkness Shines, Jogi don, Compfreak7, Johndawn69, Jhfjdhfjhsdfkd, Aminarab,
Tigerinthewoods, Josema20, 220 of Borg, Paksoldier, Loser0302, Blueridgeline, Juliya julie, Sarvesh9090, EricEnfermero, Kool777456, Amer-
ica789, Arr4, Adnan bogi, AIRFORCE-FB, Arcandam, Khazar2, Bandit313, Sumervirk, Faheem siddiq, Changineverything, PancakeArson,
Dexbot, Theonepak01, Tiger2222, Mogism, AllamShaikSarwar, Clusterstone, Mahirdyan, Lugia2453, Sence45, FarhanBatkhela, TripWire,
FOX 52, Rohit147258, Pinfix, Faizan, Maxx786, Saffi ullah, Ccjeditor, AliRazaS123, Defenceline, Gullshaer, Wanishahrukh, Tentinator, Pak-
istan97, Antiochus the Great, Bishal Khan, Bivamoon, Fevertopes faiz, Askarahmed, Hankspanks, Kamrul512, Uhuhhello, Zenibus, Shaheer16,
Ginsuloft, George8211, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, Achmad Fahri, Jianhui67, Asadwarraich, Fahri Ahmad, Misbaali, Rajkumararslan, Maan Tujay
Salam, Thedudeyouknow, Salman.naveed10, Newiphone, Rameshnta909, Lakun.patra, Thatsomebody123, Genehash, Pooxy10to, Ltaliawan,
Filedelinkerbot, As2552, Akahddlo, Славянский патриот, Roshu Bangal, Umar Chaudhry - 20, UsmanKhan, Raj33317, Naumanbahrain, NQ,
Justacitizenoftheworld, Ghatus, Nimrainayat6290, Faizan imtiaz ali khan, Shahzaibaliaz, Omerirfan, StanTheMan87, Waqasgh, Aghaimran, Cy-
borg.pk, Zarar younis, FreeatlastChitchat, Coolman075, Teja srinivas, Imrannawaz316, AminDada787, AlphaBetaGamma01, Ali awan malik,
Man from Nephew, Goverment of amerca, Hassan waziristani, Human3015, Pakknowledge1234, Hasanmustafa22, Kkk111jdjdj, Ayush Kr Su,
Supdiop, Sacred Falcon, RedPanda25, MusikBot, MAnoo Ali, Shaw Knowledge, Asimraza999, Kedar3089, Ckaudine500, Zadon19, MCIWS,
Arghya1999, Nihalium, Haseeb Malik99, CorrectionLab 3000, MBlaze Lightning, Commandernavy, Sssinha, Fahad (Sigge), GreenGermany55,
Dndhshsd, GSS-1987, Allthefoxes, Dingavinga, Towns Hill, Kashifpeter, Jilanimeal, MalikAttaRasool, MalikHamza024, Attaulhadiz, Vipul-
saini11, Kashif933, Asad.abdullah49, Andreabanks6 and Anonymous: 1405
• Pakistan Navy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Navy?oldid=749555550 Contributors: Zundark, Jinian, Ahoerstemeier, Dark-
wind, Astrotrain, Ironman419, Indefatigable, Fvw, Dukeofomnium, Mboverload, Douglas Milnes, Ragib, Sohailstyle, Gdr, Quadell, Faraz,
Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Alistair1978, Bender235, El C, Cohesion, Giraffedata, Idleguy, Grutness, Andrew
Gray, Marathi mulgaa, Evil Monkey, Mmsarfraz, Yousaf465, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Kralizec!, JohnC, Behun, Mandarax, Toba1,
Rjwilmsi, Sparten, Astronaut, Durin, Bhadani, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, Tu160m, Cpcheung, Ahunt, DVdm, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot,
John Smith’s, Napoleon12, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen, Siddiqui, Welsh, MySchizoBuddy, Aaron Schulz, DeadEyeArrow, Szhaider,
Arthur Rubin, Mercenary2k, JoanneB, Garion96, Nick-D, That Guy, From That Show!, Luk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Somizulfi, Spasage,
Mauls, Yamaguchi , Hmains, Dyvroeth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dvermeirre, Hibernian, Letdorf, Tarikash, OrphanBot, Cheenamalai,
Ala.foum, Godanov, Wizardman, Springnuts, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Esw01407, John, Fast track, MilborneOne, Green Giant,
PRRfan, Mrnaveed, Iridescent, JoeBot, Courcelles, FairuseBot, Tere naam, CmdrObot, Vepr~enwiki, Azeemahmed, Mark Sien, Mattbuck,
Fnlayson, UD75, Khatru2, Chasingsol, Shirulashem, Wikid77, Islescape, Greeklunatic~enwiki, Rzafar, Headbomb, HammerHeadHuman, Su-
laimandaud, Hcobb, Nick Number, Javed Ali, MECU, WikipedianProlific, Chanakyathegreat, Zaindy, Wasell, Red aRRow, Geozapf, Buck-
shot06, Kal-El2006~enwiki, BilCat, Khalid Mahmood, Raza0007, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Terrek, Marcd30319, Zuhair siddiqui, Ayubm,
Hut 6.5, Hariswaheed, TopGun, VolkovBot, Whack786, Monaimpk90, Razzsic, Billinghurst, Barath s, Pdfpdf, Gbawden, Smsarmad, Puremind,
Hello71, Lightmouse, L Molari, Mansari 01, Maelgwnbot, Martin H., Altzinn, Canglesea, Segregator236, Masifnaz~enwiki, ImageRemovalBot,
