Sei sulla pagina 1di 245

Pakistan

Contents
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Government and politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Geography, environment and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.5 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.6 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.7 Culture and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2 History 48
2.1 History of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1.1 Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.3 Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.4 Classical Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.5 Medieval Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.6 British rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.7 Pakistan Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.8 State and constitution: Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2 History of South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

i
ii CONTENTS

2.2.1 Chronology of Indian history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89


2.2.2 Prehistoric era (until c. 1750 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2.3 Vedic period (c. 1750 BCE–600 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.4 “Second urbanisation” (c. 600 BCE–200 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.2.5 Classical period (c. 200 BCE–1200 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.2.6 Medieval and Early Modern periods (c. 1206–1858 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.2.7 Modern period and Independence (after c. 1850) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2.8 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.2.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.2.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.2.12 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.2.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.2.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.3 Pakistan Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.3.1 History of the movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.3.2 Political campaigns and support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.3.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.3.4 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.3.5 Notable quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.3.6 Leaders and founding fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.3.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

3 Government and politics 150


3.1 Government of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.1.1 Federal law and Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.1.2 Branches of government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1.3 Civil service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1.4 Elections and voting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.5 Administration and governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.6 Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.7 Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.1.8 Ministries and divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.9 Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
CONTENTS iii

3.2 Pakistan Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156


3.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.3 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.4 Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.2.6 Involvement in Pakistani society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.2.7 In popular Pakistani culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3 Pakistan Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.3 UN peacekeeping missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.4 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.5 Combat doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.3.6 Political and corporate activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.3.7 Involvement in Pakistani society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.8 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.9 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.10 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.3.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.4 Pakistan Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4.2 Command structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.4.3 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.4.4 Ranks and uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.4.5 Science and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.4.6 Special Operations Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.4.7 Relationships with other service branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.4.8 Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.4.9 Naval fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.4.10 Pakistan Naval Air Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.4.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
iv CONTENTS

3.4.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204


3.4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

4 Geography 208
4.1 Geography of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.1 International boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.2 Geographical regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.1.3 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.1.4 Natural resources and primary industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.1.5 Environment and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.1.6 Suffix of regions and towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2 Geology of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2.1 Tectonic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.2.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2.3 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3 Climate of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3.1 Extreme weather events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.3.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 219


5.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Pakistan continent where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a


dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, be-
coming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted
This article is about the country. For other uses, see in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of
Pakistan (disambiguation). Bangladesh.
Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of
Coordinates: 30°N 70°E / 30°N 70°E four provinces and four federal territories. It is an ethnically
Pakistan ( i /ˈpækᵻstæn/ or i
/pɑːkᵻˈstɑːn/) (Urdu: and linguistically diverse country, with a similar varia-
‫)پاکستان‬, officially the Islamic Republic of Pak- tion in its geography and wildlife. A regional and middle
istan, is a federal parliamentary republic located in power,[27][28] Pakistan has the seventh largest standing
cross-road of South Asia and West Asia. It is the sixth- armed forces in the world and is also a nuclear power as
most populous country with a population exceeding 200 well as a declared nuclear-weapons state, being the only na-
million people.[11] It is the 36th largest country in the tion in the Muslim world, and the second in South Asia, to
world in terms of area with an area covering 881,913 km2 have that status. It has a semi-industrialised economy with
(340,509 sq mi). Pakistan has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) a well-integrated agriculture sector, its economy is the 26th
coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and 45th
the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan largest in terms of nominal GDP and is also characterized
to the west, Iran to the southwest and China in the far among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the
northeast respectively. It is separated from Tajikistan by world.[29][30]
Afghanistan’s narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and The post-independence history of Pakistan has been char-
also shares a maritime border with Oman. acterised by periods of military rule, political instability
The territory that now constitutes Pakistan is considered a and conflicts with neighbouring India. The country contin-
cradle of civilization[19][20][21][22][23][24][25] which was pre- ues to face challenging problems, including overpopulation,
viously home to several ancient cultures, including the terrorism, poverty, illiteracy, and corruption. Despite these
Mehrgarh of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age Indus Valley factors it maintains strategic endowments and development
Civilisation, and was later home to kingdoms ruled by peo- potential while it has made substantial progress in reduc-
ple of different faiths and cultures, including Hindus, Indo- ing poverty giving it the second lowest headcount poverty
[31]
Greeks, Muslims, Turco-Mongols, Afghans and Sikhs. rate in South Asia. The nation has recently witnessed
The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dy- a rapid expansion of its prosperous middle class, the 18th
[32]
nasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian largest worldwide. Pakistan’s stock exchange is Asia’s
Achaemenid Empire, Alexander of Macedonia, the Arab highest performing stock market and, as of 2016, is part
[33][34]
Umayyad Caliphate, the Delhi Sultanate, the Mongol Em- of the MSCI's emerging markets index. It is a mem-
pire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Em- ber of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Na-
pire and the British Empire. tions, the Next Eleven Economies, Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation, ECO, UfC, D8, Cairns Group, Kyoto Pro-
Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries as it is the only tocol, ICCPR, RCD, UNCHR, Asian Infrastructure In-
country to have been created in the name of Islam.[26] As vestment Bank, Group of Eleven, CPFTA, Group of 24,
a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali the G20 developing nations, ECOSOC, founding member
Jinnah and the subcontinent's struggle for independence, of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, SAARC and
Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for CERN.[35]
Muslims from the regions in the east and west of the Sub-

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Etymology
The name Pakistan literally means “land of the pure” in
Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning
pure in Persian and Pashto[36] while the suffix -stān is a Per-
sian word meaning place of, cognate with the Sanskrit word
sthāna (Devanagari: स्थान [st̪ʰaːnə]).[37]
It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhry Rahmat
Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in
his pamphlet Now or Never,[38] using it as an acronym
(“thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN”)
referring to the names of the five northern regions of
the British Raj: Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and
Baluchistan.[39][40][41] The letter i was incorporated to ease
pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and mean-
ingful name.[42]

1.1.2 History
Main article: History of Pakistan
See also: Outline of South Asian history

Early and medieval age

Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indus Valley Civiliza-


tion, Vedic Civilization, Sikh Empire, and Mughal Empire
Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in
South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day
Pakistan.[43] The earliest known inhabitants in the region Standing Buddha from Gandhara
were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone
tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab.[44] The
Indus region, which covers most of present day Pakistan,
liest universities and centres of higher education in the
was the site of several successive ancient cultures including
the Neolithic Mehrgarh[45] and the Bronze Age Indus Val- world.[53][54][55][56]
ley Civilisation (2800–1800 BC) at Harappa and Mohenjo- The Medieval period (642–1219 AD) is defined by the
Daro.[46][47] spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi
The Vedic Civilization (1500–500 BC), characterised by missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority
Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam.[57]
which would become well established in the region.[48][49] The Rai Dynasty (489–632 AD) of Sindh, at its zenith,
Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre.[50] The ruled this region and the surrounding territories.[58] The
Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire that under
of Takṣaśilā, now Taxila in Punjab.[45] Successive an- Dharampala and Devapala stretched across South Asia from
cient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Per- what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan.
sian Achaemenid Empire around 519 BC), Alexander the The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered
Great's empire in 326 BC[51] and the Maurya Empire Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in
founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka 711 AD.[59][60][61][62][63] The Pakistan government’s offi-
the Great until 185 BC.[45] The Indo-Greek Kingdom cial chronology identifies this as the point where the “foun-
founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BC) included dation” of Pakistan was laid.[59][64][65] This conquest set
Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires
Menander (165–150 BC), prospering the Greco-Buddhist in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187
culture in the region.[45][52] Taxila had one of the ear- AD), the Ghorid Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–
1.1. PAKISTAN 3

1526 AD). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sul-
tanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857
AD). The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high
culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in
the region.[66] In the early 16th century, the region re-
mained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emper-
ors.[67] By the early 18th century, the increasing European
influence slowly disintegrated the empire as the lines be-
tween commercial and political dominance were increas-
ingly blurred.[67] Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–98),
whose vision formed the basis of Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)


served as Pakistan’s first Governor-General and the leader
of the Pakistan Movement

Edwin Lord Weeks illustration of an open-air restaurant near Wazir


The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early
Khan Mosque, Lahore. 18th century enabled the Sikh Empire's influence to con-
trol larger areas until the British East-India Company gained
During this time, the English East India Company had es- ascendancy over the Indian subcontinent.[71] The rebellion
tablished coastal outposts.[67] Control over the seas, greater in 1857 (or Sepoy mutiny) was the region’s major armed
resources, technology, and military force projection by East struggle against the British Empire and Queen Victoria.[72]
India Company of British Empire led it to increasingly flex Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam
its military muscle; a factor that was crucial in allowing the created a major rift in British India; thus instigating racially
Company to gain control over the subcontinent by 1765 and motivated religious violence in India.[73] The language con-
sidelining the European competitors.[68] Expanding access troversy further escalated the tensions between Hindus and
beyond Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and Muslims.[74] The Hindu renaissance witnessed the awak-
size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of re- ening of intellectualism in traditional Hinduism and saw
gion by the 1820s.[67] To many historians, this marked the the emergence of more assertive influence in the social and
starting of region’s colonial period.[67] By this time, with political spheres in British India.[75][76] Intellectual move-
its economic power severely curtailed by the British par- ment to counter the Hindu renaissance was led by Sir Syed
liament and itself effectively made an arm of British ad- Ahmad Khan who helped founding the All-India Muslim
ministration, the Company began to more consciously en- League in 1901 and envisioned as well as advocated for the
ter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, two-nation theory.[71] In contrast to the Indian Congress's
and culture.[67] Such reforms included the enforcement of anti-British efforts, the Muslim League was a pro-British
English Education Act in 1835 and the introduction of whose political program inherited the British values that
the Indian Civil Service (ICS).[69] Traditional madrasahs would shape Pakistan’s future civil society.[77][78] In events
– primary institutions of higher learning for Muslims in during World War I, British Intelligence foiled an anti-
the subcontinent – were no longer supported by the English English conspiracy involving the nexus of Congress and the
Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their financial German Empire.[79] The largely non-violent independence
endowment.[70] struggle led by the Indian Congress engaged millions of
protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience in the
1920s and 1930s against the British Empire.[80][81][82]
Colonial period
The Muslim League slowly rose to mass popularity in the
Main articles: Pakistan Movement, Aligarh Movement, 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of
and British Raj Muslims in politics. In his presidential address of 29
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

upon partitioning of India in 1947, the modern state of Pak-


istan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan
in 1366 of the Islamic Calendar) in amalgamating the Muslim-
majority eastern and northwestern regions of British In-
dia.[82] It comprised the provinces of Balochistan, East Ben-
gal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and
Sindh; thus forming Pakistan.[71][89]
In the riots which preceded the partition in the Pun-
jab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and
2,000,000[90][91][92] people were killed in the retributive
genocide between the religions [93][94] while 50,000 Mus-
llim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh
men and 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women also experienced
Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[95] Around 6.5
travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new
million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and
home during the Partition of India. During the partition be-
tween 200,000 to 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive
4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan
genocide.[83] to India. It was the largest mass migration in human
history.[96][97][98] Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to
the First Kashmir War in 1948.[99][100]
December 1930, Allama Iqbal called for “the amalgama-
tion of North-West Muslim-majority Indian states” con-
Independence and modern Pakistan
sisting of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and
[84]
Baluchistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pak-
Main articles: Dominion of Pakistan and History of Pak-
istan, greatly espoused the two-nation theory and led the
istan
Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940,
“You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are
popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution.[71] In World
War II, Jinnah and British educated founding fathers in the
Muslim League supported the United Kingdom's war ef-
forts, countering opposition against it whilst working to-
wards Sir Syed's vision.[85]
The 1946 elections had resulted in the Muslim League win-
ning 90 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. Thus
the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the In-
dian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a
plebiscite which the Muslim League won.[86] This victory
was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League
by the rural peasantry of Bengal as well as the support
of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress,
which initially denied the Muslim League’s claim of being
the sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced
to recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian
Muslims.[86] The British had no alternative except to take The American CIA film on Pakistan made in 1950 examines the
history and geography of Pakistan.
Jinnah's views into account as he had emerged as the sole
spokesperson of India’s Muslims. However the British did
not desire India to be partitioned and in one last effort to free to go to your mosques or to any other place or worship
avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan.[87] in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or
caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of
As the cabinet mission failed in India, the Great Britain an- the State.”
nounced the intentions to end its raj in India in 1946–47.[88]
Nationalists in British India – including Jawaharlal Nehru —Muhammad Ali Jinnah's [101]
first speech to the Constituent
and Abul Kalam Azad of Congress, Jinnah of Muslim Assembly of Pakistan
League, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs— After independence and the partition of India in 1947,
agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and inde- Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the President of Muslim League,
pendence in June 1947.[89] As the United Kingdom agreed became nation’s first Governor-General as well as first
1.1. PAKISTAN 5

President-Speaker of the Parliament.[102] Meanwhile, Pak-


istan’s founding fathers agreed upon appointing Liaquat
Ali Khan, the secretary-general of the party, the na-
tion’s first Prime Minister. With dominion status in the
Commonwealth of Nations, independent Pakistan had two
British monarchs before it became a republic.[102]
Maulānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī
ʿālim (scholar) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-
Islām in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of
Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played a pivotal role in the demand for
an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Con-
stituent Assembly make an explicit declaration affirming
the “supreme sovereignty of God” and the supremacy of the
sharīʿah in Pakistan.[103]
A significant result of the efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and
the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in
March 1949. The Objectives Resolution, which Liaquat Ali
Khan called the second most important step in Pakistan’s
history, declared that “sovereignty over the entire universe
belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He
has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people
for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is
a sacred trust”. The Objectives Resolution has been incor-
porated as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962,
and 1973.[103]
Democracy was stalled by the martial law enforced by
President Iskander Mirza who was replaced by army chief,
General Ayub Khan. Forming presidential system in 1962,
the country experienced exceptional growth until a second Signing of Tashkent Declaration to end hostilities with India in 1965
war with India in 1965 which led to economic down- in Tashkent, USSR, by President Ayub alongside Bhutto (center) and
fall and wide-scale public disapproval in 1967.[104][105] Aziz Ahmed (left).
Consolidating the control from Ayub Khan in 1969, Pres-
ident Yahya Khan had to deal with a devastating cyclone
which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan.[106] cide whereas others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose
believe there was no genocide.[114] Preemptive strikes on
In 1970, Pakistan held its first democratic elections since India by the Pakistan’s air force, navy, and marines, in re-
independence, that were meant to mark a transition from sponse to India’s support for the insurgency in East Pakistan,
military rule to democracy, but after the East Pak- sparked the conventional war in 1971 which witnessed the
istani Awami League won against Pakistan Peoples Party Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as
(PPP); Yahya Khan and military establishment refused to Bangladesh.[108]
hand over power.[107][108] Operation Searchlight, a military
crackdown on the Bengali nationalist movement, led to a With Pakistan surrendering in the war, Yahya Khan
declaration of independence and the waging of a war of lib- was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President; the
eration by the Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan, country worked towards promulgating constitution and
with support from India.[108][109] However, in West Pakistan putting the country on roads of democracy. Democratic
the conflict was described as a civil war as opposed to War rule resumed from 1972 to 1977– an era of self-
of Liberation.[110] consciousness, intellectual leftism, nationalism, and nation-
wide reconstruction.[115] During this period, Pakistan em-
Independent researchers think that between 300,000 and barked on ambitiously developing the nuclear deterrence
500,000 civilians died during this period while the in 1972 in a view to prevent any foreign invasion; the
Bangladesh government puts the figure of dead at three country’s first nuclear power plant was inaugurated, also
million,[111] a number which is now universally regarded as the same year.[116][117] Accelerated in response to first nu-
excessively inflated.[112] Some academics such as Rudolph clear test by India in 1974, this crash program completed
Russel and Rounaq Jahan accused both sides[113] of geno- in 1979.[117] Democracy ended with a military coup in
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul- secured largest votes in the elections of 2008, appointing
Haq become the president in 1978. From 1977 to 1988, party member Yousaf Raza Gillani as Prime Minister.[129]
President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation Threatened with facing impeachment, President Mushar-
initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest- raf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by
growing economies in South Asia.[118] While consolidat- Asif Ali Zardari.[130][131][132] Clashes with the judicature
ing the nuclear development, increasing Islamization,[119] prompted Gillani's disqualification from the Parliament and
and the rise of homegrown conservative philosophy, Pak- as the Prime Minister in June 2012.[133] By its own finan-
istan helped subsidize and distribute U.S. resources to fac- cial calculations, Pakistan’s involvement in the war on ter-
tions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in rorism has cost up to ~$67.93 billion,[134][135] thousands
communist Afghanistan.[120][121] of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians.[136]
The general election held in 2013 saw the PML(N) almost
President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir
Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the achieve a supermajority, following which Nawaz Sharif be-
came elected as the Prime Minister, returning to the post
country’s first female Prime Minister. The Pakistan Peoples
Party followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League for the third time after fourteen years, in a democratic
transition.[137]
(N), and over the next decade whose two leaders fought
for power, alternating in office while the country’s situa-
tion worsened; economic indicators fell sharply, in con- 1.1.3 Government and politics
trast to the 1980s. This period is marked by prolonged
stagflation, instability, corruption, nationalism, geopolitical Main articles: Government of Pakistan, Politics of Pak-
rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing-right wing istan, Political history of Pakistan, and Human rights in
ideologies.[122][123] As PML(N) secured a supermajority in Pakistan
elections in 1997, Sharif authorised the nuclear testings Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal repub-
(See:Chagai-I and Chagai-II), as a retaliation to second nu-
clear tests ordered by India, led by Prime Minister Atal Bi-
hari Vajpayee in May 1998.[124]

Parliament House

lic with Islam as the state religion.[138] The first set was
President Bush meets with President Musharraf in Islamabad dur- adopted in 1956 but suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958
ing his 2006 visit to Pakistan. who replaced it with the second set in 1962.[82] Complete
and comprehensive Constitution was adopted in 1973—
Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985—
district led to the Kargil War of 1999, and a turbulence in is the country’s most important document, laying the foun-
civic-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf dations of the current government.[139] The Pakistani mil-
took over through a bloodless coup d'état.[125][126] Mushar- itary establishment has played an influential role in main-
raf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to stream politics throughout Pakistan’s political history.[82]
2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008— a period of There were military coups which resulted in imposition of
enlightenment, social liberalism, extensive economic re- martial law and military commanders continued govern-
forms,[127] and direct involvement in the U.S.-led war on ing as de-facto presidents from 1958–1971, 1977–1988,
terrorism. When the National Assembly historically com- and 1999–2008.[140] As of now, Pakistan has a multi-
pleted its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007, the party parliamentary system with clear division of pow-
new elections were called by the Election Commission.[128] ers and responsibilities between branches of government.
After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP The first successful demonstrative transaction was held in
1.1. PAKISTAN 7

May 2013. Politics in Pakistan is centered and domi- • Executive: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of
nated by the homegrown conceive social philosophy, con- the majority rule party or a coalition in the National
sisting the ideas of socialism, conservatism, and the third Assembly— the lower house. The Prime Minister
way. As of the general elections held in 2013, the three serves as the head of government and is designated to
main dominated political parties in the country: the centre- exercise as the country’s chief executive. The Prime
right conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N (PML-N); Minister is responsible for appointing a cabinet con-
the centre-left socialist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP); and sisting of ministers and advisers as well as running the
the centrist and third-way Pakistan Movement for Justice government operations, taking and authorizing exec-
(PTI) led by cricketer Imran Khan. utive decisions, appointments and recommendations
that require executive confirmation of the Prime Min-
• Head of State: The President who is elected by an ister.
Electoral College is the ceremonial head of the state
• Provincial governments: Each of the four province
and is the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan
has a similar system of government, with a directly
Armed Forces (with Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff
elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of
Committee as its principal military adviser), but mili-
the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister.
tary appointments and key confirmations in the armed
Chief Ministers oversees the provincial governments
forces are made by the Prime Minister after review-
and head the provincial cabinet, it is common in Pak-
ing the reports on their merit and performances. Al-
istan to have different ruling parties or coalitions in
most all appointed officers in the judicature, military,
each provinces. The provincial assemblies have power
chairman joint chiefs and joint staff, and legislatures
to make laws and approve provincial budget which is
require the executive confirmation from the Prime
commonly presented by the provincial finance minis-
Minister, whom the President must consult, by law.
ter every fiscal year. Provincial governors who play
However, the powers to pardon and grant clemency
role as the ceremonial head of province are appointed
vest with the President of Pakistan.
by the President.[139]
• Legislative: The bicameral legislature comprises a
100-member Senate (upper house) and a 342-member
National Assembly (lower house). Members of the
National Assembly are elected through the first-past-
the-post system under universal adult suffrage, repre-
senting electoral districts known as National Assembly
constituencies. According to the constitution, the 70
seats reserved for women and religious minorities are
allocated to the political parties according to their pro-
portional representation. Senate members are elected
by provincial legislators, with all of provinces have
equal representation.

Supreme Court of Pakistan

• Judicature: The judiciary of Pakistan is a hierarchi-


cal system with two classes of courts: the superior (or
higher) judiciary and the subordinate (or lower) judi-
ciary. The Chief Justice of Pakistan is the chief judge
who oversees the judicature’s court system at all lev-
els of command. The superior judiciary is composed
of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Federal Shariat
Court and five High Courts, with the Supreme Court
at the apex. The Constitution of Pakistan entrusts the
superior judiciary with the obligation to preserve, pro-
tect and defend the constitution. Neither the Supreme
Court nor a High Court may exercise jurisdiction in re-
Prime Minister’s Secretariat
lation to Tribal Areas, except otherwise provided for.
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit– the Treaty on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Pakistan is
Baltistan have separate court systems. an influential member of the IAEA.[149] In recent events,
Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile
material, arguing that the “treaty would target Pakistan
Foreign relations of Pakistan specifically.”[150] In the 20th century, Pakistan’s nuclear de-
terrence program focused on countering India’s nuclear am-
Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan bitions in the region, and nuclear tests by India eventually
As the Muslim world's second most populous nation- led Pakistan to reciprocate the event to maintain geopolit-
ical balance as becoming a nuclear power.[151] Currently,
Pakistan maintains a policy of credible minimum deter-
rence, calling its program vital nuclear deterrence against
foreign aggression.[152][153]
Located in strategic and geopolitical corridor of the world’s
major maritime oil supply lines, communication fiber op-
tics, Pakistan has proximity to the natural resources of
Central Asian countries.[154] Pakistan is an influential and
founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooper-
ation (OIC) and is a major non-NATO ally of the United
States in the war against terrorism— a status achieved in
2004.[155] Pakistan’s foreign policy and geostrategy mainly
focus on economy and security against threats to its national
identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of
close relations with other Muslim countries.[156] Briefing
on country’s foreign policy in 2004, the Pakistani senator
reportedly explains: “Pakistan highlights sovereign equal-
ity of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-
interference in each other’s domestic affairs as the cardi-
nal features of its foreign policy.”[157] Pakistan is an ac-
tive member of the United Nations and has a Permanent
Representative to represent Pakistan’s policy in interna-
tional politics.[158] Pakistan has lobbied for the concept
of "Enlightened Moderation" in the Muslim world.[159][160]
Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Na-
tions,[161] the South Asian Association for Regional Co-
operation (SAARC), the Economic Cooperation Organi-
sation (ECO)[162][163] and the G20 developing nations.[164]
Pakistan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel;[165]
nonetheless some Israeli citizens have visited the country on
Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan) with US President John F.
a tourist visas.[166] Based on mutual cooperation, the secu-
Kennedy in 1961. U.S-Pak relations during the cold war
rity exchange have taken place between two countries using
Turkey as a communication conduit.[167] Despite Pakistan
state (after Indonesia) and its only nuclear power state,
being the only country in the world that has not established
Pakistan has an important role in the international
[141][142] a diplomatic relations with Armenia, the Armenian com-
community. With a semi-agricultural and semi-
munity still resides in Pakistan.[168]
industrialized economy, its foreign policy determines its
standard of interactions for its organizations, corporations Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic rela-
and individual citizens.[143][144] Its geostrategic intentions tions with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim
[169]
were explained by Jinnah in a broadcast message in 1947, World is a vital factor in Pakistan’s foreign policy. Pak-
which is featured in a prominent quotation on the homepage istan was the first country to have established diplomatic re-
of Pakistan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs website: “The lations with China and relations continues to be warm since
[170]
foundation of our foreign policy is friendship with all na- China’s war with India in 1962. In the 1960s–1980s,
tions across the globe.” [145] Pakistan greatly helped China in reaching out to the world’s
major countries and helped facilitate U.S. President Nixon's
Since then, Pakistan has attempted to balance its relations
state visit to China.[170] Despite the change of governments
with foreign nations.[146][147][148] A non-signatory party of
1.1. PAKISTAN 9

Pakistan’s incumbent Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif with his Indian


counterpart Narendra Modi.

in Pakistan, variations in the regional and global situation,


China policy in Pakistan continues to be dominant factor
at all time.[170] In return, China is Pakistan’s largest trad-
ing partner and economic cooperation have reached high
points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistan’s in-
frastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water
port at Gwadar. Sino-Pak friendly relations touched new
heights as both the countries signed 51 agreements and
Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) in 2015 for co-
operation in different fields.[171] [172][173][174] Both coun-
tries have signed the Free Trade Agreement in the 2000s, Pakistan PM Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with Chinese Premier
and Pakistan continues to serve as China's communication Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and
bridge in the Muslim World.[175] Pakistan. Pakistan, today, hosts China’s largest embassy.[176]
Because of difficulties in relations with its geopolitical ri-
val India, Pakistan maintains close political relations with by a divergence of interests and resulting mistrust dur-
Turkey and Iran.[177] Saudi Arabia also maintains a re- ing the war in Afghanistan and by issues related to
spected position in Pakistan’s foreign policy, and both coun- terrorism.[184][185][186][187] Since 1948, there has been an
tries has been a focal point in Pakistan’s foreign policy.[177] ongoing, and at times fluctuating, violent conflict in the
The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of rift; southwestern province of Balochistan between various
three of their four wars were over this territory.[178] Due Baloch separatist groups, who seek greater political auton-
to ideological differences, Pakistan opposed the Soviet omy, and the central government of Pakistan.[188]
Union in the 1950s and during Soviet-Afghan War in the
1980s, Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the United
States.[157][179] Relations with Russia have greatly improved Administrative divisions
since 1999 and cooperation with various sectors have in-
creased between Russia and Pakistan.[180] Pakistan has had Main articles: Administrative units of Pakistan and
“on-and-off” relations with the United States. A close ally Districts of Pakistan
of the United States in the Cold war, Pakistan’s relation
with the United States relations soured in the 1990s when
A federal parliamentary republic state, Pakistan is a fed-
the U.S. imposed sanctions because of Pakistan’s secretive
eration that comprises four provinces: Punjab, Khyber-
nuclear development.[181] Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a
Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan.[189] and four
close ally with the United States on the issue of counter-
territories: the Tribal belt, Gilgit–Baltistan, Islamabad Cap-
terrorism in the regions of the Middle East and South ital Territory, and Kashmir. The Government of Pakistan
Asia, with the US supporting the latter with aid money and
exercises the de facto jurisdiction over the Frontier Regions
weapons.[182][183] and the western parts of the Kashmir Regions, which are
The United States-led war on terrorism led initially to organised into the separate political entities Azad Kashmir
an improvement in the relationship, but it was strained and Gilgit–Baltistan (formerly Northern Areas). In 2009,
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

the constitutional assignment (the Gilgit–Baltistan Empower-


ment and Self-Governance Order) awarded the Gilgit–Baltistan
a semi-provincial status, giving it self-government.[190]
The local government system consists of a three-tier system
of districts, tehsils and union councils, with an elected body
at each tier.[191] There are about 130 districts altogether,
of which Azad Kashmir has ten[192] and Gilgit–Baltistan
seven.[193] The Tribal Areas comprise seven tribal agencies
and six small frontier regions detached from neighbouring
districts.[194]
Clickable map of the four provinces and four federal territories
of Pakistan.
Pakistan Air Force's JF-17 Thunder flying in front of Nanga Par-
Law enforcement is carried out by a joint network of the bat.
intelligence community with jurisdiction limited to the rele-
vant province or territory. The National Intelligence Direc-
torate coordinates the information intelligence at both fed- est principle staff officer in the armed forces, and the
eral and provincial level; including the FIA, IB, Motorway chief military adviser to the civilian government though
Police, and paramilitary forces such as the Pakistan Rangers the chairman has no authority over the three branches
and the Frontier Corps.[195] of armed forces.[201] The Chairman joint chiefs con-
trols the military from the JS HQ and maintains strate-
Pakistan’s “premier” intelligence agency, the Inter-Services gic communications between the military and the civilian
Intelligene (ISI), was formed just within a year after the In- government.[201] As of current, the Chairman joint chiefs
dependence of Pakistan in 1947.[196] Inter Service Intelli- is General Rashid Mahmood alongside chief of army staff
gence Agency of Pakistan was ranked as the top intelligence General Raheel Sharif,[203] chief of naval staff Admiral
agency in the world in 2011, 2014 and 2015.[197][198] Muhammad Zaka,[204] and chief of air staff Air Chief Mar-
The court system is organised as a hierarchy, with the shal Suhail Aman.[205] The main branches are the Army–
Supreme Court at the apex, below which are High Courts, Air Force–Navy–Marines, which are supported by the num-
Federal Shariat Courts (one in each province and one in the ber of paramilitary forces in the country.[206] Control over
federal capital), District Courts (one in each district), Judi- the strategic arsenals, deployment, employment, develop-
cial Magistrate Courts (in every town and city), Executive ment, military computers and command and control is a re-
Magistrate Courts and civil courts. The Penal code has lim- sponsibility vested under the National Command Authority
ited jurisdiction in the Tribal Areas, where law is largely which oversaw the work on the nuclear policy as part of the
derived from tribal customs.[195][199] credible minimum deterrence.[124]
The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close mili-
tary relations and regularly export military equipment and
Military
technology transfer to Pakistan.[207] Joint logistics and ma-
jor war games are occasionally carried out by the militaries
Main article: Pakistan Armed Forces of China and Turkey.[206][208][209] Philosophical basis for
The armed forces of Pakistan are the eighth largest in the the military draft is introduced by the Constitution in times
world in terms of numbers in full-time service, with about of emergency, but it has never been imposed.[210] Since
617,000 personnel on active duty and 513,000 reservists, 1947, Pakistan has been involved in four conventional wars,
as of tentative estimates in 2010.[200] They came into exis- the first war occurred in Kashmir with Pakistan gaining
tence after independence in 1947, and the military estab- control of Western Kashmir, (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–
lishment has frequently influenced in the national politics Baltistan), and India capturing Eastern Kashmir (Jammu
ever since.[140] Chain of command of the military is kept and Kashmir). Territorial problems eventually led to an-
under the control of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee; other conventional war in 1965; over the issue of Bengali
all of the branches joint works, coordination, military lo- refugees that led to another war in 1971 which resulted
gistics, and joint missions are under the Joint Staff HQ.[201] in Pakistan’s unconditional surrender of East Pakistan.[211]
The Joint Staff HQ is composed of the Air HQ, Navy HQ, Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries at the brink
and Army GHQ in the vicinity of the Rawalpindi Military of war.[125] Since 1947, the unresolved territorial problems
District.[202] with Afghanistan saw border skirmishes which was kept
The Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee is the high- mostly at the mountainous border. In 1961, the military
1.1. PAKISTAN 11

and intelligence community repelled the Afghan incursion in North-West Pakistan, mainly against the homegrown
in the Bajaur Agency near the Durand Line border.[212][213] Taliban factions.[228][229] Major operations undertaken by
Rising tensions with neighboring USSR in their involvement the Army include Operation Black Thunderstorm and
in Afghanistan, Pakistani intelligence community, mostly Operation Rah-e-Nijat.[230][231]
the ISI, systematically coordinated the U.S. resources to the
Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against the Soviet
Union's presence in the region. Military reports indicated Kashmir conflict
that the PAF was in engagement with the Soviet Air Force,
supported by the Afghan Air Force during the course of Main article: Kashmir conflict
the conflict;[214] one of which belonged to Alexander Rut-
skoy.[214] Apart from its own conflicts, Pakistan has been The Kashmir– the most northwesterly region of South
an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping mis- Asia– is a primary territorial dispute that hindered the
sions. It played a major role in rescuing trapped American relations between India and Pakistan. Two nations have
soldiers from Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993 in Operation fought at least three large-scale conventional wars in suc-
Gothic Serpent.[215][216][217] According to UN reports, the cessive years of 1947, 1965, and 1971. The conflict
Pakistani military are the third largest troop contributors to in 1971 witnessed Pakistan’s unconditional surrender and
UN peacekeeping missions after Ethiopia and India. a treaty that subsequently led to the independence of
Pakistan sent UN Peacekeeping forces to the former Yu- Bangladesh.[232] Other serious military engagements and
goslavia during the Yugoslav wars. During the war, Pak- skirmishes included the armed contacts in Siachen Glacier
istan supported Bosnia while providing technical and mili- (1984) and Kargil (1999).[178] Approximately 45.1% of
tary support. Approximately 90,000 Pakistani people went the Kashmir region is controlled by India while claiming
to Bosnia during the Yugoslav wars, accounting for 20% the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir, including most of
of the volunteer military force. The Inter-Services Intel- Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen.[178]
ligence (ISI) allegedly ran an active military intelligence The claim is contested by Pakistan, which approximately
program during the Bosnian War which started in 1992 controls the 38.2% of the Kashmir region, known as the
lasting until 1995. Allegedly executed and supervised by Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan.[178][233]
General Javed Nasir, the program distributed and coordi-
nated the systematic supply of arms to various groups of
Bosnian mujahideen during the war. The ISI Bosnian con-
tingent was organized with financial assistance provided by
Saudi Arabia, according to the British historian Mark Cur-
tis.[218] Despite the UN arms embargo in Bosnia, Nasir later
confessed that the ISI airlifted anti-tank weapons and mis-
siles to Bosnian mujahideen which turned the tide in fa-
vor of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the
siege.[219][220]
Pakistan has deployed its military in some Arab coun-
tries, providing defence, training, and playing advisory
roles.[221][222] The PAF and Navy's fighter pilots have volun-
tarily served in Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the
Azad Kashmir is part of Pakistan controlled Kashmir.
Six-Day War (1967) and in the Yom Kippur War (1973).
Pakistan’s fighter pilots shot down ten Israeli planes in the
India claims the Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of
Six-Day War.[215] In the 1973 war one of the PAF pilots,
Accession— a legal agreement with Kashmir’s leaders ex-
Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Is-
ecuted by Maharaja Hari Singh who agreed to accede the
raeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian
area to India.[234] Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of
government.[223][224][225] Requested by the Saudi monarchy
a Muslim majority and of geography, the same principles
in 1979, the special forces units, operatives, and comman-
that were applied for the creation of the two independent
dos were rushed to assist Saudi forces in Mecca to lead the
states.[235][236] India referred the dispute to the United Na-
operation of the Grand Mosque.[226] In 1991 Pakistan got
tions on 1 January 1948.[237] A resolution passed in 1948,
involved with the Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part
the UN's General Assembly asked Pakistan to remove most
of a US-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi
of its troops as a plebiscite would then be held. However,
Arabia.[227]
Pakistan failed to vacate the region and a ceasefire was
Since 2004, the military has been engaged in a war reached in 1949 with the Line of Control (LoC) was estab-
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

lished, dividing Kashmir between the two nations.[238] In- Rangers are an internal security force with the prime objec-
dia, fearful that the Muslim majority populace of Kashmir tive to provide and maintain security in war zones and areas
would secede from India, did not allow a plebiscite to take of conflict as well as maintaining law and order which in-
place in the region. This was confirmed in a statement by In- cludes providing assistance to the police.[242] The Frontier
dia’s Defense Minister, Kirshnan Menon, who said: “Kash- Corps serves the similar purpose in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa,
mir would vote to join Pakistan and no Indian Government and the Balochistan.[242]
responsible for agreeing to plebiscite would survive.''[239]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the people
1.1.4 Geography, environment and climate
of Jammu and Kashmir to determine their future through
impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,[240] Main articles: Extreme weather records in Pakistan,
while India has stated that Kashmir is an integral part of Geography of Pakistan, Environment of Pakistan, Climate
India, referring to the Simla Agreement (1972) and to the of Pakistan, Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan,
fact that elections take place regularly.[241] In recent de- and List of beaches in Pakistan
velopments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe The geography and climate of Pakistan are extremely
that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pak-
istan.[178]
Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification

Law enforcement

Main articles: Law enforcement in Pakistan, Pakistan


Intelligence Community, and National Intelligence Direc-
torate

The law enforcement in Pakistan is carried out by joint net-


work of several federal and provincial police agencies. The
four provinces and the Islamabad Capital Territory each
have a civilian police force with jurisdiction extending only
to the relevant province or territory.[139] At the federal level,
there are a number of civilian intelligence agencies with na-
tionwide jurisdictions including the Federal Investigation
Agency (FIA), Intelligence Bureau (IB), and the Motoway
Patrol, as well as several paramilitary forces such as the
National Guards (Northern Areas), the Rangers (Punjab
and Sindh), and the Frontier Corps (Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification.
and Balochistan).
The most senior officers of all the civilian police forces also diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of
form part of the Police Service, which is a component of the wildlife.[243] Pakistan covers an area of 796,095 km2
civil service of Pakistan. Namely, there are four provincial (307,374 sq mi), approximately equal to the combined land
police service including the Punjab Police, Sindh Police, areas of France and the United Kingdom. It is the 36th
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Police, and the Balochistan Police; largest nation by total area, although this ranking varies
all headed by the appointed senior Inspector-Generals. The depending on how the disputed territory of Kashmir is
Islamabad has its own police component, the Capital Police, counted. Pakistan has a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along
to maintain law and order in the capital. The CID bureaus the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south[244] and
are the crime investigation unit and forms a vital part in land borders of 6,774 km (4,209 mi) in total: 2,430 km
each provincial police service. (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China,
The law enforcement in Pakistan also has a Motorway Pa- 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India and 909 km (565 mi) with
trol which is responsible for enforcement of traffic and Iran.[139] It shares a marine border with Oman,[245] and is
safety laws, security and recovery on Pakistan’s inter- separated from Tajikistan by the cold, narrow Wakhan Cor-
provincial motorway network. In each of provincial Police ridor.[246] Pakistan occupies a geopolitically important lo-
Service, it also maintains a respective Elite Police units led cation at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East and
by the NACTA– a counter-terrorism police unit as well as Central Asia.[247]
providing VIP escorts. In Punjab and Sindh, the Pakistan Geologically, Pakistan is located in the Indus-Tsangpo Su-
1.1. PAKISTAN 13

ture Zone and overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh Flora and fauna
and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the
Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie Main articles: Flora of Pakistan and Fauna of Pakistan
along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to vi-
olent earthquakes. This region has the highest rates of seis- The diversity of landscapes and climates in Pakistan al-
micity and largest earthquakes in the Himalaya region.[248] lows a wide variety of trees and plants to flourish. The
Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees
mountains of the north, Pakistan’s landscapes vary from such as spruce, pine and deodar cedar in the extreme north-
plains to deserts, forests, hills and plateaus .[249] ern mountains, through deciduous trees in most of the coun-
Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: try (for example the mulberry-like shisham found in the
the northern highlands, the Indus River plain and the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date
Balochistan Plateau.[250] The northern highlands contain in southern Punjab, southern Balochistan and all of Sindh.
the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse
(see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the grasses and scrub plants. Mangrove forests form much of
world’s highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight- the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.[254]
thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000
feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all to 4,000 metres in most of the northern and northwestern
over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and highlands. In the xeric regions of Balochistan, date palm
Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[251] The Balochistan and Ephedra are common. In most of Punjab and Sindh,
Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The the Indus plains support tropical and subtropical dry and
1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries flow moist broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrub-
through the country from the Kashmir region to the Ara- lands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, and
bian Sea. There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in eucalyptus.[255] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870
Punjab and Sindh.[252] km2 ) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.[256]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid The fauna of Pakistan reflects its varied climates too.
conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon sea- Around 668 bird species are found there:[257][258] crows,
son with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons and eagles commonly oc-
season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There cur. Palas, Kohistan, has a significant population of western
are four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from Decem- tragopan.[259] Many birds sighted in Pakistan are migratory,
ber through February; a hot, dry spring from March through coming from Europe, Central Asia and India.[260]
May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon pe-
The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares,
riod, from June through September; and the retreating mon-
the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat and
soon period of October and November.[71] Rainfall varies
the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the In-
greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding
dus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines and small rodents are
and drought are common.[253]
common in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands
of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped
• K2 is the second-highest mountain on Earth hyenas, wildcats and leopards.[261][262] The lack of vege-
tative cover, the severe climate and the impact of grazing
• Swat District on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious po-
sition. The chinkara is the only animal that can still be
• Naran, Kaghan Valley found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small num-
ber of nilgai are found along the Pakistan-India border and
• Lulusar-Dudipatsar National Park
in some parts of Cholistan.[261][263] A wide variety of an-
imals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco
• Gilgit-Baltistan
Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), markhor
• Cold Desert, Skardu is world’s highest desert and ibex goats, the Asian black bear and the Himalayan
brown bear.[261][264][265] Among the rare animals found in
• Hawke’s Bay Beach in Karachi the area are the snow leopard,[264] and the blind Indus river
dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100
• Derawar Fort is located within the Cholistan Desert remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve
in Sindh.[264][266] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22
• Shangrila Lake and the adjoining resort amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Overview Economists estimate that Pakistan has been
Pakistan.[257][258] part of the wealthiest region of the world throughout the
The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of first millennium CE having the largest economy by GDP.
problems. Pakistan has the second-highest rate of defor- This advantage was lost in the 18th century as other regions
[268]
estation in the world. This, along with hunting and pollu- edged forward such as China and Western Europe. Pak-
[269][270][271]
tion, is causing adverse effects on the ecosystem. The gov- istan is considered as a developing country and
ernment has established a large number of protected areas, is one of the Next Eleven, the eleven countries that, along
wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to deal with these with the BRICs, have a high potential to[272]become the world’s
[257][258] largest economies in the 21st century. However, after
issues.
decades of social instability, as of 2013, serious deficiencies
in macromangament and unbalanced macroeconomics in
basic services such as train transportation and electrical en-
National parks and wildlife sanctuaries
ergy generation had developed.[273] The economy is consid-
ered to be semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along
Main articles: Protected areas of Pakistan and National
the Indus River.[274][275][276] The diversified economies of
parks of Pakistan
Karachi and Punjab’s urban centres coexist with less de-
As of present, there are around 157 protected areas in Pak-
veloped areas in other parts of the country particularly in
Balochistan.[275] Pakistan is the 70th largest export econ-
omy in the world and the 89th most complex economy ac-
cording to the Economic complexity index (ECI). In 2013,
Pakistan exported $28.2B and imported $44.8B, resulting
in a negative trade balance of $16.6B.[277]

Deosai National Park.

istan that are recognized by IUCN. According to the 'Mod-


ern Protected Areas’ legislation, a national park is a pro-
tected area set aside by the government for the protection
and conservation of its outstanding scenery and wildlife in
a natural state. The oldest national park is Lal Suhanra in
Bahawalpur District, established in 1972.[267] It is also the
only biosphere reserve of Pakistan. Lal Suhanra is the only
national park established before the independence of the na- Pakistan Stock Exchange is one of the best performing market in
the world. According to Forbes, PSX delivered a return of 400%
tion in August 1947. Central Karakoram in Gilgit Baltistan
between 2010 and 2015.[278]
is currently the largest national park in the country, span-
ning over a total approximate area of 1,390,100 hectaresPakistan’s estimated nominal GDP as of 2016 is US$271
(3,435,011.9 acres). The smallest national park is the Ayub,
billion making it the 41st largest in the world and second
covering a total approximate area of 931 hectares (2,300.6
largest in South Asia representing about 15.0% of regional
acres). GDP.[276][279][280] The GDP by PPP is US$838,164
million.[281] The estimated nominal per capita GDP is
US$1,197, GDP (PPP)/capita is US$4,602 (international
1.1.5 Infrastructure dollars), and debt-to-GDP ratio is 55.5%.[282][283] Accord-
ing to the World Bank, Pakistan has important strategic en-
Economy dowments and development potential. The increasing pro-
portion of Pakistan’s youth provides the country with a po-
Main articles: Economy of Pakistan and Economic history tential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide ad-
of Pakistan equate services and employment.[31] 21.04% of the popu-
lation live below the international poverty line of US$1.25
1.1. PAKISTAN 15

a day. Unemployment rate among aged 15 and over popu-


lation is 5.5%.[284] Pakistan has an estimated of 40 million
middle class citizens which are projected to increase to 100
million people by 2050.[285] A 2013 report published by the
World Bank positioned Pakistan’s economy at 24th largest
in the world by purchasing power and 45th largest in abso-
lute dollars.[276] It is South Asia’s second largest economy,
representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.[279][280]
Pakistan’s economic growth since its inception has been
varied. It has been slow during periods of democratic tran-
sition, but excellent during the three periods of martial
law, although the foundation for sustainable and equitable
growth was not formed.[105] The early to middle 2000s
was a period of rapid economic reforms; the government Surface mining in Sindh. Pakistan has been termed as the 'Saudi
raised development spending, which reduced poverty lev- Arabia of Coal' by Forbes.[306]
els by 10% and increased GDP by 3%.[139][292] The econ-
omy cooled again from 2007.[139] Inflation reached 25.0%
in 2008[293] and Pakistan had to depend on a fiscal pol- a mainly agricultural to a strong service base. Agricul-
icy backed by the International Monetary Fund to avoid ture as of 2010 accounts for only 21.2% of the GDP. Even
possible bankruptcy.[294][295] A year later, the Asian De- so, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
velopment Bank reported that Pakistan’s economic crisis Organization, Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons
was easing.[296] The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010– of wheat in 2005, more than all of Africa (20,304,585
11 was 14.1%.[297] Since 2013, as part of an International metric tons) and nearly as much as all of South America
Monetary Fund program Pakistan’s economic growth has (24,557,784 metric tons).[307] Majority of the population,
picked up. Goldman Sachs predicted, in 2014, that Pak- directly or indirectly, is dependent on this sector. It ac-
istan’s economy would grow 15 times in the next 35 years counts for half of employed labour force and is the largest
to become 18th largest economy in the world by 2050.[298] source of foreign exchange earnings.[308]
In his 2016 book, The Rise and Fall of Nations, Ruchir A large portion of the country’s manufactured exports are
Sharma termed Pakistan’s economy as on a 'take-off' stage dependent on raw materials such as cotton and hides that
and the future outlook till 2020 has been termed ‘Very are part of the agriculture sector, while supply shortages and
Good’. Sharma termed it possible to transform Pakistan market disruptions in farm products do push up inflationary
from a “low-income to a middle-income country during the pressures. The country is also the fifth largest producer of
next five years.”[299] cotton, with cotton production of 14 million bales from a
Pakistan is one of the largest producers of natural com- modest beginning of 1.7 million bales in the early 1950s;
modities, and its labour market is the 10th largest in is self sufficient in sugarcane; and is the fourth largest pro-
the world. The 7-million–strong Pakistani diaspora con- ducer in the world of milk. Land and water resources have
tributed an estimated US$15 billion to the economy in not risen proportionately, but the increases have taken place
2014–15.[300][301] The major source countries of remit- mainly due to gains in labor and agriculture productivity.
tances to Pakistan are: the UAE; United States; Saudi Ara- The major breakthrough in crop production took place in
bia; the Gulf states (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman); the late 1960s and 1970s due to the Green Revolution that
Australia; Canada; Japan; United Kingdom; Norway; and made a significant contribution to land and yield increases
Switzerland.[302][303] According to the World Trade Or- of wheat and rice. Private tube wells led to a 50 percent
ganization, Pakistan’s share of overall world exports is increase in the cropping intensity which was augmented by
declining; it contributed only 0.128% in 2007.[304] The tractor cultivation. While the tube wells raised crop yields
trade deficit in the fiscal year 2010–11 was US$11.217 by 50 percent, the High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat
billion.[305] and rice led to a 50–60 percent higher yield.[309] Meat in-
dustry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.[310]

Agriculture and primary sector Main articles: Manufacturing Main articles: Textile industry in Pak-
Agriculture in Pakistan, Fuel extraction in Pakistan, and istan and Industry of Pakistan
Mining in Pakistan Manufacturing is the third largest sector of the economy,
accounting for 18.5% of gross domestic product (GDP),
The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from and 13 percent of total employment. Large-scale manu-
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Services Main articles: Real estate in Pakistan,


Information technology in Pakistan, and Banking in Pak-
istan
Services Sector has 57.7 percent share in GDP and has

Television assembly factory in Lahore. Pakistan’s industrial sector


Clifton Beach in Karachi, with under-construction skyscraper’s in
accounts for about 24% of the GDP, and is dominated by small
the background.
and medium-sized enterprises.[311]

emerged as the main driver of economic growth.[315] Pak-


facturing (LSM), at 12.2% of GDP, dominates the over- istani society like other developing countries is a consump-
all sector, accounting for 66% of the sectoral share, fol- tion oriented society, having a high marginal propensity to
lowed by small-scale manufacturing, which accounts for consume. The growth rate of services sector is higher than
4.9% of total GDP. Pakistan’s cement industry is also fast the growth rate of agriculture and industrial sector. Ser-
growing mainly because of demand from Afghanistan and vices sector accounts for 54 percent of GDP in 2014 and
from the domestic real estate sector. In 2013 Pakistan ex- little over one-third of total employment. Services sector
ported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement.[312] Pakistan has has strong linkages with other sectors of economy; it pro-
an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons of cement vides essential inputs to agriculture sector and manufactur-
and 42,636,428 metric tons of clinker. In 2012 and 2013, ing sector.[316] Pakistan’s I.T sector is regarded as among
the cement industry in Pakistan became the most profitable the fastest growing sector’s in Pakistan. The World Eco-
sector of the economy.[313] nomic Forum, assessing the development of Information
The textile industry has a pivotal position in the manufac- and Communication Technology in the country ranked Pak-
turing sector of Pakistan. Pakistan is the eighth-largest istan 111th among 144 countries in the Global Information
exporter of textile products in Asia, contributing 9.5% to Technology report of 2014.[317]
the GDP and providing employment to about 15 million As of 2011, Pakistan has over 20 million internet users and
people (some 30% of the 49 million people in the work- is ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a
force). Pakistan is the fourth-largest producer of cotton high growth rate in internet penetration.[318] Overall, it has
with the third largest spinning capacity in Asia after China the 27th largest population of internet users in the world. In
and India, and contributes 5% to the global spinning capac- the fiscal year 2012–2013. The current growth rate and em-
ity. China is the second largest buyer of Pakistani textiles, ployment trend indicate that Pakistan’s Information Com-
importing US$1.527 billion of textiles last fiscal. Unlike munication Technology (ICT) industry will exceed the $10-
the US, where mostly value-added textiles are imported, billion mark by 2020.[319] The sector employees 12,000 and
China buys only cotton yarn and cotton fabric from Pak- count’s among top 5 freelancing nations.[320][321] The coun-
istan. In 2012, Pakistani textile products accounted for try has also improved its export performance in telecom,
3.3% or US$1.07bn of all UK textile imports, 12.4% or computer and information services, as the share of their ex-
$4.61bn of total Chinese textile imports, 2.98% or $2.98b ports surged from 8.2pc in 2005–06 to 12.6pc in 2012–13.
of all US textile imports, 1.6% or $0.88bn of total German This growth is much better than that of China, whose share
textile imports and 0.7% or $0.888bn of total Indian textile in services exports was 3pc and 7.7pc for the same period
imports.[314] respectively.[322]
1.1. PAKISTAN 17

Nuclear power and energy

Main articles: Nuclear power in Pakistan, Energy in Pak-


istan, and Electricity sector in Pakistan
Energy from the nuclear power source is provided by

Pakistan produced 1,135MW of renewable energy for the month of


October 2016. Pakistan expect’s to produce 3,000MW of renewable
energy by the beginning of 2019.[338]

Chashma, Punjab Province, each with 325–340 MWe and


Tarbela Dam, the largest earth filled dam in the world, was con-
costing ₨. 129 billion,; from which the ₨. 80 billion of
structed in 1968. this from international sources, principally China. A fur-
ther agreement for China’s help with the project was signed
three licensed-commercial nuclear power plants, as of in October 2008, and given prominence as a counter to the
2012 data.[329] The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission U.S.–India agreement shortly preceding it. Cost quoted
(PAEC), the scientific and nuclear governmental author- then was US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan component
ity, is solely responsible for operating these power plants, of $1.07 billion. In 2013, the second nuclear commercial
while the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority regu- complex in Karachi was marginalized and expanded to
lates safe usage of the nuclear energy.[330] The electricity additional reactors, based on the Chashma complex.[339]
generated by commercial nuclear power plants consti- The electrical energy is generated by various energy cor-
tutes roughly ~5.8% of electricity generated in Pakistan, porations and evenly distributed by the National Electric
compared to ~62% from fossil fuel (petroleum), ~29.9% Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) among the four
from hydroelectric power and ~0.3% from coal.[331][332][333] provinces. However, the Karachi-based K-Electric and the
Pakistan is one of the four nuclear armed states (along Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) gen-
with India, Israel, and North Korea) that is not a party erates much of the electrical energy as well as gathering
to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but is a mem- revenue nationwide.[340] Capacity to generate ~22,797MWt
ber in good standing of the International Atomic Energy electricity has been installed in 2014, with the initiation of
Agency.[334][335][336] several energy projects in 2014.[331]
For the commercial usage of the nuclear power, China has
provided an avid support for commercializing the nuclear Tourism
power sources in Pakistan from early on, first providing the
Chashma-I reactor. The Karachi-I, a Candu-type, was pro-
Main article: Tourism in Pakistan
vided by Canada in 1971– the country’s first commercial Pakistan, with its diverse cultures, people and landscapes
nuclear power plant. In subsequent years, People’s Repub-
attracted 1.1 million foreign tourists annually in 2011
lic of China sold the nuclear power plant for energy and
and 2012 contributing $351 million and $369 million to
industrial growth of the country. In 2005, both countries
Pakistan’s economy respectively.[341] A significant decline
reached out towards working on joint energy security plan,
since the 1970s when the country received unprecedented
calling for a huge increase in generating capacity to more
amounts of foreign tourists due to the popular Hippie trail.
than 160,000 MWe by 2030. Original admissions by Pak- The trail attracted thousands of Europeans and American’s
istan, the government plans for lifting nuclear capacity to
in 1960s and 1970s who travelled via land through Turkey,
8800 MWe, 900 MWe of it by 2015 and a further 1500 Iran into India through Pakistan.[342] The main destinations
MWe by 2020.[337] of choice for these tourists were the Khyber Pass, Peshawar,
In June 2008, the nuclear commercial complex was ex- Karachi, Lahore, Swat and Rawalpindi.[343] However, the
panded with the ground work of installing and opera- trail declined after the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet–
tionalizing the Chashma-III and Chashma–IV reactors at Afghan War.[344]
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

mangroves in the south, to the 5,000-year-old cities of the


Indus Valley Civilization which included Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa.[351]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Pakistan

The transport industry accounts for ~10.5% of the nation’s


GDP.[352] Pakistan’s motorway infrastructure is better than
those of India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, but the train sys-
Badshahi Mosque was commissioned by the Mughals in 1671. It is tem lags behind those of India and China, and aviation in-
listed as a World Heritage Site. frastructure also needs improvement.[353] There is scarcely
any inland water transportation system, and coastal shipping
only meets minor local requirements.[354]
The country however continues to attract an estimated
of half a million foreign tourists.[345] Pakistan’s attraction
range from the ruin of civilisation such as Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa and Taxila, to the Himalayan hill stations. Pak-
istan is home to several mountain peaks over 7000 m.[346]
The north part of Pakistan has many old fortresses, an-
cient architecture and the Hunza and Chitral valley, home
to small pre-Islamic Animist Kalasha community claiming
descent from Alexander the Great. Pakistan’s cultural cap-
ital, Lahore, contains many examples of Mughal architec-
ture such as Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of
Jahangir and the Lahore Fort.[347]

Boeing 737 owned and operated by Pakistan International Airlines


(PIA). PIA operates scheduled services to 70 domestic destinations
and 34 international destinations in 27 countries.

Highways form the backbone of Pakistan’s transport sys-


tem; a total road length of 259,618 km accounts for 91%
of passenger and 96% of freight traffic. Road transport ser-
vices are largely in the hands of the private sector, which
handles around 95% of freight traffic. The National High-
way Authority is responsible for the maintenance of na-
tional highways and motorways. The highway and motor-
way system depends mainly on north–south links, connect-
Attabad Lake in Hunza Valley ing the southern ports to the populous provinces of Punjab
and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. Although this network only ac-
In October 2006, just one year after the 2005 Kashmir counts for 4.2%[355][356] of total road length, it carries 85% of the
earthquake, The Guardian released what it described as country’s traffic.
“The top five tourist sites in Pakistan” in order to help The Pakistan Railways, under the Ministry of Railways
the country’s tourism industry.[348] The five sites included (MoR), operates the railroad system. From 1947 until the
Taxila, Lahore, The Karakoram Highway, Karimabad and 1970s, the train system was the primary means of transport
Lake Saiful Muluk. To promote Pakistan’s unique and var- until the nationwide constructions of the national highways
ious cultural heritage.[349][350] In 2009, The World Eco- and the economic boom of the automotive industry. Since
nomic Forum’s Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report the 1990s, there was a marked shift in traffic from rail to
ranked Pakistan as one of the top 25% tourist destinations highways; dependence grew on roads after the introduction
for its World Heritage sites. Tourist destinations range from of vehicles in the country. Now the railway’s share of in-
1.1. PAKISTAN 19

land traffic is only 10% for passengers and 4% for freight


traffic. Personal transportation dominated by the automo-
biles, the total rail track decreased from 8,775 km in 1990–
91 to 7,791 km in 2011.[355][357] Pakistan expects to use
the rail service to boost foreign trade with China, Iran and
Turkey.[358][359]
Rough estimates accounts for 139 airports in Pakistan– Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was a Pakistani
both military and civilian airports which are mostly pub- organic chemist who pioneered research on pharmacology
licly owned. Though the Jinnah International Airport is use of various domestic plants. He was a member of the
the principal international gateway to Pakistan, the inter- Royal Society.
national airports in Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta,
Faisalabad, Sialkot and Multan also handle significant
amounts of traffic. The civil aviation industry is mixed with
public and private sectors, which has been deregulated in
1993. While the state-owned Pakistan International Air-
lines (PIA) is the major and dominated air carrier that
carries about 73% of domestic passengers and all domes-
tic freight, the private airlines such as airBlue, Shaheen Mahbub ul Haq was a Pakistani
Air International, and Air Indus, also provide the similar game theorist who’s work led to the Human Development
services with low cost expenses. Major seaports are in Index. He had a profound effect on the field of international
Karachi, Sindh (the Karachi port and Port Qasim).[355][357] development.
Since the 1990s, some seaport operations have been moved
to Balochistan with the construction of Gwadar Port and
Gadani Port.[355][357] According to Mundi Index, quality Development on science and technology plays an influen-
ratings of Pakistan’s seaports increased from 3.6 to 4 be- tial role in Pakistan’s infrastructure and helped the country
tween 2006 and 2009.[360] to reach out to the world.[361] Every year, scientists from
around the world are invited by the Pakistan Academy of
Sciences and the Pakistan Government to participate in the
International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.[362]
Pakistan hosted an international seminar on Physics in
Science and technology Developing Countries for International Year of Physics
2005.[363] Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won
Main articles: Science and technology in Pakistan and List a Nobel Prize[364]
in Physics for his work on the electroweak
of Pakistani inventions and discoveries interaction. Influential publications and the critical sci-
entific works in the advancement of mathematics, biology,
economics, computer science, and genetics have been pro-
duced by the Pakistani scientists at the domestic and inter-
national standings.[365]
In chemistry, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first Pak-
istani scientist to bring the therapeutic constituents of
the neem tree to the attention of natural products
Abdus Salam won the 1979 Nobel Prize chemists.[366][367][368] Pakistani neurosurgeon Ayub Om-
in Physics for his contribution to electroweak interaction. maya invented the Ommaya reservoir, a system for treat-
He was the first Muslim to win a Nobel prize in science. ment of brain tumours and other brain conditions.[369] Sci-
entific research and development plays a pivotal role in Pak-
istani universities, collaboration with the government spon-
sored national laboratories, science parks, and co-operation
with the industry.[370] Abdul Qadeer Khan regarded as the
founder of HEU-based Gas-centrifuge uranium enrichment
program for Pakistan’s integrated atomic bomb project.[371]
He founded and established the Kahuta Research Labora-
Atta-ur-Rahman won the UNESCO Sci- tories (KRL) in 1976, being both its senior scientist and the
ence Prize for pioneering contributions in chemistry in Director-General until his retirement in 2001, and he was
1999, the first Muslim to win it.
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

an early and vital figure in other science projects. Apart in the world. Since the 2000s, Pakistan has made significant
from participating in Pakistan’s atomic bomb project, he amount of progress in supercomputing, and various institu-
made major contributions in molecular morphology, physi- tions offers research in parallel computing. Pakistan gov-
cal martensite, and its integrated applications in condensed ernment reportedly spends ₨. 4.6 billion on information
and material physics.[372][373] technology projects, with emphasis on e-government, hu-
[385]
In 2010, Pakistan was ranked 43rd in the world in terms of man resource and infrastructure development.
published scientific papers.[374] The Pakistan Academy of
Sciences, a strong scientific community, plays an influential
Education
and vital role in formulating the science policies recommen-
dation to the government.[375]
Main articles: Education in Pakistan and Higher Education
The 1960s era saw the emergence of the active space pro- Commission
gram led by the SUPARCO that produced advances in do- The constitution of Pakistan requires the state to provide
mestic rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy.[376] The space
program recorded a few notable feats and achievements.
The successful launch of its first rocket into space made
Pakistan the first South Asian country to have achieved such
a task.[376] Successfully producing and launching the na-
tion’s first space satellite in 1990, Pakistan became the first
Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a
satellite into space.[377][378]
Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific pro-
ductivity in the past decade surging from approximately
2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles
in 2015. Making Pakistan’s cited article’s higher than than
the BRIC countries put together.
—Thomson Reuters's Another BRIC in the Wall 2016
report[379]
As an aftermath of the 1971 war with India, the clandes-
tine crash program developed atomic weapons in a fear
and to prevent any foreign intervention, while ushering in
the atomic age in the post cold war era.[152] Competition
with India and tensions eventually led Pakistan’s decision of
conducting underground nuclear tests in 1998; thus becom-
ing the seventh country in the world to successfully develop
nuclear weapons.[380]
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is the only Muslim coun-
try that maintains a research station in Antarctica and it has
maintained a presence there since 1991.[381] After estab- Government College University is one of the oldest universities in
Pakistan as well as one of the oldest institutions of higher learning
lishing an Antarctic program, Pakistan is one of the small
in the Muslim world.
number of countries that have an active research presence
in Antarctica. The Antarctic program oversees two sum-
free primary and secondary education.[387][388]
mer research stations on the continent and plans to open
another base, which will operate all year round.[382] Energy At the time of establishment of Pakistan as state, the
consumption by computers and usage has grown since the country had only one university, the Punjab University in
1990s when the PCs were introduced; Pakistan has over Lahore.[389] On immediate basis, the Pakistan government
20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top established public universities in each four provinices in-
countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet cluding the Sindh University (1949), Peshawar University
penetration, as of 2011.[383] Key publications has been pro- (1950), Karachi University (1953), and Balochistan Uni-
duced by Pakistan, and domestic software development has versity (1970). Pakistan has a large network of both public
gained a lot international praise.[384] and private universities; a collaboration of public-private
universities to provide research and higher education in the
Overall, it has the 27th largest population of internet users
country, although there is concern about the low quality of
1.1. PAKISTAN 21

teaching in many of the newer schools.[390] It is estimated BBA, and MBA programs. The higher education mainly su-
that there are 3193 technical and vocational institutions in pervises by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) that
Pakistan,[391] and there are also madrassahs that provide sets out the policies and issues rankings of the nationwide
free Islamic education and offer free board and lodging universities. In October 2014, education activist Malala
to students, who come mainly from the poorer strata of Yousafzai became by far the youngest ever person in the
society.[392] Strongly instigated public pressure and popu- world to receive the Nobel peace prize.[405]
lar criticism over the extremists usage of madrassahs for
recruitment, the Pakistan government has made repeated
efforts to regulate and monitor the quality of education in Water supply and sanitation
the madrassahs.[393][394]
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan
Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels:
nursery (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through
five); middle (grades six through eight); matriculation Despite high population growth the country has increased
(grades nine and ten, leading to the secondary certificate); the share of the population with access to an improved wa-
intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher ter source from 85% in 1990 to 92% in 2010, although this
secondary certificate); and university programmes leading does not necessarily mean that the water from these sources
to graduate and postgraduate programs.[391] Network of is safe to drink. The share with access to improved san-
Pakistani private schools also operate a parallel secondary itation increased from 27% to 48% during the same pe-
education system based on the curriculum set and adminis- riod, according to the Joint Monitoring Program for Wa-
tered by the Cambridge International Examinations of the ter Supply and Sanitation.[406] There has also been consid-
United Kingdom. Some students choose to take the O-level erable innovation at the grass-root level, in particular con-
and A level exams conducted by the British Council.[395] cerning sanitation. The Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi[407]
According to the International Schools Consultancy, Pak- and community-led total sanitation in rural areas are two
istan has 439 international schools.[396] examples of such innovation.

Initiatives taken in 2007, the English medium educa- However, the sector still faces major challenges. The qual-
tion has been made compulsory to all schools across the ity of the services is poor, as evidenced by intermittent wa-
country.[397][398] Additional reforms taken in 2013, all edu- ter supply in urban areas and limited wastewater treatment.
cational institutions in Sindh began instructions in Chinese Poor drinking water quality and sanitation lead to major
language courses, reflecting China’s growing role as a su- outbreaks of waterborne diseases.[408] major outbreaks of
perpower and increasing influence in Pakistan.[399] The lit- waterborne diseases swept the cities of Faisalabad, Karachi,
eracy rate of the population is ~58 %. Male literacy is Lahore and Peshawar in 2006.[408] Estimates indicate that
~70.2% while female literacy rate is 46.3%.[297] Literacy each year, more than three million Pakistanis become in-
rates vary by region and particularly by sex; for instance, fected with waterborne diseases.[409] In addition, many ser-
female literacy in tribal areas is 3.0%.[400] With the launch vice providers do not even cover the costs of and main-
of the computer literacy in 1995, the government launched tenance due to low tariffs and poor efficiency.[410] Conse-
a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating quently, the service providers strongly depend on govern-
illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.[401] ment subsidies and external funding.[411] A National San-
Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the MoEd itation Policy and a National Drinking Water Policy have
expects to attain 100.00% enrollment levels among children been approved in 2006 and 2009 respectively with the
of primary school age and a literacy rate of ~86% among objective to improve water and sanitation coverage and
people aged over 10.[402] Pakistan is currently spending 2.2 quality.[412][413] However, the level of annual investment
percent of its GDP on education;[403] which according to (US$4/capita) still remains much below what would be nec-
Institute of Social and Policy Sciences is one of the lowest essary to achieve a significant increase in access and service
in South Asia.[404] quality.

After earning their HSC, students may study in a profes-


sional college or the university for bachelorate program 1.1.6 Demographics
courses such as science and engineering (BEng, BS/BSc,
BTech) surgery and medicine (MBBS, MD), dentistry Main articles: Demographics of Pakistan, Demographic
(BDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), criminal justice and history of Pakistan, and Pakistanis
law (LLB, LLM, JD), architecture (BArch), pharmacy As per United States Census Bureau estimates the coun-
(Pharm D.) and nursing (BNurs). Students can also attend a try’s population is at 199,085,847 (199.1 million) as of
university for a bachelorate degree for business administra- 2015,[414] which is equivalent to 2.57% of the world popu-
tion, literature, and management including the BA, BCom, lation.[415] Noted as the sixth most populated country in the
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Languages

Main article: Languages of Pakistan

More than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, in-


cluding a number of provincial languages. Urdu— the
lingua franca, a symbol of Muslim identity, and national
unity— is the national language which is understood by
over 75% of Pakistanis and the main source of nationwide
communication but is only the primary language of 8%
of Pakistan’s population.[247][424][425] Urdu and English are
the official languages of Pakistan, however English is pri-
marily used in official business, government, and legal
Kalash people maintain a unique identity and religion within Pak- contracts;[139] the local dialect is known as Pakistani En-
istan.
glish. The Punjabi language is the most common in Pak-
istan and is mother-tongue of 66% of Pakistan’s popula-
tion mostly of people in Punjab.[426] This includes 48% of
Standard Punjabi speakers[425] as well as regional Punjabi
dialects such as Saraiki and Hindko. Saraiki dialect is
mainly spoken in South Punjab and counts up to 10% of
Pakistan’s population, while the Hindko dialect is spoken
world, its growth rate is reported at ~2.03%, which is the in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the
highest of the SAARC nations and gives an annual increase Pashto language is the provincial language and is well un-
of 3.6 million. The population is projected to reach 210.13 derstood in Sindh and Balochistan.[10] The Sindhi language
million by 2020 and to double by 2045. is the common language spoken in Sindh while the Balochi
language is dominant in Balochistan. Brahui, a Dravid-
At the time of the partition in 1947, Pakistan had a popu-
ian language, is spoken by the Brahui people who live in
lation of 32.5 million,[303][416] but the population increased
Balochistan.[10][71][427] Gujarati community leaders in Pak-
by ~57.2% between the years 1990 and 2009.[417] By 2030,
istan also claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers
it is expected to surpass Indonesia as the largest Muslim-
in Karachi.[428] Marwari, a Rajasthani language, is also spo-
majority country in the world.[418][419] Pakistan is classi-
ken in parts of Sindh.
fied as a “young nation” with a median age of about 22,
and 104 million people under the age of 30 in 2010. Pak-
istan’s fertility rate stands at 3.07, higher than its neigh- Immigration
bor India (2.57). Around 35% of the people are under
15.[303] Vast majority residing in Southern Pakistan lives
along the Indus River, with Karachi being its most pop-
ulous commercial city.[420] In the eastern, western, and
Northern Pakistan, most of the population lives in an arc
formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi,
Sargodha, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum,
Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar.[139] During
1990–2008, the city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan’s
population, making it the most urbanised nation in South
Asia which further increased to 38% by 2013.[139][303][421]
Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 peo-
ple or more.[422]
Expenditure spend on healthcare was ~2.8% of GDP in
2013. Life expectancy at birth was 67 years for females
and 65 years for males in 2013.[421] The private sector ac-
counts for about 80% of outpatient visits. Approximately Pakistan hosts second largest refugee population globally after
19% of the population and 30% of children under five are Turkey.[429] Seen here, an Afghan refugee girl near Tarbela Dam.
malnourished.[276] Mortality of the under-fives was 86 per
1,000 live births in 2012.[421] The Pakistan Census excludes the immigrants such as the
1.1. PAKISTAN 23

1.7 million registered Afghans from Afghanistan, who are Religion


found mainly in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal belt
with small numbers residing in Karachi and Quetta.[430][431] Main article: Religion in Pakistan
Pakistan hosts more refugees than any other country in the See also: Religion in South Asia
world.[432] Pakistan has the second largest number of Muslims in the
As of 2012 there are 5 million illegal immigrants in Pak-
istan. Around 2 million are Bangladeshis, 2.5 million are
Afghans and the other 0.5 million are from various other
areas such as Myanmar, Iraq and Africa.[433]
Shaikh Muhammad Feroze, the chairman of the Pakistani
Bengali Action Committee, claimed that there were 200
settlements of Bengali-speaking people in Pakistan, of
which 132 are in Karachi. They are found in various ar-
eas of Pakistan such as Thatta, Badin, Hyderabad, Tando
Adam and Lahore.[434]
Experts say that the migration of both Bengalis and
Burmese (Rohingya) to Pakistan started in the 1980s and
continued till 1998. Large scale Rohingya migration to
Karachi made Karachi one of the largest population cen-
tres of Rohingyas in the world after Myanmar.[435] The
Burmese community of Karachi is spread out over 60 slums
in Karachi such as the Burmi Colony in Korangi, Arakan-
abad, Machchar colony, Bilal colony, Ziaul Haq Colony and
Godhra Camp.[436]
Thousands of Uyghur Muslims have also migrated to the
Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan, fleeing religious and
cultural persecution in Xinjiang, China.[437] Since 1989,
thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees have sought refuge
in Pakistan, complaining that many of the refugee women
had been raped by Indian soldiers and that they were forced
out of their homes by the soldiers.[438]

Faisal Mosque, built in 1986 by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay


on behalf of King Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia.

Social groups world after Indonesia.[446] About 97.0% of Pakistanis are


Muslims. The majority are Sunni, with an estimated 10–
25% Shia.[71][447][448][449] Pakistan is said to have the third
The population is dominated by four main ethnic groups: largest Shia population in the world after Iran and India with
Punjabis, Pashtuns (Pathans), Sindhis, and Balochs.[439] a Shia population of about 42.5 million.[447][448][450][451]
Rough accounts from 2009 indicate that the Punjabis dom- However, a PEW survey in 2012 found that only 6% of
inate with 78.7 million (~45%) while the Pashtuns are the Pakistani Muslims were Shia.[452] The Ahmadis, are an-
second dominating group with ~29.3 million (15.42%).[439] other minority sect in Pakistan, albeit in much smaller num-
The Sindhis are estimated at 24.8 million (14.1%) with bers and are officially considered non-Muslims by virtue
Seraikis a sub-group of Punjabis is approximated at of the constitutional amendment.[453] There are also sev-
14.8 million (8.4%).[439] The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs (the eral Quraniyoon communities.[454][455] After the 9/11 at-
Indian emigrants) stands at ~13.3 million (7.57%) while tacks in the United States, the sectarian violence among
Balochs are accounted at 6.3 million (3.57%)– the small- Muslim denominations has increased with systematic tar-
est group in population terms.[439][440] The remaining 11.1 geted killings of both sects, Sunnis and Shias.[456][457] In
million (4.66%) belong to various ethnic minorities such as 2013, there were country-wide protests by both Shias and
Hazaras.[439] There is also a large Pakistani diaspora, num- Sunnis calling an end to sectarian violence in the country,
bering over seven million residing worldwide.[440] toughen up the law and order, and urging for Shia-Sunni
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

unity in the country.[458] The Ahmadis are particularly per-


secuted, especially since 1974 when they were banned from
calling themselves Muslims. In 1984, Ahmadiyya places of
worship were banned from being called “mosques”.[459] As
of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-
denominational Muslims.[460]
Hinduism is the second largest religion in Pakistan after Is-
lam, according to the 1998 Census.[461] As of 2010, Pak-
istan had the fifth largest Hindu population in the world
and PEW predicts that by 2050 Pakistan will have the
fourth largest Hindu population in the world.[462][463] In the
1998 Census the Hindu (jati) population was found to be
2,111,271 while the Hindu (scheduled castes) numbered an
additional 332.343.[461] Hindus are found in all provinces of
Pakistan but are mostly concentrated in Sindh. They speak
a variety of languages such as Sindhi, Seraiki, Aer, Dhatki,
Gera, Goaria, Gurgula, Jandavra, Kabutra, Koli, Loarki,
Marwari, Sansi and Vaghri.[464]
Christians formed the next largest religious minority, af-
ter HIndus, with a population of 2,092,902, as per the
1998 Census.[461] They were followed by the Bahá'í Faith,
which had a following of 30,000, then Sikhism, Buddhism
and Zoroastrianism, each back then claiming 20,000
adherents,[465] and a very small community of Jains. There
is a Roman Catholic community in Karachi which was es-
tablished by Goan and Tamil migrants when Karachi’s in-
Truck art in Pakistan is a unique feature of Pakistani culture.
frastructure was being developed by the British during colo-
nial administration between World War I and World War II.
Influence of atheism is very little with 1.0% of the popula- that govern personal and political life. The basic family
tion aligned as atheist in 2005.[466] However, the figure rose unit is the extended family,[472] although there has been a
to 2.0% in 2012 according to Gallup.[466] growing trend towards nuclear families for socio-economic
Islam, the main religion in Pakistan, has to some ex- reasons.[473] The traditional dress for both men and women
tent syncretized with pre-Islamic influences, resulting in is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, Jeans, and shirts are also
a religion with some traditions distinct from those of the popular among men.[50] The middle class has increased to
Arab world.[467] Two Sufis whose shrines receive much around 35 million and the upper and upper-middle classes
national attention are Ali Hajweri in Lahore (c. 12th to around 17 million in recent decades, and power is shift-
century)[468] and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan, Sindh (c. ing from rural landowners to the urbanised elites.[474] Pak-
12th century).[469] Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, has istani festivals such as Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramazan,
a long history and a large popular following in Pakistan. Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are mostly religious
Popular Sufi culture is centered on Thursday night gather- in origin.[472] Increasing globalisation has resulted in Pak-
ings at shrines and annual festivals which feature Sufi music istan ranking 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization
and dance. Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists criticize Index.[475]
its popular character, which in their view, does not accu-
rately reflect the teachings and practice of the Prophet and
his companions.[470][471] Clothing, arts, and fashion

Main articles: Suits in Pakistan, Pakistani clothing,


1.1.7 Culture and society Sherwani, Jinnah cap, and Peshawari chappal

Main articles: British heritage of Pakistan, Culture of Pak- The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is
istan, and Public holidays in Pakistan worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab,
Civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasis- Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa as well as in
ing local cultural etiquettes and traditional Islamic values FATA and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style
1.1. PAKISTAN 25

of wearing the Shalwar Kameez. Pakistanis wear clothes


range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fab-
ric (silk, chiffon, cotton, etc).[476] Besides the national dress,
the domestically tailored suits and neckties are often and
usually worn by men in the country, and it is customary
in offices, schools, and other necessary places and popular
gatherings.[476]
The fashion industry has flourished well in the changing en- Fatima was the first women to run a
vironment of the fashion world. Since Pakistan came into presidential campaign in Asia.
being, its fashion has historically evolved from different
phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fash-
The social status of women in Pakistan varies and consid-
ion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combi-
erably depends on the social class, upbringings, and re-
nation of traditional and modern dresses and it has become
gional divide due to uneven socioeconomic development
the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite all modern
and the impact of social formations on women’s lives in
trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed
the country.[478] Pakistan has had a long history of femi-
their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This
nist activism since its birth.[478] Since 1947, the APWA and
regional fashion is not static but evolving into more mod-
Aurat Foundation– the influential feminist organizations—
ern and pure forms. The Pakistan Fashion Design Coun-
have played strong roles in inculcating awareness about
cil based in Lahore organizes Fashion Week and Fashion
women’s rights in the country.[478] Personalities such as
Pakistan based in Karachi organizes fashion shows in that
Begum Rana'a, Benazir Bhutto, Malala Yousafzai and
city. Pakistan’s first fashion week was held in November
Kalsoom Nawaz have been influential in Pakistan’s feminist
2009.[477]
culture.[478] The status of women, overall, has improved due
to enhanced religious and educational knowledge. How-
ever, with regard to the global average, the situation is quite
alarming. In 2014, the World Economic Forum ranked
Pakistan as the second worst country in the world in gender
equality.[479]
Role of women in Pakistani society The relationship of women with the opposite gender is cul-
turally that of gender subordination. There are certain as-
sumed and assigned roles of women that are related to do-
Main articles: Women in Pakistan, Role of women in mestic chores compared with men who are the breadwin-
Pakistani media, Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces, ners and professionals of the family. Contrastingly, in ur-
and Protection of Women Against Violence Bill 2015 ban areas of the country, more and more women are assum-
ing professional roles and are contributing to family eco-
nomics but the ratio of these women compared with those
in traditional roles is way less. Most favoured occupations
for females accepted by society are that of Teaching and
Tutoring.[478][480] Due to heightened awareness among peo-
ple, educational opportunities for Pakistani women have
increased over the years.[481] On 24 February 2016, the
elected assembly of Pakistan’s Punjab province passed a
Benazir Bhutto was the first woman new law called “Punjab Protection of Women Against Vi-
elected to lead a Muslim state, and is the only one to be olence Bill 2015 " which provides women with protection
elected twice against a multitude of crimes including: cyber crime, do-
mestic violence, emotional, economic and psychological
abuse.[482]

Media and entertainment

Main articles: Cinema of Pakistan, Media of Pakistan,


Malala Yousafzai is the youngest-ever Music of Pakistan, History of Pakistani pop music, Theatre
Nobel Prize laureate. of Pakistan, and Pakistani dramas
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

acclaim.[491]
Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music
and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to
modern forms fusing traditional and western music.[492][493]
Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of
Afghan refugees in the western provinces has stimulated in-
Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy has won terest in Pashto music, although there has been intolerance
Oscars in 2012 and 2016 for her documentaries. of it in some places.[494] Pakistani media has also played a
vital role in exposing corruption.[495]

Urbanisation

Main article: Urbanisation in Pakistan

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was a globally


renowned Pakistani Qawwali singer Since achieving independence as a result of the partition
of India, the urbanization has exponentially increased
and has several different causes for it.[420] Majority of
southern side population resides along the Indus River, with
Karachi being its most populous commercial city.[420] On
the east, west, and northern skirts, the most of the pop-
ulation lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore,
Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala,
Nazia Hassan was a pop singer- Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan
songwriter who introduced pop music to South Asia. and Peshawar. During 1990–2008, the city dwellers made
up 36.0% of Pakistan’s population, making it the most ur-
banised nation in South Asia. Furthermore, more than 50%
The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television
of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.[422]
Corporation (PTV) and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation
Immigration, both from within and outside the country, is
(PBC) for radio were the dominant media outlets until the
regarded as one of the main factors that has contributed to
21st century. Pakistan now has a large network of domes-
urbanisation in Pakistan. One analysis of the national cen-
tic private 24-hour news media and television channels.[483]
sus held in 1998 highlighted the significance of the Partition
According to a 2016 report by the Reporters Without Bor-
of India in the 1940s in the context of understanding urban
ders ranked Pakistan in 147th on the Press Freedom In-
change in Pakistan.[496]
dex, while terming the Pakistani media “among the freest
in Asia when it comes to covering the squabbling among
politicians.”[484] BBC term’s Pakistani media as “among the
most outspoken in South Asia.”[485]
The Lollywood, an Urdu, Punjabi and Pashto film indus-
try is based in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. While
Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from
1965 until 2008, they have remained important in pop-
ular culture.[486][487] Contrary to the ailing film industry,
the Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances
are popular, as many entertainment media air the se-
ries regularly.[488] Urdu dramas dominate the TV enter-
tainment industry, and have debuted critically acclaimed
miniseries, and have featured popular actors and actresses Karachi has an estimated population of over 25 million people,
making it among the world’s largest cities.[497]
since the 1990s.[489] In the 1960s–1970s, pop music and
disco (1970s) dominated the country’s music industry. In
the 1980s–1990s, British influenced rock music appeared During the independence period, Muslim Muhajirs from
and jolted the country’s entertainment industry.[490] In India migrated in large numbers and shifted their domicile
the 2000s, heavy metal music gained popular and critical to Pakistan, especially to the port city of Karachi, which
is today the largest metropolis in Pakistan.[496] Migration
1.1. PAKISTAN 27

from other countries, mainly those in the neighbourhood, Pakistan increased its ranking to tenth in the world for re-
has further catalysed the process of urbanisation in Pak- mittances with a total sum of US$13 billion.[500][501] The
istani cities. Of particular interest is migration that oc- Overseas Pakistani Division (OPD) was created in Septem-
curred in the aftermath of the independence of Bangladesh ber 2004 within the Ministry of Labour (MoL), and has
in 1971,[496] in the form of stranded Biharis who were since recognized the importance of overseas Pakistanis and
relocated to Pakistan. Smaller numbers of Bengalis and their contribution to the nation’s economy. Together with
Burmese immigrants followed suit much later. The conflict Community Welfare Attaches (CWAs) and the Overseas
in Afghanistan also forced millions of Afghan refugees Pakistanis Foundation (OPF), the OPD is improving the
into Pakistan, particularly in the northwestern regions. In- welfare of Pakistanis who reside abroad. The division aims
evitably, the rapid urbanisation caused by these large popu- to provide better services through improved facilities at
lation movements has also brought new political and socio- airports, and suitable schemes for housing, education and
economic complexities.[496] In addition to immigration, health care—its largest effort is the facilitation of the reha-
economic events such as the green revolution and politi- bilitation of returning overseas Pakistanis.
cal developments, among a host of other factors, are also
important causes of urbanisation.[496]
Literature and philosophy

Diaspora

Main articles: Cinema of Pakistan and Overseas Pakistani

Sadiq Khan is the Mayor of London and


also served as the UK’s Minister of State for Transport. He
is a son of Pakistani expats.