YSSYguy, ClueBot, Zeerak88, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Specac, Mild Bill Hiccup, NiD.29, 718 Bot, Pk-user, Abrahamlast,
CrazyChemGuy, Sun Creator, Arjayay, SyedNaqvi90, MelonBot, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti, Worldofpakistan, DumZiBoT, Nayyar.saifi, Roxy
the dog, Avoided, UnknownForEver, Sirajmjan, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The, Dave1185, Pindanl, Addbot, Pigr8, Atethnekos,
Fieldday-sunday, Arslan muhammad khan, Tide rolls, Iune, Luckas-bot, Yobot, I m da pimp, Zohair.ahmad, Jalal0, Cheese1125, AnomieBOT,
Mjghani, Jim1138, MianJiFromPakistan, Circuitbaba, Materialscientist, Kapitop, Citation bot, Samar60, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Srich32977, Leo-
mann, Coretheapple, Anotherclown, Hj108, Shayanshaukat, Hamidsajjad, Panda 51, Brutaldeluxe, UplinkAnsh, AustralianRupert, Jonathon A H,
FrescoBot, Ironboy11, Seadart, Ahmer Jamil Khan, Elockid, Degen Earthfast, Loyalist Cannons, Mutinus, Just a guy from the KP, Sarmadhassan,
Bcs09, Xcoolanurag, Elitedrago, Wienerish, Jugni, TobeBot, Swift&silent, Sourcelat0r, Wildds, Fry1989, Saleh hassan, RjwilmsiBot, Emaus-
Bot, John of Reading, Soumabratabiswas, Navyfan, AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, RenamedUser01302013, Solarra, FunkyCanute, Prancho,
Navy12341234, ZéroBot, John Cline, Susfele, Lyk4, ObscureReality, Muhammad Mahin, Ironeaglemoiz, Mar4d, Anir1uph, M.A.R 1993,
228 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
H3llBot, SporkBot, Δ, Gauti-90, Bahriaintl, 28bot, Alamgirian260, ClueBot NG, VinculumMan, Zain.uas007, Catlemur, Lion44, Usmantk22,
Snotbot, Shimily, Tomseattle, Kool Soldier, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, DBigXray, Zlisha Khan, IridiumIs77, Taimur25, Soufle, BG19bot,
Navyguru123, Pak soldier007, AtomGuy, Titliestprov, Jogi don, DSkauai, Sageam1, Tigerinthewoods, Pritishroy, FALCON-786-, Udeekan,
BattyBot, Kool777456, Cyberbot II, Adnan bogi, Dar.ahsan, Hyperkrish, Khazar2, Versova, Faheem siddiq, Beibeilong, BrightStarSky, Dexbot,
Airdefenceisbest, Mogism, Makecat-bot, WngCdrHassan, Delljvc, PeerBaba, Kunaljune, BTRand1, BlueRoll18, Faizan, Smartguy9912, Jo-
dosma, Evano1van, Antiochus the Great, Ourtpina, Andre’s Possee, Justojuilm, Kistara, Achmad Fahri, 2fizzy, Arkhan21, Maan Tujay Salam,
Haseeb Ahmed Malik 786, Newiphone, Monkbot, Nestwiki, Filedelinkerbot, Rabab Qadeer, Malik Haseeb Ahmed, Vinoth Kumar Manick-
avasagam, Newsameword, Sridhar Kartheek12, Nicky mathew, WikiBulova, Sacred Falcon, Malaksalmanhilal, Mohsin Fawad, Shaw Knowledge,
Luis Santos24, MBlaze Lightning, Commandernavy, Qaisarazeem, Sssinha, Nvichare, InternetArchiveBot, Ahmadshahzad11, GreenC bot, The-
PlatypusofDoom, Arslan274, Sants Pavan, Yarferoz, Marvellous Spider-Man, Navalgazer, Bender the Bot, Muhammad Ajman khan, Ajman
Khan and Anonymous: 618
• Geography of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Pakistan?oldid=749367583 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
JeLuF, Yann, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Crissov, Warofdreams, Cncs wikipedia, RedWolf, Bkell, Alan Liefting, Dbenbenn,
Nichalp, Curps, Bobblewik, Domino theory, D6, Venu62, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke,
Egalitus, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Shanes, Bobo192, Darwinek, Ogress, OneGuy, Riana, Arunreginald, Woohookitty, Before My Ken, Tabletop,
Joygerhardt, Magister Mathematicae, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, RexNL, Bgwhite, RussBot, Siddiqui, Emersoni, Pawyilee, Dark Tichon-
drias, Katieh5584, Kierongreen, Roke, YubYub41, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Waqas.usman, Yuriy75, Commander Keane
bot, Gilliam, Jamie C, TimBentley, ~enwiki, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Rama’s Arrow, Zvar, Mr.Z-man, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Solara-
pex, Zen611, DMacks, Domentolen, DLinth, Guroadrunner, Fast track, Grocer, Benesch, Green Giant, SQGibbon, Peter Horn, Thricecube,
Tawkerbot2, Tere naam, Sadalmelik, CmdrObot, Karenjc, Equendil, Muhammadhani, Bhalli619, Asenine, Ebyabe, Mattisse, Barticus88, Bob-
blehead, Nick Number, HussainAbbas, Hmrox, Milton Stanley, Enduchus, Shahroze, J.delanoy, Buttons to Push Buttons, Wetbird, Richard D.