According to the UN Department of Economic and So-


cial Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth largest diaspora in the
world.[498] Statistics approximated by the Pakistan govern-
ment, there are around 7 million Pakistanis residing abroad
with vast majority living in the Middle East, Europe and
North America.[499] Pakistan ranks 10th in the world for
remittances sent home in 2012 at $13 billion.[500][501]
The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the
Government of Pakistan; the Ministry of Overseas Pakista-
nis was established in 2008 to exclusively deal with all the Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan’s national poet who conceived the idea
matters and affairs of the overseas Pakistanis such as at- of Pakistan.
tending to their needs and problems, intending schemes and
projects for their welfare and working for resolution of their Main articles: Literature of Pakistan, Urdu poetry, and
problems and issues. Overseas Pakistani workers are the Pakistani philosophy
second largest source of Foreign Exchange Remittances to
Pakistan after exports and over the last several years, the Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto,
foreign exchange remittances have maintained a steady ris- Baluchi, Persian, English and many other languages.[502]
ing trend, with a recorded increase of 150% from US$6 bil- The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a large literary com-
lion in 2009 to estimated US$15 billion during 2015.[300] munity that promotes literature and poetry in Pakistan and
In 2009–10, Pakistanis sent home US$9.4 billion, the abroad.[503] The National Library publishes and promotes
eleventh-largest total remittance in the world.[501] By 2012, literature in the country. Before the 19th century, literature
28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry, mystical and political philosophy.[515][516]
folkloric works. During the colonial age, the native literary
figures were influenced by western literary realism and took
up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fic- Architecture
tion is now very popular.[504][505]
Main articles: Pakistani architecture and Hindu and Bud-
dhist architectural heritage of Pakistan
Pakistani architecture has four recognised periods: pre-

Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is part of Pakistan’s sufi heritage.[506]

The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote po-


etry in Urdu and Persian. He was a strong proponent of
the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilisation and
encouraged Muslims binding all over the world to bring
about successful revolution.[507][508][509] Well-known rep-
resentatives of contemporary Pakistani Urdu literature in-
clude Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Sadequain is known for his cal- Minar-e-Pakistan is a public monument marking Pakistan’s inde-
ligraphy and paintings.[505] Sufi poets Shah Abdul Latif, pendence movement.
Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Bakhsh and Khawaja Farid
are very popular in Pakistan.[510] Mirza Kalich Beg has been Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. With the be-
termed the father of modern Sindhi prose.[511] Historically, ginning of the Indus civilisation around the middle of the
philosophical development in the country was dominated by 3rd millennium BC,[517] an advanced urban culture de-
Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Syed, Muhammad Asad, Maududi, veloped for the first time in the region, with large build-
and Ali Johar.[512] ings, some of which survive to this day.[518] Mohenjo
Ideas from British and American philosophy greatly shaped Daro, Harappa and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic set-
philosophical development in Pakistan. Analysts such as tlements that are now tourist attractions.[251] The rise of
M.M. Sharif and Zafar Hassan established the first major Buddhism and the Greek influence led to the development
Pakistani philosophical movement in 1947.[513] After the of the Greco-Buddhist style,[519] starting from the 1st cen-
1971 war, philosophers such as Jalaludin Abdur Rahim, tury AD. The high point of this era was reached at the peak
Gianchandani, and Malik Khalid incorporated Marxism of the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architec-
into Pakistan’s philosophical development.[514] Influential ture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in
work by Manzoor Ahmad, Jon Elia, Hasan Askari Rizvi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[520]
and Abdul Khaliq brought mainstream social, political, and The arrival of Islam in today’s Pakistan meant a sudden end
analytical philosophy to the fore of Pakistani philosophical of Buddhist architecture in the area and a smooth transi-
academia.[514] Global works by Noam Chomsky have in- tion to the predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture.
fluenced philosophical ideas in various fields of social and The most important Indo-Islamic-style building still stand-
1.1. PAKISTAN 29

Food and drink

Main article: Pakistani cuisine


Pakistani cuisine is similar to cuisine from other regions

A Pakistani dish cooked using the tandoori method.

of South Asia, since much of it originated from the royal


kitchens of sixteenth-century Mughal emperors. Pakistan
has a greater variety of meat dishes compared to the rest of
the sub-continent. Most of those dishes have their roots in
British, Central Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. Pak-
istani cooking uses large quantities of spices, herbs and
seasoning. Garlic, ginger, turmeric, red chilli and garam
masala are used in most dishes, and home cooking regu-
The Lahore Fort, a landmark built during the Mughal era, is a
larly includes curry. Chapati, a thin flat bread made from
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
wheat, is a staple food, served with curry, meat, vegetables
and lentils. Rice is also common; it is served plain, fried
with spices, and in sweet dishes.[247][523][524]
Lassi is a traditional drink in the Punjab region. Black tea
with milk and sugar is popular throughout Pakistan and is
taken daily by most of the population.[50][525] Sohan Halwa
is a popular sweet dish from the southern region of Punjab
ing is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan. During province and is enjoyed all over Pakistan.[526]
the Mughal era, design elements of Persian-Islamic archi-
tecture were fused with and often produced playful forms
of Hindustani art. Lahore, occasional residence of Mughal Sports
rulers, exhibits many important buildings from the empire.
Most prominent among them are the Badshahi mosque, Main article: Sports in Pakistan
the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the The majority of the sports played in Pakistan originated
colourful, the Mughal-style Wazir Khan Mosque,[521] the and were substantially developed by the United Kingdom
Shalimar Gardens in Lahore and the Shahjahan Mosque who introduced them during the British India. Field Hockey
in Thatta. In the British colonial period, predominantly is the national sport of Pakistan; it has won three Gold
functional buildings of the Indo-European representative medallions[527] in the Olympic Games held in 1960, 1968,
style developed from a mixture of European and Indian- and 1984. Pakistan has also won the Hockey World
Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity is ex- Cup a record four times held in 1971, 1978, 1982, and in
[528]
pressed in modern structures like the Faisal Mosque, the 1994.
Minar-e-Pakistan and the Mazar-e-Quaid.[522] Several of Cricket, however, is the most popular game across the
the architectural infrastructure has been influenced from country.[529] The cricket team (popular as Shaheen) has
the British design, and such architectural designs can be won the Cricket World Cup held in 1992; it had been
found in Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[522] runners-up once, in 1999, and co-hosted the tournament
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.9 Notes
[1] “Include data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad
Kashmir (13,297 km2 or 5,134 sq mi) and Gilgit–Baltistan
(72,520 km2 or 28,000 sq mi).[13] Including these territories
would produce an area figure of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq
mi).”

1.1.10 References
[1] James Minahan (23 December 2009). The Complete Guide
to National Symbols and Emblems [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO.
p. 141. ISBN 9780313344978.

[2] “The State Emblem”. Ministry of Information and Broad-


Children play soccer at the Altit Sports Ground in Hunza Valley. casting, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the origi-
nal on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 18 December 2013.

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gural World Twenty20 (2007) in South Africa and won the of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
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World Open Squash Championship several times dur- partments – Pakistan – Dunya News”. dunyanews.tv.
[533]
ing their careers. Jahangir Khan also won the British
[7] Irfan Haider. “PM, president to deliver speeches in Urdu on
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[468] Amer Morgahi (2011). “An emerging European Islam: The July 2009. pp. 14–16, 21. Archived from the original (PDF)
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[489] Daily Times Monitor, Editorial (25 December 2014). [505] Huma Imtiaz (26 September 2010). “Granta: The global
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Muhammad”. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 1 January
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[509] Iqbal Academy (26 May 2006). “Allama Iqbal – Biography”
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[496] Clark, David (2006). The Elgar Companion to Development Main Phalsapiana Rojhanat) (in Urdu). Karachi: Karachi
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1843764755.
[513] et. al., Richard V. DeSemet SeJ. “Philosophical Activities
[497] “Population explosion: Put an embargo on industrialisation in Pakistan:1947–1961". Work published by Pakistan Philo-
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183731.html. Retrieved 2016-03-03. External link in
[515] Mallick, Ayyaz (7 May 2013). “Exclusive interview with
|website= (help)
Noam Chomsky on Pakistan elections”. Dawn news elec-
[499] “Pride and the Pakistani Diaspora”. Archives.dawn.com. 14 tion cells. Dawn news election cells. Retrieved 21 February
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[500] “OP News Discussions Archives”. Overseaspakistanis.net. [516] Hoodbhoy, Pervez. “Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pervez
Retrieved 15 October 2013. Hoodbhoy”. http://www.chomsky.info/. PTV archives. Re-
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[501] “Migration and Remittances: Top Countries” (PDF). Sitere-
sources.worldbank.org. 2010. Retrieved 19 December [517] Vidja Dehejia. “South Asian Art and Culture”. The
2013. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 10 February 2008.
46 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

[518] “The Indus Valley And The Genesis Of South Asian Civi- [537] “Asian Games Medal Count”. Asian Games. Olympic
lization”. History World International. Retrieved 6 February Council of Asia. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
2008.
[538] “Welcome to the Pakistan Basketball Federation”. Pakistan
[519] Sachindra Kumar Maity. Cultural Heritage of Ancient India Olympic Association. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
Abhinav Publications, 1983 ISBN 039102809X p 46

[520] “UNESCO Advisory Body Evaluation of Takht Bhai” 1.1.11 Bibliography


(PDF). International Council on Monuments and Sites. 29
December 1979. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
See also: Bibliography of Pakistan
[521] Simon Ross Valentine. 'Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at:
History, Belief, Practice Hurst Publishers, 2008 ISBN
1850659168 p 63 • Akbar Ahmed (1997), Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic
Identity: The Search for Saladin, Routledge, ISBN
[522] Kamil Khan Mumtaz (1985). Architecture in Pakistan. Con-
978-0-415-14966-2
cept Media Pte Ltd. pp. 32,51,160. ISBN 9971-84-141-X.
• Stephen Philip Cohen (2006), The Idea of Pakistan,
[523] Kathleen W. Deady (2001). Countries of the world :Pak-
istan. Capstone Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 0-7368-0815-9.
Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 978-0-8157-1503-
0
[524] American Geriatrics Society. Ethnogeriatrics Committee
(2006). Doorway thoughts: cross-cultural health care for • Anatol Lieven (2012), Pakistan: A Hard Country,
older adults. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 119–120. ISBN PublicAffairs, ISBN 978-1-61039-145-0
978-0-7637-4355-0.
• Hafeez Malik (2006), The Encyclopedia of Pakistan,
[525] Tarla Dalal (2007). Punjabi Khana. Sanjay & Co. p. 8. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-597735-6
ISBN 978-81-89491-54-3.
• Iftikhar Malik (2005), Culture and Customs of Pak-
[526] “Sohan Halwa a gift of saints’ city”. Dawn.com. 16 Decem- istan (Culture and Customs of Asia), Greenwood,
ber 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2014. ISBN 978-0-313-33126-8
[527] Bill Mallon; Jeroen Heijmans (2011). Historical Dictionary • Matthew McCartney (2011), Pakistan – The Political
of the Olympic Movement (4th revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–
291. ISBN 978-0-8108-7249-3. 2009, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-57747-2
[528] V.V.K.Subburaj (30 August 2004). Basic Facts of General
• Masood Ashraf Raja (2010), Constructing Pakistan:
Knowledge. Sura College of Competition. p. 771. ISBN
978-81-7254-234-4. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National
Identity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-
[529] Saad Khan (15 March 2010). “The Death of Sports in Pak- 547811-2
istan”. The Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
• Percival Spear (2007), India, Pakistan and the West,
[530] “Pakistan cricket future in doubt”. BBC. 4 March 2009. Re- Read Books Publishers, ISBN 1-4067-1215-9
trieved 1 January 2012.
• Robert Stimson; Kingsley E. Haynes (1 January 2012),
[531] “Did the 'fastest man of Asia' run in vain”. Dawn.com. Re- Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis:
trieved 13 January 2014. Addressing Real World Issues, Edward Elgar Publish-
[532] “Greatest player”. Squashsite. Retrieved 2 March 2010. ing, ISBN 978-17-8100-796-9

[533] Ian Graham (2003). Pakistan. Black Rabbit Books. pp. 20– • Pakistan Narcotics Control Board (1986), National
21. ISBN 1-58340-239-X. survey on drug abuse in Pakistan, The University of
Michigan
[534] K M Shariff (2002). Pakistan almanac 2001–2002. Royal
Book Company. pp. 561–574. ISBN 969-407-257-3.

[535] Bill Mallon, Jeroen Heijmans (11 August 2011). Historical


1.1.12 External links
Dictionary of the Olympic Movement (4th ed.). Scarecrow
Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-8108-7249-3. Retrieved 22
Government
April 2012.
• Official website
[536] “Pakistan – Medals Tally by Games”. Commonwealth
Games Federation. Retrieved 30 July 2013. • Pakistan Public Policies & Researches
1.1. PAKISTAN 47

General information

• “Pakistan”. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence


Agency.
• Pakistan from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Pakistan at DMOZ
• Pakistan from the BBC News

• Pakistan at Encyclopædia Britannica


• Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan

• Key Development Forecasts for Pakistan from


International Futures

• Geographic data related to Pakistan at OpenStreetMap


Chapter 2

History

2.1 History of Pakistan of failing to protect “Muslim interests, amid neglect and
under-representation.” On 29 December 1930, philosopher
Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for an autonomous new state
in “northwestern India for Indian Muslims”.[6] The League
rose in popularity through the late 1930s. Muhammad Ali
Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the League
to adopt the Lahore Resolution[7] of 1940, demanding the
formation of independent states in the East and the West
of British India. Eventually, a successful movement led by
Jinnah resulted in the partition of India and independence
from Britain, on 14 August 1947.
On 12 March 1949, the second constituent assembly of
Pakistan passed the Objectives Resolution which was pro-
posed by the first Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, pro-
claimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not
be modeled entirely on a European pattern, but on the ideol-
ogy and democratic faith of Islam. The legislative elections
in 1954 saw the Awami League coming to power and its
leader Huseyn Suhrawardy becoming country’s first Bengali
Prime minister. Promulgation of Constitution in 1956 led
to Pakistan declaring itself Islamic republic (official name)
with the adoption of parliamentary democratic system of
government. The constitution transformed the Governor-
General of Pakistan into President of Pakistan (as head of
state). Subsequently, Iskander Mirza became the first pres-
A map outlining historical sites situated in -day Pakistan ident as well as first Bengali in 1956, but the democratic
system was stalled after President Mirza imposed a military
The history of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ِ ن‬ ‫ ) ر‬encompasses coup d'état and appointed Ayub Khan as an enforcer of mar-
the history of the region constituting modern Pakistan. Be- tial law. Two weeks later, President Mirza was ousted by
fore achieving independence in 1947, the territory of mod- Ayub Khan; his presidency saw an era of internal instability
ern Pakistan was a part of the British Indian Empire. Prior and a second war with India in 1965. Economic grievances
to that it was ruled in different periods by local kings and and political disenfranchisement in East Pakistan led to vio-
numerous imperial powers. The ancient history of the re- lent political tensions and armed repression, escalating into
gion comprising present-day Pakistan also includes some guerrilla war[8] followed by the third war with India. Pak-
of the oldest of the names of empires of South Asia[1] and istan’s defeat in the war ultimately led to the secession of
some of its major civilizations.[2][3][4][5] East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh.[9]
In the 19th century, the land was incorporated into British Democracy was resumed from 1972 to 1977 under the
India. Pakistan’s political history began in 1906 with the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali
birth of the All India Muslim League, established in opposi- Bhutto, until he was deposed in a bloodless coup by General
tion to the Indian National Congress party which it accused Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country’s third military pres-

48
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 49

ident. Pakistan’s British-imposed colonial but secular poli- dentistry.[1] Early residents lived in mud brick houses,
cies were replaced by the new Islamic Shariah legal code, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore,
which increased religious influences on the civil service and cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded
the military. With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed
1988, new general elections saw the victory of PPP led by (5500–2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts,
Benazir Bhutto who was elevated as the country’s first fe- including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and
male Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, metalworking. The site was occupied continuously un-
she alternated power with the conservative Pakistan Mus- til 2600 BCE,[12] when climatic changes began to oc-
lim League-N (PML(N)) led by Nawaz Sharif, as the coun- cur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more
try’s political and economic situation deteriorated. Military arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favour of the Indus
tensions in the Kargil conflict[10] with India were followed Valley,[13] where a new civilization was in the early stages
by yet another coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez of development.[14]
Musharraf assumed executive powers.
Appointing himself President after the resignation of Pres- 2.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization
ident Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nationwide general elec-
tions in 2002 to transfer the executive powers to newly Main article: Indus Valley Civilization
elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization
succeeded in the 2004 by Shaukat Aziz. During the election
campaign of 2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which
lead to a series of important political developments includ-
ing the left-wing alliance led by the PPP. Historic general
elections held in 2013 marked the return of PML(N) with
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming the leadership of
the country for the third time in its history.

2.1.1 Prehistory

Soanian culture

Main article: Soanian

The Soanian is archaeological culture of the Lower Pale-


olithic (ca. 1.9 mya to 125,000 BCE), contemporary to
the Acheulean. It is named after the Soan Valley in the
Sivalik Hills, near modern-day Islamabad/Rawalpindi. In
Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from
Rawalpindi, on the bend of the Soan River hundreds of
edged pebble tools were discovered. No human skeletons of
this age have yet been found. In the Soan River Gorge many
fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. The 14-
Extent of Indus Valley Civilization sites.
million-year-old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, gi-
raffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fos- (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) ex-
sils are on display at Pakistan Museum of Natural History. tending throughout much of what is modern-day Pakistan
today. [15] Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World,
Mehrgarh period
and of the three the most widespread,[16] covering an area
of 1.25 million km2 .[17] It flourished in the basins of the
Main article: Mehrgarh Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the
Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once coursed through eastern
Mehrgarh, (7000–5500 BCE), on the Kachi Plain of Pakistan.[18] At its peak, the civilization hosted a popula-
Balochistan, is an important Neolithic site discovered in tion of approximately 5 million in hundreds of settlements
1974, with early evidence of farming and herding,[11] and extending as far as the Arabian Sea, present-day southern
50 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

and eastern Afghanistan, and the Himalayas.[19] Major ur- as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Vedic
ban centers were at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as well as text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally “black metal.”
an offshoot called the Kulli culture (2500–2000 BCE) in The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern
southern Balochistan, which had similar settlements, pot- India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[22] The Vedic Period
tery and other artifacts. The civilization collapsed around also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as
1700 BCE, though the reasons behind its fall are still un- early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas
known. Through the excavation of the Indus cities and anal- until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period cor-
ysis of town planning and seals, it has been inferred that the responds with an increasing movement away from the pre-
Civilization had high level of sophistication in its town plan- vious tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms,
ning, arts, crafts, and trade. called mahajanapadas.

2.1.3 Early History Achaemenid Empire

Vedic period Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley


Little is known about the Achaemenid Persian invasion
Main article: Vedic Civilization
See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral

Much of the area corresponding to modern-day Pakistan was sub-


ordinated to the Achaemenid Empire and forced to pay tributes to
Persia

of the area corresponding to modern-day Pakistan as his-


torical sources and evidence are scant about the eastern-
most regions of the Empire, and fragmentary, contain-
ing little detail. There is no archaeological evidence of
Achaemenid control over modern-day Pakistan as not a sin-
gle archaeological site that can be positively identified with
Archaeological cultures. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pak-
and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo- istan, including at Taxila.[24] What is known about the east-
Aryans. ernmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Em-
pire is alluded to in the Darius inscriptions and from Greek
groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been sources such as the Histories of Herodotus and the later
abandoned.[20] After the time of the Rigveda, Aryan Alexander Chronicles (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources
society became increasingly agricultural and was socially list three Indian tributaries or conquered territories that
organized around the four varnas, or social classes. In were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay
addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, tributes to the Persian Kings: Gandhara, Sattagydia (Thata-
the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and gus) and Hindush.[25]
Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during
Gandhara and Sattagydia (Thatagus) are listed amongst the
this period.[21] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably provinces inherited by Darius when he seized the throne in
corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
522 BC in his commemorative Behistun inscription, how-
in archaeological contexts.[22] ever, the dates of the initial annexation of these two regions
The Kuru kingdom[23] corresponds to the Black and Red is not certain.[25] The locations of Sattagydia and Hindush
Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning and the extent of their boundaries have not been identified
of the Iron Age in South Asia, around 1000 BCE, as well either though it is certain that these two tributaries existed
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 51

along the river Indus as the name Hindush is analogous with Maurya Empire
the Indus and was derived by the Persians from the Sanskrit
word Sindhu.
Additionally, much of what constitutes Balochistan
province in southwest Pakistan formed part of the
Achaemenid satrap of Gedrosia.[26]

2.1.4 Classical Period

Empire of Alexander the Great

Mauryan Empire under Ashoka the Great

Main article: Maurya Empire

Modern-day Pakistan was conquered by Chandragupta


Modern-day Pakistan was the easternmost part of Alexander the
Maurya, who overthrew the powerful Nanda Dynasty of
Great's empire
Magadha and established the Maurya Empire: He con-
quered the trans-Indus region to the west, which was un-
Main article: Alexander the Great der Macedonian rule - annexing Balochistan and much of
what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat[31]
After the defeat of the Persian Achaemenid empire, and Kandahar provinces - and then defeated the invasion
Alexander the Great, the Greek king from Macedonia, in- led by Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander’s army.
vaded the region of modern Pakistan and conquered much Seleucus is said to have reached a peace treaty with Chan-
of the Punjab region. After defeating King Porus in the dragupta by giving him control of the territory south of the
Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Jhelum), his battle Hindu Kush upon intermarriage as well as 500 elephants.
weary troops refused to advance further into India[27] to en-
gage the army of Nanda Dynasty and its vanguard of tram- Alexander took these away from the Indo-
pling elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded southwest Aryans and established settlements of his own,
along the Indus valley.[28] Along the way, he engaged in but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus
several battles with smaller kingdoms before marching his (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage
army westward across the Makran desert towards what is and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.[32]
now Iran. Alexander founded several new Macedonian and — Strabo, 64 BC–24 AD
Greek settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and Sindh. [29] Dur-
ing that time, many Greeks settled all over in Pakistan, initi-
ating interaction between the culture of Hellenistic Greece
and the region’s prevalent Hindu and Buddhist cultures. Emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara expanded the
Empire into India’s central and southern areas, while
Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Ashoka pushed further into previously unexplored tribal
and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Odisha). With
After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his Diadochi (gener- an area of 5,000,000 km2 , the Maura Empire was one of
als) divided the empire among themselves, with the Mace- the world’s largest empires in its time, and the largest ever in
donian warlord Seleucus setting up the Seleucid Kingdom, the South Asia. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched
which included the Indus plain.[30] Around 250 BCE, the to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas,
eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to form and to the east stretching into what is now Assam province
the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. near the border with modern Myanmar (Burma).
52 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and ex- and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. To the south, the
ternal trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas, complet-
and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single ing the invasion by 175 BCE and were stopped by the In-
and efficient system of finance, administration, and secu- dian Shunga Empire to the east. Meanwhile, in Bactria, the
rity. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in a battle. Although
religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and the Indo-Greeks lost part of the Gangetic plain, their king-
of knowledge. Mauryans were followers of Buddhism and dom lasted nearly two centuries.
Hinduism. Chandragupta Maurya’s embrace of Jainism in-
creased social and religious renewal and reform across his
society, while Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism has been said
to have been the foundation of the reign of social and politi- Indo-Greeks
cal peace and non-violence across all of South Asia. Ashoka
sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka,
Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.[31]
After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a cen-
tury of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan Em-
pire’s decline began 60 years after Ashoka’s rule ended, and
it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Shunga
dynasty in Magadha.

Gandhara civilization

Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 BC.

The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove


the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu
Kush, becoming king shortly after his victory. His terri-
tories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan
and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to
the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. The capital
Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menan-
der’s rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings
mentioned by Greek authors.[34] The classical Buddhist text
Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying there was “none
equal to Milinda in all India”.[35] His empire survived him in
a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king,
A coin of Menander I, who ruled the eastern dominions of the di- Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE,
vided Greek empire of Bactria the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled
from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gand-
Greco-Buddhism (or Græco-Buddhism) was the syncretism hara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River.
between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism in The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from
the then Gandhara region of modern Afghanistan and Pak- the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century
istan, between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription “Su Theo-
CE.[33] It influenced the artistic development of Buddhism, damasa” (“Su” was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan
and in particular Mahayana Buddhism, before it spread to royal title “Shau” ("Shah" or “King”)). Various petty kings
central and eastern Asia, from the 1st century CE onward. ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by
Demetrius (son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus) the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the
invaded northern India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra Kushan dynasty.
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 53

Indo-Scythians

Gandhara Buddhist reliquary with content, including Indo-


Parthian coins. 1st century CE.

the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider


groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper,
and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the
title Gondophares, which means ”Holder of Glory”, were
even related. Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint
Thomas – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long so-
journ in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace
for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the
Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot, for sail-
ing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.
The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded by
Brahma (left) and Śakra (right) was found inside a stupa with coins Kushan Empire
of Azes inside. British Museum.
Main article: Kushan Empire
The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now
(Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to Pakistan Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under
and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came of
ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe
The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd called the Yuezhi,[40][41] a branch of which was known
century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka
Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of
dynasty.[36][37] Later the Saka kingdom was completely de- Afghanistan,[42] and then the northern parts of the Indian
stroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from east- subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near
ern India in the 4th century.[38] Varanasi (Benares).[43]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism;
Indo-Parthians however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities[44]
of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu
The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondo- majority.[45]
pharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler
They played an important role in the establishment of Bud-
Gondophares. They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan,
dhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China.
Pakistan,[39] and northwestern India, during or slightly be-
fore the 1st century AD. For most of their history, the lead- Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
ing Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab
province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their He played the part of a second Ashoka in the
last few years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul history of Buddhism.[46]
and Peshawar. These kings have traditionally been referred
to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with
54 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating


and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[48][49]

Gupta Empire

Indus river

Taxila Ganges river

Ayodhya
Pataliputra

Gupta Empire
Tributary States

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan do-


minions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak in-
scription. The Gupta Empire at its maximum extent.

Main article: Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire existed approximately from 320 to


600 CE and covered much of the broad swathe of north-
ern South Asia, including modern Pakistan but excluding
the southern peninsular region.[50] Founded by Maharaja
Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civ-
ilization[51] and was marked by extensive inventions and
discoveries.[52]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent
architectures, sculptures and paintings.[53][54][55] Science
Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devo- and political administration reached new heights during the
tee, Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. Gupta era.[56] Strong trade ties also made the region an im-
2nd–3rd century, Gandhara. portant cultural center and set the region up as a base that
would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri
Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia and Indochina.[57]
the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, en-
couraging long-distance trade, particularly between China The empire gradually declined due in part to loss of terri-
and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the bud- tory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile
ding and blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak feudatories, and from the invasion by the Hunas from Cen-
during Kushan Rule. tral Asia.[58] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the
6th century, South Asia was again ruled by numerous re-
H.G. Rowlinson commented: gional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan contin-
ued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire.
The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king
Age of the Guptas.[47] Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 55

7th century.

Sassanid Empire

Over the next few centuries, while the Parthians and


Kushans shared control of the Indus plain until the arrival
of the White Huns, the Persian Sassanid Empire later dom-
inated parts of the region as part of their easternmost terri-
tories.

The White Huns

Main article: Hephthalite Empire


The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the

Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper (proba-


bly Mihirakula), 4th-6th century CE. The inscription in cursive
Bactrian reads: "Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva". British Museum.
The Hephthalites (green), c. 500.

Ror dynasty
White Huns, were a nomadic confederation in Central
Asia. The White Huns, who seem to have been part of
Main article: Ror Dynasty
the predominantly Buddhist group, established themselves
in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with
their capital at Bamiyan. Led by the Hun military leader The Ror dynasty ruled from Rori, the capital of Sindh now
Toramana, they overran the northern region of Pakistan town of Sukkur, Pakistan, which was built by Dhaj, Ror Ku-
and North western India and made their capital at the city mar, a Ror Kshatriya, in the 5th century BCE. Rori has been
of Sakala, modern Sialkot in Pakistan, under Toramana’s known by names such as Roruka and Rorik since antiquity.
son, Emperor Mihirakula, who was a Saivite Hindu. Hiuen Buddhist Jataka stories talk about exchanges of gifts be-
Tsiang narrates Mihirakula’s merciless persecution of Bud- tween King Rudrayan of Roruka and King Bimbisara of
dhists and destruction of monasteries.[59] The Huns were Magadha.[66] Divyavadana, the Buddhist chronicle has said
defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and that Ror historically competed with Pataliputra in terms of
Narasimhagupta of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century and political influence.[67] The scholar T.W. Rhys Davids has
were driven out of India.[60][61] White Huns are believed to mentioned Roruka as one of the most important cities of
be among the ancestors of modern-day Pashtuns.[62][63] the Indian Subcontinent in the 7th century BCE.[68]

Rajput dynasties Rai dynasty

Main article: List of Rajput dynasties and states Main article: Rai Dynasty

The territory of modern Pakistan have been home to many According to Arab chroniclers, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh (c.
Rajput dynasties during 7th to 20th century.[64][65] 489–632) arose after the end of Ror Dynasty. They were
56 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

practitioners of Hinduism and Buddhism. At the time of Although soon after conquering the Middle East from the
Rai Diwaji (Devaditya), influence of the Rai-state exdended Byzantine empire and the Sassanid Empire, Arab forces
from Kashmir in the east, Makran and Debal (Karachi) had reached the present western regions of Pakistan, dur-
port in the south, Kandahar, Sistan, Suleyman, Ferdan and ing the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that
Kikanan hills in the north. a young Arab general called Muhammad bin Qasim con-
quered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire,
to be made the “As-Sindh” province with its capital at Al-
Pāla Empire Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in
Sindh. But the instability of the empire and the defeat in
Main article: Pala Empire various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers in-
cluding the Caliphate campaigns in India, where the Hindu
The Pāla Empire was an Indian imperial power. It was ruled rulers like the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the
by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of Chalukya dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty
the Indian subcontinent. At the time of their greatest extent defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained till only
from 770 to 850 A.D., they ruled over Northern parts of Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion
present-day Pakistan.[69] to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu
and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hin-
dus and Buddhists remained numerous.[70] By the end of
Chacha Brahmin dynasty the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu
Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.
Chach of Alor a former chamberlain of Rai Sahasi II as-
cended to the throne by marrying the king’s widow. Chach
expanded the kingdom of Sindh, and his successful efforts
to subjugate surrounding monarchies and ethnic groups into Hindu Shahi
an empire covering the entire Indus valley and beyond were
recorded in the Chach Nama. The Chacha dynasty lasted Main article: Kabul Shahi
till 712 when Chacha’s son Raja Dahir was killed in battle
against the Umayyad forces. The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and
Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the
decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the
2.1.5 Medieval Period early 9th century.[71] The Shahis are generally split up into
two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with
the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around
870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Rat-
belshahan from 565-670, when the capitals were located in
Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as
Hund[72] for its new capital.[73][74][75]
The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his strug-
gles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the
modern-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region. Jaya-
pala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids
The expansion of the Arab Caliphate. and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign
Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632 of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initi-
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 ated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.[76]
Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to
pay an indemnity.[76] Jayapala defaulted on the payment and
took to the battlefield once more.[76] Jayapala however, lost
control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley and
Arab Empire Indus River.[77]
Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of
Main articles: Rashidun Caliphate and Umayyad Empire Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his
Further information: Caliphate campaigns in India army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable
host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta:
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 57

“The two armies having met on the confines racked by bitter succession struggles. The Hindu Rajput
of Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill to kingdoms of western India reconquered the eastern Pun-
view the forces of Jeipal, which appeared in ex- jab, and by the 1160s, the line of demarcation between the
tent like the boundless ocean, and in number Ghaznavid state and the Hindu kingdoms approximated to
like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The
But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf Ghurid Empire of central Afghanistan occupied Ghazni
about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, there- around 1160, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to
fore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to Lahore.Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid
glory, and issued to each his commands. His kingdom, occupying Lahore in 1187.[78]
soldiers, though few in number, were divided
into squadrons of five hundred men each, which
were directed to attack successively, one particu- Soomra dynasty
lar point of the Hindoo line, so that it might con-
Main article: Soomra dynasty
tinually have to encounter fresh troops.”[77]

However, the army was hopeless in battle against the The Rajput Soomra dynasty replaced the Arab Habbari dy-
western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of nasty in the 10th century. The dynasty lasted until the mid-
Ghazni.[77] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud 13th century. The Soomras are one the longest running dy-
came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids nasties in the history of Sindh, lasting 325 years.[79]
north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more
and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaz- Samma dynasty
navid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle
of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects Main article: Samma dynasty
thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi
dynasty.[76][77]
The Rajput Samma dynasty replaced the Rajput Soomra
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[76] who dynasty. They gained control of Thatta from the Soomra
along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dy- around 1335 A.D. The dynasty is believed to have origi-
nasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against nated in Saurashtra, and later migrated to Sindh. During the
the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu Sammas saw the rise of Thatta as an important commercial
rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik and cultural center. At the time the Portuguese took con-
Hills.[77] trol of the trading center of Hormuz in 1514 CE, trade from
the Sindh accounted for nearly 10% of their customs rev-
enue, and they described Thatta as one of the richest cities
Ghaznavid dynasty
in the world. Thatta’s prosperity was based partly on its
own high-quality cotton and silk textile industry, partly on
Main article: Ghaznavids
export of goods from further inland in the Punjab and north-
ern India.[80]
In 997 CE, the Turkic ruler Mahmud of Ghazni, took over
The Samma period contributed significantly to the evolu-
the Ghaznavid dynasty empire established by his father,
tion of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is fa-
Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler. Starting from the city
mous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the
of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan), Mehmood conquered the
Makli Hill.[81]
bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar against the Hindu
Shahis in Kabul in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of
Punjab (1007), deposed the Shia Ismaili rulers of Multan, Delhi Sultanate
(1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of
his reign in 1030, Mahmud’s empire briefly extended from Main articles: Muhammad Ghori, Delhi Sultanate, and
Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and Timurid Empire
the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary
historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described In 1160, Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic ruler, conquered
extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud’s Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in
support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts.1173. He for the first time named Sindh Tambade Gatar
Mahmud’s successors, known as the Ghaznavids, ruled for roughly translated as the red passage. He marched east-
157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was wards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gu-
58 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

jarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat’s Hindu from every region, notably doctors adept in Greek medicine
Solanki rulers. In 1186–87, he conquered Lahore, bring- and philosophers from everywhere.
ing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and
ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori’s suc-
cessors established the Delhi Sultanate. The Turkic ori- Sikhism
gin Mamluk Dynasty, (mamluk means “owned” and re-
Main article: History of Sikhism
ferred to the Turkic youths bought and trained as soldiers
who became rulers throughout the Islamic world), seized
the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several Central Asian Guru Nanak, Sikhism’s founder, was born into a Hindu
Turkic and a Lodhi Pashtun dynasty ruled their empires Khatri family in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī (present
from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the Khalji (1290– day Nankana, near Sial in modern-day Pakistan). He was
1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–1451) an influential religious and social reformer in north India
and the Lodhi (1451–1526).[82] Although some kingdoms and the saintly founder of a modern monotheistic order and
remained independent of Delhi – in Gujarat, Malwa (central first of the ten divine Gurus of Sikh religion. At the age of
India), Bengal and Deccan – almost all of the Indus plain 70, he died at Kartarpur, Punjab of modern-day Pakistan.
came under the rule of these large sultanates.
The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations Mughal Empire
with rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance.
While the sultans ruled from urban centers, their military Main article: Mughal Empire
camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur
that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with
local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting
“Indo-Islamic” fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy
in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and
religious customs. In addition, the language of Urdu (liter-
ally meaning “horde” or “camp” in various Turkic dialects)
was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of
the mingling of speakers of native Prakrits, Persian, Turkish
and Arabic languages.
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was
its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the
Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13th century;
nonetheless the sultans eventually lost Afghanistan and Mughal Empire at its peak
western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate dy-
nasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Em- and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day
peror Timur, who founded the Timurid Empire, and was Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the
eventually conquered in 1526 by the Mughal Emperor Mughal Empire, covering modern-day Afghanistan, Pak-
Babar. istan, India and Bangladesh.[83] The Mughals were de-
The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire attracted scended from Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol
Muslim refugees, nobles, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, admixture). However, his son Humayun was defeated by
traders, scientists, architects, artisans, teachers, poets, the Pashtun warrior Sher Shah Suri who was from Bihar
artists, theologians and Sufis from the rest of the Muslim state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced
world and they migrated and settled in the South Asia. Dur- to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah died, his son Islam
ing the reign of Sultan Ghyasuddin Balban (1266-1286) Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose death his prime min-
thousands of Central Asian Muslims sought asylum includ- ister, Hemu ascended the throne and ruled North India from
ing more than 15 sovereigns and their nobles due to the Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor Akbar's
Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran. At the forces in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
court of Sultan Iltemish in Delhi the first wave of these Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler and an early
Muslim refugees escaping from the Central Asian genocide proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an
by the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan, brought admin- early form of multiculturalism. He declared “Amari” or
istrators from Iran, painters from China, theologians from non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled
Samarkand, Nishapur and Bukhara, divines and saints from back the jizya tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu
the rest of Muslim world, craftsmen and men and maidens people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 59

by 1600. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and
allied themselves with local maharajas. For a short time had re-consolidated control over them.[87]
in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the em-
pire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals in Lahore
includes the Shalimar Gardens built by the fifth Emperor The Sikh Empire
Shahjahan, and the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth Em-
peror, Aurangzeb, who is regarded as the last Great Mughal Main article: Sikh Empire
Emperor as he expanded the domain to its zenith. After his The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) was formed on the foun-
demise, different regions of modern Pakistan began assert-
ing independence. The empire went into a slow decline af-
ter 1707 and its last sovereign, ruling around Delhi region.

Post Mughal era

Main articles: Durrani Empire and Maratha Empire

Map of durrani Empire in 1747

Durrani Empire After Nadir Shah’s death in 1747, his


Pashtun general Ahmad Shah Abdali declared his empire as
independent and established the “Durrani Empire”, which
encompassed most of Pakistan and northwest India, includ-
ing the shared Kashmir region. Maharaja Ranjit Singh, born in Gujranwala, Punjab. He was re-
ferred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".

Maratha Empire In 1758 the Maratha Empire's general


Raghunath Rao attacked and conquered Punjab, Khyber dations of the Punjabi Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir and drove out Timur Shah Dur- who was proclaimed "Sarkar-i-Khalsa", and was referred
rani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Lahore, to as the “Maharaja of Lahore”.[88] It consisted of a col-
Dera Ghazi Khan, Multan, Peshawar, Kashmir, and other lection of autonomous Punjabi Misls, which were governed
subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan’s bor- by Misldars,[89] mainly in the Punjab region. The empire
der fell under the Maratha rule.[84] From Punjab, Khyberextended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir
Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir, the Marathas were driven out in the north, to Multan in the south and Kapurthala in the
after only four years.[85][86] east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was
the Punjab region. The formation of the empire was a wa-
tershed and represented formidable consolidation of Sikh
Durrani reconquest In 1761, following the victory at military power and resurgence of local culture, which had
the Third battle of Panipat between the Durrani and the been dominated for hundreds of years by Indo-Afghan and
Maratha Empire, Ahmad Shah Abdali captured remnants Indo-Mughal hybrid cultures.
60 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the ginning first by the East India Company — and continued
Punjabi Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting under the post-Sepoy Mutiny direct rule of Queen Victo-
from the death of Aurangzeb. The fall of the Mughal Em- ria of the British Empire — through a series of wars, the
pire provided opportunities for the Punjabi army to lead main ones being the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the
expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to gruelling Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849) and the Anglo-
a growth of the army, which was split into different Pun- Afghan Wars (1839–1919), to remain a part of British In-
jabi armies and then semi-independent “misls”. Each of dian Empire until the independence in 1947.
these component armies were known as a misl, each con- The physical presence of the British was minimal; they em-
trolling different areas and cities. However, in the period
ployed "Divide and Rule" political strategy to remain in
from 1762–1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be power.[91] The administrative units of British India under
coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Em-
the tenancy or the sovereignty of either the East India Com-
pire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by pany or the British Crown lasted between 1612 and 1947.
the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a
unified political state. All the misl leaders who were af-
filiated with the Army were nobility with usually long and 2.1.7 Pakistan Movement
prestigious family histories in Punjab’s history.[89][90]
Early period of Pakistan Movement
2.1.6 British rule
Main articles: All-India Muslim League, Pakistan Move-
British colonization, conquest, and cultural heritage ment, and Lahore Resolution

Main articles: British raj, Indian independence movement, In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had formed the Central Na-
Partition of India, and British heritage of Pakistan tional Muhammadan Association to work towards the polit-
The entire territory of modern Pakistan was occupied be- ical advancement of the Indian Muslims, who had suffered
grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failed Sepoy
Mutiny against the East India Company; the British were
seen as foreign invaders. But the organization declined to-
wards the end of the 19th century.
In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a
forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist
cause.[92] Although the Congress attempted to include the
Muslim community in the struggle for independence from
the British rule - and some Muslims were very active in the
Congress - the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the
party, viewing it as a "Hindu-dominated” organization.
A turning point came in 1900, when the British admin-
istration in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh ac-
ceded to Hindu demands and made Hindi, the version of
the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script,
the official language. The proslytisation conducted in the
region by the activists of a new Hindu reformist movement
also stirred Muslim’s concerns about their faith. Eventually,
the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to
suppress the rights of Muslims in the region following the
departure of the British.

The Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded on 30 Decem-


ber 1906, in the aftermath of division of Bengal, on the
Queen Victoria sidelines of the annual All India Muhammadan Educational
Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka.[93] The meeting was at-
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 61

The constitution and principles of the League were con-


tained in the Green Book, written by Maulana Mohammad
Ali. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an
independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on pro-
tecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understand-
ing between the Muslim community and other Indians, edu-
cating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the ac-
tions of the government, and discouraging violence. How-
ever, several factors over the next thirty years, including
sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League’s
aims.[95][96] Among those Muslims in the Congress who did
not initially join the League was Jinnah, a prominent states-
man and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first ar-
ticle of the League’s platform was “To promote among the
Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the
British Government”.

Lord Minto met with the Muslim delegation in June 1906. The
Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 called for separate Muslim elec-
torates.

tended by three thousand delegates and presided over by


Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of safeguard-
ing interests of Muslims and finalised a programme. A
resolution, moved by Nawab Salimullah and seconded by
Hakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk(conservative),
declared:

The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as


compared with the total population of the coun-
try, and it is manifest that if at any remote pe-
riod the British government ceases to exist in In-
dia, then the rule of India would pass into the
George VI, Emperor of India.
hands of that community which is nearly four
times as large as ourselves ... our life, our prop-
erty, our honour, and our faith will all be in great In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the
danger, when even now that a powerful British Indian National Congress movement separated from it and
administration is protecting its subjects, we the started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly. This group
Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties was spearheaded by the famous trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala
in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal of
hands of our neighbors.[94] Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their
62 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus nounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims,
- they called it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a
of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Com-
join the League until 1913, when the party changed its plat- mission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British
form to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress,
the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi.
which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held,
Muslims.[97] After vociferous protests of the Hindu pop- and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that
ulation and violence engineered by secret groups, such as a small committee should work on the constitution. The
Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the com-
and his brother etc., the British had decided to reunite mittee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and
Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in Mutual Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal’s son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its
co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India', al- secretary. The League, however, rejected the committee’s
though he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one- report, the so-called Nehru Report, arguing that its propos-
third of the seats in any Indian Parliament. als gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims –
the League had demanded at least one-third representation
in the legislature. Jinnah announced a “parting of the ways”
after reading the report, and relations between the Congress
and the League began to sour.

Muslim homeland – "Now or Never"

Main articles: Pakistan Declaration; Now or Never; Are


We to Live or Perish Forever?; and United Kingdom gen-
eral election, 1929
The general elections held in the United Kingdom

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal


Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah
The League gradually became the leading representative and Ali Khan presiding the session
body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in
1916, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress had already weakened the leftist Labour Party led by
leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.[99] Furthermore, the
the principle of separate electorates and weighted repre- Labour Party's government was already weakened by the
sentation for the Muslim community.[98] However, Jin- outcomes of the World War I, which fueled new hopes
nah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress for progress towards self-government in British India.[99]
leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non- In fact, Mohandas K. Gandhi traveled to London to press
Cooperation Movement against the British, which a tem- the idea of "self-government" in British India, and claimed
peramentally law-abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. to represent all Indians whilst duly criticized the Muslim
Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would re- League as being sectarian and divisive.[99] After reviewing
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 63

the report of the Simon Commission, the Indian Congress • "P" for Punjab
initiated a massive civil disobedience movement under
Gandhi; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the • "A" for Afghania (now known as Khyber
Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the Pakhtunkhwa)
matters should decided after consultations with the leaders • "K" for Kashmir
representing all communities in India.[99]
• "S" for Sindh
As the leaders of the Indian Congress were jailed and re-
strained, the Round-table conference was held, but these • "Tan" for Balochistan; thus forming
achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were un- “Pakstan”.[103][104]
able to reach a compromise.[99] Witnessing the events in
the Round-table conference, Jinnah had despaired of poli- After the publication of the pamphlet, the Hindu Press ve-
tics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the hemently criticized it, and the word 'Pakstan' used in it.[105]
Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this Thus this word became a heated topic of debate. With the
time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal addition of an “i” to improve the pronunciation, the name of
called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who Pakistan grew in popularity and led to the commencement
in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the of the Pakistan Movement, and consequently the creation
Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim of Pakistan.[106] In Urdu and Persian languages, the name
state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South encapsulates the concept of Pak (“pure”) and stan (“land”)
Asia.[6][100] and hence a “Pure Land”.[107] In the 1935, the British gov-
ernment proposed to hand over substantial power to elected
Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in
1937.[108] After the elections the League took office in Ben-
gal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of
the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the
League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing
technical difficulties.
Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for independence also felt
vindicated by the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar
at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party
Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. In it, this legendary revolu-
tionary - popularly called Veer Savarkar and known as the
iconic father of the Hindu fundamentalist ideology - pro-
pounded the seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or
ethnic exclusivism, which influenced Jinnah profoundly.
In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim
League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due
to the outbreak of the World War II and the Government of
India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The
meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to
the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of
1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jin-
nah criticized the Indian Congress and the nationalists, and
Dream of Iqbal and Ali's Now or Never idealized the merger of the espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the
four provinces into a nation-state, called Pakistan. demand for separate homelands.[109] Sikandar Hayat Khan,
the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolu-
tion, but disavowed the final version,[110] that had emerged
The name of the nation-state was coined by the Cambridge after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of
University's political science student and Muslim nationalist the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected
Rahmat Ali,[101] and was published on 28 January 1933 in the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-
the pamphlet Now or Never.[102] After coining the name of religious violence[111] and recommended the creation of
the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym formed independent states.[112] The resolution was moved in the
from the names of the “homelands” of Muslims in northwest general session by Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF
India: Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry
64 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was adopted on 23 The 1945 British general election saw the leftist Labour
March 1940.[7] The Resolution read as follows: Party forming the government in Britain and many Indians
were seeing independence within reach. But, Gandhi and
No constitutional plan would be workable Nehru were not receptive to Jinnah’s proposal and were also
or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographi- adamantly opposed to dividing India, since they knew that
cal contiguous units are demarcated into regions the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would
which should be so constituted with such terri- never agree to such a thing.[97] In the Constituent Assembly
torial readjustments as may be necessary. That elections of 1946, the League won 425 out of 496 seats re-
the areas in which the Muslims are numerically served for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes) on a pol-
in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern icy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with
zones of India should be grouped to constitute an implied threat of secession if this was not granted.[97]
independent states in which the constituent units By 1946, the British had neither the will, nor the financial
shall be autonomous and sovereign ... That ade- resources or military power, to hold India any longer. Po-
quate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall litical deadlock ensued in the Constituent Assembly, and
be specifically provided in the constitution for the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, sent a cabinet
minorities in the units and in the regions for mission to India to mediate the situation. When the talks
the protection of their religious, cultural, eco- broke down, Attlee appointed Louis Mountbatten as India’s
nomic, political, administrative and other rights last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and
of the minorities, with their consultation. Ar- India and immediate British withdrawal.
rangements thus should be made for the security
of Muslims where they were in a minority.[113] Mountbatten, of imperial blood and a world war admiral,
handled the problem as a campaign. Ignorant of the com-
plex ground realities in British India, he brought forward the
date of transfer of power and told Gandhi and Nehru that
if they did not accept division there would be civil war in
his opinion[97] and he would rather consider handing over
power to individual provinces and the rulers of princely
states. This forced the hands of Congress leaders and the
“Independence of India Act 1947” provided for the two do-
minions of Pakistan and India to become independent on
the 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively. This result was
despite the calls for a third Osmanistan in the early 1940s.

Independence from the British Empire


The Working Committee of the Muslim League in Lahore (1940)
Main articles: Indian Independence Act 1947,
Independence Day (Pakistan), Partition of India, and
In 1941, it became part of the Muslim League’s
constitution.[114] However, in early 1941, Sikandar ex- Pakistan Movement
plained to the Punjab Assembly that he did not support
the final version of the resolution.[115] The sudden death of On August 1947, the British Imperial Government divided
Sikandar in 1942 paved the way over the next few years the British Raj into two independent and sovereign coun-
for Jinnah to emerge as the recognised leader of the Mus- tries, the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic
lims of South Asia.[97] In 1943, the Sind Assembly passed a of Pakistan) and the Dominion of India (later the Republic
resolution demanding the establishment of a homeland.[116] of India). Mountbatten’s adroit overt and covert plans suc-
Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed cessfully inflamed the simmering mutual distrust between
to achieve agreement and there were no more attempts to Hindus and Muslims but ensured the two new nations to re-
reach a single-state solution. main friendly to the British. Immediately after the indepen-
The French and British empires had been under tremen- dence, both nations joined the British Commonwealth. The
dous political and military pressure during the World War independence of India and Pakistan created inter-religious
II, and the speculations of disintegration of their colonial violence of such magnitude that exchange of population
empires was rumored in all over the British India. In North- along religious lines became a necessity in each country.
West Frontier Province, the British military had launched More than two million people migrated across the new
the military expeditions to quelled the armed rebellion. borders and more than one hundred thousand died in the
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 65

spate of communal violence, that spread even beyond these


provinces. Major violence erupted following the division
of Punjab, Bengal, and Kashmir which escalated into lead-
ing to the first war between India and Pakistan. With assis-
tance and further United Nations (UN) and Soviet Union's
involvement ended the war but it became a hitherto unre-
solved Kashmir dispute.
Following its independence, Pakistan became involved
in continuous territorial disputes with India in east over
Kashmir and Bengal and with the Afghanistan in west over
the tribal line. Its political history has been characterized by
authoritarian military rule and the brief democratic compe-
tition between right-wing conservatives and left-wing par-
ties throughout its history.

2.1.8 State and constitution: Pakistan


First democratic era (1947–1958)

See also: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, 1953 Lahore ri-


ots, 1958 Pakistani coup d'état, Assassination of liaqat ali
khan, Bengali Language Movement, Nationalism in Pak-
istan, Pakistan–Soviet Union relations, Rawalpindi conspir-
acy, and Raisman Program
Main articles: Political history of Pakistan, Dominion of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Pakistan, West Pakistan, and East Pakistan
In 1947, the Founding fathers of Pakistan agreed upon to
tier, and East-Bengal, and four administrative units: Gilgit–
Baltistan (now a province), Azad Kashmir (also a provi-
sional state), Tribal Line aligning with the Local belt.[117]
The harbour city, Karachi, being the state’s first capital.
The national government of Ali Khan was left to face chal-
lenges soon after holding the office. With the large numbers
of Indian Muslims immigrating to Pakistan, the Nationalists
in each province worried that the new nation was too frag-
ile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts
such as the Balochistan rebellion in 1948.[117] Considering
this issue, Ali-Khan established a strong government;[117]
his Finance secretary Victor Turner announced country’s
first monetary policy by establishing the State bank and
federal bureaus of statistics and revenue to improve the
statistical finance, taxation, and revenue collection in the
country.[118] Ideological and territorial problems arose with
1950 documentary about Pakistan neighboring communists states, Afghanistan and the Soviet
Union over the Durand Line in 1949, and with India over
appoint Liaquat Ali Khan as country’s first Prime minister Line of Control in Kashmir which was a theater of first war
with the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, tenur- in 1947.[117]
ing as both first Governor-General and President-Speaker Diplomatic recognition became challenging problem when
of the State Parliament.[117] Soviet Union led by Secretary-General Joseph Stalin did not
By the end of months in 1947, the national government led welcome the division which established Pakistan and India.
by Prime minister Ali-Khan was able to settle the core issue Iran was the first country to recognize Pakistan in 1947.[119]
of territorial boundaries, with composing the state with five In 1948, Ben-Gurion of Israel sent a secret courier to Jin-
provinces: Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, North-West Fron- nah to establish the diplomatic relations, but Jinnah did not
66 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

given any response to Ben-Gurion. In 1948 speech, Jin- In 1954, the controversial One Unit Program was imposed
nah declared “Urdu alone would be the state language and by the last PML Prime minister Ali Bogra dividing Pakistan
the lingua franca of the Pakistan state”, though he called on the German geopolitical model.[126] The same year, the
the "Bengali language as the official language of the Ben- first legislative elections were held in Pakistan, which saw
gal province.";[120] nonetheless, tensions began to grow in the Communists gaining the control of East-Pakistan.[127]
East Bengal.[120] Jinnah’s health further deteriorated and he The 1954 elections results clarified the differences in ide-
died in 1948. Bengali leader, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin suc- ology between West and East, with East under the influ-
ceeded as the governor general of Pakistan.[121] ence of communism nexus of Communist Party allying
with Workers Party and the Awami League.[127] The Pro-
American Republican Party gained majority in West, oust-
ing the PML government who secured only 10 seats in
East.[127]
In a vote of confidence movement in state parliament
and promulgation of 1956 constitution which granted Pak-
istan as Islamic republic, the notable Bengali figures,
Huseyn Suhrawardy became the Prime minister leading the
communist-socialist alliance, and Iskander Mirza became
the first President of Pakistan, both as first Bengali leaders
of the country.[128] Just two years later, the military would
take control of the nation.[129]

Huseyn Suhrawardy (left) with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman


Liaquat Ali Khan.

During the massive political rally in 1951, Prime minis- Suhrawardy’s foreign policy was directed towards the im-
ter Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated in Rawalpindi, and proving fractured relations with the Soviet Union, strength-
Nazimuddin became the second prime minister.[117] Ten- ening and establishing relations with the United States and
sions in Eastern Pakistan reached to its climax in 1952, China after paying first a state visit to both countries.[130]
when the East-Pakistani police opened fire on students near Announcing the new self-reliance program, Suhrawardy
the Dhaka Medical College protesting for Bengali language began building a massive military and launched the plan
to receive equal status with Urdu. The situation was con- of nuclear power program in the West in an attempt to
trolled by Nazimuddin who gave a waiver to Bengali lan- legitimize his mandate in West.[131] Foreign efforts by
guage as equal status, a right codified in the 1956 consti- Suhrawardy led to an assigning of American training pro-
tution. In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti- gram for country’s armed forces which met with great op-
Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of Muslims and de- position in East-Pakistan after his party in East-Pakistan
stroying their properties.[122] The riots were investigated by Parliament which threatened to leave the state of Pakistan.
a two-member court of inquiry in 1954,[123] which was crit- Furthermore, Suhrawardy gave verbal authorization of leas-
icised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of ing the ISI's secret installation to American CIA to conduct
inciting the riots.[124] This event led to the first instance of operations in Soviet Union.[131]
martial law in the country and began the inroad of military Differences in East Pakistan further encouraged the Baloch
intervention in the politics and civilian affairs of the coun- separatism, and in an attempt to intimidate the commu-
try, something that remains to this day.[125] nists in East, President Mirza initiated massive arrests of
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 67

communists and party workers of Awami League in East


Pakistan, which damaged the image of West-Pakistan in
the East.[131] The Western contingent's lawmakers deter-
minately followed the idea of Westernized Parliamentary
form of the democracy when East opted for becoming
a socialist state. One Unit program and centralizing of
national economy on USSR model was met with great hos-
tility and resistance in West, although the Eastern contin-
gent’s economy was quickly centralized by Suhrawardy’s
government.[130] Egoistic problems grew between the two
Bengali leaders further damaging the unity of the country,
which soon forced Suhrawardy whose political position in
his own party lost an edge in a growing influence of cleric,
Maulana Bhashani.[130] Resigned under a threat of Mirza’s
dismissal, Suhrawardy was succeeded by I. I. Chundrigar in
1957.[130]
Within two months, Chundrigar was dismissed; followed by
Sir Feroz Noon, who proved to be an incapable prime min-
ister. The support of Pakistan Muslim League led by Nurul
Amin began to get its supports which threatened President
Mirza who was unapproved by the public.[127] In less than
two years, Mirza dismissed four elected prime ministers,
and was increasingly in great pressure for calling for new
elections in 1958.[132]

First military era (1958–1971)

Main articles: Cold war, 1958 Pakistani coup d'état, 1960 Iskandar Mirza
U-2 incident, Constitution of Pakistan of 1962, Indo-
Pakistani War of 1965, Tashkent Agreement, History of
coming the President, Ayub Khan was succeeded by Gen-
Pakistani pop music, Bangladesh Liberation War, Indo-
eral Muhammad Musa as chief of army staff in 1958.[136]
Pakistani War of 1971, and Instrument of Surrender (1971)
On October 1958, President Iskandar Mirza issued order
for massive naval, air, and troop mobilization of Pakistan Presidential republic (1962–1969) Main article:
Armed Forces all over the country and appointed chief Economic Coordination Committee
of army staff General Ayub Khan as Commander-in-chief The parliamentary system came to an end in 1958, follow-
of Pakistan armed forces.[133] In a quick move, President ing the imposition of martial law.[137] Tales of corruption in
Mirza declared state of emergency and imposed martial law civil bureaucracy and public administration had maligned
in 1958, having suspended the constitution, and dissolved the democratic process in the country as the public seemed
the socialist government in East and the parliamentary gov- supportive towards the actions taken by General Ayub
ernment in West.[134] Khan.[137] Major land reforms were carried out by the
His actions also approved General Ayub Khan as the Chief military government and enforced controversial Elective
Martial Law Administrator to enforce the martial law all Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) which ultimately
over the country who asserted his position in all over the disqualified Suhrawardy from holding the public office.[137]
country.[133] Within two weeks, President Mirza also at- Introducing a new presidential system called “Basic
tempted to dismiss General Ayub Khan after Khan’s action Democracy”, which featured the Local government system
made him incapable of taking any decisions.[133] This move in West-Pakistan and promulgate a 1962 constitution,[135]
backfired on President Mirza who was soon to be relieved by which an electoral college of 80,000 would select the
from his presidency and exiled to London, United Kingdom President.[135] In a national referendum held in 1960, Ayub
in 1958. The same year, General Ayub Khan appointed Khan secured nationwide popular and ground support
himself to the rank of a five-star Field Marshal and named for his bid as second President and replaced his military
a new civil-military government under him.[135] Upon be- government into civilian constitutional government.[137]
68 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

ation of nuclear power program on the other hand. Mili-


tary aid from the U.S. grew unprecedentedly but the coun-
try’s national security was severely compromised following
the exposure of the secret spy operation launching from
Peshawar to Soviet Union in 1960. The same year, Pak-
istan signed Water treaty with India in an attempt to nor-
malize the relations.[141] The relations with China further
strengthened after the Chinese war with India, and both
countries signed a boundary agreement which shifted the
balance of the Cold War by bringing Pakistan and China
closer together while loosening ties between Pakistan and
the United States in 1963.[142] In 1964, the Pakistan Armed
Forces quelled the suspected pro-communist revolt in the
Western Pakistan allegedly supported by the Afghanistan,
where subsequently American armoury was used to stop the
rebellion. During the controversial 1965 presidential elec-
tions, Ayub Khan had almost lost the presidential elections
to Fatima Jinnah.[143]
In 1965, after Pakistan went ahead with its strategic air-
borne mission code named the Operation Gibraltar, India
declared a full-scale war on Pakistan.[144] The war, which
ended militarily in a stalemate, was mostly fought in West as
only mild operations were conducted in East by India.[145]
Controversially, East-Pakistan Army did not interfere in the
conflict that brought a great ire in West against East.[146]
The news of war with India was highly unapproved by the
United States which dismayed Pakistan by adopting a pol-
icy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan dur-
ing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir and the
Rann of Kutch.[147] A positive gain of the treaties was the
re-strengthening of Pakistan’s close historical bonds with its
Muhammad Ayub Khan. western neighbors in Asia.
A successful intervention of USSR led to signing of
In a major development, the capitol infrastructure had Tashkent Agreement between India and Pakistan in
been moved to newly planned state capital, Islamabad, all 1965.[148] Witnessing the American disapproval and
capital work development was relocated from Karachi to USSR’s mediation, Ayub Khan made tremendous efforts
Islamabad.[138] to normalize relations with USSR and Bhutto’s negotiation
expertise led to the Soviet Premier, Alexei Kosygin, visit to
The presidency of Ayub Khan is often dubbed and cele-
Islamabad.[144]
brated as “Great Decade” which highlighted the economic
development plans and reforms executed.[138] Under Ayub’s Delivering a blistering speech at the UN General Assem-
presidency, the country took a cultural shift when the pop bly in 1965, Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto with the
music industry, film industry and drama picture began to atomic scientist Aziz Ahmed present there for good mea-
notice by public and became extremely popular in the coun- sure, Bhutto made Pakistan’s intentions clear and loudly an-
try in the 1960s. Rather than neutrality, Ayub Khan worked nounced that: “If India builds the (nuclear) bomb, we will
closely to make an alliance with the United States and the eat grass, even go hungry, but we will get one of own ... We
[149]
Western world to gain support and proceeded to join two have no other choice”. Abdus Salam and Munir Khan
formal military alliances, the CENTO in 1955; [139]
and jointly collaborated to expand the nuclear power infrastruc-
the SEATO in 1962, against the Soviet bloc. [140]
During ture, receiving tremendous support from Bhutto.[149] Fol-
this time, the private-sector gained more power to con- lowing such announcement, the nuclear power expansion
trol the national economy, educational reforms, human de- was given an accelerated after signing a commercial nuclear
velopment and scientific achievements gained a lot of in- power plant agreement with GE Canada, and several other
ternational appraisal from the global community.[138] In agreements with the United Kingdom and France.
1961, the space program was launched with the continu-
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 69

Party (PPP) was founded with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto becom-


ing its first elected chairman. The Peoples Party’s leaders,
JA Rahim and Mubashir Hassan, notably announced to “de-
feat the great dictator with the power of the people.”[151]
In 1967, the PPP tapped a wave a of anger against Ayub
Khan and successfully called for major labour strikes in the
country.[151] Criticism on the United States and Ayub Khan
further damaged Ayub Khan’s authority in the country.[151]
By the end of 1968, Ayub Khan forwarded the Agartala
Case which led the arrests of many of Awami League lead-
ers, but forced to withdraw after serious provisional upris-
ing in East. Under pressured from PPP, public resentment,
and anger against his administration, Ayub Khan resigned
from the presidency in poor health and handing over his
authority to army commander, a less-known in public and
heavy alcohol drinker, General Yahya Khan, who imposed
martial law and suspended the constitution, thus dissolving
the presidential republic.[135][138][151]

Martial law in Pakistan (1969–1971) Main articles:


National Security Council of Pakistan and Legal Frame-
work Order, 1970

Witnessing the events and tensions, President General


Yahya Khan was deeply aware of the explosive political sit-
uation in the country, in 1969.[151] The progressiveness and
socialism in the country was rising, and calls for change of
Fatima Jinnah.
regime was gaining momentum.[151] On a television address
to the nation, President Yahya Khan announced his inten-
tion to hold the nationwide general elections in the follow-
Disagreeing with the signing of Tashkent agreement, ing year and set his motion to transfer power to the elected
Zulfikar Bhutto was ousted from the ministry on personal representatives of the people.[151] Earliest authoritative de-
directives of President Ayub Khan in 1966.[150] Dismissal cisions were towards the establishment of National Secu-
of Bhutto led to a spontaneous mass demonstrations and rity Council (NSC) by President Yahya Khan to analyze
public anger against Ayub Khan, leading to major indus- the military and political situation.[154] Virtually suspending
trial and labour strikes in the country.[151] Within weeks, the 1962 Constitution, President Yahya Khan instead issued
Ayub Khan lost the momentum in the West and his image the LFO Order No. 1970 which brought radical changes in
was destroyed at the public circles.[148] West. Tightening the grip of martial law, the One Unit pro-
Amidst further allegations that economic development and gram was dissolved in West Pakistan, removing the “West”
hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan, the prefix from Pakistan, and direct ballot replaced the princi-
Bengali nationalism began to take a sharp rise and an in- ple of parity.[155] Territorial changes were carried out on
dependence movement began to gather ground in East Pak- four provinces of the country, allowing to retain their ge-
istan.[152] In 1966, the Awami League led by Sheikh Mu- ographical structures as it were in 1947.[155] The LFO No.
jibur Rahman presented demanded the provisional auton- 1970 had restored the borders and geographical positions of
omy at the Round Table Conference held by Ayub Khan four provinces as of 1947 and the provincial assemblies and
which was forcefully rejected by Bhutto.[152] The influ- provincial boundaries also were restored.[155] The state par-
ence socialism spectrum began to rise after country’s no- liament, supreme court and major government and authori-
table economist, Mahbub ul Haq, publishing a report on tarian institutions also regained their status.[155] This decree
private-sector’s schemes of evading taxation and the few was only limited to West, it had no effects on East.[155]
oligarchs control over the national economy.[153] In 1967 Civilians in Ayub Khan’s administration were dismissed
Socialist convention attended by country’s leftist philoso- by the military government appointment of high-profile
phers and notable thinkers in Lahore, the Pakistan People’s joint military officers occupying civilian government as-
70 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Bhutto and Rehman in Dhaka, the talks collapsed and Pres-


ident Yahya Khan ordered an armed action against Awami
League. Operation Searchlight and Barisal, led to a crack-
down on East Pakistani politicians, civilians, and student
activists in all over the East. An arrested Mujibur Rah-
man was extradite to Islamabad, while the entire Awami
League leadership escaped to India to set up a parallel gov-
ernment. Popular guerrilla insurgency was initiated by the
Indian organized and supported Mukti Bahini (lit “freedom
fighters”).[8] Millions of Bengali Hindus and Muslims took
the refuge in Eastern India leading to Indian Prime minister
Indira Gandhi announcement to support for the liberation
war, providing direct “military assistance”.[158] On March
General Yahya Khan (left). 1971, regional commander, Major Ziaur Rahman of East-
Pakistan Army declared the independence of East Pakistan
as the new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib.
signments and posts. The Election Commission (EC) regis- Pakistan launched pre-emptive air strikes on 11 Indian air-
tered a total of twenty-four political parties, and the pub- bases on 3 December 1971, leading to India’s entry on the
lic meetings attracted a lot of huge crowd. On the eve side of Bangladeshi nationalist forces. Untrained in guer-
of the elections in 1970, a cyclone struck East-Pakistan rilla warfare, the Eastern high command quickly scrambled
killing approximately 500,000 people, though this event its operational capabilities under its commanders, Gen-
did not deter the people to participate in first ever gen- eral Amir Niazi and Admiral Muhammad Sharif.[157] Ex-
eral elections.[156] Mobilizing support for Six Points man- hausted, outflanked and overwhelmed, the Eastern high
ifesto, the Awami League secured its electoral support in command could no longer continue its fight against the in-
East-Pakistan.[156] The PPP assert itself even more densely; tense guerrilla insurgency, and finally surrendered to the
its socialist rationale, "Food, Cloth, and Shelter, and party’s Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India in Dhaka on 16 De-
socialist manifesto quickly popularized the party and in a cember 1971.[157] Nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners
small span of time.[156] The intellectuals, philosophers, and of war and the result was the emergence of the new nation
Bhutto's charismatic personality, were the key factors that of Bangladesh,[9] thus ending 24 years of turbulent union
contributed to the popularity of Pakistan Peoples Party.[156] of the two wings.[157] The figures of the Bengali civilian
The Conservative, PML led by Nurul Amin, raised the re- death toll from the entire civil war vary greatly, depending
ligious and nationalist slogans all over the country.[156] on the sources. Killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the
people of West Pakistan, it continued for illegally contin-
In a total 313 seat of National Assembly, electoral results
ued for nine long months.[157] Pakistan’s official report, by
showed the Awami League, won 167 seats but none from
the Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission, placed the figure at
West Pakistan[156] and PPP won 88 but none from East Pak-
only 26,000, while estimates range up to 3 million; the 'mil-
istan. Though Awami League won enough seat to form a
lion' is attributed to vernacular 'lack' getting mistranslated
government without any qualition, West Pakistani elites re-
in Western media, thus increasing the casualties ten-fold.
fused to handover power to East Pakistan party. Efforts
Discredited by the defeat, President General Yahya Khan
were made to start a constitutional dialogue. Bhutto asked
resigned and Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief
for share in government saying 'Udhar tum, idhar hum' ,
martial law administrator on 20 December 1971.[157]
means 'You are in east, I am in west'. The PPP’s intel-
lectuals maintained that Awami League had no mandate
in Western contingent.[157] Although President Yahya Khan Second democratic era (1971–1977)
invited Awami League to for a National Assembly session
in Islamabad, but did not handed over the powers to form
Main articles: Left-wing politics, Karachi labour unrest
the government due to constant pressure by PPP.[157] With
of 1972, 1970s Operation in Balochistan, Pakistan and its
no united concessions were seemed to be reached, Presi-Nuclear Deterrent Program, Hamoodur Rahman Commis-
dent Yahya Khan consequently appointed Bengali anti-warsion, Constitution of Pakistan, List of Pakistani films of the
activist, Nurul Amin as Prime Minister with additional of-
1970s, Federal Investigation Agency, Defence Committee
fice of country’s first and only Vice-President.[157] of the Cabinet (Pakistan), and National Finance Commis-
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman then launched civil disobedience sion Award
movement which effectively paralyzed the state machin- The 1971 war and separation of East-Pakistan demoralized
ery of East. Convening a round-table conference with and shattered the nation. President General Yahya Khan
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 71

clear programme”. Chairing a secret winter seminar in Jan-


uary 1972, which came to be known as “Multan meeting”,
Bhutto rallied a large numbers academic scientists to build
the atomic bomb for national survival. The atomic bomb
project brought together a team of prominent academic sci-
entists and engineers, headed by theoretical physicist Abdus
Salam to develop nuclear devices. Salam later won the
Nobel Prize for Physics for developing the theory for uni-
fication of weak nuclear forces and strong electromagnetic
forces.[159]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

The PPP's democratic socialist and visionaries directed the left ori-
handed over the political power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of ented policies throughout the 1970s.
the Pakistan Peoples Party. With PPP’s coming to power,
the democratic socialists and visionaries came to the power In 1973, a serious nationalist rebellion also took place in
for the first time in the country’s history, under a democratic
Balochistan province and led to harsh suppression of Baloch
transition. Bhutto made critical decision after dismissing rebels with the Shah of Iran purportedly assisting with air
chiefs of army, navy and the air force while authorized
support in order to prevent the conflict from spilling over
home confinement orders for General Yahya Khan and sev- into Iranian Balochistan. The conflict ended later after an
eral of his collaborators. He adopted the East-Pakistan amnesty and subsequent stabilization by the provincial mil-
Commission's recommendations and authorized large-scale itary administrator Rahimuddin Khan. In 1973, Parlia-
court-martial of army officers tainted for their role in East ment approved a supreme, but a new constitution, which
Pakistan. To keep the country united, Bhutto launched a provided the basis for the parliamentary democracy in the
series of internal intelligence operations to crack down on country. Bhutto and his government carried out major and
the fissiparous nationalist sentiments and movements in the serious reforms for establishment and development and re-
provinces. Proponents of socialism were supported as part designing of the country’s infrastructure. First and fore-
of the internal policies and the PPP faced serious chal- most, Bhutto supervised the successful promulgation of
lenges, both on internal and foreign fronts. 1973 constitution that validated the parliamentary democ-
This period starting from 1971 until 1977 was a period racy in the country; the establishment of Joint Chiefs Com-
of left-wing democracy, the growth of national spirit, eco- mittee (as well Joint Strategic Forces Command), reorga-
nomic nationalization, covert atomic bomb projects, pro- nization of the military, special forces and chain of com-
motion of scientific, literary, cultural activities and the left- mands in the military. Steps were taken for democratization
wing socialism. Regarded as the period of reconstruction, of civil bureaucracy, election commission and the political
rehabilitation, re-establishment, and the rise of the left-wing structure, expansion of country’s economic and human in-
sphere of the country, the new industrial, manpower de- frastructure growth, starting first with the agriculture, land
velopment, and the labour policies were promulgated in reforms, and government-control (nationalization) of major
the ending weeks of December 1971. In 1972, the coun- private industries, industrialization and the expansion of the
try’s top intelligence services provided an assessment on higher education system throughout the country. In 1974,
Indian nuclear program, citing the evidences that: “India Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious
was close to developing a nuclear weapon under its nu- parties and helped Parliament to declare the Ahmadiyya ad-
72 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

herents as non-Muslims. Bhutto’s efforts undermined and contributors to it - Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Indira Gandhi and
dismantled the private-sector and conservative approach for Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman - died by unnatural and violent
political power in country’s political setup. death. Also, their off-spring perished later the same way.
Relations with the United States gradually went down, and Mujib’s one daughter, Sheikh Hasina, is the lone survivor
completing the gap after normalizing the relations with at this time.
the Soviet Union, the Eastern bloc, North Korea, China,
and the Arab world. With Soviet technical assistance, the
country’s first steel mill was established in Karachi, which Second military era (1977–1988)
proved to be a crucial step in industrializing the economy.
Bhutto promised in a speech to Pakistan’s National Assem- Main articles: Operation Fair Play, Muhammad Zia-
bly that “If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass and ul-Haq § Reign as President of Pakistan, Zia-ul-Haq’s
leaves, even go hungry. But we will get one of our own, we Islamization, Baloch Insurgency and Rahimuddin’s Stabi-
have no alternative.” Alarmed by India’s surprise nuclear lization, Siachen conflict, Operation Brasstacks, Soviet war
test in 1974, Bhutto accelerated Pakistan’s atomic bomb in Afghanistan, Operation Cyclone, Death of Zia-ul-Haq,
project.[160] This crash project reached a historical mile- and Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
stone in 1978 when the desired level of production of fissile See also: New wave of Pakistan rock music (1980-89),
core material was reached as well as first design of physics Ordinance XX, Hudood Ordinance, Terrorism in Pakistan,
package which eventually led to a secret subcritical testings Jam Saqi case, Far-right politics, and Fashion in Pakistan
("Kirana-I" and "Test Kahuta") in 1983. Relations with In-
dia soured and Bhutto launched aggressive diplomatic war This period of military rule, lasting from 1977 to 1988, is
and measures against India at the United Nations. Openly often regarded as a period of great purge and growth of
targeting Indian nuclear programme on multiple occasions state-sponsored religious conservatism. Although, Presi-
and pushing India on the defense, Bhutto’s covertly worked dent Zia’s long eleven-year rule era features the country’s
on expanding the atomic bomb project on a shortest time first successful technocracy, but other side, it also features
possible. From 1976 to 1977, Bhutto more densely empha- the tug of war between far-leftist forces in direct compe-
sized his political position and faced an intense and heated tition with populist far-right circles. President Zia made
diplomatic war with the United States and President Jimmy strong use of installing high-profile military officers from
Carter, who worked covertly to damage the credibility of joint services of joint forces in civilian posts, ranging from
Bhutto in Pakistan. Bhutto, with his scientist colleague Aziz central government to provisional governments. Gradually,
Ahmed, thwarted any U.S. attempts to infiltrate the atomic the socialist influence in the public policies were dismantled
bomb programme. In 1976, during a secret mission, Henry disbanded, instead a new system of capitalism was revived
Kissinger threatened Bhutto and his colleague using an in- with the introduction of corporatization and Islamization.
humane language. After the meeting, Bhutto aggressively The populist front against Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto scattered,
put efforts to successfully develop the atomic project before with far right-wing conservatives allying with General Zia’s
the coming elections. government and encouraging the military government crack
As the country entered 1976, the socialist alliance of Bhutto down on the Pro-Soviet left-wing elements in the country.
collapsed, forcing his left-wing allies to form an alliance The left-wing alliance led by Benazir Bhutto was brutalized
with right-wing conservatives, to challenge the power of by Zia who took every mean of aggressive measures against
Peoples Party. In 1977, the general elections were held the movement. Further, in his time, secessionist uprisings
which marked the Peoples Party as victorious but this was in Balochistan were put down successfully by the provincial
challenged by the opposition, which accused Bhutto of rig- governor, General Rahimuddin Khan.
ging the election process. An intensified political disor- In 1984, Zia held a referendum asking the civil society for
der took place against Bhutto and in a nexus of chief of the support of his religious programme that received over-
army staff general Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and chief of whelming support and extended the term of General Zia
naval staff Admiral Mohammad Shariff, took power in a as country’s administrator for next five years. He then in-
bloodless coup. Following this, Bhutto and his leftist col-troduced strict Islamic law in 1978, often cited as the con-
leagues were dragged into a two-year-long controversial tributing factor in the present climate of sectarianism and
trial in Supreme Court. Bhutto was later executed in 1979, religious fundamentalism in Pakistan. General Zia’s gov-
after being convicted of authorizing the murder of a polit-ernment disbanded the Western styled songs, only patriotic
ical opponent, in a controversial 4–3 split decision by thesongs were allowed in national television. The Ordinance
Supreme Court. XX was introduced to limit the Ahmadis from calling them-
A strange historical fact - related to the bloodshed prior selves Muslims.
to the creation of Bangladesh - is that all the three main After Zia assuming power, Pakistan’s relations with the So-
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 73

Pashtun took a refuge in the country fleeing the Soviet


occupation. During this time, it was the largest refugee
population in the world,[161] which had a heavy impact on
Pakistan and its effects continue to this day. In retalia-
tion, the Afghan secret police, KHAD, mastered the idea
of "terrorism" after carrying out a large number of terror-
ist operations against Pakistan, which also suffered from an
influx of illegal weapons and drugs from Afghanistan. Re-
sponding to the terrorism, Zia used the “counter-terrorism”
tactics after allowing the religiously far-right parties to send
thousands young students of clerical schools participate in
Afghan Jihad against the Soviet Union.
Problems with India rose up when India attacked and took
the Siachen glacier, prompting Pakistan to strike back, lead-
ing Indian Army to formalize a controversial military exer-
cise, summoning up to 400,000 troops near Southern Pak-
istan. Facing an indirect war with the Soviet Union in
West, General Zia used the Cricket diplomacy to lessen the
tensions between two countries. However he also report-
edly threatened India by adding to Rajiv Gandhi: “If your
[forces] crossed our border an inch ... We are going to an-
nihilate your (cities)...”.[162]
Under pressured by President Ronald Reagan, General Zia
finally lifted martial law in 1985, holding non-partisan elec-
tions and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the
General Zia-ul-Haq (right).
new Prime Minister, who readily extended Zia’s term as
Chief of Army Staff until 1990. Junejo however gradually
fell out with Zia as his administrative independence grew;
for instance, Junejo signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia
greatly frowned upon. As retaliation, a controversy was
planned after a large-scale blast at a munitions dump and
Prime minister Junejo vowed to bring to justice those re-
sponsible for the significant damage caused, implicating
several senior generals. In return, General Zia dismissed
the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988 and
called for elections in November 1988. However, before
the elections could ever take place, General Zia died in a
mysterious plane crash on 17 August 1988 (See Death of
Zia-ul-Haq).
During the end times of Zia’s regime, there was a popular
Benazir Bhutto, in the U.S. (1988), became the first female prime
minister of Pakistan in 1988. wave of cultural change in the country.[163] Despite Zia’s
tough rhetoric against the Western culture and music in
the country, the underground rock music jolted the coun-
viet Union deteriorated after Zia renewed strong relations try and revived the culturecounter attack on Indian film in-
with the United States, whilst accelerated the atomic bomb dustry.[163] The 1980s fashion such as hairstyles and cloth-
projects to counter the Soviet communism. Repressive situ- ing was very popular in the country and on casual basis at
ation in Communist Afghanistan invited the Soviet Union’s the five-star hotels in the country and near the residence of
intervention and President Reagan immediately jumped to President Zia-ul-Haq, the rock bands performed Western-
help Zia to supply and finance an anti-Soviet insurgency in influenced rock music, and generally were welcomed by the
Afghanistan, using Pakistan as a conduit. Zia’s military public and some government elements.[163]
administration effectively handled national security mat-
ters and notably managed the multibillion-dollar aid from
the United States. An overwhelming majority of Afghan
74 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Third democratic era (1988–1999): Benazir–Nawaz pe-


riod

Main articles: Left–right politics, Establishment (Pak-


istan), Pakistan at the 1990 Asian Games, Pakistan and
state sponsored terrorism, Atlantique Incident, Civil war
in Afghanistan (1996–2001), 1992 Cricket World Cup,
Operation Blue Fox, and Culture of Pakistan
See also: Education in Pakistan, Science in Pakistan,
Chagai-I, Chagai-II, and Pakistan space program
Democracy returned again in 1988 after the general elec-

The 1988 elections results showing left-wing sphere (in red & gray Benazir Bhutto, 2004.
led under BB) in majority.

tions which were held after the death of President General Union from neighboring Communist Afghanistan. Soon
Zia-ul-Haq. The elections marked the return of Peoples after the evacuation, the alliance with U.S. came to end
Party back into the power whose leader, Benazir Bhutto, when the secret of a successful clandestine atomic bomb
became the first female Prime minister of Pakistan as well project was revealed to world which led to imposition of
as the first female head of government in a Muslim-majority economic sanctions by the United States. In 1989, she or-
country. This period, lasting until 1999, introduced the dered a military intervention in Afghanistan that brutally
parliamentary system and competitive two-party democ- failed, leading her to depose the directors of the intelligence
racy in the country, featuring a fierce competition between services. With offing American aid to the country, she
centre-right conservatives led by Nawaz Sharif and centre- hastily imposed the 7th Plan to restore the national economy
left socialists directed by Benazir Bhutto. The far-left pol- while centralizing the economy. Nonetheless, the economic
itics and the far-right politics had disintegrated from the situation worsened when the state currency of Pakistan lost
political arena with the fall of global communism and the the currency war with India. The country significantly en-
United States lessening its interests in Pakistan. It was dur- tered in era of stagflation during this period, and her gov-
ing the 1990s when various bands released their highly ac- ernment was soon dismissed by the conservative President
claimed and commercially successful albums which it led to Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
the boom of rock music in Pakistan’s music industry.[164] The 1990 General elections allowed the right-wing conser-
Following the success of Vital Signs and other bands, the vative alliance, the Islamic Democratic Alliance (IDA) led
rock music bands enormous popularity and success signif- by Nawaz Sharif, to form the government under a demo-
icantly opened a new wave of rock music and opened a cratic system for the first time in history. Attempts to
modern chapter in the history of Pakistan, bringing the sig- end the stagflation, Sharif launched the privatization and
nificant shift of country’s conservative transformation into economic liberalisation while on the other hand, adopted
semi-Western modernism during the 1990s.[165] a policy of ambiguity on atomic bomb programs. Sharif
Benazir Bhutto presided over the country during the penul- intervened in Gulf War in 1991, and ordered an operation
timate times of Cold war, and cemented pro-Western poli- against the liberal forces in Karachi in 1992. Institutional
cies due to common distrust of communism. Her gov- problems arose with president Ghulam Khan, whose at-
ernment oversaw the successful troop evacuation of Soviet tempt was to dismiss Sharif on the same charges as he had
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 75

pressed on Benazir Bhutto. Through the Supreme Court try. Focusing on culture development, her policies resulted
judgement, Sharif was restored and together with Benazir in shaping the rock and pop music industry in the country,
Bhutto ousted President Ishaq Khan from the presidency. and film industry made its notable comeback after intro-
Later in weeks, Sharif was forced to relinquish office by ducing new talent to the public. She exercised tough poli-
the military leadership. cies to banned the Indian media in the country, while pro-
moting television industry to produce dramas, films, artist
programs, and music, extremely devoting to the country.
The grievousness and public angst about the weaknesses of
Pakistan education led to large-scale federal support for sci-
ence education and research in the country by both Benazir
and Nawaz Sharif to meet with the competition with India.