LeCour, Potatoswatter, KylieTastic, Jamesofur, Tbone762, Nomi887, Meiskam, Thomas.W, Mrh30, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Aymatth2, Jarke,
Billinghurst, SD Martin61, SieBot, Brenont, Tresiden, Lucasbfrbot, Merotoker1, Bentogoa, Hello71, Lightmouse, Akarkera, ClueBot, PipepBot,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Takeaway, Jusdafax, Mikaey, Phynicen, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, ZooFari, Addbot, Talha, AndersBot, Paknur,
Lightbot, MuZemike, Waltloc, Luckas-bot, Yobot, QueenCake, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Samar60,
LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ed8r, AhlinaS, Geopersona, Amaury, Dr rizkhan, Comet3345, FrescoBot, SpaceRocket, K.Khokhar, Full-date unlinking bot,
Elitedrago, Tim1357, FudgeFury, Crimsonsniper99, Vrenator, Onel5969, Bento00, John of Reading, Abikan, Look2See1, AlphaGamma1991,
Dewritech, Racerx11, Dcirovic, K6ka, Mar4d, Drustaz, Nawab186, ClueBot NG, Amadoni, Mannanan51, Widr, BG19bot, Krenair, TheJJJunk,
Isaiah Hoopstar, Vanamonde93, Wamiq, LouisAragon, Ali Zifan, JaconaFrere, Lovkal, Fawad Ramzan Saeed, Wwikix, Nestwiki, UsmanKhan,
Malik shahbaz awan, My Chemistry romantic, Saramthemalang, MBlaze Lightning, Hot Pork Pie, Syed Wasiq and Anonymous: 205
• Geology of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Pakistan?oldid=738824987 Contributors: Khalid Mahmood,
Nomi887, Funandtrvl, Addbot, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Mar4d, Satellizer and Anonymous: 2
• Climate of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Pakistan?oldid=733631190 Contributors: Kwamikagami, Velella,
Woohookitty, RussBot, Gilliam, Gaddy1975, Thegreatdr, Peter Horn, Hemlock Martinis, Trusilver, Hanacy, Oshwah, Uch, ImageR-
emovalBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Excirial, Certes, SherAbdul8, Avoided, T.c.w7468, Coolsafe, IXavier, Nabil rais2008, Paknur, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Ali944rana, A Fantasy, Knowledgehouse, Mathonius, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Tahir mq, Cnwilliams, FudgeFury, RjwilmsiBot,
AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, Racerx11, Mz7, Akerans, HunterZone, H3llBot, Donner60, Puffin, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Flirtini143,
Widr, Strike Eagle, Tayyabkhalil, Game-Guru999, Gorthian, Sardr8, Ices2Csharp, Prmcd16, Lugia2453, Eyesnore, Krazygunner18, Quenhitran,
Ali Zifan, Nestwiki, BethNaught, Wasiq ali attar and Anonymous: 63
5.2 Images
• File:"Attack_of_the_Mutineers_on_the_Redan_Battery_at_Lucknow,_July_30th,_1857,.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/%22Attack_of_the_Mutineers_on_the_Redan_Battery_at_Lucknow%2C_July_30th%2C_1857%2C.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Ball, Charles (c.1860) The History of the Indian Mutiny: Giving A Detailed Account of the
Sepoy Insurrection in India; and a Concise History of the Great Military Events Which Have Tended to Consolidate British Em-
pire in Hindostan. London: The London Printing and Publishing Company. Page not numbered, among the illustrations at the
beginning of Volume III. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
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• File:100721-N-8931W-031.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/100721-N-8931W-031.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.nellis.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/100721-N-8931W-031.jpg Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by
Stephen Wolff
• File:2_STAR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/2_STAR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Marivas695
• File:3_STAR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/3_STAR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
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• File:5_STAR_LINE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/5_STAR_LINE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Marivas695
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