The 1997 elections showing right-wing circle (in green) with


Nawaz Sharif, 1998 exclusive mandate in the country.

During the general elections, Benazir Bhutto secured the


plurality and formed the government after appointing a Despite her tough policies, the popularity of Benazir Bhutto
hand-picked president for the presidential office and a new waned after her husband became allegedly involved in the
cabinet. Approving the appointments of all four-star chiefs controversial death of Murtaza Bhutto. Many public fig-
of navy, air force, army and chairman joint chiefs, the inter- ures and officials suspected even Benazir Bhutto’s involve-
nal policies were exercised on tough stance to bring political ment in the murder, although there were no proves. In 1996,
seven weeks passed this incident, Benazir Bhutto’s govern-
stability in the country; her tough rhetoric her a nickname
“Iron Lady” by her rivals. Proponents of social democracy ment was dismissed by her own hand-picked president on
charges of Murtaza Bhutto’s death.
and national pride were supported at an extreme level while
the nationalization and centralization of economy continued The 1997 election resulted in conservatives receiving a
after the 8th Plan was enacted to end the historical era of heavy majority of the vote, obtaining enough seats in
stagflation. Her foreign policy made an efforts to balance parliament to change the constitution, which Prime min-
the relations with the Iran, United States, Western world, ister Sharif amended to eliminate the formal checks and
and socialist states. balances that restrained the Prime Minister’s power. In-
Relations with India and Afghanistan worsened in 1995 stitutional challenges to his authority - led by the civil-
when allegations were leveled of Pakistan and other coun- ian President Farooq Leghari, chairman joint chiefs gen-
tries providing economic and military aid to the group eral Jehangir Karamat, chief of naval staff admiral Fasih
from 1994 as a part of supporting the anti-Soviet alliance. Bokharie, and Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah - were put
Pakistan was one of three countries which recognized the down and all four were forced to resign; Chief Justice Shah
Taliban government and Mullah Mohammed Omar as the doing so after the Supreme Court was stormed by Sharif
legitimate ruler of Afghanistan.[167] Benazir Bhutto contin- partisans.[168]
ued her pressure on India, pushing India on to take defen- Problems with India further escalated in 1998, when the
sive positions on its nuclear programme. Benazir Bhutto television media reported the Indian nuclear explosions, co-
clandestine initiatives modernized and expanded the atomic dename Operation Shakti. When news flooded in Pakistan,
bomb programme after launching the missile system pro- a shocked Sharif called for a national security meeting in
grams. In 1994, she successfully approached the France Islamabad and vowed that “she (Pakistan) would give a suit-
for the technology transfer of AIP technology to the coun- able reply to the Indians ...”. After reviewing the effects of
76 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

tests for roughly two weeks, Sharif ordered PAEC to per- several hours. A counter coup d'état was initiated, the se-
form a series of nuclear tests at the remote area of Chagai nior commanders of the military leadership ousted Sharif’s
Hills in 1998 itself. The military forces in the country were government and took over the airport; the flight landed with
mobilize at a war-situation level on Indian border. only a few minutes of fuel to spare.[173] The Military Police
Internationally condemned, but extremely popular at home, seized the Prime Minister’s Secretariat and deposed Sharif,
Sharif took steps to control the economy and mobilized Ziauddin Butt and the cabinet staffers who took part in this
all the defence assets of Pakistan by closed all airspace assumed conspiracy, shifting placed him in infamous Adiala
routes by giving red-alerts orders to PAF and Pakistan Jail. A quick trial was set in Supreme Court which gave
Sharif a life sentence, with his assets being frozen based on
Navy. Sharif responded fiercely, and defused the interna-
tional pressure by targeting India for global nuclear prolif- a corruption scandal, and he was near receiving the death
sentence based on the hijacking case.[174]
eration while gave great criticism to the United States for
atomic bombings on Japanese cities of Atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Third military era (1999–2007): Musharraf–Aziz pe-
riod
If [Pakistan] had wanted, she would have
conducted nuclear tests 15–20 years ago ... but Main articles: 1999 Pakistani coup d'état; 2001–2002
the abject poverty of the people of the region India-Pakistan standoff; Legal Framework Order, 2002;
dissuaded ... [Pakistan] from doing so. But the War in North-West Pakistan; Assassination of Benazir
[w]orld, instead of putting pressure on (India) Bhutto; Pakistan’s role in the War on Terror; War on
... not to take the destructive road ... imposed Terror; and Lawyers’ Movement
all kinds of sanctions on [Pakistan] for no
fault of her.....! If (fellow) Japan had its own The news of the Sharif’s dismissal made headlines all over
nuclear capability.. (cities of) ... Hiroshima the world and under pressure by the US President Bill Clin-
and Nagasaki would not have suffered atomic ton and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, Musharraf succumbed
destruction at the hands of the ... United States to spare Sharif’s life in an agreement facilitated by Saudi
... Arabia. Departed to Saudi Arabia to be settled in a Jeddah
— Nawaz Sharif—Prime minister, on 30 May in King Fahd’s private residence, Sharif was forced to be
1998, televised at PTV, [171] out of politics for nearly ten years.
The presidency of Musharraf features the coming of liberal
forces in the national power for the first time in the history
Under Nawaz Sharif’s leadership, Pakistan became the sev-
of Pakistan.[175] Earlier initiatives taken towards the contin-
enth nuclear power country, the first country in the Mus-
uation of economic liberalization, privatization, and free-
lim world, as well as a declared nuclear-weapon state. The
dom of media in Pakistan in 1999.[176] The Citibank exec-
conservative government also adopted environmental poli-
utive, Shaukat Aziz, returned to country upon Musharraf’s
cies after establishing the environmental protection agency.
request to take the control of the national economy after
Sharif too continue Bhutto’s cultural policies, though he did
securing the appointment in Finance ministry in 1999.[177]
allowed Indian channels to be viewed in the country. The
next year, Kargil war by Pakistan-backed Kashmiri mili-
tants threatened to escalate to a full-scale war[10] and in-
creased fears of a nuclear war in South Asia. Internation-
ally condemned, the Kargil war was followed by Atlantique
Incident which came on a bad juncture for the Prime min-
ister Sharif who no longer a hold the public support for his
government.
On 12 October 1999, Prime minister Sharif’s daring at-
tempt to dismiss General Pervez Musharraf from the posts
of chairman joint chiefs and chief of army staff failed after
the military leadership refused to accept the appointment
of ISI director Lieutenant-General Ziauddin Butt as chair-
man and army chief.[172] General Musharraf returning to
Pakistan from a PIA commercial airliner, Sharif ordered After 1999, many rock music bands performed in open stage.
the Jinnah Terminal to be sealed to prevent the landing of
the PIA flight, which then circled the skies over Karachi for In 2000, the government issued a massive nationwide
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 77

amnesty to the political workers of liberal parties, sidelin- opponents to reach a concession on December 2003. The
ing the conservatives and leftists in the country.[178][179] Re- Musharraf-backed liberals mustered the two-thirds major-
viewing the policy to create a counter cultural attack on In- ity required to pass the 17th Amendment to the Constitution
dia, Musharraf personally signed and issued hundreds of of Pakistan. Transformation of country’s political system
license to private sector to open new media houses and set from parliamentary republic into semi-presidential repub-
up channels, free from government influence. On 12 May lic was made through 17th Amendment which retroactively
2000, the Supreme Court ordered the Government to hold legitimized Musharraf’s 1999 actions and many of his sub-
general elections by 12 October 2002. Ties with the United sequent decrees. In a vote of confidence on January 2004,
States were renewed by Musharraf who endorsed the U.S. Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 votes in the electoral col-
invasion of Afghanistan as reactionary to 9/11 attacks in lege, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of
the United States, in 2001.[180] Confrontation with India Pakistan, was elected to the office of President.[187] Soon
continued over the disputed Kashmir, which led to seri- after his presidential election, Musharraf increased the role
ous military standoff in 2002 after India alleged Pakistan- of Shaukat Aziz in the parliament and helped him to secure
backed Kashmiri militants laid the attack on Indian parlia- the party nomination for the office of Prime Minister.
ment in ending month of 2001.[181] Military formations and With Shaukat Aziz becoming the prime minister in 2004,
deployment continued in all over the country during this pe- his regime yielded positive results on economic front and
riod, with stationing of XI Corps in North-western Pakistan his proposed social reforms were met with resistance. The
while the rest of the components were positioned in eastern, far-right religious alliance mobilized itself in fierce oppo-
southern, and the northern borders of the country.[182] sition to Musharraf and Aziz who were dismayed by their
Attempting to legitimize his presidency[183] and assuring its Post-9/11 alliance with the United States and endorsement
continuance after the impending elections, Musharraf held of military support to the U.S. Forces in 2001 campaign
a controversial referendum in 2002,[184] which allowed the in Afghanistan.[188][189] In over two years, several attempts
extension of his presidential term to a period ending five were survived by Musharraf and Aziz hatched by al-Qaeda
years.[185] The LFO Order No. 2002 was issued by Mushar- including at least two instances where they had inside infor-
raf in August 2001, which established the constitutional ba- mation from a member of his military administration.[178]
sis for his continuance in office.[186] The 2002 general elec- On foreign fronts, the allegations of nuclear proliferation
tions marked the liberals, the MQM, and centrist PML(Q), further damaged Musharraf and Aziz’s credibility when
winning the majority in the parliament to form the govern- country’s scientists were accused of suspected activities of
ment. giving and sharing the technology to global atomic prolif-
eration. Repression and subjugation in Tribal line led to
a heavy fighting in Warsk between Pakistan Armed Forces
and 400 al-Qaeda operatives who were entrenched in sev-
eral fortified settlements on March 2004. The hunt for
Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri was launched in the border-
side of the country, contributing in sparking the sectarian
violence. This new war forced the government to sign a
truce with the militants on 5 September 2006; nonetheless
the sectarian violence continued.
Since 2001 and onward, Navaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto's
popular support was gaining a lot of momentum in the
country.[190] In 2007, Sharif made a daring attempt to re-
turn from exile but was refrained from landing at Islamabad
Terminal. Sharif was forcefully departed to Saudi Arabia
on a first given flight, whilst outside the airport there were
violent confrontations between Sharif’s supporters and the
police.[191] This did not deter another former prime min-
ister, Benazir Bhutto, from returning on 18 October 2007
after an eight-year exile in Dubai and London, to prepare
for the parliamentary elections to be held in 2008.[192][193]
General Pervez Musharraf, PA. While leading a massive rally of supporters, two deadly sui-
cide attacks were carried out in an attempt to assassinate Be-
nazir Bhutto, though she escaped unharmed but there were
The LFO effectively paralyzed the state parliament for over
136 casualties and at least 450 people were injured.[194]
a year, which Musharraf succumbed to his parliamentary
78 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

The 2002 elections resulted with liberals (light green and white)
gaining majority in the first time in history of Pakistan.

including one of the reserved seats for women.[202] De-


parting an election rally in Rawalpindi on 27 December
2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated by a gunman who
shot her in the neck and set off a bomb,[203][204] killing 20
other people and injuring several more.[205] The exact se-
quence of the events and cause of death became points of
political debate and controversy, because, although early re-
ports indicated that Benazir Bhutto was hit by shrapnel or
the gunshots,[206] the Pakistan Interior ministry maintained
that her death was due from a skull fracture sustained when
the explosive waves threw her against the sunroof of her
vehicle.[207] The issue remains controversial and the inves-
Shaukat Aziz. tigations were further conducted by British Scotland Yard.
After a meeting in Islamabad, the Election Commission an-
nounced that, due to the assassination,[208] the elections,
With Aziz completing his term, the liberal alliance now led which had been scheduled for 8 January 2008, would take
by Musharraf was further weakened after General Mushar- place on 18 February.[209]
raf proclaimed a state of emergency and sacked the Chief
Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry along with other 14 judges of
the Supreme Court, on 3 November 2007,.[175][195][196] Po-
litical situation became more chaotic when the lawyers
launched a protest against this action but they were arrested.
All private media channels including foreign channels were
banned, and Musharraf declared that the state of emergency
would end on 16 December 2007.[197] The global financial
crises, energy crises, domestic crime and violence further
escalated as Musharraf made desperate attempt to contain
the political pressure. Stepping down from the military,
Musharraf was sworn in for a second presidential term on The unity symbol of Pakistan, Minar-e-Pakistan, glances in 2005.
28 November 2007.[198][199]
Popular support for Musharraf declined when Nawaz The 2008 general elections marked the return of the
Sharif, this time accompanied by his younger brother and leftists in the country’s power politics, on 18 February
his daughter, successfully made a second attempt to return 2008.[210][211] The left oriented, PPP, and conservative
from exile; hundreds of their supporters, including a few PML, won majority of seats together in the election and
leaders of the party were detained before the pair arrived formed a coalition government; the liberal alliance then fi-
at Iqbal Terminal, on 25 November 2007.[200][201] Nawaz nally faded. Yousaf Raza Gillani of PPP became the Prime
Sharif filed his nomination papers for two seats in the forth- minister and consolidated his power after ending a policy
coming elections whilst Benazir Bhutto filed for three seats deadlock in order to lead the movement to impeach the
2.1. HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 79

president on 7 August 2008. Before restoring the deposed


judiciary, Gillani and his leftist alliance leveled accusation
against Musharraf for weakening Pakistan’s unity, violating
its constitution and creating economic impasse.[212] As mo-
mentum on Musharraf gained, President Musharraf began
consultations with his close aides on the implications of the
impeachment and readily made available himself to reply to
the charges levied upon him. Gillani’s effective strategy to
force Musharraf from presidency succeeded when Pervez
Musharraf announced in a very short long televised address
to the nation to announce his resignation, ending his nine-
year-long reign on 18 August 2008.[213]

Fourth democratic era (2008–present)

Main articles: 2008 India Pakistan standoff; Pakistan-U.S


standoff 15 September 2008; Afghanistan–Pakistan skir-
mishes; Urbanisation in Pakistan; and Pakistani general
election, 2013
The unpopular war in Afghanistan, suspension of chief jus- Yousaf Raza Gillani, (2008-2012).

18th amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, which sig-


nifies the parliamentary democracy in the country. Lessen-
ing the powers of the President to dissolve the parliament
unilaterally, it turns the President into a ceremonial head
of state and transfers the authoritarian and executive pow-
ers to the Prime Minister.[218] In 2009-11, Gillani, under
pressured from the public and cooperating with the United
States, ordered the armed forces to launch military cam-
paigns against Taliban advancing in the country. The joint-
forces operations quelled and crushed the Taliban militias in
the country but the terrorist attacks continued in elsewhere
of the country. The country’s media was further liberalized
After the 2008 elections, the left-wings circles (in all red) in majority with the banning of the Indian channels, the music, art, and
with conservatives (in green) being the second largest. cultural activities were promoted to the national level, de-
voted to the nationalist spirit.
tice, and state emergency had weakened Musharraf and a In 2010 and 2011, the anti-American emotions reached a
massive left-wing alliance led by Prime Minister Yousaf climax after a CIA contractor killed two civilians in Lahore
Raza Gillani ousted Pervez Musharraf. In an indirect elec- which further fractured relations with the United States.
tion, Asif Zardari succeeded Musharraf and the current pe- In the United States as well, the anti-Pakistan sentiment
riod marks the return of the left-right directional politics but increased after the execution of the secret operation con-
also features of the multiparty democracy.[214][215][216][217] ducted in Abbottabad that killed the Al-Qaeda supremo
After the elections, Yousaf Raza Gillani presided the coun- Osama bin Laden, without the knowledge of Pakistan Gov-
try as the Prime minister and headed the collective govern- ernment. A strong U.S. criticism was made against Pak-
ment, with the winner parties of the four provinces. Gillani istan for supporting a network of hiding al-Qaeda supremo,
proposed the idea of collective leadership with the install- Gillani called his government to review the foreign policy.
ment major parties of the four provinces in the govern- Steps were taken by Gillani to block all major supply lines
ment; objections raised by conservative PML-N was re- after the NATO attack. Relations with Russia advanced in
placed with centrist, PML(Q). Presided by Gillani, a ma- 2012, following the secret trip of country’s foreign minister
jor transformation in a political structure was carried out Hina Khar.[219] Following endless procrastination of Gillani
to replace the semi-presidential system into parliamentary in probing corruption charges as ordered by the Supreme
democracy system. The Parliament unanimously passed the Court, and treating it as contempt of court, the Supreme
80 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

• Meluhha
• Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
• Politics of Pakistan
• Timeline of Karachi
• Timeline of Lahore
• Timeline of Peshawar

2.1.10 References
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2.1.11 References • Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1977). The later Ghaz-


navids: splendour and decay. New York: Columbia
• The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-04428-8.
highly detailed description of all of Pakistan & India
in 1901. complete text online • Bryant, Edwin F. (2001). The quest for the origins of
Vedic culture : the Indo-Aryan migration debate. Ox-
• Jalal, Ayesha ed. The Oxford Companion to Pakistani ford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
History (Oxford University Press, 2012) 558 pp. Top- 0-19-513777-4.
ical essays by leading scholars online review
• Cohen, Stephen P. (2004). The idea of Pakistan.
Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-
Surveys 0-8157-1502-3.
• Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama (2007): The Polit-
• Burki, Shahid Javed. Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nation-
ical Crisis of Pakistan in 2007 - EPU Research Papers:
hood (3rd ed. 1999)
Issue 08/07, Stadtschlaining
• Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A history of Pakistan • Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford history of Islam.
and its origins. London: Anthem Press. ISBN 978- New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
1-84331-149-2. 0-19-510799-9.
• Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short history of • Gascoigne, Bamber (2002). A Brief History of the
Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi. Great Moguls. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-7867-1040-9.
• Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History (2010)
excerpt and text search • Gauhar, Altaf (1996). Ayub Khan, Pakistan’s first mil-
itary ruler. Oxford; New York: Oxford University
• Ziring, Lawrence (1997). Pakistan in the twentieth
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577647-8.
century : a political history. Karachi; New York: Ox-
ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577816-8. • Hardy, Peter (1972). The Muslims of British India.
London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
521-08488-8.
Further reading
• Hopkirk, Peter (1992). The Great Game : the strug-
• Ahmed, Akbar S. (1976). Millennium and charisma gle for empire in Central Asia. New York: Kodansha
among Pathans : a critical essay in social anthropol- International. ISBN 978-4-7700-1703-1.
ogy. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN
978-0-7100-8348-7. • Iqbal, Muhammad (1934). The reconstruction of re-
ligious thought in Islam. London: Oxford University
• Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, F. Raymond (1982). The Press.
rise of civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge;
• Kahn, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of
New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
India and Pakistan (2008)
0-521-24244-8.
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the
• Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan (1977). History of Indus valley civilization. Karachi: Oxford University
the Baluch race and Baluchistan. Quetta: Gosha-e- Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577940-0.
Adab.
• Moorhouse, Geoffrey (1992). To the frontier: a jour-
• Weiner, Myron; Ali Banuazizi (1994). The Poli- ney to the Khyber Pass. New York: H. Holt. ISBN
tics of social transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and 978-0-8050-2109-7.
Pakistan. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2608-4. • Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan: Founda-
tional Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity,
• Bhutto, Benazir (1988). Daughter of the East. Lon- 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2
don: Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-12398-0.
• Sidky, H. (2000). The Greek kingdom of Bactria
• Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1963). The Ghaznavids; : from Alexander to Eucratides the Great. Lanham,
their empire in Afghanistan and eastern Iran, 994 : Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 978-
1040. Edinburgh: University Press. 0-7618-1695-9.
88 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

• Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. War and Seces- 2.2 History of South Asia
sion: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh
(1991)
This article is about the history of the Indian subcontinent
• Spear, Percival (1990) [First published 1965]. A His- with India in focus prior to the partition of India in 1947.
tory of India. Volume 2. New York: Penguin. ISBN For the modern Republic of India, see History of the
978-0-14-013836-8. Republic of India. For Pakistan and Bangladesh in focus,
see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh.
• Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1951). The Greeks in “Indian history” redirects here. For history of Native
Bactria and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Americans, see History of Native Americans in the United
Press. States.

• Thackston, Wheeler M.; Robert Irwin (1996). The The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements
Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the even-
509671-2. tual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic
Civilisation;[1] the development of Hinduism as a synthe-
• Thapar, Romila (1990) [First published 1965]. A His- sis of various Indian cultures and traditions; the rise of the
tory of India. Volume 1. New York: Penguin. ISBN Śramaṇa movement; the decline of Śrauta sacrifices and
978-0-14-013835-1. the birth of the initiatory traditions of Jainism, Buddhism,
Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism;[2][3] the onset of a
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1978). Imperial Mughal paint- succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more
ing. New York: George Braziller. ISBN 978-0-8076- than two millennia throughout various geographic areas of
0870-8. the subcontinent, including the growth of nomadic Central
Asian Muslim dominions during the Medieval period in-
• Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1950). Five thou- tertwined with Hindu powers;[4][5] the advent of European
sand years of Pakistan : an archaeological outline. traders resulting in the establishment of the British rule;
London: C. Johnson. and the subsequent independence movement that led to the
Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of In-
• Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1959). Early India dia.[6]
and Pakistan: to Ashoka. New York: Praeger.
Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian
subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or
• Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. New with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- 500,000 years ago.[7] Considered a cradle of civilisation,[8]
503412-7. the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished
in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from
3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South
Asia.[9] A sophisticated and technologically advanced ur-
ban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from
2600 to 1900 BCE.[10] This civilisation collapsed at the start
• 1

of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by


the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation, which extended over much
of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of
2.1.12 External links major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these
kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira prop-
• National Fund for Cultural Heritage, Government of agated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and
Pakistan sixth century BCE.
Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya
• Story of Pakistan Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the
3rd century BC onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in
• History of Pakistan at DMOZ the north and the Sangam literature in southern India
started to flourish.[11][12] Wootz steel originated in south
• Wikimedia Atlas of the History of Pakistan India in the 3rd century BC and was exported to foreign
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 89

countries.[13][14][15] Various parts of India were ruled by nu- dence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British
merous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and
Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the
religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the clas- new states.
sical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects
of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion
(Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while 2.2.1 Chronology of Indian history
kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links
with the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Indian cul- See also: Outline of South Asian history
tural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia
which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British In-
Southeast Asia (Greater India).[16][17] dia (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of In-
The most significant event between the 7th and 11th cen- dia, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This
tury was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj that periodisation has been influential, but has also been criti-
lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Em- cised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influ-
pire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara Empire. ential periodisation is the division into “ancient, classical,
Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers medieval and modern periods”, although this periodisation
from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being has also been criticised.[26]
the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-
Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynasty conquered southern British periods of Indian history gives too much weight
India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri to “ruling dynasties and foreign invasions”,[27] neglect-
Lanka, Maldives and Bengal[18] in the 11th century.[19][20] ing the social-economic history which often showed a
The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced strong continuity.[27] The division into Ancient-Medieval-
the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim con-
world and the Hindu numerals were introduced.[21] quests occurred gradually during which time many things
Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th cen- came and went off, while the south was never com-
tury when the Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE pletely conquered.[27] According to Thapar, a periodisation
by nomadic Central Asian Turks;[22] though earlier Muslim could also be based on “significant social and economic
conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan changes”, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling
and Pakistan as early as the 8th century.[23] The Delhi Sul- powers.[28][note 1]
tanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early
14th century, but declined in the late 14th century when
several powerful Hindu states such as the Vijayanagara Em- 2.2.2 Prehistoric era (until c. 1750 BCE)
pire, Gajapati Kingdom, Ahom Kingdom, as well as Rajput
dynasties and states, such as Mewar dynasty, emerged. The Stone Age
15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism. In the 16th
century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually Main article: South Asian Stone Age
covered most of India. The Mughal Empire suffered a Further information: Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka rock shelters,
gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided and Edakkal Cave
opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire and Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the
Mysore Kingdom to exercise control over large areas of the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might
subcontinent.[24][25] have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleis-
tocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years
From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large ago.[29][30] Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been
areas of India were annexed by the British East India Com- dated back two million years have been discovered in the
pany of British Empire. Dissatisfaction with Company rule northwestern part of the subcontinent.[31][32] The ancient
led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British history of the region includes some of South Asia’s oldest
provinces of India were directly administered by the British settlements[33] and some of its major civilisations.[34][35]
Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development
of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the
half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for inde- palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[36][37][38]
pendence was launched with the leading party involved be- Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are
ing the Indian National Congress which was later joined now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.[39][40][41]
by other organisations. The subcontinent gained indepen- The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was fol-
90 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

dia, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa


around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region
began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.[49]

Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around


3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It
was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries which
Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[34] the
[50] [51]
old) Ganges-Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and southeastern
Afghanistan.[52] The Indus civilisation is one of three
in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and
Pharonic Egypt, was a cradle of civilisation in the Old
World. It is also the most expansive in area and
population.[53][54][55][56][57][58]
The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day In-
dia (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and
Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). His-
torically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world’s ear-
liest urban civilisations, along with Mesopotamia and An-
cient Egypt.[59] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley,
the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and
handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced
copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600
Stone age (6,000 BCE) writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India. to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisa-
tion on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban
centres such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Ropar, Rakhigarhi,
lowed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive set- and Lothal in modern-day India, as well as Harappa,
tlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan.
last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first con- The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside
firmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years drainage system, and multistoreyed houses and is thought to
ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya have had some kind of municipal organisation.[60]
Pradesh, India. During the late period of this civilisation, signs of a gradual
Early Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent is rep- decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most
resented by the Bhirrana findings (7570-6200 BCE) in of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley
Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings (7000-5000 Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements
BCE) in Balochistan, Pakistan.[33][42][43] of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in
the smaller villages and isolated farms. The Indian Copper
The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to
[44][45] Hoard Culture is attributed to this time, associated in the
at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, indicat-
Doab region with the Ochre Coloured Pottery.
ing the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement
[46]
in Kerala. The Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare
and are the only known examples from South India.[47] 2.2.3 Vedic period (c. 1750 BCE–600 BCE)
Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be sub-
merged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated Main articles: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migration, Vedic
to 7500 BCE.[48] Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up period, and Historical Vedic religion
in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans, Proto-Indo-European
Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South In- religion, Indo-Iranians, and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 91

Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later


[68]
The Vedic period is named after the Indo-Aryan culture of like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.
north-west India, although other parts of India had a dis- Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the old-
tinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture est Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd
is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, millennium BCE,[69][70] in the northwestern region of the
which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas Indian subcontinent.[71] At this time, Aryan society con-
are some of the oldest extant texts in India.[61] The Vedic sisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from
period, lasting from about 1750 to 500 BCE,[62][63] con- the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.[72]
tributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in
Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeologi-
the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the cal contexts.[73][74]
Iron Age in this period.[64] At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began
to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian sub-
Vedic society continent, into the western Ganges plain. It became increas-
ingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hi-
erarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social
structure was characterised both by syncretising with the
native cultures of northern India,[75] but also eventually by
the excluding of indigenous peoples by labelling their occu-
pations impure.[76] During this period, many of the previ-
ous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into
monarchical, state-level polities.[77]

Sanskritisation

Main article: Sanskritisation

Since Vedic times,[78][note 2] “people from many strata of


A map of North India in the late Vedic period. society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their
religious and social life to Brahmanic norms”, a process
sometimes called Sanskritisation.[78] It is reflected in the
tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the San-
skrit texts.[78]
The Kuru kingdom was the first state-level society of the
Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron
Age in northwestern India, around 1200 – 800 BCE,[79] as
well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first
Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally “black
metal”).[80] The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into
collections, and developed the orthodox srauta ritual to
uphold the social order.[81] When the Kuru kingdom de-
clined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern
A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activ-
neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.[81] The archaeological
ities of Prajapati, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and
Painted Grey Ware culture, which flourished in the Haryana
protection of life.
and western Uttar Pradesh regions of northern India from
[73]
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic cul- about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed [81][82]
to correspond to the
ture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[64] Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.
Most historians also consider this period to have encom- During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha
passed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the sub- emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even
continent from the north-west.[65][66] The peepal tree and farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state
cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.[67] in India).[74] The later part of this period corresponds with
92 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain.[89] The
called mahajanapadas, all across Northern India. Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence,
forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct
cultural area,[90] with new states arising after 500 BC[web 1]
Sanskrit Epics during the so-called “Second urbanisation”.[91][note 3] It was
influenced by the Vedic culture,[92] but differed markedly
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana from the Kuru-Panchala region.[90] It “was the area of the
In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hin- earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800
BC was the location of an advanced neolithic population as-
sociated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar”.[93] In this
region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism
and Buddhism originated.[89]

Mahajanapadas

Main article: Mahajanapadas


In the later Vedic Age, a number of small king-

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra.

duism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana


and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins
during this period.[83] The Mahabharata remains, today,
the longest single poem in the world.[84] Historians for-
merly postulated an “epic age” as the milieu of these two
epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are
both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages
of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahab-
harata may have been based on a small-scale conflict (pos-
sibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually “transformed The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and
into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets”. There is no republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic
conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the spe- plains, there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the
length and breadth of Ancient India.
cific events of the Mahabharat have any historical basis.[85]
The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong
to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 doms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many
CE.[85][86] Some even attempted to date the events using mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature
methods of archaeoastronomy which have produced, de- as far back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and “re-
pending on which passages are chosen and how they are publics” known as the Mahajanapadas—Kashi, Kosala,
interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millen- Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or
nium BCE.[87][88] Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha), Shurasena,
Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja—stretched across
the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan to
2.2.4 “Second urbanisation” (c. 600 BCE– Bengal and Maharashtra. This period saw the second ma-
jor rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civili-
200 BCE)
sation.[94]
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Shramana- Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem
movement formed, from which originated Jainism and to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent.
Buddhism. In the same period the first Upanishads were Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected
written. After 500 BCE, the so-called “Second urbani- their rulers. Early “republics” such as the Vajji (or Vriji)
sation” started, with new urban settlements arising at the confederation centred in the city of Vaishali, existed as early
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 93

as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas un- tion of the earliest Upanishads.[95][96] Upanishads form the
til the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as
was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general popula- Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[97] The older Upan-
tion of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many ishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual.
of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called
by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Up-
four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The Life anishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack
of Gautam Budhha was mainly associated with these four on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with
kingdoms.[94] an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and
[98]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the death.
Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries
BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements
which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[95] Mahavira (c.
Upanishads and Shramana movements 549–477 BC), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha
(c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most promi-
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, nent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the con-
and History of Jainism cept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara,
See also: Gautama Buddha and Mahavira and the concept of liberation.[99] Buddha found a Middle
Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the
philosophy, and Ancient universities of India Sramana religions.[100]
The 7th and 6th centuries BC witnessed the composi-
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara
in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later be-
come Jainism.[101] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the
teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and
scholars believe Parshvanath, accorded status as the 23rd
Tirthankara, was a historical figure. Rishabhdeo was the 1st
Tirthankara. The Vedas are believed to have documented
a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shra-
mana movement.[102]

Magadha dynasties

Main article: Magadha


See also: Haryanka dynasty and Shishunaga dynasty
Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of the six-
teen Mahā-Janapadas (Sanskrit: “Great Countries”) or
kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom
was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capi-
tal was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (mod-
ern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bi-
har and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga
respectively,[103] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh
and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily
mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned
in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas.[104] The earliest
reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-
Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas,
Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important
role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and
two of India’s greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and
Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires
One of the first representations of the Buddha, Gandhara. saw advancements in ancient India’s science, mathematics,
94 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

In 530 BC Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian

Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai in relation
to Alexander's Empire and neighbours.

The Magadha state c. 600 BCE, before it expanded from its capital Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to
Rajagriha.
seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the
trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).[106]
astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered By 520 BC, during the reign of Darius I of Persia,
the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included much of the northwestern subcontinent (present-day east-
republican communities such as the community of Rajaku- ern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the
mara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost
chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided territories. The area remained under Persian control for two
into executive, judicial, and military functions. centuries.[107] During this time India supplied mercenaries
to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.[106]
Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Aga-
mas and the Hindu Puranas, mentions Magadha being ruled Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila be-
by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE – came a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were
413 BCE. The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls Brihadratha mingled.[108] Persian ascendency in Northwestern South
the first ruler of Magadha. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka Asia ended with Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia
dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering in 327 BC.[109]
Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bim- By 326 BC, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Mi-
bisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King nor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the north-
Pasenadi, ruler of neighbouring Kosala and brother-in-law west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated
of King Bimbisara, promptly retook the gift of the Kashi King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day
province. Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[110]
During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Alexander’s march east put him in confrontation with the
Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal.
He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first ser- His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of fac-
mon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in ing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at
Rajgriha.[105] the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march
further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer,
The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga Coenus, and after learning about the might of the Nanda
dynasty. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassi- Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.
nated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the
so-called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons. The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the
Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The re-
gion of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and
Persian and Greek conquests in Northwestern South northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Per-
Asia sian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to
a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Alexander the Great, Nanda 5th century AD and influenced the artistic development of
Empire, and Gangaridai Mahayana Buddhism.
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 95

Maurya Empire time he died in c. 272 BC, a large part of the subconti-
nent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region
Main article: Maurya Empire of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside
See also: Chandragupta Maurya, Kautilya, Bindusara, and Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with
Ashoka the Great the south.[112]
Further information: Arthashastra and Edicts of Ashoka
Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted
The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire
for around thirty seven years until his death in about 232
BCE.[113] His campaign against the Kalingans in about
260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of
life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and
lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace
Buddhism.[112] The empire began to decline after his death
and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by
Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.[113]
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the pri-
mary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeo-
logically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based
on a modern and efficient economy and society. How-
ever, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by
the government.[114] Although there was no banking in
the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant
amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting
a prevalence thereof.[115] During this period, a high quality
The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great. steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and
was later exported to China and Arabia.[13]

Sangam Period

Main article: Sangam Period


See also: Three Crowned Kings and Tamilakam
During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished

Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.

to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the In-
dian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Em-
pire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of
the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To
the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu
Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The em-
pire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by
Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when South India in Sangam Period.
he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty.[111] Chandragupta’s son
Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BC. By the from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During
96 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

this period, three Tamil Dynasties, collectively known as


the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty,
Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of south-
ern India.[116]
The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars
and culture of the Tamil people of this period.[117] The
scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the com-
mon people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings,
but who mainly wrote about the common people and their
concerns.[118] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly
Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and
social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They
belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, ar- Reliefs depicting life of Buddha, Satavhana Dynasty, 3rd century
tisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite BC.
few of them were even women.[118]

Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to


2.2.5 Classical period (c. 200 BCE–1200 establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to pro-
CE) tect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like the
Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles
Main article: Classical India with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The
notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Sa-
The time between 200 BCE and ca. 1100 CE is the “Classi- takarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the for-
cal Age” of India. It can be divided in various sub-periods, eign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their
depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period be- expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into
gins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the cor- smaller states.
responding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with
Simuka, from 230 BCE. The Gupta Empire (4th–6th cen-
tury) is regarded as the “Golden Age” of Hinduism, al-
though a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these cen- Shunga Empire Main article: Shunga Empire
turies. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd The Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from
century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[12] Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subconti-
During this period, India is estimated to have had the largest nent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was estab-
economy in the world; controlling between one third and lished by Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya
one fourth of the world’s wealth.[119][120] Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors
such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar, modern
Vidisha in Eastern Malwa.[121] Pushyamitra Shunga ruled
Early Classical period (c. 200 BCE–320 CE) for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There
were ten Shunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numer-
Satavahana Dynasty Main article: Satavahana Dynasty ous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They
The Śātavāhana Empire was a royal Indian dynasty fought battles with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-
based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. Art,
(Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flow-
territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 ered during this period including small terracotta images,
BCE onward. Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such
Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its de- as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at
cline. They are known for their patronage of Hinduism Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition
and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist monuments from of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by
Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. The the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write
Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an im-
struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural perative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when
bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer some of the most important developments in Hindu thought
of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain
to the southern tip of India. They had to compete with the power.
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 97

Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led


many successful campaigns against the states of Maga-
dha, Anga, Satavahanas till the southern most regions of
Pandyan Empire (modern Tamil Nadu).
The empire was a maritime power with trading routes link-
ing it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Borneo, Bali, Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from Kalinga
settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and
Maritime Southeast Asia.

Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures Main


articles: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-
Parthian Kingdom, and Indo-Sassanids
See also: Greco-Buddhism

The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the


Indian subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-
Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids.

• Indo-Greek Kingdom: The Indo-Greek Menander


I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians
Ancient India during the rise of the Shunga and Satavahana em- out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becom-
pires. ing a king shortly after his victory. His territories
covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan
and extended to the Punjab region, with many trib-
Mahameghavahana Empire Main articles: utaries to the south and east. The capital Sagala
Mahameghavahana dynasty and Kharavela (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander’s
Mahameghavahana dynasty, under Emperor Kharavela, rule.[123] The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha
praises Menander, saying there was “none equal to
Milinda in all India”.[124] Lasting for almost two cen-
turies, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more
than 30 Indo-Greek kings, who were often in conflict
with each other.

• Indo-Scythian Kingdom: The Indo-Scythians were


descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated
from southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia
to India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE
to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-
Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gand-
hara to Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the
Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Em-
the warrior ruler of Kalinga,[122] ruled a vast empire and peror Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dy-
was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian nasty.[125][126] Later the Saka kingdom was completely
subcontinent.[122] destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire
from eastern India in the 4th century.[127]
Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under
Khārabēḷa’s generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable • Indo-Parthian Kingdom: The Indo-Parthian King-
maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then- dom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named
Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), after its eponymous first ruler Gondophares. They
Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Malaysia, Borneo, Bali, ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
98 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India
with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient
civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are red,
and the water routes are blue.

coastal port Muziris, in Kerala, had established itself as a


major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, ac-
cording to Sumerian records. Kerala was referred to as the
land of spices or as the “Spice Garden of India”. It was
the place traders and exporters wanted to reach, including
The Bimaran casket, a gold reliquary of Buddhist relics representing Christopher Colombus, Vasco da Gama, and others.[129]
the Buddha surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra (right), was
found inside a stupa with coins of Indo-Scythian King Azes II inside. Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road transmis-
sion of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The inter-
action of cultures resulted in several Chinese travellers and
northwestern India,[128] during or slightly before the monks to enter India. Most notable were Faxian, Yijing,
1st century AD. For most of their history, the lead- Song Yun and Xuanzang. These travellers wrote detailed
ing Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present accounts of the Indian Subcontinent, which includes the po-
Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence and litical and social aspects of the region.[130]
ruled from there, but during their last few years of exis-
tence the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar. Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast
These kings have traditionally been referred to as Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and
Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired bycommerce as patrons entrust large funds which would later
the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a be used to benefit local economy by estate management,
craftsmanship, promotion of trading activities. Buddhism
wider groups of Iranian tribes who lived east of Parthia
in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, pro-
proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who
assumed the title Gondophares, which means “Holder moting coinage, art and literacy.[131] Indian merchants in-
of Glory”, were even related. volved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia,
where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the
• Indo-Sassanid Kingdom: The Sassanid empire of native inhabitants.[132]
Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the
Empire, expanded into the region of present-day incense route and the Roman-India routes.[133] During the
Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by
culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trad-
culture under the Indo-Sassanids. ing power of the Red Sea.
According to Poseidonius, later reported in Strabo's
Trade and Travels to India Further information: Silk Geography,[134] the monsoon wind system of the Indian
Road transmission of Buddhism Ocean was first sailed by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 118 or 116
The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the BC. Poseidonius said a shipwrecked sailor from India had
Old World to India. Early writings and Stone Age carvings been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in
of neolithic age obtained indicates that India’s Southwest Alexandria.
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 99

Strabo, whose Geography is the main surviving source of


the story, was sceptical about its truth. Modern scholar-
ship tends to consider it relatively credible. During the 2nd
century BC Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian
ports such as Aden (called Eudaemon by the Greeks).[135]
Another Greek navigator, Hippalus, is sometimes credited
with discovering the monsoon wind route to India. He
is sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus’s
expeditions.[136]

Kushan Empire Main article: Kushan Empire


See also: Kanishka the Great and Vasudeva I Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devo-
Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism tee, Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk.
and Gandhara Art 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara.
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now
Varanasi (Benares).[140]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; how-
ever, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities[141]
of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu
majority.[142]
They played an important role in the establishment of Bud-
dhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China.
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:

He played the part of a second Ashoka in the


history of Buddhism.[143]

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with


the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, en-
couraging long-distance trade, particularly between China
and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the bud-
ding and blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak
during Kushan Rule.
H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the


Age of the Guptas.[144]

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan do- By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating
minions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak in-
and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[145][146]
scription.

Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under Classical period (c. 320-650 CE)
the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came of Gupta Empire - Golden Age Main article: Gupta Em-
an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe pire
called the Yuezhi,[137][138] a branch of which was known See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta
as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta
the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira,
Afghanistan,[139] and then the northern parts of the Indian Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana
subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala,
100 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian nu- Age of India[149] and was marked by extensive achieve-
merals, and Kama Sutra ments in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and
philosophy that crystallised the elements of what is gen-
erally known as Hindu culture.[150] The Hindu-Arabic nu-
merals, a positional numeral system, originated in India and
was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early
Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800
CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral
system.[151] The peace and prosperity created under leader-
ship of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic
endeavours in India.[152]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnifi-
cent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[153] The Gupta
period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made
great advancements in many academic fields.[154] The
Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the
Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule,
but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to pro-
vide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The mil-
itary exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II - brought much of
India under their leadership.[155] Science and political ad-
ministration reached new heights during the Gupta era.
Strong trade ties also made the region an important cul-
tural centre and established it as a base that would influ-
Gupta Empire expansion from 320 CE to 550 CE.
ence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka,
Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
Historian Dr. Barnett remarked:

The Gupta period is in the annals of classi-


cal India almost what the Periclean age is in the
history of Greece.[156]

However, some historians like D.N.Jha disagree:

The much published Hindu renaissance was,


in reality, not a renaissance, much less a Hindu
one.[157]

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern


kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas, who established
themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th cen-
tury, with their capital at Bamiyan.[158] However, much of
the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by
these events in the north.[159][160]

Empress Kumaradevi and Emperor Chandragupta I, depicted on a


coin of their son Samudragupta, 335–380 CE. Vakataka Dynasty Main article: Vakataka Dynasty
The Vākāṭaka Empire (Marathi: वाकाटक) was a royal In-
subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320– dian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-
550 CE).[147][148] This period has been called the Golden third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 101

Main article: Kamarupa

Samudragupta's 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription


mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[163] and Davaka
(Central Assam)[164] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Em-
pire.
Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into
a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near
present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley,
North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and
parts of West Bengal.[165]
Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE),
Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas
The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day
under the Vakatakas. Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and
North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. Country was 10,000
li (6000 km) in circuit and capital city Pragjyotishpura was
from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north
about 30 li (18 km). All three dynasties claimed their de-
to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the
scent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta.[166]
Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in
the east. They were the most important successors of the In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–
Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the 650 AD), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region
Guptas in northern India. and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disin-
tegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradi-
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts,
tion was somewhat extended till c. 1255 AD by the Lunar
architecture and literature. They led public works and their
I (c. 1120–1185 AD) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 AD)
monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist
dynasties.[167]
viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World
Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka
emperor, Harishena.[161][162] Pallava Dynasty Main article: Pallava Dynasty
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, along-
side the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit
development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The
Pallava reign saw the first Sankrit inscriptions in a script
called Grantha.[168] Early Pallavas had different connexions
to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian
architecture to build some very important Hindu temples
and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other
places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice
of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue
Kamarupa Kingdom
followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture
The Kamrup Kingdom style of Vastu Shastra.[169]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of
Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman
I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern
parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until
the end of the 9th century.[170]

Kadamba Dynasty Main article: Kadamba Dynasty


Kadamba (345 – 525 CE) was an ancient royal dynasty
of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the
Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada dis-
Madan Kamdev ruins trict. At the peak of their power under King Kakush-
102 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

into imperial proportions, an indication to which is pro-


vided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King
Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi
possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba
fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a
notable ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of
northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas
were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and
together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule
the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later contin-
ued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the
Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hun-
dred years during which time they branched into minor dy-
nasties known as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Ha-
lasi and Kadambas of Hangal.

The White Huns Main article: Hephthalite Empire


The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White

The Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage site) at


Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II.

Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper (proba-


Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top,
bly Mihirakula), 4th-6th century CE. The inscription in cursive
Doddagaddavalli
Bactrian reads: "Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva". British Museum.

Huns, were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia dur-


tavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of ing the late antiquity period. The White Huns established
modern Karnataka state. themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of
The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana,
which at later times showed the potential of developing they overran the northern region of Pakistan and North In-
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 103

dia. Toramana’s son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved Late Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE)
up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to the cen-
tral India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula’s merciless Main articles: Classical India, Decline of Buddhism in In-
persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, dia, and Tripartite struggle
though the description is disputed as far as the authentic- The “Late Classical Age”[176] in India began after the end
ity is concerned.[171] The Huns were defeated by the Indian 68 º 72 º 76 º 80 º 84 º 88 º 92 º 96 º

kings Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta in the


6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and The Kannauj Triangle
36 º

c750 - 900
others were assimilated in the Indian society.[172] SHAHIS
KASHMIR Ind

J he
us

lum
us
Ind Che
Empire:
na
b Rashtrakutas
32 º
Palas
Ravi
Gurjara - Pratiharas

s
Modern International Boundary

Bea
Sutlej

Mi 100 200 300


Km 100 200 300 400
Multan

Empire of Harsha Main article: Empire of Harsha 28 º

Ga
NEPAL
Sa
rd

Harsha Vardhana (Sanskrit: हर्षवर्धन) (c. 590–647),


a
SIND

ng
ARABS

a
GURJARA
Luni
- bal
na
Ya
mu
Kanauj
Gh ahmap
utra
Br

Gan
am aghr
Ch
Mansurah PRATIHARAS
Gwalior a

Ba
Go

da

gh
MAGADHA

k
m
nas

ma
Kos

at
Ba

ti
i

tw

i
ra

Be
KAMARUPA

ip
CHANDELAS Nalanda

Sh
24 º Barak

23.5 º Mount Abu Son


PALAS

ti
rma
MALWA Damodar Paharpur

bati
Saba

Sindh
Rih

Hughli
Ujjain and

Par
Gulf of Kutch
a

Kali
ah
i
Dhar Narmad Suba
VANGA

Ka
GUJARAT M rn

sa
hadar PARAMARAS
are

i
kh
B a

nu
r
Tapi

et

ay
aj
Sh

Brah
Gulf

man
Baitar
Mouths of the Ganges

ainganga
of
Mah
UTKALA
20 º

i
War
Khambhat Pen
an

an
ga
adi

i
dh
ng
a

a
Ellora ORISSA
God
avari BERAR Pra Va
m
Puri
n sa Chilika Lake
ith Indravati dh
Manjra a ar
a
st

RASHTRAKUTAS
oa

ri
Bh lC

Saba
im
a de
an
EASTERN
G m
Manyakheta od
av Co
ra
16 º Krish Krishn ri a
na CHALUKYAS
a
Arabian Pattadakal

Konk
Badami
Tungabhadra

an
Bay

Co
Sea Tunga

ast
Pen

CHALUKYAS
nar

Bhadra
PALLAVAS Palar
Pulicat Lake
of
12 º
Kanchipuram
GANGAS Ponnaiyar Bengal

Mal
CHOLAS

abar
re

an
av
i
Beypo
Ka m

Bh
ve ri Kol
lida
Andaman

Co
Tanjore

ast
CHERAS
Peri
ya Vaig Sea
Vembanad Lake
r
ai Palk
Bay Ten Degree Channel

Ta
PANDYAS
mirap
ar
8º ani
Gulf
of
Mannar

Indian Ocean
Great Channel

The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires — the


Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, and
Ruins of Harsha Ka Tila. the Palas of Bengal.

commonly called Harsha, was an Indian emperor who


Vangadesam
ruled northern India from 606 to 647 from his capital (Pala)

Kannauj. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the Kalyani


(Basavakalyan)
Odda
Burmese
Pagan

Kalinga
younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar Western Pegu
Chalukyas Vengl
in present-day Haryana. At the height of his power his
Champa
kingdom spanned the Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bengal, Kanchipuram
Chenla
Sambor Prei Kuk
(Khmer) (Siem Reap)
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Odisha and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain north of the Thanjavur
Nagapattinam
Cahaya
Narmada River. (Chaiya)

Lanka Kadaram
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the mid-
(Kedah)

dle of the 6th century, North India reverted to small re- Trade Routes Panai

Chola Territory
publics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers. Chola Influence
Harsha was a convert to Buddhism.[173] He united the small Srivijaya
(Palembang)

republics from Punjab to central India, and their represen-


tatives crowned Harsha king at an assembly in April 606
giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.
years old. Harsha belonged to Kanojia.[174] He brought all
of northern India under his control.[175] The peace and pros- of the Gupta Empire[176] and the collapse of the Empire of
perity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopoli- Harsha in the 7th century CE,[176] the beginning of Imperial
tanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and ended in the
from far and wide.[175] The Chinese traveller Xuan Zang 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in North-
visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable ac- ern India[177] and the end of the Later Cholas with the death
count of him, praising his justice and generosity.[175] of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however
104 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the
of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of
century. the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states.
declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan
more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism ex- in the 6th century, and small Rajput[191][192] dynasties later ruled
[3]
panded in royal courts. This period produced some of much of northern India. One Gurjar Rajput of the
India’s finest art, considered the epitome of classical de- Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody
conflicts against the advancing Turkic sultanates.
velopment, and the development of the main spiritual and
philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Surya Sun temples of Late Classical India
Buddhism and Jainism.
North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th cen-
tury after the White Hun invasion, who followed their own
religions at the beginning such as Tengri, but later Indian
religions. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (mod-
ern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Bud-
dhism. The Chach Nama records many instances of con-
version of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.[178]
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his
school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the posi-
tion on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars Martand
note Bhaṭṭa’s contribution to the decline of Buddhism in Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya.
India.[179] His dialectical success against the Buddhists is The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the
confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports Karkota dynasty, Emperor Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the
that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on
Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.[180] the Indian Subcontinent.
In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the
Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doc-
trine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and
is credited with unifying the main characteristics of Konark
[181][182][183] Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Emperor
the current thoughts in Hinduism. He was
a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Narasimhadeva I (AD 1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga
[184][185][186][187] dynasty, it is now a World Heritage Site.
Hinduism; and founded mathas (monaster-
ies), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the
spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.[188]
Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of
Hindu gods “replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and
pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or sym-
bol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental
temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja
worship”.[189] Although Buddhism did not disappear from
India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivi-
ties for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism’s
position within the sociopolitical context and helped make Sun Tem-
[190] ple, Modhera, was built by Bhima I of Solanki dynasty in
possible its decline.
1026 CE.
Emperor Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting north-
ern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the col-
lapse of the Gupta dynasty. His empire collapsed after his The Chola empire emerged as a major power during the
death. reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who suc-
cessfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested
the 11th century.[193] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724 CE–
for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 105

760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dy- Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India
nasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then
625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.
Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya withThe Solanki dynasty of Gujarat were a branch of the
leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gu-
and Central Asia.[194][195][196] jarat) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-
7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha,
the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the Rashtrakuta Empire Main article: [197] Rashtrakuta dynasty
advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta
Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being
patrons of art and literature.

Chalukya Empire Main article: Chalukya dynasty


The Chalukya Empire (Kannada: ಲುಕರು [tʃaːɭukjə])

Kailasa temple at Ellora Caves, Maharashtra

Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost


two centuries.[198] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from
the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north
to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political
expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary
Virupaksha temple in Dravidian style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE contributions.[199][200]

was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later
southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[201] Govinda III
centuries. During this period, they ruled as three re- and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of
lated yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavar-
as the “Badami Chalukyas”, ruled from Vatapi (modern sha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and
Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work
Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the de- on poetics.[198][202] Architecture reached a milestone in the
cline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the
rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contribu-
rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in tions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Ma-
the history of South India and a golden age in the his- harashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the
tory of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South In- Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka,
dia shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India- The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta
based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[203]
region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden
rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian
overseas trade and commerce and the development of new mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire
style of architecture called “Chalukyan architecture”. The and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian
106 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

mathematicians who lived after him.[204] The Rashtrakuta They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with
rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added
of languages from Sanskrit to the Apabhraṃśas.[198] greatly to the prosperity of the Pala kingdom. The Arab
merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in
his memoirs.[209]
Pala Empire Main article: Pala Empire
Ancient universities of India supported by the Palas
Chola Empire Main article: Chola dynasty
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle

Nalanda is
considered one of the first great universities in recorded
history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research
in the world from 450 to 1193 AD. It reached its height
under the Palas.
Brihadeeswara Temple entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.

of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest em-


pire South India had seen.[212] They successfully united the
South India under their rule and through their naval strength
extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries
such as Srivijaya.[193] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his suc-
cessors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra
Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a mili-
Landscape tary, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-
of Vikramashila university ruins, the seating and medita- East Asia.[213][214] Rajendra Chola I’s navies went even fur-
tion area. Established by Emperor Dharmapala. ther, occupying the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[215]
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Lac-
The Pala Empire (Bengali: পাল সামর্াজয্ Pal Samra- cadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in South-
jyô) flourished during the Classical period of India, and east Asia and the Pegu islands. The power of the new em-
may be dated during 750–1174 CE. Founded by Gopala pire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition
I,[205][206][207] it was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Ben- to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by
gal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. Though the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya
the Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to
schools of Buddhism,[208] they also patronised Shaivism and China.[216]
Vaishnavism.[209] The morpheme Pala, meaning “protec- They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over
tor”, was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation.
monarchs. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs
and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.[217]
Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of In- Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished son Rajen-
dia in the northwest.[209] The Pala Empire can be considered dra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern
as the golden era of Bengal in many ways.[210] Dharmapala India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea
founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda,[209] con- power.[218] Under the Cholas, the South India reached new
sidered one of the first great universities in recorded his- heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all
tory. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination
the Pala Empire.[210][211] The Palas also built many viharas. of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 107

Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic


temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse
never before achieved in India.[219]

Western Chalukya Empire Main article: Western


Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire (Kannada: ಲು
ಕ ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South In-
dia, between the 10th and 12th centuries.[220] Vast areas
between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River
in the south came under Chalukya control.[220] During this
period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the
Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dy-
nasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of
the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only
when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half
of the 12th century.[221] The Western Chalukyas developed
an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an
architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya
dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its
monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra
River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Tem-
ple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[222] This was an important pe-
riod in the development of fine arts in Southern India, es-
pecially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings en-
couraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and
Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the
great mathematician Bhāskara II.[223][224]

Early Islamic intrusions into the Indian subcontinent


Main articles: Arab incursions into the Indian subcontinent
and Caliphate campaigns in India
See also: Muslim Rajputs

The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of


the Indian subcontinent was one of the very early ambi-
tions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a particu-
larly difficult one.[225] After conquering Persia, the Arab
Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what are now
Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720.
The book Chach Nama chronicles the Chacha Dynasty’s pe-
riod, following the demise of the Rai Dynasty and the ascent
of Chach of Alor to the throne, down to the Arab conquest
by Muhammad bin Qasim in the early 8th century AD, by Kirtimukha relief at Kedareswara Temple in Balligavi, Shimoga
defeating the last Hindu monarch of Sindh, Raja Dahir. district

In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim con-


quered most of the Indus region in modern-day Pakistan for north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After
the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the “As-Sindh” several incursions, the Hindu kings east of Indus defeated
province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) the Arabs during the Caliphate campaigns in India, halting
108 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan.


The south Indian Chalukya empire under Vikramaditya II,
Nagabhata I of the Pratihara dynasty and Bappa Rawal of
the Guhilot dynasty repulsed the Arab invaders in the early
8th century.[226]
Several Islamic kingdoms (sultanates) under both foreign
and, newly converted, Rajput rulers were established across
the Northwestern subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan)
over a period of a few centuries. From the 10th century,
Sindh was ruled by the Rajput Soomra dynasty, and later,
in the mid-13th century by the Rajput Samma dynasty. Ad-
ditionally, Muslim trading communities flourished through-
out coastal south India, particularly on the western coast
where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly
from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction
of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Ju-
daism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Mahmud
of Ghazni in the early 11th century raided mainly the north-
western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he
did not seek to establish “permanent dominion” in those
areas.[227]

Hindu Shahi Main article: Hindu Shahi


The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and
Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the
decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the
early 9th century.[228] The Shahis are generally split up into
two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with
the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around
870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Rat-
belshahan from 565-670, when the capitals were located in
Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as
Hund[229] for its new capital.[230][231][232]
The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his strug-
gles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the
modern-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region. Jaya-
pala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids
and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign 6th-century “image of Hindu deity, Ganesha, consecrated by the
of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initi- Shahi King Khingala.” (Gardez, Afghanistan).
ated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.[233]
Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to
pay an indemnity.[233] Jayapala defaulted on the payment the forces of Jeipal, which appeared in extent like
and took to the battlefield once more.[233] Jayapala however, the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants
lost control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subook-
and Indus River.[234] tugeen considered himself as a wolf about to at-
tack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs
Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued
Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his to each his commands. His soldiers, though few
army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable in number, were divided into squadrons of five
host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta: hundred men each, which were directed to attack
successively, one particular point of the Hindoo
The two armies having met on the confines of line, so that it might continually have to encounter
Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill to view fresh troops.[234]
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 109

However, the army was hopeless in battle against the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent,
western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of though non-Muslim population was left to their own laws
Ghazni.[234] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud and customs.[4][5] They also introduced new cultural codes
came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids that in some ways were very different from the existing cul-
north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more tural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture
and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaz- which was mixed in nature, though different from both the
navid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian
of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelm-
thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi ing majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives con-
dynasty.[233][234] verted to Islam. This factor also played an important role
in the synthesis of cultures.[239]
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[233] who
along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dy- The growth of Muslim dynasties also caused destruction
nasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against and desecration of politically important temples of enemy
the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu states,[240] cases of forced conversions to Islam,[241] pay-
rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik ment of jizya tax,[242] and loss of life for the non-Muslim
Hills.[234] population.[243] As noted by Historian Will Durant:

2.2.6 Medieval and Early Modern periods


(c. 1206–1858 CE)
The Medieval and Early Modern periods in India is defined The Mohammedan conquest of India is prob-
by the disruption to native Indian elites by Muslim Cen- ably the bloodiest story in history. The Is-
tral Asian nomadic clans;[4][5] leading to the Rajput resis- lamic historians and scholars have recorded with
tance to Muslim conquests, and growth of Hindu, Muslim, great glee and pride the slaughters of Hindus,
and Sikh, dynasties and empires, built upon new military forced conversions, abduction of Hindu women
technology and techniques;[235] the rise of theistic devo- and children to slave markets and the destruction
tional trend of the Bhakti movement, the cultural synthe- of temples carried out by the warriors of Islam
sis of Hindu and Muslim elements reflected in Indo-Islamic during 800 AD to 1700 AD. Millions of Hin-
architecture;[236][237] and came to an end with the British dus were converted to Islam by sword during this
Raj. period.[244]

Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India

Main articles: Muslim conquests on the Indian subconti-


nent, Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent, and Growth
of Muslim Population in Medieval India
Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests

Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the


Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes Main articles: Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests and
throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Rajput kingdoms
Islam on the sub-continent, one must note that the north-
western sub-continent was a frequent target of tribes raid-
ing from Central Asia. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions
and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of
the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium.[238] What
does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Mus-
lim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders
who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the suc-
cessful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity
and created new legal and administrative systems that chal-
lenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing
systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the Kirti Stambh
110 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

their independence, and Rajput states were established


as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The
Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and the
ruler Man Singh Tomar built the fortress which still
stands there.[247]
• Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state,
and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at
the expense of the sultanates of Malwa and
Gujarat.[247][248]
• Rana Sanga of Mewar became the principal
Gaumukh player in Northern India. His objectives grew in
Reservoir of Chittorgarh Fort; the largest fort on the Indian scope – he planned to conquer the much sought
subcontinent after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time,
Delhi. However, his defeat in the Battle of
Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in
India.[247]
• Maharana Pratap of Mewar, a 16th-century Ra-
jput ruler firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar
sent many missions against him. He survived to
ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, exclud-
ing Chittorgarh Fort.[249]
• The Chittorgarh Fort is the largest in India; it is a
Vijay Stambha symbol for Rajput resistance. Chittorgarh Fort was
sacked three times between the 15th and 16th cen-
turies by Muslim armies; in 1303 Allauddin Khilji de-
Before the Muslim expeditions into the Indian subconti- feated Rana Ratan Singh; in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the
nent, much of North and West India were ruled by Rajput Sultanate of Gujarat defeated Bikramjeet Singh; and
dynasties. The Rajputs were successful in containing Arab in 1567 Akbar defeated Maharana Udai Singh II, who
Muslim expansion during the Caliphate campaigns in In- left the fort and founded Udaipur. Each time the men
dia; but, later Central Asian Muslim Turks were able to fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging
break through the Rajput defence into the Indian heartland. the enemy, but lost. Following these defeats, Jauhar
However, the Rajputs held out against the Muslim Turkic was committed thrice by more than 13,000 ladies and
empires for several centuries. They earned a reputation by children of the Rajput soldiers who laid their lives
fighting battles with code of chivalrous conduct rooted in a in battles at Chittorgarh Fort; first led by Rani Pad-
strong adherence to tradition and Chi.[245] mini wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the
battle in 1303, and later by Rani Karnavati in 1537
• The Rajput Chauhan dynasty established rule over AD.[250][251][252]
Delhi and Ajmer in the 10th century. The most
popular ruler of this dynasty was Prithviraj Chauhan.
His reign marked one of the most significant mo- Delhi Sultanate
ment in Indian history; his battles with Muslim Sultan
Muhammad Ghori. The First Battle of Tarain, Ghori Main article: Delhi Sultanate
was defeated with heavy losses. However, the Second In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded
Battle of Tarain saw the Rajput army eventually de- parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate
feated, laying the foundation of Muslim rule in main- in the former Hindu holdings.[253]
land India.[246] Historian Dr. R.P. Tripathi noted:
• Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated
Muhammad Tughlaq with Bargujars as his main al- The history of Muslim sovereignty in India
lies, and captured him. Tughlaq had to pay a huge begins properly speaking with Iltutmish.[254]
ransom and relinquish all of Mewar’s lands. After this
event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittorgarh The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer
for a few hundred years. The Rajputs reestablished large areas of northern India, while the Khilji dynasty con-
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 111

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

Main articles: Bhakti movement and Sikhism


The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend

The Dasam Granth (above) was composed by Sikh Guru Gobind


Singh. The major narrative in the text is on Chaubis Avtar (24
Qutub Minar is the world’s tallest brick minaret, commenced by Avatars of Hindu god Vishnu), Rudra, Brahma, the Hindu warrior
Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty. goddess Chandi and a story of Rama in Bachittar Natak.[257]

quered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccess- that emerged in medieval Hinduism[258] and later revolu-
ful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sul- tionised in Sikhism.[259] It originated in the seventh-century
tanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and
The resulting “Indo-Muslim” fusion of cultures left lasting spread northwards.[258] It swept over east and north India
syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, re- from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between
ligion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of the 15th and 17th century CE.[260]
Urdu (literally meaning “horde” or “camp” in various Tur-
kic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as
a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of San- • The Bhakti movement regionally developed around
skritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism
and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti god-
is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few desses), and Smartism.[261][262][263] The movement
female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240). was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from
(Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of
Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Advaita Vedanta.[264][265]
Delhi.[255] The Sultan’s army was defeated on 17 Decem-
ber 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked,
destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur’s army had killed • Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru
and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the Nanak, the first Guru,[266] and the ten successive Sikh
whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gob-
the “other Muslims” (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were ind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, be-
put to death in one day.[256] The Sultanate suffered signif- came the literal embodiment of the eternal, imper-
icantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the sonal Guru, where the scripture’s word serves as the
Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former. spiritual guide for Sikhs.[267][268][269]
112 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south
Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha So-
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire mayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India.[273] Effi-
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by cient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought
new technologies such as water management systems for
irrigation.[274] The empire’s patronage enabled fine arts and
literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil
and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current
form.[275]
The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian
history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hin-
duism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak
during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara
armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed
areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan
and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga,
while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subor-
dinates in the south.[276] Many important monuments were
either completed or commissioned during the time of Kr-
ishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the
defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).

Regional powers

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi.

Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama


Dynasty.[270] The empire rose to prominence as a culmina-
tion of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic
invasions by the end of the 13th century.[271] The empire
is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins
surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Rang Ghar, a pavilion built by Pramatta Singha (also Sunenpha;
1744–1751) in Ahom Kingdom's capital Rongpur, now Sibsagar;
Karnataka, India.[272]
the Rang Ghar is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in
The empire’s legacy includes many monuments spread over the Indian subcontinent.
South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi.
The previous temple building traditions in South India came For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th, the poli-
together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The min- tics in the Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sul-
gling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural in- tanate and in the Southern India by the Vijayanagar Em-
novation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Dec- pire which originated as a political heir of the erstwhile
can and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local gran- Hoysala Empire and Pandyan Empire.[277] However, there
ite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protec- were other regional powers present as well. In the North,
tion of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south In- the Rajputs were a dominant force in the Western and Cen-
dian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded tral India. Their power reached to the zenith under Rana
the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics Sanga during whose time Rajput armies were constantly
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 113

victorious against the Sultanate army.[278] In the South, the Akbar’s son, Jahangir more or less followed father’s pol-
Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijaynagara icy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcon-
and gave Vijayanagara tough days many a times.[279] In tinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan was the golden
the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large mon-
Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate uments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at
power after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed.[280] Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the
It was established either by a Brahman convert or patro- Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal Em-
nised by a Brahman and form that source it got the name pire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the
Bahmani.[281] In the early 16th century, it collapsed and reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in
got split into five small Deccan sultanates.[282] In the East, his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji.
the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar wrote, “All seemed to have been
reckon with.[283] In the Northeast the Ahom Kingdom was gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost.”[290]
a major power for six centuries;[284][285] and the Kingdom The same was echoed by Vincent Smith: “The Deccan
of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb’s body
Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaish- but also of his empire”.[143]
navite culture.[286][287][288]

Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire


In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and

Expansion of the Mughal Empire from 1526 to 1700.

The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suf-


Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals. fered several blows due to invasions from Marathas and
Afghans. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, sev-
Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern day Uzbek- eral smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and them-
istan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the selves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the
Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered modern day Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[289] However, and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Um-
his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher rao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive
Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to re- away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, how-
treat to Kabul. After Sher Shah’s death, his son Islam Shah ever, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest
Suri and the Hindu emperor Hemu Vikramaditya, who had of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final
won 22 battles against Afghan rebels and forces of Akbar, defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the
from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular rule Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by
in North India from Delhi till 1556 after winning Battle the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the
of Delhi. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Mughal Empire. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran,
Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556. defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal.[291] Af-
114 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

ter this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying


away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[292]
The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757.
The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated
during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857
War of Independence, and the remains of the empire were
formally taken over by the British while the Government of
India Act 1858 let the British Crown assume direct control
of India in the form of the new British Raj.
The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have
ever existed. During the Mughal era, the dominant politi-
cal forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tribu-
taries and, later on, the rising successor states – including
the Maratha Empire – which fought an increasingly weak
Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing bru-
tal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of inte-
gration with Indian culture, which is what made them suc-
cessful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed.
This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as
the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emper-
ors, most of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally pa-
tronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who
was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good rela- Political map of Indian Subcontinent in 1758. The Maratha Em-
tionship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as pire (orange) was the last Hindu empire of India.
Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance,
and as a result several historical temples were destroyed dur-
ing this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. Akbar
declared “Amari” or non-killing of animals in the holy days
of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims.
The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied them-
selves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their
Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating
a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion
of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and cen-
tralisation that played a large part in the dynasty’s downfall
after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed
relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population,
which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.
Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, it was the seat of the Peshwa
rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.
Maratha Empire
clan who was determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya.
Main article: Maratha Empire Sir J.N. Sarkar described Shivaji as “the last great con-
See also: Chatrapati Shivaji and Bajirao I structive genius and nation builder that the Hindu race
Further information: Maratha Army, Battles involving the has produced”.[296] However, the credit for making the
Maratha Empire, and Maratha Navy Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa
The early 18th century saw the rise of Maratha suzerainty Bajirao I.
over the Indian Subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the
Historian K.K. Datta wrote about Bajirao I:
Maratha Empire consolidated and ruled over much of the
Subcontinent. The Marathas are credited to a large extent
He may very well be regarded as the second
for ending the Mughal rule in India.[293][294][295]
founder of the Maratha Empire.[297]
The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by
Chatrapati Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had trans-
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 115

formed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of Sikh Empire
the Peshwas (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas de-
feated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself in Battle
of Delhi (1737). The Marathas continued their military Main article: Sikh Empire
campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and See also: History of Sikhism and Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. Gordon The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh reli-
explained how the Maratha systematically took control over
new regions. They would start with annual raids, followed
by collecting ransom from villages and towns while the de-
clining Mughal Empire retained nominal control and fi-
nally taking over the region. He explained it with the ex-
ample of Malwa region. Marathas built an efficient sys-
tem of public administration known for its attention to de-
tail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that re-
covered from years of raids, up to levels previously en-
joyed by the Mughals. For example, the cornerstone of the
Maratha rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax col-
lectors who advanced the Maratha ruler Peshwa a portion
of their district revenues at interest.[298] By 1760, the do-
main of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire
subcontinent.[299]
The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped
after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the
Maratha authority in the north was re-established within Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most
a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[300] The defeat of significant place of worship for the Sikhs.
Marathas by British in third Anglo-Maratha Wars brought
end to the empire by 1820. The last peshwa, Baji
Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-
Maratha War. With the defeat of the Marathas, no na- gion, was a political entity that governed the Northwest-
tive power represented any significant threat for the British ern regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The empire, based
afterwards.[301] As noted by Charles Metcalfe, one of the around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was
ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leader-
Governor-General, wrote in 1806: ship of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839) from an array
of autonomous Punjabi Misls.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern
India into an empire. He primarily used his highly disci-
India contains no more than two great pow- plined Sikh Khalsa Army that he trained and equipped with
ers, British and Mahratta, and every other state modern military technologies and technique. Ranjit Singh
acknowledges the influence of one or the other. proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well
Every inch that we recede will be occupied by qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated
them.[302][303] the Afghan armies and successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh
Wars. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces
of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Der-
[307][308]
The Marathas also developed a potent navy circa 1660s, ajat to his empire.
which at its peak, dominated the territorial waters of the At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from
western coast of India from Mumbai to Savantwadi.[304] the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to
For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also established its Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal
base at the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal.[305] It in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire
would engage in attacking the British, Portuguese, Dutch, weakened, leading to the conflict with the British East In-
and Siddi Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambi- dia Company. The hard-fought first Anglo-Sikh war and
tions. The Maratha Navy dominated till around the 1730s, second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh
was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist Empire; making it among the last areas of the Indian sub-
by 1818.[306] continent to be conquered by the British.
116 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Other kingdoms

Main articles: Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State,


Nawab of Bengal, and Rajputana
Further information: Tipu Sultan, Wodeyar dynasty, Dogra
dynasty, and Nizam of Hyderabad
There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts

Umaid Bhawan Palace in Rajasthan; is one of the world’s largest


private residences. Built by Maharaja Umaid Singh, the ruler of the
Princely State of Jodhpur.

Mysore Palace in the evening. It is the official residence and seat of ecuted between the other Rajput states and Britain. The
the Wodeyars — the rulers of Mysore of the Mysore Kingdom, the Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of
royal family of Mysore. Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in
Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes re-
of India in the later medieval period prior to the British oc- mained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few po-
cupation. However, most of them were bound to pay reg- litical changes were made in Rajputana until Indian inde-
ular tribute to the Marathas.[299] The rule of Wodeyar dy- pendence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more
nasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State,
India in around 1400 CE by was interrupted by Hyder Ali Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.
and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century.
Under their rule, Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms
against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold
but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state
aid or promise of aid from the French. of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in
British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty.[309][310]
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of
Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was
their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six ex- formed by Gurkha rulers.
peditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which
Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas.
Beginning of European explorations and establishment
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of of Colonialism
Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif
Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and de- Main article: Colonial India
clared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It
was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948.
Both Kingdom of Mysore and Hyderabad State became
princely states in British India in 1799 and 1798 respec- Western explorers and traders In 1498, a Portuguese
tively. fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new
The 18th century saw the whole of Rajputana virtually sub- sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for
dued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set
distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. Goa
Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the became the main [311]
Portuguese base until it was annexed by
British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were India in 1961.
based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base
Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However,
protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in
Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been ex- the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, dur-
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 117

ing the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered


from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat
to India.[312][313]
In the words of the noted historian, Professor A. Sreedhara
Menon:

A disaster of the first magnitude for the


Dutch, the battle of Colachel shattered for all
time their dream of the conquest of Kerala.

The British—who set up a trading post in the west coast


port of Surat in 1619—and the French. The internal con-
flicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the
European traders to gradually establish political influence
and appropriate lands. Although these continental Euro-
pean powers controlled various coastal regions of south-
ern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they
eventually lost all their territories in India to the British,
with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry
and Chandernagore,[314][315] and the Portuguese colonies of
Goa, Daman and Diu.[316]

Expansion of the British East India Company rule in


India Main articles: East India Company and Company
rule in India

In 1617 the British East India Company was given per-


Map of India in 1857 at the end of Company rule.
mission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.[317]
Gradually their increasing influence led the de jure Mughal
emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for
feudal-like structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in
duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717.[318]
place.
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of
the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India
permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic
[321]
in which the Bengal Army of the East India Company, led region of India. The Company soon expanded its terri-
by Robert Clive, defeated the French-supported Nawab’s tories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; the Anglo-
forces. This was the first real political foothold with terri- Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and later the Anglo-Maratha
torial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive Wars (1772–1818) led to control of the vast regions of
was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Ben- India. Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to
gal' in 1757.[319] This was combined with British victories Burmese invasion and then to British after Treaty of Yand-
over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondichéry that, abo in 1826. Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
along with wider British successes during the Seven Years’ Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo-Sikh War
War, reduced French influence in India. The British East in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under
India Company extended its control over the whole of Ben- the Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu
gal. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company ac- and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute
quired the rights of administration in Bengal from de jure between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; this marked the beginning 1801, had caused the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16 and
of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In
most of India.[320] The East India Company monopolised 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added
the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation sys- two years later.
tem called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General
118 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated were disorganised, had differing goals, and were poorly
expansion of Company territories.[322] This was achieved equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support or
either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and lo- funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British gov-
cal rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary ernment took control of the Company and eliminated many
alliances created the princely states or native states of theof the grievances that caused it. The government also was
Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. determined to keep full control so that no rebellion of such
[324]
By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of size would ever happen again.
the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pak- In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East In-
istan and Bangladesh also. Their policy was sometimes dia Company to the British Crown, which began to admin-
summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the ister most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown
enmity festering between various princely states and social controlled the Company’s lands directly and had consider-
and religious groups.[323] able indirect influence over the rest of India, which con-
sisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.
There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only
Indian indenture system Main article: Indian indenture 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large
system (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed
into the independent nation in 1947–48.[325]
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of in-
denture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indi-
ans were transported to various colonies of European pow- British Raj (c. 1858–1947)
ers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It
started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until Main article: British Raj
1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian di- After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and ex-
aspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion
and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the
growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.

2.2.7 Modern period and Independence (af-


ter c. 1850)

The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857


The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion

The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909).
The princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow.

panded its infrastructure via the court system, legal pro-


cedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into
being.[326] In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had
made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute
of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use
of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some
[327]
Attack of the mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, 30 July 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy
1857. grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the popu-
lation also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private
by soldiers employed by the British East India in northern industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern
and central India against the Company’s rule. The rebels railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 119

largest in the world.[328] The British Raj invested heavily


in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in
addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports.[329] How-
ever, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of eco-
nomic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that In-
dia was poorer at the end of British rule than at the be-
ginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the
British.[330]
In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal
into a largely Hindu western half and “Eastern Bengal and
Assam”, a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal
was said to be for efficient administration but the people
of Bengal were outraged at the apparent “divide and rule”
strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-
colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came
to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in
1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secre-
tary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress
leaders on political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of
1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial ex-
ecutive councils as well as the Viceroy’s executive coun-
cil. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25
to 60 members and separate communal representation for
Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards rep-
resentative and responsible government.[331] Several socio-
religious organisations came into being at that time. Mus-
lims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was
not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of
the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by con-
flicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by dis-
trust of Hindus.[332] The Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the "Father of the Hindu Re-
and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to repre-
naissance.”
sent Hindu interests though the later always claimed it to be
a “cultural” organisation.[333] Sikhs founded the Shiromani
Akali Dal in 1920.[334] However, the largest and oldest po- 'medieval' to the 'modern'.[337]
litical party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, is During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awak-
perceived to have attempted to keep a distance from the ening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance.
socio-religious movements and identity politics.[335] This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particu-
larly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system,
the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social
Hindu Renaissance Main article: Hindu Renaissance movements that emerged during this time was the Young
The Hindu Renaissance refers to a social reform move- Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism
ment during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as the common denominators of civil conduct among up-
in the Bengal region of British India during the period of per caste educated Hindus. It played an important role
British rule dominated by English educated Bengali Hin- in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the sub-
dus. The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started continent.
with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and ended with
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), although many stal-
warts thereafter continued to embody particular aspects of Famines During the British Raj, famines in India, often
the unique intellectual and creative output of the region.[336] attributed to failed policies of British colonial government,
Nineteenth century Bengal was a unique blend of religious were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great
and social reformers, scholars, literary giants, journalists, Famine of 1876–78 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million
patriotic orators, and scientists, all merging to form the im- people died[339] and the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in
age of a renaissance, and marked the transition from the which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[340] The Third Plague
120 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

with the senior officers all British and many of the troops
from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal
and Sikhs.[349] The civil service was increasingly filled with
natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more
senior positions.[350]

Victims of the Great Famine of 1876–78 in British India, pictured


in 1877. The famine ultimately covered an area of 670,000 square
kilometres (257,000 sq mi) and caused distress to a population to-
talling 58,500,000. The death toll from this famine is estimated to
be in the range of 5.5 million people.[338] Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared


Pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence
in India.[341] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it”[351] became
population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about the source of inspiration for Indians. Tilak was backed by
125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[342] rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat
Rai, who held the same point of view. Under them, India’s
three big provinces – Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab, In-
The Indian independence movement dia shaped the demand of the people and India’s national-
ism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The
Main articles: Indian independence movement and radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct
Pakistan Movement revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the aban-
See also: Mahatma Gandhi and Indian independence donment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders
activists like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the
other hand wanted reform within the framework of British
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were rule.[352]
able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and ex- The British themselves adopted a “carrot and stick” ap-
ercise considerable leverage over the princely states that ac-
proach in recognition of India’s support during the First
counted for the remaining one-third of the area. World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands.
One of the most important events of the 19th century was The means of achieving the proposed measure were later
the rise of Indian nationalism,[345] leading Indians to seek enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which in-
first “self-rule” and later “complete independence”. How- troduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or
ever, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Prob- diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed
able reasons include a “clash of interests of the Indian peo- British officials shared power.[353]
ple with British interests”,[345] “racial discriminations”,[346] From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly
“the revelation of India’s past”,[347] “inter-linking of the new popular mass movements to campaign against the British
social groups in different regions”,[348] and Indians coming Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led in-
in close contact with “European education”. dependence movement opposed the British rule using non-
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience
of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and and economic resistance. However, revolutionary activi-
the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Coun- ties against the British rule took place throughout the In-
cils with Indian members were also set up. The council- dian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant ap-
lors’ participation was subsequently widened into legisla- proach like the Indian National Army that sought to over-
tive councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, throw British rule by armed struggle. The Government of
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 121

India Act 1935 was a major success in this regard.[352] cal Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the vio-
lent reaction of Congress supporters. Key leaders were kept
in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in
World War II May 1944 because of his health. Congress, with its lead-
ers incommunicado, played little role on the home front.
Main article: India in World War II The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and
worked closely with the Raj authorities.
During the Second World War (1939–1945), India was con- Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with
trolled by the United Kingdom, with the British holding Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Ger-
territories in India including over five hundred autonomous many or Japan to gain independence. Japan helped him
Princely States; British India officially declared war on Nazi set up the Indian National Army (INA) which fought un-
Germany in September 1939.[354] The British Raj, as part der Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed
of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million vol- the Provisional Government of Free India, a government-
unteer soldiers to fight under British command against the in-exile based in Singapore. It controlled no Indian territory
Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States and was used only to raise troops for Japan.
provided large donations to support the Allied campaign
By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan,
during the War. India also provided the base for American
which by then had already captured the Indian territory of
operations in support of China in the China Burma India
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control
Theatre.
of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India
on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian
National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and
advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on
the mainland of South Asia reached its farthest point on In-
dia territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June
and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine
during 1940-43.

After World War II (c. 1946–1947)

In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the


Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frus-
on the Arakan front in Burma, 1944. trated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies
came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in
Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta,
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, in-
cluding in the European theatre against Germany, in North Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly
Africa against Germany and Italy, in the in the South Asian suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour
region defending India against the Japanese and fighting government in Britain to action. Also in early 1946, new
the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in liberating elections were called in India and in eight of the eleven
British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the provinces Congress candidates won.
Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 Indian Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British
soldiers (including those from modern day Pakistan, Nepal, rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its in-
and Bangladesh) died in World War II. tention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and
The Indian National Congress, led by Mohandas Karamc- participating in the formation of an interim government.
hand Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Azad, Along with the desire for independence, tensions between
denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or any- Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the
one else until India was independent. Congress launched years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the
the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co- subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu gov-
operate in any way with the government until indepen- ernment made them wary of independence; they were as
dence was granted. The government was ready for this inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the
move. It immediately arrested over 60,000 national and lo- foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the
122 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

two groups in an astonishing display of leadership.

An old Sikh man carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were
uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts
and trains to their promised new home.

Dead and wounded after the 'Direct Action Day' which devel-
oped into pitched battles as Muslim and Hindu mobs rioted across 2.2.8 Historiography
Calcutta in 1946, the year before independence.
Historiography is the study of the history and methodology
of the discipline of history. The term historiography also
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic. In
16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal recent decades there have been four main schools of histori-
of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim home- ography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist,
land in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the and subaltern. The once common “Orientalist” approach,
cycle of violence that would be later called the “Great Cal- with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiri-
cutta Killing of August 1946”. The communal violence tual India, has died out in serious scholarship.[356]
spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus),
The “Cambridge School”, led by Anil Seal,[357] Gor-
to Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Mus-
don Johnson,[358] Richard Gordon, and David A.
lims), in Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where
Washbrook,[359] downplays ideology.[360] However,
Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi
this school of historiography is criticised for western bias
in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out
or Eurocentrism.[361]
by Muslims.
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi,
Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of
1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi’s 'Quit India' be-
gun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of
Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)
historiography has received criticism for Elitism.[362]

Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of The Marxists have focused on studies of economic develop-
India, History of Pakistan, and History of Bangladesh ment, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India
The British Indian territories gained independence in and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The
1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Marxists portrayed Gandhi’s movement as a device of the
Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial divi- bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary
sion of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of
between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and being “too much” ideologically influenced.[363]
spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 The “subaltern school”, was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit
dead.[355] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass mi- Guha and Gyan Prakash.[364] It focuses attention away from
grations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of the elites and politicians to “history from below”, looking at
12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs,
newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It fo-
independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[355] cuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically empha-
In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Ben- sises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the
gal, seceded from Pakistan. Marxist school.[365]
2.2. HISTORY OF SOUTH ASIA 123

More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version [5] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
of history to support their demands for “Hindutva” (“Hin-
duness”) in Indian society. This school of thought is still in [6] The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by
Yasmin Khan
the process of development.[366] In March 2012, Diana L.
Eck, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Stud- [7] Bongard-Levin 1979, p. 11.
ies at Harvard University, authored in her book “India: A
Sacred Geography”, that idea of India dates to a much [8] “Indus River Valley Civilizations”. History-world.org. Re-
earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it wasn't trieved 4 January 2016.
just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or [9] Romila Thapar, A History of India (Penguin Books: New
racial.[367][368][369] [370] York, 1966) p. 23.

[10] Romila Thapar, A History of India, p. 24.


2.2.9 See also
[11] Researches Into the History and Civilization of the Kirātas
• Ancient India by G. P. Singh p.33

• Chronology of Indian history [12] A Social History of Early India by Brajadulal Chattopad-
hyaya p.259
• Economic history of India
[13] Technology and Society by Menon R.V.G. p.15
• History of the Republic of India
[14] The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Em-
• Indian maritime history pire in South India, by Carla M. Sinopoli p.201

[15] Science in India by B.V. Subbarayappa


• Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent
[16] The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From early times
• Military history of India
to c. 1800, Band 1 by Nicholas Tarling p.281
• The Cambridge History of India [17] Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Com-
panion to Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4.

2.2.10 Notes [18] Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath
Sen p.281
[1] See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Review
of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History. [19] Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600
to 1750 by Craig Lockard p.333
[2] See also Michael Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and
Development of the Kuru State. [20] Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy
in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H.
[3] The “First urbanization” was the Indus Valley O'Rourke p.67
Civilisation.[89]
[21] Essays on Ancient India by Raj Kumar p.199

[22] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought:


2.2.11 References
page 340
[1] White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago: [23] Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141 “Conquest of
University of Chicago Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-226-89483-5. Makran"
[2] AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas - [24] A History of State and Religion in India by Ian Copland,
a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978- Ian Mabbett, Asim Roy, Kate Brittlebank, Adam Bowles: p.
8120812048, pages 94-103 161
[3] Sanderson, Alexis (2009), “The Śaiva Age: The Rise and [25] History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan by
Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period.” Joseph Michaud p.143
In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo
Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of [26] Thapar 1978, p. 19-20.
Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series,
23, pages 41-43. [27] Thapar 1978, p. 19.

[4] Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47. [28] Thapar 1978, p. 20.
124 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

[29] Mudur, G.S (21 March 2005). “Still a mystery”. KnowHow. [43] Khandekar, Nivedita (4 November 2012). “Indus Valley
The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 May 2007. 2,000 years older than thought”. Hindustan Times. Archived
from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 12 July
[30] “The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India”. 2013.
Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies. Geological Survey
of India. 20 September 2005. Archived from the original [44] http://globalvisiontours.com/kerala/wayanad/
on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 7 May 2007. edakkal-caves.aspx

[31] “Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan”. Department of [45] Protecting megaliths to keep history alive The Hindu daily
Archaeology, University of Sheffield. Retrieved 1 December
2007. [46] “Archaeologists rock solid behind Edakkal Cave”. The
Hindu. Chennai, India. 28 October 2007.
[32] Murray, Tim (1999). Time and Archaeology. London:
Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 0-415-11762-3. [47] “Edakkal Caves”. Wayanad.nic. Archived from the original
on 29 May 2006. Retrieved 7 April 2007.
[33] Coppa, A.; Bondioli, L.; Cucina, A.; Frayer, D. W.;
Jarrige, C.; et al. (6 April 2006). “Palaeontology: [48] Gaur, A. S.; Vora, K. H. (10 July 1999). “Ancient shorelines
Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry” (PDF). Nature. of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilisation (Late Mid-
440 (7085): 755–756. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..755C. Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences”.
doi:10.1038/440755a. PMID 16598247. Retrieved 22 Current India Science. 77 (1): 180–185. ISSN 0011-3891.
November 2007. Retrieved 26 May 2015.

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guin Books. (1990) [First published 1965]
General
• Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
• Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A • Tapan, Habib, and Irfan Raychaudhuri, eds. The Cam-
History of Modern India (2010) bridge Economic History of India; Volume 1: c. 1200
• Basham, A. L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of – c. 1750 (1984), essays by scholars
India (Oxford University Press, 2007) • Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The
• Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume
Asian Democracy (2nd ed. 1994) online 2, c.1751-c.1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of
scholarly articles
• Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The His-
tory of the World’s Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp; • Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD
since 1947 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search

• James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of • Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfil-
British India (2000) ment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; schol-
arly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York City:
Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. • Tomlinson, B. R. The Economy of Modern India,
1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India)
• Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People’s History Of (1996)
India’s Second World War (2015)
• Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. (6th ed.
• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A 1999)
History of India (4th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Archived from the original on 23 March 2008.
Historiography
• Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt
and text search • Bannerjee, Dr. Gauranganath (1921). India as known
to the ancient world. Humphrey Milford, Oxford Uni-
• Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise versity Press, London.
historical encyclopedia
• Bayly, C. A. “State and Economy in India over Seven
• Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Con- Hundred Years”, Economic History Review, (Novem-
cise History of Modern India (2006) ber 1985), 38#4 pp 583–596, online
• Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700– • Bose, Mihir. “India’s Missing Historians: Mihir Bose
1885 (2006), 192pp Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History,
• Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New Cam- Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography”,
bridge History of India) (1996) History Today 57#9 (2007) pp 34+. online

• Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: • Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867–77). The
From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993) History of India, as told by its own historians. The
Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner and Co.
• Sharma, R.S., India’s Ancient Past, (Oxford University
Press, 2005) • Kahn, Yasmin. “Remembering and Forgetting: South
Asia and the Second World War' in Martin Gegner
• Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002) and Bart Ziino, eds., The Heritage of War (Routledge,
2011) pp 177–193.
• Singh, Upinder. A history of ancient and early me-
dieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century • Lal, Vinay, The History of History: Politics and Schol-
(2008) arship in Modern India (2003).
• Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People. (1983) • Palit, Chittabrata, Indian Historiography (2008).
• Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. • Warder, A. K., An introduction to Indian historiogra-
1958), old-fashioned phy (1972).
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 135

Primary in the 1940s that aimed for and succeeded in the creation of
Pakistan from the Muslim-majority areas of British Indian
• The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), Empire.
highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.
The movement progressed within India alongside the
online edition
Indian independence movement, but the Pakistan Move-
ment sought to establish a new nation-state that protected
2.2.14 External links the religious identity and political interests of Muslims in
South Asia.[1] The first organised political movements were
• History of India in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan
• History of India at DMOZ movement.[2] An educational convention held in 1906 with
joint efforts of Syed Ahmad Khan and Vikar-ul-Haq, the
• Hans William Brown research collection on 19th- Muslim reformers took the movement to the political stage
century missionary work in India, 1882-1932, Ms. in the form of establishing the mainstream and then newly
Coll. 1033, Kislak Center for Special Collections, formed All-India Muslim League (AIML), with promi-
Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsyl- nent moderate leaders seeking to protect the basic rights
vania of Muslims in the British Raj.[3] During the initial stages of
the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal
after addressing at the convention of the AIML’s annual
2.3 Pakistan Movement session.[4][5] Muhammad Ali Jinnah's constitutional strug-
gle further helped gaining public support for the movement
in the four provinces.[6] Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz
used literature, poetry and speech as a powerful tool for po-
litical awareness.[7][8][9] Feminists such as Sheila Pant and
Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistan’s
women and their participation in national politics.[10]
The Pakistan Movement was led by a large and diversified
group of people whose struggle ultimately resulted in the
British Empire announcing the Indian Independence Act
1947, which created the independent dominions of India
and Pakistan.[11][12] The Pakistan Movement was the re-
sult of a series of social, political, and intellectual trans-
formations in Pakistani society, government, and ways of
thinking.[13] Efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers
resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent
government.[14] In the following years, another nationally–
minded subset went on to established a strong government,
followed by the military intervention in 1958.[15] Grievous-
ness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an up-
heaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence
as the People’s Republic of Bangladesh in 1971.[16] Af-
ter a strong concessions and consents reached in 1973, the
new Constitution established a relatively strong government,
institutions, national courts, a legislature that represented
both states in the Senate and population in the National
Assembly.[17][18] Pakistan’s phase shift to republicanism,
and the gradually increasing democracy, caused an upheaval
of traditional social hierarchy and gave birth to the ethic that
has formed a core of political values in Pakistan.[19]
Minar e Pakistan where the bill of Lahore Resolution was passed.

The Pakistan Movement or Tehrik-e-Pakistan (Urdu: 2.3.1 History of the movement


‫ن‬ – Taḥrīk-i Pākistān) was a political movement
136 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Background

Main articles: 1600 in India, British Empire in India,


Anglomania, and Anglo-Saxons
The East India Company was formed in 1600 and had

After the Seringapatam battle, Emperor Tipu Sultan's children sur-


rendered to Lord Cornwallis in 1799.

sensitivity of this issue, Queen Victoria removed the East


India Company and consolidated the power by gaining the
Robert Clive meeting with Emperor Shah Alam II, 1765. control of subcontinent into British Empire. Directives is-
sues by Queen Victoria led to the quick removal of Mughal
gained a foothold in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor symbols which spawned a negative attitude amongst some
Jahangir granted it the rights to establish a factory, or Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a
trading post, in the port of Surat on the western coast. As disinclination to make use of the opportunities available
the Mughal Empire quickly declined in power, the British under the new regime.[21] This tendency, had it contin-
Empire expanded quick to gain control of the subcontinent ued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim
in the 1700s. The economic, social, public, and political community.[21]
influence of East India Company and the strong military In justifying these actions, Macaulay argued that Sanskrit
projection further limited the rule of the last Mughal em- and Arabic were wholly inadequate for students studying
peror, Bahadur Shah II. The defeat of Tipu Sultan, the ruler history, science, and technology. He stated, “We have to
of Mysore, proved to be an event which led to the fall of educate people who cannot at present be educated by means
Mysore Kingdom under the direct or indirect rule of the of their mother-tongue. We must teach them some foreign
East India Company.[20] language.” The solution was to teach English.[24]
All over the subcontinent, the British government took over
the state machinery, bureaucracy, universities, schools, and • Lord Robert Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the
institutions as well establishing its own.[21] During this time, Battle of Plassey.
Lord Macaulay's radical and influential educational reforms
led to the numerous changes to the introduction and teach- • British forces storming of the Pettah Gate of Banga-
ing of Western languages (e.g. English and Latin), history, lore.
[22][23]
and philosophy. Religious studies and the Arabic, • General Sir David Baird discovering body of Tipu Sul-
Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred tan, 1799.
from the state universities. In a short span of time, the
English language had become not only the medium of in- • British Army’s last push for Mysore, 1700s.
struction but also the official language in 1835 in place of
Persian, disadvantaging those who had built their careers
Renaissance vision
around the latter language.[23]
Traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer Main articles: Aligarh Movement, Urdu movement,
supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the Aligarh Muslim University, Two-nation theory, and
madrasahs lost their waqf (lit. financial endowment).[22][23] University of the Punjab
Discontent by these reforms, Muslim and Hindu rebels ini- Eventually, many Muslims barred their children to be edu-
tiated the first rebellion in 1857 which was inverted by the cated at English universities which had proved to be disas-
British forces, followed by final abdication of last Mughal trous for the Muslim communities. Very few Muslim fam-
emperor Bahadur Shah II, also the same year. Noting the ilies had their children sent at the English universities. On
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 137

modern one.[21]
In attendance, Sir Syed advised the Muslim communities
to not participate in politics unless and until they got mod-
ern education.[26] He was of the view that Muslims could
not succeed in the field of western politics without know-
ing the system.[26] In the 1900s, Sir Syed was invited to
attend the first convention of Indian National Congress,
and many persuaded him to join the party but he report-
edly refused to accept the offer.[26] Instead, he urged the
Muslims to keep themselves away from the Indian National
Congress and predicted that this convention would prove to
be a Hindu party in the times to come.[26] In response to
this, Sir Syed called in and established the first All India
Muhammadan Educational Conference where he provided
Muslims with a platform on which he could discuss their
political problems. He also became an instrument of lead-
ing the Aligarh Movement to provide Western education to
Muslim communities.[26] This led the establishment of the
Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) which became pivotal
place of providing modern teachings on science and tech-
nology, modern politics, law and justice, literature, history,
and contemporary arts. Sir Syed’s writings and scholarly
works played a role in popularising the ideals for which the
Aligarh stood whilst also helped to create cordial relations
between the British Crown and the Indian Muslims.[26] One
of his biggest achievement was the removal of misunder-
standings about Islam and Christianity.[26] It was from this
platform that Syed Ahmad Khan strongly advised the Mus-
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became an inspiration for the Pakistan lims against joining the Hindu-dominated Congress and
Movement. also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two
distinct nations. His writings, arguments, theory, and ef-
forts later conjoined and his idea was now popular as the
"two-nation theory".[26] At the time of his death, Sir Syed
the other hand, the effects of Bengali renaissance made the
was known as the father of “two-nation theory” and earned
Hindus population to be more educated and gained lucra-
the title “Prophet of Education”.[26]
tive positions at the Indian Civil Service; many ascended to
the influential posts in the British government. The Aligarh movement and the two-nation theory provided
the basis of the Pakistan Movement. With the help of
During this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir
Sir Syed and Nawab Vakar-ul-Mulk, the All-India Muslim
Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the
League (AIML) was founded in 1906, followed by the vi-
British education.[21] Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who
sion of Sir Mohammad Iqbal of a homeland for the Muslims
was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British
floated in 1930, on to the Pakistan Resolution of 1940, and
Empire. Witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despon-
the League gaining strength to finally attaining a separate
dency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of
homeland for the Muslims of India.[27] Since his death and
progress within the Muslim community of British India.[21]
the establishment of Pakistan, his name continues to be ex-
At notable Muslim gatherings, he argued that the Muslims,
tremely respected in Pakistan, even as of today; Sir Syed
in their attempt to regenerate themselves, had failed to re-
University of Engineering and Technology is named after
alise that mankind had entered a very important phase of its
him.[25]
existence—an era of science and learning.[21] Despite harsh
criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince
many Muslim communities to realise that the very fact was
the source of progress and prosperity for the British.[21][25] Rise of organised movement and Muslims minority
Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his move-
ment for regeneration of the Indian Muslims. He tried to In 1876, Queen Victoria took the additional title of
transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a Empress of India. Passed by the Queen, the 1833 act ap-
138 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

The Muslim League Governing Council at the Lahore session.


The woman wearing the black cloak is Muhatarma Amjadi Banu
Begum, the wife of Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, a promi-
nent Muslim League leader. Begum was a leading representa-
tive of the UP's Muslim women during the years of the Pakistan
Movement.[28][29]

pointed Lord William Bentinck as Governor-General of


British India. The success of All India Muhammadan Edu-
cational Conference as a part of the Aligarh Movement, the
All-India Muslim League, was established with the support
provided by Syed Ahmad Khan in 1906.[30] It was founded
in Dhaka in a response to reintegration of Bengal after a
mass Hindu protest took place in the subcontinent. Earlier
in 1905, viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned the Bengal which
was favoured by the Muslims, since it gave them a Muslim
majority in the eastern half.[31] Aga Khan III in 1936.
In 1909, Lord Minto promulgated the Council Act and met
with a Muslim delegation led by Aga Khan III to meet with
Viceroy Lord Minto,[32][33][34][35] a deal to which Minto
agreed because it appeared to assist the British divide and
rule strategy. The delegation consisted of 35 members,
who each represented their respective region proportion-
ately, mentioned hereunder.

1. Sir Aga Khan III. (Head of the delegation); (Bombay).

2. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. (Aligarh).

3. Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk. (Muradabad).

4. Maulvi Hafiz Hakim Ajmal Khan. (Delhi).

5. Maulvi Syed Karamat Husain. (Allahabad). Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk,(left) who organised the Simla deputation,
with Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Centre), Sir Syed’s son Justice Syed
6. Maulvi Sharifuddin (Patna). Mahmood (extreme right). Syed Mahmood was the first Muslim to
serve as a High Court judge in the British Raj.
7. Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan (Bombay).

8. Syed Abdul Rauf. (Allahabad). 11. Abdul Salam Khan. (Rampur).


9. Maulvi Habiburrehman Khan. (Aligarh). 12. Raees Muhammed Ahtasham Ali. (Lucknow)

10. Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan. (Aligarh). 13. Khan Bahadur Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan.
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 139

(Aligarh). to political movements such as Khaksars, Khudai Khidmat-


gar, Ahrar, and Hirat until the 1930s.
14. Haji Muhammed Ismail Khan. (Aligarh).
By the 1930s, Muhammad Iqbal had joined the party whose
15. Shehzada Bakhtiar Shah. (Calcutta). writings, speeches, philosophical ideas, and his British ed-
ucation training played a crucial role in the expansion of
16. Malik Umar Hayat Khan Tiwana. (Shahpur). the Muslim League.[38] Furthermore, Muslim League’s pro-
17. Khan Bahadur Muhammed Shah Deen. (Lahore). British stance, Jinnah, Ali Khan, and many other leaders
constitutional struggle for Muslim rights made it an ex-
18. Khan Bahadur Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhary. tremely popular party in the Muslim dominated areas of
(Mymansingh). the Subcontinent.[39] Furthermore, the success of Muslim
League in 1934 elections in the Muslim dominated areas
19. Nawab Bahadur Mirza Shuja'at Ali Baig. played a crucial role in the split between the Muslim League
(Murshidabad). and Congress became apparent when Congress refused to
20. Nawab Nasir Hussain Khan Bahadur. (Patna). join coalition administrations with the Muslim League in
areas with mixed religion.[39] The political scene was set
21. Khan Bahadur Syed Ameer Hassan Khan. (Calcutta). that was to lead to post-1945 violence in India.[39]

22. Syed Muhammed Imam. (Patna).


World War II
23. Nawab Sarfaraz Hussain Khan Bahadur. (Patna).
Main articles: Anglomania, Pakistan United Kingdom
24. Maulvi Rafeeuddin Ahmed. (Bombay).
relations, and Little Pakistan
25. Khan Bahadur Ahmed Muhaeeuddin. (Madras).

26. Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai. (Bombay). On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with
27. Maulvi Abdul Raheem. (Calcutta). Germany.[40] The World War II became an integral for Pak-
istan Movement with the Muslim League playing a decisive
28. Syed Allahdad Shah. (Khairpur). role in the World War II in the 1940s and as the driving
force behind the division of India along religious lines and
29. Maulana H. M. Malik. (Nagpur).
the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in 1947.[41][42]
30. Khan Bahadur Col. Abdul Majeed Khan. (Patiala). In 1939, the Congress leaders resigned from all British In-
dia government to which they had elected.[43] The Muslim
31. Khan Bahadur Khawaja Yousuf Shah. (Amritsar). League celebrated the end of Congress led British Indian
government, with Jinnah famously quoting: “a day of deliv-
32. Khan Bahadur Mian Muhammad Shafi. (Lahore).
erance and thanksgiving.”[43] In a secret memorandum writ-
33. Khan Bahadur Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq. (Amritsar). ing to British Prime Minister, the Muslim League obliged to
support the United Kingdom’s war efforts— provided that
34. Syed Nabiullah. (Allahabad). the British had recognise it as the only organisation that
spoke for Indian Muslims.[43]
35. Khalifa Syed Muhammed Khan Bahadur. (Patna).[36]
The events leading the World War II, the Congress effec-
The Muslim League’s original goal was to define and pro- tive protest against the United Kingdom unilaterally involv-
tect the interests of educated upper and gentry class of the ing India in the war without consulting with the congress;
Indian Muslims.[37] Its educational activities were based on the Muslim League went on to support the British war ef-
AMU, Calcutta University, and Punjab University; though forts, which was allowed to actively propagandise against
its headquarter was in Lucknow.[37] British thinker, John the Congress with the cry of “Islam in Danger”.[44]
Locke's (1632–1704) ideas on liberty greatly influenced the The Indian Congress and Muslim League responded dif-
political thinking behind the party’s movement.[37] It was ferently over the World War II issue. The Indian Congress
the dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton refused to oblige with the Britain unless the whole Indian
and Thomas Paine at the AMU that initiated the emergence subcontinent was granted the independence.[45] The Mus-
of Muslim nationalism.[37] Sir Aga Khan III was appointed lim League, on the other hand, supported Britain, with the
its first and founding president; Ali Johar wrote party’s first means of political co-operation and human contribution.[45]
constitution.[37] Despite its activism and educated mass, the The Muslim League leaders’ British education training
party remained less influential in various areas as compared and philosophical ideas played a role that brought the
140 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

British government and the Muslim to be close to each University of Cambridge.[49] Again, Bengal was left out of
other.[45] Jinnah himself supported the British in World the proposal.[49]
War Two when the Congress failed to form any form of In a book written in 2004, Idea of Pakistan by American
collaboration.[45] The British government suddenly made a historian of Pakistan, Stephen P. Cohen, writes on the in-
pledge to the Muslims in 1940 that it would not transfer fluence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the Pakistan
power to an Independent India unless its constitution was movement:[50]
first approved by the Indian Muslims, a promise it did not
subsequently keep.[45]
It begins with a glorious precolonial empire
when the Muslims of South Asia were politically
The end of the war united and culturally, civilizationally, and strate-
gically dominant. In that era, ethnolinguistic
differences were subsumed under a common
In 1942, Gandhi called for the Quit India Movement against
vision of an Islamic-inspired social and political
the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the Muslim
order. However, the divisions among Muslims
League advised Prime Minister Winston Churchill that
that did exist were exploited by the British
Great Britain should “divide and then Quit”.[45] Negotia-
Empire, who practiced divide and rule politics,
tions between Gandhi and Viceroy Wavell failed, as did
displacing the Mughals and circumscribing other
talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944.[45] When World
Islamic rulers. Moreover, the Hindus were the
War II ended, the Muslim League’s push for the Pak-
allies of the British Empire, who used them to
istan Movement and Gandhi’s efforts for Indian indepen-
strike a balance with the Muslims; many Hindus,
dence intensified the pressure on Prime Minister Winston
a fundamentally insecure people, hated Muslims
Churchill.[45] Given the rise of American and Russian order
and would have oppressed them in a one-man,
in the world politics and the general unrest in India, Wavell
one-vote democratic India. The Pakistan
called for general elections to be held in 1945.[45] The
Movement united these disparate pieces of the
Muslim League won nearly all the seats in Muslim areas
national puzzle, and Pakistan was the expression
while Congress did the same in predominantly Hindu areas.
of the national will of India’s liberated Muslims.
Polarisation was now obvious and violence erupted through-
— Stephen Cohen, Idea of Pakistan (2004),
out the Subcontinent.[39]
source[50]
For Jinnah, Islam laid a cultural base for an ideology of eth-
nic nationalism whose objective was to gather the Muslim
community to defend the Muslim minorities in the subcon-
tinent. Jinnah’s representation of Indian Muslims was quite 1946 elections
apparent in 1928, when in the All-Party Muslim Confer-
ence, he was ready to swap the advantages of separate elec- The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning
torates for a quota of 33% of seats at the Capital. He main- 90 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. Thus the 1946
tained his views at the Round Table Conferences, while the election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Mus-
Muslims of Punjab and Bengal were vying for a much more lims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite
decentralised political setup. Many of their requests were which the Muslim League won.[51] This victory was assisted
met in the 1935 Government of India Act. Jinnah and the by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural
founding fathers played a peripheral role at the time and peasantry of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners
in 1937 could manage to gather only 5% of the Muslim of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied
vote. Jinnah refused to back down and went ahead with the Muslim League’s claim of being the sole representative
his plan. He presented the two-nation theory in the now fa- of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise that the
mous Lahore Resolution in March 1940, seeking a separate Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.[51] The British
Muslim nation-state.[46] had no alternative except to take Jinnah’s views into account
The idea of a separate state had first been introduced by as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson of India’s Mus-
Sir Iqbal in his speech in December 1930 as the President lims. However the British did not desire India to be par-
of the Muslim League.[47] The nation state that he visu- titioned and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the
alised, “within the British Empire, or without the British Cabinet Mission plan.[52]
Empire”,[48] included only four provinces of Northwest In-
dia: Punjab, Sindh, Afghania, and Balochistan. Three years
later, the name Pakistan was proposed in a pamphlet pub- 2.3.2 Political campaigns and support
lished in 1933 by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a graduate of the
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 141

Punjab the etymology in further detail.[55] “Pakistan' is both a Per-


sian and an Urdu word. It is composed of letters taken from
Main articles: Punjab Muslim League and Punjab Legisla- the names of all our South Asia homelands; that is, Punjab,
tive Assembly (British India) Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. It means the
The Western Punjab had become a major centre of activ- land of the Pure”.
In 1940 Muslim League conference in Lahore in 1940, Jin-
nah said: “Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different
religions, philosophies, social customs and literature.... It is
quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration
from different sources of history. They have different epics,
different heroes and different episodes.... To yoke together
two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical
minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing
discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so
built up for the government of such a state.”[56] At Lahore
the Muslim League formally recommitted itself to creat-
ing an independent Muslim state, including Sindh, Punjab,
Baluchistan, the North West Frontier Province and Ben-
gal, that would be “wholly autonomous and sovereign”. The
resolution guaranteed protection for non-Muslim religions.
The Lahore Resolution, moved by the sitting Chief Minis-
Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah
ter of Bengal A. K. Fazlul Huq, was adopted on 23 March
and Liaquat presiding the session.
1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pak-
istan’s first constitution. Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi
in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement. This was
the last attempt to reach a single-state solution.[57]
In the 1940s, Jinnah emerged as a leader of the Indian Mus-
lims and was popularly known as Quaid-e-Azam (‘Great
Leader’). The general elections held in 1945 for the
Constituent Assembly of British Indian Empire, the Mus-
lim League secured and won 425 out of 496 seats reserved
for Muslims (and about 89.2% of Muslim votes) on a pol-
icy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with
First Session of All India Jamhur Muslim League an implied threat of secession if this was not granted. The
Congress which was led by Gandhi and Nehru remained
ity of the Muslim League's pushed for Pakistan Movement. adamantly opposed to dividing India. The partition seems
On 29 December 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal delivered his to have been inevitable after all, one of the examples being
monumental presidential address to the All India Muslim Lord Mountbatten's statement on Jinnah: “There was no
League annual session held in Lahore. He said:[53] argument that could move him from his consuming deter-
mination to realize the impossible dream of Pakistan.”[58]
I would like to see Punjab, North-West Fron- The Western Punjab was home to a small minority popula-
tier Province [now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa], Sindh tion of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus up to 1947 apart from the
and Balochistan amalgamated into a single state. Muslim majority.[59] In 1947, the Punjab Assembly cast its
Self government within the British Empire or vote in favour of Pakistan with supermajority rule, which
without the British Empire, the formation of made many minority Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India
a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim state while Muslim refugees from India settled in the Western
appears to me to be the final destiny of the Mus- Punjab and across Pakistan.[60]
lims, at least of North-West India.

On 28 January 1933, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, founder of Sindh


Pakistan National Movement voiced his ideas in the pam-
phlet entitled “Now or Never: Are We to Live or Perish Main article: Sindh Assembly
Forever?"[54] In a subsequent book Rehmat Ali discussed The local leaders and Sindhi nationalists never submitted
142 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Further information: Provincial Assembly of Khyber


Pakhtunkhwa
Unlike Punjab, Balochistan, and Sindh, the Muslim League

Sindh is the birthplace and burial place of Jinnah, the Founder of


Pakistan.

Bacha Khan with Gandhi in 1946.

had little support in Khyber–Pakhtunkhwa where Congress


to British crown, and the Hurs led by Sindhi nationalist, Pir and the Pashtun nationalist Abdul Ghaffar Khan had con-
Pagara-I has fought against the British forces in 1857.[61] siderable support for the cause of the Independent In-
After Western Punjab, Sindh had been an influential and dia.[63][64] Abdul Ghaffar Khan (also known as Bacha
ideological place of Muslim League, since the Jinnah fam- Khan) initiated a Khudai Khidmatgar movement and
ily were hailed from Karachi.[62] When the support for Pak- dubbed himself as “Frontier Gandhi” due to his efforts in
istan Movement reached to Sindh, it became an important following in the foot steps of Gandhi.[64]
centre of activities during the Khilafat Movement.[62] These Alongside, another movement, known as Red Shirts (now
activities led Sindh to be separated from the Bombay Presi- known as Awami National Party) and the people of the
dency when the Muslim League passed a resolution in 1925 Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa interpreted their program in their
urging separation of Sindh.[62] Furthermore, Sindh was also own way. For Pashtun intelligentsia, the Red Shirts political
a birth place of Muhammad Ali Jinnah who had spent his
program was based on the promotion of Pashtun culture and
teenage years in Karachi.[61] elimination of non-Pashtun influence in their province.[65]
A convention held by Muslim League in 1938, the Muslim For Islamic hardliners and Ulemas, their program was
League devised a scheme of constitution under which Mus- mainly Anti-British and their religious stand became a
lims may attain full independence.[61] It was the province of cause of attraction for the poor peasants which meant
Sindh which first adopted the resolution for an independent to check economic oppression of the British-appointed
Muslim state.[62] The Muslim League had secured an ex- political agents.[65] Furthermore, the strong emphasis on
clusive mandate of Sindh during the general elections held Pashtun identity created by Bacha Khan made it extremely
in 1945. The Muslim majority in Sindh was in support of difficult for Muslim League’s support for the Pakistan
the policy and the programme of the Muslim League as the Movement. The 'Red Shirts’ and the Congress were able
Muslim League had good equation with the Sindhi nation- to contain the Muslim League to non-Pashtun regions, such
alists.[62] as Hazara Division and Attock District.[65]
Sindhi nationalist leader, G. M. Syed, who reaffirmed his The 'Red Shirts’ membership rose to about 200,000 ac-
role as one of the leading figure in the movement.[61] His tivists, which shows its fame and popularity.[65] The Khudai
role as founding father and key role in the Muslim League, Khidmatgar, 'Red Shirts’, and Bacha Khan himself joined
G. M. Syed proposed the 1940 Pakistan Resolution in the hands with the Congress against the Pakistan Movement.[65]
Sindh Assembly, which ultimately resulted in the creation During the 1945 general elections, the Muslim League
of Pakistan.[62] On 26 June 1947, the special session held could only managed to win 17 seats against Congress who
in Sindh Assembly decided to join the new Pakistan Con- secured 30 seats. The Muslim League was highly bene-
stituent Assembly. Thus, Sindh became the first province fited with its activists who played crucial role in gather-
to opt for Pakistan.[62] ing support for the Pakistan Movement, specifically Jalal-
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 143

u-din Baba, an ethinc Hazara. His strong activism with states like Hyderabad with military force.[68] The Mus-
the Muslim League captured a strong mandate of Haz- lim League’s Pakistan Movement programme was gener-
ara District and Attock District.[65] Many activists, such ally supported by the people of Baluchistan.[69] One of its
as Roedad Khan, Ghulam Ishaq, Sartaj Aziz, and Abdul leader and founding father of Pakistan, Jafar Khan Jamali
Qayyum Khan, helped up lifted the cause and image of (whose nephew later became the Prime Minister of Pak-
the Muslim League in the province.[65] Finally, a referen- istan in 2002) was an important and key figure of the Mus-
dum was held in 1946 to decide the fate of the NWFP lim League.[69] Jafar Khan Jamali's heavily lobbying for
as to whether the people of the NWFP ( now Khyber- Balochistan to accede with Pakistan highly benefited the
Pakhtunkhwa) want to vote for Pakistan or India. In this Muslim League.[69] Another influential Baloch figure was
referendum, majority of vote was cast in favour of Pakistan Akbar Bugti who well received Jinnah who came to visit
, despite Bacha Khan wanting to accede with India.[65] Balochistan.[70]
It is well documented when the Congress accepted the Bugti was a staunch supporter and loaylist of Jinnah
referendum without consulting the Khudai Khidmatgar, who played crucial role in supporting the idea of Pak-
Bacha Khan told the Congress “you have thrown us to the istan in Baluchistan.[70] Another young activist, Mir Hazar,
wolves.”[66] The spirit of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement helped initiate student rallies and public support for Pak-
took its last breath when it was proclaimed as a political istan Movement in Balochistan.[71][72] In 2013, Mir Hazar
party after the creation of Pakistan.[65] The aims and objec- Khoso, who noted and described Jinnah as his inspiration,
tives were changed and gradually people lost their interest also became Prime Minister of Pakistan in 2013.[71][72] In
in the movement and embraced the idea of pakistan.[65] 1947, the Balochistan Assembly passed the resolution and
cast its vote in favour of Pakistan, with a majority approving
the accession with Pakistan.[67]
Balochistan

Main article: Balochistan Assembly Other regions


The province of Balochistan had mainly consisted of

Jinnah meeting with Balochistan’s leaders.

Nawabs and local princely states, under the British In- Map of United Bengal: .
dian Empire.[67] Three of these states willingly joined with
Pakistan when the referendum was held in 1947 at the Although, Jinnah, Iqbal and other Founding Fathers of Pak-
Balochistan Assembly.[67] However, the Khan of Kalat istan were initially struggling for the independence of Four
chose independence as this was one of the options given to Provinces to create a nation-state, Pakistan.[11] The concept
all of the 535 princely states (out of which 534 accede with and phenomenon of Pakistan Movement was highly pop-
Pakistan) by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.[68] ular in the East Bengal, which was also the birthplace of
However, “Nehru persuaded Mountbatten to force the lead- the Muslim League, in the 1940s.[11] The Muslim League's
ers of the princely states to decide whether to join In- notable statesman and activists were hailed from the East
dia or Pakistan”,[68] and hence independence “was not an Bengal, including Husyen Suhrawardy, Nazimuddin, and
option”.[68] Nehru later went on to annexe other princely Nurul Amin, who later became Prime ministers of Pak-
144 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

istan in the successive periods of Pakistan.[73] Following ten representatives, less than the United Provinces of Agra
the partition of Bengal, the violence erupted in the region, and Oudh, which were home to only seven million Mus-
which mainly maintained to Kolkata and Noakhali.[74] It lims. Thus the creation of Pakistan became inevitable and
is documented by the historians of Pakistan that Huseyn the British had no choice but to create two separate nations
Suhrawardy wanted Bengal to be an independent state – Pakistan and India – in 1947.[88][89][90][91]
that would neither join Pakistan or India but to be But the main motivating and integrating factor was that
remained unpartitioned.[75] Despite the heavy criticism the Muslims’ intellectual class wanted representation; the
from the Muslim League, Jinnah realised the validity masses needed a platform on which to unite.[37] It was the
of Suhrawardy's argument gave his tacit support to the
dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton
Bengal’s plan for independence.[76][77][78] However, the and Thomas Paine, at the Aligarh Muslim University that
plan failed after a successful involvement of Congress in
initiated the emergence of Pakistan Movement.[37] Accord-
Western Bengali; therefore the Muslim-majority Eastern ing to Pakistan Studies curriculum, Muhammad bin Qasim
Bengal was left no choice but to become a part of
is often referred to as 'the first Pakistani'.[92] Muhammad
Pakistan.[79] Ali Jinnah also acclaimed the Pakistan movement to have
During the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s, Rohingya started when the first Muslim put a foot in the Gateway of
Muslims in western Burma had an ambition to annexe Islam.[93]
and merge their region into East-Pakistan.[80] Before the After the independence in 1947, the violence and up-
independence of Burma in January 1948, Muslim leaders heavals continued to be faced by Pakistan, as Liaquat
from Arakan addressed themselves to Jinnah, the founder of Ali Khan becoming the Prime Minister of Pakistan in
Pakistan, and asked his assistance in annexing of the Mayu 1947.[94] The issue involving the equal status of Urdu and
region to Pakistan which was about to be formed.[80] Two Bengali languages created divergence in the country’s po-
months later, North Arakan Muslim League was founded litical ideology.[16] Need for good governance led to the
in Akyab (modern: Sittwe, capital of Arakan State), it, too military take over in 1958 which was followed by rapid
demanding annexation to Pakistan.[80] However, it is noted industrialisation in the 1960s.[94] Economic grievances and
that the proposal was never materialised after it was report- unbalanced financial payments led to a bloody and an armed
edly turned down by Jinnah.[80] struggle of East Pakistan in the 1970s, in which eventu-
In 1947, another armed revolution took place in Jammu ally resulted with East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in
and Kashmir over the issue of referendum to either join In- 1971.[16]
dia or Pakistan.[81] Kashmir's Sikh maharaja, Hari Singh, Realizing the problems and causes of the East Pakistan’s
fearing the lost of control requested the Indian interven- separation led another nationalist subset to work on the
tion in Kashmir.[82] The conflict remained stalemate as the more reform constitution that guaranteed equals rights in
"Line of Control" became the permanent border of both the country.[19] Much of Islamic texture and basic rights
countries.[83] The Western Kashmir acceded with Pakistan defined by Holy Quran were inserted in the Constitution
while the Eastern Kashmir acceded with India in 1947– of Pakistan in 1973; the year when the Constitution of
48.[84] Pakistan was promulgated.[19] In the successive periods of
tragedy of East-Pakistan, the country continued to rebuild
and reconstruct itself in terms constitutionally and its path
2.3.3 Conclusion to transformed into republicanism.[13] After 1971 catas-
trophic episode, Pakistan’s phase shift to parliamentary
Further information: Partition of India, Indian Inde- republicanism and the gradually increasing in democracy
pendence Act 1947, Bangladesh Liberation War, 1969 caused an upheaval of traditional social hierarchy and gave
uprising in East Pakistan, and Breakup of East and West birth to the ethic that has formed a core of political val-
Pakistan ues in Pakistan.[19] The XIII amendment (1997) and XVIII
amendment (2010) transformed the country into becoming
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) philosophical ideas a parliamentary republic as well as also becoming a nuclear
plays a direct role in the Pakistan Movement.[37] His Two- power in the subcontinent.[18]
Nation Theory became more and more obvious during the
Congress rule in the Subcontinent.[85] In 1946, the Mus-
lim majorities agreed to the idea of Pakistan, as a response Non-Muslims contribution and efforts
to Congress’s one sided policies,[85][86] which were also the
result of leaders like Jinnah leaving the party in favour of Main articles: Christianity in Pakistan, Hinduism in Pak-
Muslim League,[87] winning in seven of the 11 provinces. istan, Sikhism in Pakistan, and Protestantism in Pakistan
Prior to 1938, Bengal with 33 million Muslims had only
2.3. PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 145

Jinnah’s vision was supported by few of the Hindus, Sikhs,


Parsis, Jews and Christians that lived in Muslim-dominated
regions of undivided India.[95][96] The most notable and
influential Hindu figure in the Pakistan Movement was
Jogendra Nath Mandal from Bengal. Jagannath Azad
was from the Urdu-speaking belt.[97] Mandal represented
the Hindu contingent calling for an independent Pakistan,
and was one of the founding-fathers of Pakistan.[95] Af-
ter the independence, Mandal was given ministries of Law,
Justice, and Work-Force by Jinnah in Liaquat Ali Khan’s
government.[95] He returned to India and submitted his res- The Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore, Pakistan glances at night.
ignation to Liaquat Ali Khan, the then-Prime Minister of
Pakistan.
The Minar-e-Pakistan is a monument which has attracted
Some local Christians also stood behind Jinnah’s vision, ten thousand visitors.[105] The Minar-e-Pakistan still con-
playing a pivotal role in the movement.[98] The notable tinues to project the memory to the people to remember the
Christians included Sir Victor Turner and Alvin Robert birth of Pakistan.[105] Jinnah’s estates in Karachi and Ziarat
Cornelius.[99] Turner was responsible for the economic, fi- has attracted thousands visitors.[106]
nancial planning of the country after the independence.[99]
Turner was among one of the founding fathers[99] of Pak- Historian of Pakistan, Vali Nasr, argues that the Islamic
istan, and guided Jinnah and Ali Khan on economic affairs, universalism had become a main source of Pakistan
taxation and to handle the administrative units.[99] Alvin Movement
[107]
that shaped patriotism, meaning, and nation’s
Robert Cornelius was elevated as Chief Justice of Lahore birth. To many Pakistanis, Jinnah’s role is viewed as a
High Court bench by Jinnah and served as Law Secretary modern Moses-like leader;[108] whilst many other founding
in Liaquat Ali Khan’s government.[99] The Hindu, Chris- fathers of the nation-state also occupies extremely [109]
respected
tian, and Parsi communities also played their due role for place in the hearts of the people of Pakistan.
the development of Pakistan soon after its creation.[98]
2.3.4 Timeline
As an example or inspiration
2.3.5 Notable quotations
Main article: Pakistanisation
Allama Iqbal

The cause of Pakistan Movement became an inspiration in I would like to see the Punjab, North-West
different countries of the world. Protection of one’s beliefs, Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalga-
equal rights, and liberty were incorporated in the state’s mated into a single State. Self-government within
constitution. Arguments presented by Ali Mazrui pointed the British Empire, or without the British Em-
out that the South Sudan’s movement led to the partition pire, the formation of a consolidated North-West
of the Sudan into Sudan proper, which is primarily Mus- Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final
lim, and South Sudan, which is primarily Christian and destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West
animistic.[100] India.[112]

Memory and legacy Choudhry Rahmat Ali

Main articles: Minar-e-Pakistan, Tomb of Muhammad At this solemn hour in the history of India,
Iqbal, Tomb of Jinnah, and Azme Alishan when British and Indian statesmen are laying the
The Pakistan Movement has a central place in Pakistan’s foundations of a Federal Constitution for that
memory.[101] The founding story of Pakistan Movement is land, we address this appeal to you, in the name
not only covered in the school and universities textbooks but of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty
also in innumerable monuments.[102] Almost all key events million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan –
are covered in Pakistan’s textbooks, literature, and novels as by which we mean the five Northern units of In-
well.[102] Thus, Fourteenth of August is one of major and dia, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province
most celebrated national day in Pakistan.[103] To many au- (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchis-
thors and historians, Jinnah’s legacy is Pakistan.[104] tan – for your sympathy and support in our grim
146 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY

and fateful struggle against political crucifixion • Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi
and complete annihilation.[49]
• Maulana Zafar Ali Khan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah • Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan
• Fatima Jinnah
It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our
Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature • Abdullah Haroon
of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in
the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, dif-
ferent and distinct social orders, and it is a dream 2.3.7 See also
that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a
common nationality, and this misconception of • A Short History of Pakistan, a book edited by I H
one Indian nation has troubles and will lead In- Qureshi
dia to destruction if we fail to revise our notions • History of Pakistan
in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two
different religious philosophies, social customs, • National Monument, Islamabad
literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine
• Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan: Founda-
together and, indeed, they belong to two differ-
tional Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity,
ent civilizations which are based mainly on con-
1857–1947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2
flicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on
life and of life are different. It is quite clear that • Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan
Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from
different sources of history. They have different • Pakistani nationalism
ethics, different heroes, and different episodes. • Pakistan Zindabad
Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other
and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap.
To yoke together two such nations under a single 2.3.8 References
state, one as a numerical minority and the other
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Chapter 3

Government and politics

3.1 Government of Pakistan Minister and the Supreme Court.[2] The powers and duties
of these branches are further defined by acts and amend-
“GoP” redirects here. For other uses, see GOP (disam- ments of the Parliament, including the creation of exec-
biguation). utive institutions, departments and courts inferior to the
[2]
The Government of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ن‬ ِ ) Supreme Court. By constitutional powers, the President
promulgates ordinances and passes bills. The President
acts as the ceremonial figurehead while the people-elected
Prime Minister acts as the chief executive (of the executive
branch) and is responsible for running the federal govern-
ment. There is a bicameral Parliament with the National
Assembly as a lower house and the Senate as an upper
house. The judicial branch systematically contains an apex
Supreme Court, high courts of four provinces, district, anti-
terrorism, Sharia, and the green courts; all inferior to the
Supreme Court.[2]
The full name of the country is the Islamic Republic of Pak-
istan. No other name appears in the Constitution, and this
is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in le-
gal cases. The “Pakistan Government” or “Government of
Pakistan” are often used in official documents representing
the federal government collectively.[2] Also, the terms “Fed-
eral” and “National” in government institutions or program
names generally indicate affiliation with the federal govern-
ment. Because the seat of government is in Islamabad, “Is-
lamabad” is commonly used as a metonym for the federal
government.[2]

3.1.1 Federal law and Constitution


Map of Pakistan in 2002
The Constitution of Pakistan established and constituted
the federal government of four provinces of federation of
is a federal government established by the Constitution of
nation-state, known as State of Pakistan. The Constitution
Pakistan as a constituted governing authority of the four
reads as:
provinces of a proclaimed and established parliamentary
democratic republic, constitutionally called the Islamic Re- The Federal Government is Subject to the
public of Pakistan.[1] Constitution. The executive authority of the
Effecting the Westminster system for governing the state, Federation shall be exercised in the name of
the government is mainly composed of the executive, the President by the Federal Government, con-
legislative, and judicial branches, in which all powers are sisting of the Prime Minister and the (Federal)
vested by the Constitution in the Parliament, the Prime Ministers, which shall act through the Prime

150
3.1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN 151

Minister, who shall be the chief executive of the Executive branch


Federation.
In the performance of his functions under the By general definition, the executive branch of government
Constitution, the Prime Minister may act either is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the
directly or through the (Federal) Ministers. daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division
— Constitution of Pakistan: Part III: The Fed- of power into separate branches of government is central
eration of Pakistan— Chapter 3: The Federal to the republican idea of the separation of powers. The
Government, Article 196–197, source[3] separation of powers system is designed to distribute au-
thority away from the executive branch – an attempt to pre-
serve individual liberty in response to tyrannical leadership
throughout history.
The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of
Pakistan are set down in major parliamentary legislation
(a term inherited from the United Kingdom), such as the Prime Minister and Cabinet The Prime Minister of
Exit Control List, the Pakistan Penal Code, and the Frontier Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ ;وزيراعظم‬lit: 'Wazir-e- Azam), is the exec-
Crimes Regulations. By the Article 246th and Article 247th utive head of government of Pakistan, constitutionally des-
to the constitution, the Islamic Jirga (or Panchayat) sys- ignated as the Chief Executive (CE).[7] Popularly elected by
tem has become an institution for local governance.[4][5] direct elections in the parliament, the Prime minister is re-
The 1950s reforms in the government administration, the sponsible for appointing a cabinet as well as running the gov-
constitutional law and jurisprudence in Pakistan have been ernment operations.[7]
greatly influenced by the United States’ legal system. Since The Prime Minister duly appoints the directors, executives,
the 1970s, the traditional jirga-based law has also influ- chairmen in almost all state institutions and corporations,
enced the country’s judicial development.[6] including;

• Chief Ministers of the Four Provinces


3.1.2 Branches of government
• Key administrative and military personnel in the
Legislative branch Pakistan Armed Forces.

• The Chairmen and other Members of the federal com-


Main article: Parliament of Pakistan missions and public institutions.

The legislative branch is known as the parliament, a term for • Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other coun-
legislature inherited from the United Kingdom. The parlia- tries.
ment has two houses;
• The cabinet secretaries and directors in the adminis-
trative positions of the government.
• The National Assembly is the lower house and has 342
members, elected directly by the people. The Cabinet can have a maximum of 11 percent (50 mem-
bers including the Prime Minister) of the total strength of
[8]
• The Senate is the upper house and has ~104 senators the Parliament. Each [9] Cabinet member must be a mem-
elected indirectly by members of provincial assemblies ber of Parliament (MP). The Cabinet Ministers chair the
for six-year terms. Cabinet and are further assisted by the Cabinet Secretary,
whose appointment comes from the Civil Services of Pak-
istan. Other Ministers are Ministers of State, junior mem-
The Parliament enjoys parliamentary supremacy. All the bers who report directly to one of the Cabinet Ministers,
[9]
Cabinet ministers as well as the Prime Minister must be often overseeing a specific aspect of government.
members of Parliament (MPs), according to the constitu- Once appointed by the Prime Minister, all Cabinet Minis-
tion. The Prime Minister and the Cabinet Ministers are ters are officially confirmed to their appointment offices by
jointly accountable to the Parliament. If there is a policy the President in a special oath of ceremony.[9]
failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the mem-
bers of the cabinet are jointly responsible. If a vote of no
confidence is passed against the government, then the gov- President Main article: Pakistani presidency
ernment collapses and a new one must be formed.
152 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

The President of Pakistan is a ceremonial figurehead, a cer- of Anglo-Saxon countries. Institutional and judicial proce-
emonial head of state representing the unity of the country. dures were later changed, in 1950s, under the influence of
Elected for a five-year term by an indirect election, the American[4]legal system to remove the fundamental rights
electoral college consisting of members of the Senate, Na- problems. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court
tional Assembly and the four provincial assemblies, the of Pakistan, Provincial High Courts, District Courts, Anti-
president is eligible for reelection.[9] However no individual terrorism courts, Sharia courts, and Environmental courts
may hold the office for more than two consecutive terms. all over [2]
the country; Supreme Court being the superior
The president may resign or be impeached and removed court. The Supreme Court of Pakistan consists of a Chief
Justice, and Senior Justices appointed by the President after
from office for incapacity or gross misconduct by a two-
thirds vote of the members of the parliament.[9] consultation with the Chief Justice of Pakistan. The Con-
stitution does not fix the number of justices of the Supreme
The President enjoys all constitutional powers and exercises Court, though it can be fixed by Parliament through an act
them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per signed by the President.[12]
the aforesaid Article 41-Article 47.[10]
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of
Judicature transfer The Constitution grants powers to
appointments.[10]
the Supreme Court to make judicature transfers.[12] Al-
These include: though the proceedings in the Supreme Court arise out of
the judgement or orders made by the subordinate courts, the
• Governors of the Four Provinces Supreme Court reserves the right to transfer any case, ap-
peal or proceedings pending before any High Court to any
• The Chief Justice (after concluding the consultation other High Court.[12]
with the Prime Minister)

• The Chief Election Commissioner (Consultation re- Supreme Judicial Council Misconduct of judges is
quired from the Prime Minister) highly intolerable as is mentioned in the constitution. Un-
der the mainframe of the Supreme Judicial Council Article
• The Attorney General and Comptroller and Auditor
209 an inquiry into the capacity or conduct of a Judge, who
General
is a member of the Council, may be conducted.

The President, as Head of State also receives the creden-


tials of Ambassadors from other countries, whilst the Prime 3.1.3 Civil service
Minister, as Head of Government, receives credentials of
High Commissioners from other members of the Common- Main articles: Pakistan Administrative Service and Central
wealth, in line with historical tradition. Superior Services of Pakistan
The President is the civilian Commander in Chief of the
Pakistan Armed Forces.[11] The civil service of Pakistan is a permanent bureaucracy of
The President of Pakistan can grant a pardon to or re- the Government of Pakistan. The civil servants are the per-
duce the sentence, reprieve and respite, and remit, suspend manent officials of the government, occupying a respected
or commute any sentence passed by any court, tribunal image in the civil society. Civil servants come from dif-
or other authority, particularly in cases involving a death ferent departments (e.g. District Management Group, Civil
sentence.[10] The decisions involving pardoning and other servant domain, and FPSC) and are awarded commission
rights by the President are independent of the opinion of contracts by the ministers based on their experience, ca-
the Prime Minister or the Parliamentary majority. In most pability, and resourcefulness. Not all the employees of the
other cases, however, the President exercises his or her ex- Government of Pakistan are civil servants; other employees
ecutive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.[10] of the Government of Pakistan come from the scientific in-
stitutions, state-owned corporations and commissioned mil-
itary science circles.
Judicial branch In the parliamentary democracy, the ultimate responsibility
for running the administration rests with the elected rep-
Main article: Supreme Court of Pakistan resentatives of the people which are the ministers. These
ministers are accountable to the legislatures which are also
Pakistan’s independent judicial system began under the elected by the people on the basis of universal adult suf-
British Raj, and its concepts and procedures resemble those frage. But the handful of ministers are not expected to deal
3.1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN 153

personally with the various problems of modern adminis- ister also required to make such move), in regards to Article
tration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for 58 of the constitution.[14]
the civil servants to enforce it. There has been four times that the martial law has been
in effect, and controversially approved by the supreme
Cabinet secretaries court.[9] Through a general election where the leader of
the majority winning party is selected to be the Prime
Minister.[9] All members of the federal legislature, the Par-
liament, are directly elected. Elections in Pakistan take
place every five years by universal adult suffrage.[9]

3.1.5 Administration and governments

Provincial, Tribal, and Local governments

Main articles: Provincial Governments of Pakistan,


Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Local government in
Pakistan, and Provincially Administered Tribal Areas

There are four provincial governments that rule the four


Prime minister Secretariat where cabinet secretaries do their duties provinces of the state; the Chief Minister heads the state
government. All provincial assemblies are unicameral,
The Cabinet secretaries are the most senior, experienced, elected for five years.[15][15] The Governors appointed by
and capable officials in the country, having studied and President after consulting the Prime minister, act only as
trained first at the Civil Service Academy then pursuing representatives of federal government in the province and
further education at the specific academies (e.g. Foreign do not have any part in running the government.
Service Academy and Police Academy). Each ministry (or
minister) has its secretaries to oversee and enforce the pub- The provincial governments tend to have the greatest influ-
lic policy matters. Arguably, the secretaries are the most ence over most Pakistanis’ daily lives. The tribal and Local
powerful statesmen in the country, especially the Establish- government functions at the basic level.[16] It is the third
ment secretary who works in close coordination with the level of government, consisting Jirga in rural tribal areas.[11]
Prime Minister.
Management of major crisis situations in the country and 3.1.6 Finances
coordination of activities of the various Ministries in such
situations are the functions of the Cabinet Secretariat. Ap- Main articles: State Bank of Pakistan, National Bank of
pointment for the chairman of civil services, the FPSC, is Pakistan, Pakistan Remittance Initiative, and Tax on cash
made by the President after consulting the Prime Minister, withdrawal
according to Article 242 of the Constitution.[13]

3.1.4 Elections and voting system Taxation and budget

Main articles: Politics of Pakistan, Military coups in Main articles: Taxation in Pakistan, 2014 Pakistan federal
Pakistan, and Elections in Pakistan budget, and Foreign trade of Pakistan

Since 1947, Pakistan has an asymmetric federal govern- Pakistan has a complex taxation system of more than 70
ment, with elected officials at the national (federal), provin- unique taxes administered by at least 37 tax collection insti-
cial, tribal, and local levels. Constitution has set the limit tutions of the Government of Pakistan.[17] Taxation is a de-
of government for five years, but if a Vote of no confidence bated and controversial issue in public and political science
movements takes place in the parliament (and prelude of circle of the country, and according to the International De-
movements are proved at the Judicial branch), the govern- velopment Committee, Pakistan had a lower-than-average
ment falls and immediately replaced with caretaker govern- tax take.[18] Only 0.57% of Pakistanis, or 768,000 people
ment initiated by the president (consultation of Prime Min- out of a population of 190 million pay income tax.[18]
154 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

The Finance Minister of Pakistan presents the annual fed- istan the 34th most corrupt country in the world, tied with
eral budget in the Parliament in the midst of the year, and Azerbaijan, Kenya, Nepal, and Nigeria.[30]
it has to be passed by the both houses of the Parliament.[19]
The budget is preceded by an economic survey which out-
lines the broad direction of the budget and the economic Circular debt and spending priorities
performance of the country for the outgoing financial fiscal
year.[20] Main article: Federal Board of Revenue (Pakistan)
Since before the collapse of the USSR in 1991, progres-

NFC program overview

Main article: NFC award

Constituted under the Article 160 of the Constitution by


the Constitution, the National Finance Commission Award
(NFC) program is a series of planned economic programs
to take control of financial imbalances and equally manage
the financial resources for the four provinces to meet their
expenditure liabilities while alleviating the horizontal fiscal
imbalances.[21]
According to stipulations and directions of the Constitution,
In 1947–1951, the literacy rate was ~16.40% but literacy rate is
the provisional governments and Federal government com- now ~69.0% (out of 80.00%). Still, Pakistan has one of the highest
pete to get higher share of the program’s revenues in order illiteracy rates in the world.
to stabilize their own financial status.[22]
sive economic liberalization has been carried out by the
government both at the provincial and the national level.
3.1.7 Issues Pakistan has achieved FDI of almost $8.4 billion in the fi-
nancial fiscal year of 2006–07, surpassing the government
Corruption target of $4 billion.[31] Despite this milestone achievement,
the Foreign investment had significantly declined by 2010,
Main article: Corruption in Pakistan dropping by ~54.6% due to Pakistan’s military operations,
The corruption is on-going issue in the government, claim- financial crises, law and order situation in Karachi, accord-
ing to the Bank of Pakistan.[32] From the 2006 estimate, the
Government expenditures were ~$25 billion.
Funding in science and education has been a primary pol-
icy of the Government of Pakistan, since 1947. More-
over, English is fast spreading in Pakistan, with 18 million
Pakistanis[33] (11% of the population)[33] having a com-
Colour
Corruption
Perceptions Index
mand over the English language, which makes it the 3rd
Largest English Speaking Nation in the world and the 2nd
9 - 10
8 - 8.9
7 - 7.9
6 - 6.9
5 - 5.9

largest in Asia.[33] On top of that, Pakistan produces about


4 - 4.9
3 - 3.9
2 - 2.9
1 - 1.9
0 - 0.9

445,000 university graduates and 10,000 computer science


no information

graduates per year.[34] Despite these statistics, Pakistan still


Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2010 has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world[35] and the
second largest out of school population (5.1 million chil-
ing to take initiatives against it,[23] particularly in the gov- dren) after Nigeria.[36]
ernment and lower levels of police forces.[24] In 2011,
the country has had a consistently poor ranking at the
Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index Debts and deficit
with scores of 2.5,[25] 2.3 in 2010,[26] and 2.5 in 2009[27] out
of 10.[28] In 2011, Pakistan ranked 134 on the index with Main articles: Foreign aid to Pakistan and Periods of
42 countries ranking worse.[29] In 2012, Pakistan’s rank- Stagflation
ing dropped even further from 134 to 139, making Pak- As per the CIA World Factbook, in 2010, Pakistan ranks
3.1. GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN 155

[2] Govt. of Pakistan. “Government of Pakistan”. Government


of Pakistan. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved 18 June
2013.

[3] Constitution of Pakistan. “Part III: The Federation of


Pakistan— Chapter 3: The Federal Government”. Consti-
tution of Pakistan. Retrieved 19 June 2013.

[4] “Chapter 3: Tribal Areas.”. Chapter 3: Tribal Areas. Re-


Map of countries by external debt in US$, 2006 trieved 19 June 2013.

[5] Pakistan Law


63rd in the world, with respect to the public external debt to [6] “Please overview: the Court system of Pakistan".
various international monetary authorities (owning ~$55.98
billion in 2010), with a total of 60.1% of GDP.[37] [7] “Prime Minister of Pakistan”. Govt. Pakistan. Retrieved 19
June 2013.
Since 2009, Pakistan has been trying to negotiate debt can-
cellation currently Pakistan spends $3 billion on debt servic- [8] http://www.dawn.com/news/1011427/
ing annually to largely western nations and the International 18th-amendment-limits-cabinet-size
Monetary Fund.[38]
[9] Information and Mass-Media Broadcasting Ministry of Pak-
istan. “President”. Information and Mass-Media Broadcast-
ing Ministry of Pakistan. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
3.1.8 Ministries and divisions
[10] Const. Pakistan. “Chapter 1: The President”. Part III: The
Main article: Cabinet of Pakistan Federation of Pakistan. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
Federal Government Ministries of Pakistan
[11] “Chapter 2: Armed Forces.”. Part XII: Miscellaneous. Re-
trieved 19 June 2013.

[12] “Part VII: The Judicature”. Retrieved 19 June 2013.


3.1.9 Departments
[13] “Part XII: Miscellaneous”. Part XII: Miscellaneous. Re-
Main article: List of federal departments, agencies, insti- trieved 19 June 2013.
tutes and corporations of Pakistan [14] “Article 58”. 58 Dissolution of the National Assembly. Re-
trieved 20 June 2013.

[15] “Chapter 3: The Provincial Governments”. Retrieved 20


3.1.10 See also June 2013.

[16] NRB. “The Local Government System 2001”. National Bu-


• Ministry of Finance of the Government of Pakistan reau of Reconstruction. National Bureau of Reconstruction.
Retrieved 20 June 2013.
• Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan
[17] Horrigan, Kevin (2010-09-26). “Take a lesson from Pak-
• Federal Bureau of Statistics of the Government of istan: Taxes are for suckers”. Saint Louis Post-Dispatch. Re-
Pakistan trieved 2010-11-07.

• Pakistan Institute of International Affairs [18] “Stop extra UK aid to Pakistan unless taxes increase, urge
MPs”. BBC Pakistan Bureau. 4 April 2013. Retrieved 20
• Gazette of Pakistan June 2013.

• Economic Coordination Committee [19] Ghauri, Irfan (12 June 2013). “Economic plans: Govt set
to unveil Rs3.5tr budget today”. Express Tribune. Retrieved
• Types of Government Servants in Pakistan 12 June 2013.

[20] “Govt unveils 'business friendly' budget for FY 2013–14”.


GEO News. 12 June 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
3.1.11 References
[21] Const. Pakistan. “Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits”.
[1] “About Government”. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved Constitution of Pakistan. Constitution of Pakistan. Retrieved
2009-03-05. 4 May 2013.
156 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

[22] Sabir, Mohammad. “7th NFC and Its Implications” (PDF). • National Assembly of Pakistan
Social Policy and Development Centre,. Social Policy and
Development Centre,. Retrieved 4 May 2013. • Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan

[23] Susan Rose-Ackerman. Corruption and good governa. • Supreme Court of Pakistan
United Nations Development Programme. p. 4.
• List of E-Services provided by Government of Pak-
[24] “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices”, Bureau of istan
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, United States De-
partment of State, 4 August 2011, retrieved 10 December • Websites of Ministries and Government Departments:
2011 Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Dmoz Pakistan
|contribution= ignored (help)

[25] “Corruption Perceptions Index (2011)". Transparency Inter-


national. Retrieved 10 December 2011. 3.2 Pakistan Air Force
[26] “Corruption Perceptions Index (2010)". Transparency Inter-
national. Retrieved 10 December 2011. “PAF” redirects here. For other uses, see PAF (disam-
biguation).
[27] “Corruption Perceptions Index (2009)". Transparency Inter-
national. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) (Urdu: ِ —Pāk
[28] Marie Chêne, Overview of corruption in Pakistan, U4 Anti- Fizāʾiyah, Urdu: [pɑːk fɪzɑːɪjəɦ], reporting name: PAF),
Corruption Resource Centre is the aerial warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces,
primarily tasked with the aerial defence of Pakistan with
[29] “Pakistan less corrupt, according to global corruption list”.
The Express Tribune. 1 December 2011. Retrieved 10 De- a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan
cember 2011. Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary
role of providing strategic air transport and logistics capa-
[30] 'Rule of law can end corruption in Pakistan' | Asia | DW.DE bility to Pakistan. The PAF employs approximately 65,000
| 06.12.2012. DW.DE. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. full-time personnel (including approximately 3,000 pilots)
and currently operates 1,032 aircraft.[2]
[31] Daily Mail News
Its primary mandate and mission is “to provide, in syn-
[32] “Significant Decline In Foreign Investment To Pakistan”. ergy with other inter-services, the most efficient, assured
Malick, Sajid Ibrahim. 2010-02-15. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
and cost effective aerial Defence of Pakistan.” Since its
[33] Archived January 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. establishment in 1947, the PAF has been involved in
various combat operations, providing aerial support to
[34] Inter–Services's operations and relief efforts.[3] Under the
Article 243, the Constitution of Pakistan appoints the
[35] Pakistan Literacy Rate. Ilm.com.pk (2010-09-28). Re-
trieved on 2013-07-12. President of Pakistan as the civilian Commander-in-Chief.
The Chief of Air Staff (CAS), by statute a four-star air
[36] Youth and skills: putting education to work, EFA global chief marshal, is appointed by the President with the con-
monitoring report, 2012; 2013 sultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minis-
ter of Pakistan.[4] The Pakistan Air Force is currently com-
[37] CIA. “Public Debt of Pakistan”. Central Intelligenec Agency
manded by Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman.[5]
(CIA). CIA Fact book. Retrieved 20 June 2013.

[38] Pakistan seeking trade, not aid: Gilani. Allvoices.com


(2010-06-09). Retrieved on 2013-07-12. 3.2.1 History
1959 Indian aerial intrusion
3.1.12 External links
On 10 April 1959, on the occasion of the Islamic Eid ul-
• Web gateway official Pakistan government portal Fitr festival holiday in Pakistan, an Indian Air Force (IAF)
English Electric Canberra B(I)58 of No. 106 Squadron en-
• The Government of Pakistan
tered Pakistani airspace on a photo reconnaissance mission.
• The President of Pakistan Two PAF F-86F Sabres (Flt. Lt. M. N. Butt (leader) and
Flt. Lt. M. Yunis) of No. 15 Squadron on Air Defence
• Senate of Pakistan Alert (ADA) were scrambled from Sargodha Air Base to
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 157

intercept the IAF aircraft. Butt attempted to bring down strikes.[18] The PAF had achieved far more in terms of en-
the Canberra by firing his Sabre’s machine guns, but the emy aircraft destroyed on the ground but without doubt,the
Canberra was flying at an altitude of more than 50,000 feet IAF had achieved much more in the close support role.[18]
— beyond the operational ceiling of the F-86F. When Yu- The two countries have made contradictory claims of com-
nis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost bat losses during the war and few neutral sources have ver-
height while executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis fired ified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot
a burst that struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF
and brought it down over Rawat, near Rawalpindi. Marking claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 59.[19] Ac-
the first aerial victory of the PAF . Both crew members of
cording to the independent sources, the PAF lost some 20
the IAF Canberra, ejected and were captured by Pakistani aircraft while the Indians lost 60–75.[20][21] Despite the in-
authorities and were subsequently released after remaining
tense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate.[22]
in detention for some time.[6]

1967 Arab-Israeli 'Six-Day' War


1965 India-Pakistan War
Main article: Six-Day War
Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

During this conflict the PAF sent personnel to Egypt, Jor-


The PAF fleet at the time consisted of 12 F-104 Starfight- dan and Syria to support the Arabs in their battle against
ers, some 120 F-86 Sabres and around 20 B-57 Can- the Israelis. Some Pakistani sources have claimed that PAF
berra bombers.[7] The PAF claims to have had complete pilots managed to shoot down ten Israeli aircraft.[23]
air superiority over the battle area from the second day
of operations.[8] While, Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh of
the Indian Air Force claimed, despite been qualitative infe- 1971 India-Pakistan War
rior, IAF achieved air superiority in three days in the 1965
War[9] Main articles: Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-
Pakistani War of 1971
Many publications have credited the PAF’s successes to
By late 1971, the intensification of the independence move-
U.S. equipment, claiming it to be superior to the aircraft op-
erated by the IAF and giving the PAF a “qualitative advan-
tage”. However some Pakistanis refute this argument. As
per them, the IAF’s MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland
Gnat aircraft had better performance than the PAF’s F-86
fighters.[10] According to Air Cdre (retired) Sajad Haider,
the F-86 Sabre was inferior in both power and speed to the
IAF’s Hawker Hunter.[10][11][12][13]
According to Air Commodore (retired) Sajjad Haider who
flew with No. 19 squadron, the F-104 Starfighter did not de-
serve its reputation as “the pride of the PAF” because it “was
unsuited to the tactical environment of the region. It was a
high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic
bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet.” Nevertheless, the
IAF is believed to have feared the Starfighter[14] although,
it was not as effective as the IAF’s Folland Gnat.[15] Ac-
cording to Indian sources, the F-86F performed reasonably
PAF B-57 Canberra bombers lined up at an airbase.
well against the IAF Hawker Hunters but not as well against
the Folland Gnat, which was nicknamed Sabre Slayer by the ment in erstwhile East Pakistan lead to the Bangladesh Lib-
IAF.[16][17] eration War between India and Pakistan .[24] On 22 Novem-
According to Indian sources most aircraft losses of IAF ber 1971, 10 days before the start of a full-scale war, four
were on ground while PAF lost most in aerial combat.[18] PAF F-86 Sabre jets attacked Indian and Mukti Bahini po-
Even though the IAF flew a larger offensive air campaign sitions at Garibpur, near the international border. Two of
by devoting 40% of its air effort to offensive air support the four PAF Sabres were shot down and one damaged by
alone, according to Indian sources the majority of its losses the IAF’s Folland Gnats.[25] On 3 December, India formally
came from aircraft destroyed on the ground through PAF air declared war against Pakistan following massive preemptive
158 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

strikes by the PAF against Indian Air Force installations in A letter of agreement for up to 28 F-16A’s and 12 F-16B’s
Srinagar, Ambala, Sirsa, Halwara and Jodhpur. However, was signed December 1981. The contracts, Peace Gate I
the IAF did not suffer significantly because the leadership and Peace Gate II, were for 6 and 34 Block 15 models re-
had anticipated such a move and precautions were taken.[26] spectively which would be powered by the F100-PW-200
The Indian Air Force was quick to respond to Pakistani air engine. The fist Peace Gate I aircraft was accepted at Fort
strikes, following which the PAF carried out mostly defen- Worth in October 1982. Two F-16A and four F-16B were
sive sorties.[27] delivered to Pakistan in 1983, the first F-16 arriving at PAF
Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, Base Sargodha (now known as PAF Base Mushaf) on 15
January 1983 flown by Squadron Leader Shahid Javed. The
after the fall of Dacca on 15 December. The PAF flew about
2,840 sorties and destroyed 45 IAF aircraft while Pakistan 34 remaining Peace Gate II aircraft were delivered between
[28] 1983 and 1987.[34][35]
lost 75 aircraft.
Between May 1986 and November 1988,[36] PAF F-16s
have shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan.
1973 Arab-Israeli 'Yom Kippur' War The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22,
and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots from No. 9
Main article: Yom Kippur War Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remain-
ing five intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-
25).[37] Most of these kills were by the AIM-9 Sidewinder,
During the war, sixteen Pakistan Air Force pilots volun-
but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon fire.
teered to leave for the Middle East in order to support Egypt
Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three
and Syria but by the time they arrived Egypt had already
of these kills. One F-16 was lost in these battles during
agreed on a cease-fire. Syria remained in a state of war
an encounter between two F-16s and four Soviet Air Force
against Israel so the PAF pilots became instructors there and
MiG 23s on 29 April 1987. The pilot, Flight Lieutenant
formed the A-flight of 67 Squadron at Dumayr AB. One of
Shahid Sikandar Khan, ejected safely.[38]
the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot
down an Israeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the The PAF is believed to have evaluated the Dassault Mirage
Syrian government.[29][30][31] 2000 in early 1981 and was planning to evaluate the F-16
Fighting Falcon afterwards.[39]

1979–1988 Soviet-Afghan War


1990–2001
Main articles: Soviet war in Afghanistan, Soviet-Afghan
War, and Air Force Strategic Command (Pakistan) After the Pressler amendment was passed, the U.S. placed
sanctions and an arms embargo on Pakistan on 6 October
1990 due to the country’s continued nuclear weapons pro-
In 1979, the PAF’s Chief of Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal gramme. All eleven Peace Gate III F-16s, along with 7 F-
Anwar Shamim, was told by then President, and Chief of 16A and 10 F-16B of the 60 Peace Gate IV F-16s, which
Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq, that Pakistan had reliable had been built by the end of 1994 were embargoed and put
intels on Indian plans to attack and destroy the Pakistan’s into storage in the United States.[34][35]
nuclear research facilities at Kahuta. ACM Shamim told
General Zia that, “Indian aircraft could reach the area in Desperate for a new high-tech combat aircraft, between late
3 minutes whereas the PAF would take 8 minutes, allow- 1990 and 1993 the PAF evaluated the European Panavia
ing the Indians to attack the facility and return before the Tornado MRCA (multi-role combat aircraft) and rejected
PAF could defend it”. Because Kahuta was close to the it. The Mirage 2000E and an offer from Poland for the sup-
Indian border it was decided that the best way to deter an ply of MiG-29 and Su-27 were also considered but nothing
Indian attack would be to procure new advanced fighters materialised. In 1992 the PAF again looked at the Mirage
and weaponry. These could be used to mount a retaliatory 2000, reviving a proposal from the early 1980s to procure
attack on India’s nuclear research facilities at Trombay in around 20-40 aircraft, but again a sale did not occur because
the event of an Indian attack on Kahuta. It was decided France did not want to sell a fully capable version due to
the most suitable aircraft would be the F-16 Fighting Fal- political reasons. In August 1994 the PAF was offered the
con, which the United States eventually agreed to supply Saab JAS-39 Gripen by Sweden, but again the sale did not
after the PAF refused to purchase the F-5E and F-5G. In occur because 20% of the Gripen’s components were[40]from
1983, when the first batch of F-16s reached Pakistan, ACM the U.S. and Pakistan was still under U.S. sanctions.
Shamim informed Zia of the PAF’s capability to respond to In mid-1992 Pakistan was close to signing a contract for
an attack on the nuclear research facilities at Kahuta.[32][33] the supply of 40 Dassault Mirage 2000, equipped with
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 159

Thomson-CSF RDM/7 radars, from France.[41]


In mid-1994 it was reported that the Russian manufactur-
ers Sukhoi and Mikoyan were offering the Su-27 and MiG-
29.[42] But Pakistan was later reported to be negotiating for
supply of the Dassault Mirage 2000-5.[43] French and Rus-
sian teams visited Pakistan on 27 November 1994 and it
was speculated that interest in the Russian aircraft was to
pressure France into reducing the price of the Mirage 2000.
Stated requirement was for up to 40 aircraft.[44]

2008 air alert

After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, PAF was put on high alert. Pakistani air force Mirage III aircraft drops two 500-pound bombs
It deployed to all its wartime locations and started combat during Falcon Air Meet 2010 at Azraq Royal Jordanian Air Base
in Azraq, Jordan.
air patrols. The speed and intensity of the deployment and
PAF’s readiness took the Indian Army High Command by
surprise and later reports suggest was the main factor in the
tack helicopters were not sufficient to provide adequate sup-
Indian decision of not going for cross border raids inside
port to the infantry. The PAF was sent into action against
Pakistan.[45][46] PAF was issued a Standing Order to launch
the Taliban to make up for the lack of helicopter gunships.
an immediate counter-attack in case of an air attack from
Because the PAF was trained and equipped to fight a con-
India, after a call from the Indian Foreign Minister Pranab
ventional war, a new “counter-terrorist doctrine” had to be
Mukherjee to the Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari (the
improvised.[52]
call later turned out to be a hoax).[45][46][47][48][49]
The PAF’s Saffron Bandit 2009/2010 exercise focused on
extensive training of combat personnel to undertake COIN
2011 Abbottabad Operation operations. New equipment was inducted to improve the
PAF’s joint intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance
An initial investigation report revealed that the Pakistan Air (ISR) capabilities. A C-130 transport aircraft was indige-
Force (PAF) reported the movement of some half-a-dozen nously modified for day/night ISR operations.[52][53]
planes near the Jalalabad border at 11 pm before the US
Use of laser-guided bombs was increased to 80% of muni-
helicopters entered Abbottabad to kill Osama bin Laden.
tions used, as compared to 40% in the previous 2008 Bajaur
“One aircraft was identified as a US AWACS and the re-
campaign. A small corps of ground spotters were trained
maining five were recognised as F-18 jets of the US. These
and used by the PAF, in addition to PA spotters, to identify
planes flew near the Pakistani border, but did not cross into
high-value targets.[54]
the airspace of Pakistan,”[50]
Prior to the PA’s offensive into South Waziristan the PAF
On detection of intrusion, PAF jets on air defence alert were
attacked militant infrastructure with 500 lb and 2000 lb
scrambled and the PAF immediately took adequate opera-
bombs.[54]
tional measures as per standard operating procedure. The
PAF aircraft continued their presence in Abbottabad area A number of civilian deaths occurred during PAF air strikes
until early morning and later returned to their air bases.[51] on 10 April 2010 in the Khyber tribal region. According to
a Pakistani military source, the first bombing was targeted
at a gathering of militants in a compound. Local people,
2001-present Counter-insurgency operations in north- who had quickly moved onto the scene to recover the dead
west Pakistan and wounded, were then killed during a second air strike.
There was no confirmed death toll but at least 30 civil-
See also: War in North-West Pakistan ian deaths had occurred according to the military source,
The Pakistan Army faced several problems during its 2009 whereas a local official stated at least 73 locals, including
offensive against the Taliban in north-west Pakistan. Hun- women and children, were killed.[55] A six-member com-
dreds of thousands of Pakistanis vacated the area when the mittee of tribal elders from the area, tasked with finding the
offensive was announced and, eventually, over 2 million exact number of civilian casualties, reported that 61 civil-
had to be accommodated in refugee camps. The offen- ians were killed and 21 wounded. This was not confirmed
sive was to be completed as quickly as possible to allow by military or political leaders but Pakistan’s Chief of Army
the refugees to return to their homes but the army’s fleet at- Staff, General Ashfaq Kayani, gave a public apology on
160 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

17 April.[56][57] It is reported that BBC news and several 1. Air Vice Marshal Allan Perry-Keene (15 August 1947
other media correspondences were not allowed to take in- – 17 February 1949)
terviews from injured which makes the whole episode more
mysterious.[58] 2. Air Vice Marshal Richard Atcherley (18 February
1949 – 6 May 1951)
3. Air Vice Marshal Leslie William Cannon (7 May 1951
3.2.2 Structure – 19 June 1955)
Commands 4. Air Vice Marshal Arthur McDonald (20 June 1955 –
22 July 1957)
• Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC), Islamabad
5. Air Marshal Asghar Khan (23 July 1957 – 22 July
• Northern Air Command (NAC), Peshawar 1965)

• Central Air Command (CAC), Lahore 6. Air Marshal Nur Khan (23 July 1965 – 31 August
1969)
• Southern Air Command (SAC), Karachi
7. Air Marshal Abdul Rahim Khan (1 September 1969 –
• Air Defence Command (ADC), Chaklala, Rawalpindi 2 March 1972)
8. Air Marshal Zafar Chaudhry (3 March 1972 – 15
Bases April 1974)

Main article: List of Pakistan Air Force bases 9. Air Chief Marshal Zulfiqar Ali Khan (16 April 1974
– 22 July 1978)

The PAF has a total of 17 air bases, which are classified into 10. Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim (23 July 1978 – 5
two categories: flying bases and non-flying bases. Flying March 1985)
bases are operational bases from which aircraft operate dur-
11. Air Chief Marshal Jamal A. Khan (6 March 1985 – 8
ing peacetime and wartime; whereas non-flying bases con-
March 1988)
duct either training, administration, maintenance, or mis-
sion support.[59] 12. Air Chief Marshal Hakimullah (9 March 1988 – 9
March 1991)
Rank structure 13. Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze Khan (9 March
1991 – 8 November 1994)
Main article: Air Force Ranks of Pakistan
14. Air Chief Marshal Abbas Khattak (8 November 1994
– 7 November 1997)
Civilians 15. Air Chief Marshal Parvaiz Mehdi Qureshi (7 Novem-
ber 1997 – 20 November 2000)
• Civilian Gazetted Officer
16. Air Chief Marshal Mushaf Ali Mir (20 November
• Stenographer 2000 – 20 February 2003)

• Stenotypist 17. Air Chief Marshal Kaleem Saadat (18 March 2003 –
18 March 2006)
• Storeman
18. Air Chief Marshal Tanvir Mahmood Ahmed (18
• Clerk March 2006 – 18 March 2009)
19. Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman (19 March
3.2.3 Personnel 2009 – 19 March 2012)
20. Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt (19 March 2012
List of Air Chiefs – 19 March 2015)
Main article: Chief of Air Staff (Pakistan) 21. Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman (19 March 2015 –
present)[5]
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 161

List of Serving Air Marshals 17. Air Vice Marshal Tahir Abdul Majeed Ranjha, SI(M),
GD (P) — DG Logistics (DG Log) at Joint Staff HQ
1. Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman, NI(M), GD (P) — (JSHQ), Chaklala.
Chief of Air Staff (CAS), AHQ.
18. Air Vice Marshal Salman Ahsan Bukhari, SI(M), GD
2. Air Marshal Asad Abdur Rehman Khan Lodhi, (P) — Air Officer Commanding, Southern Air Com-
HI(M), GD (P) — Vice Chief of Air Staff (VCAS), mand (AOC SAC), Karachi.
AHQ.[60]
19. Air Vice Marshal Rizwan Pasha, SI(M), Engg — Di-
3. Air Marshal Muhammad Iqbal, HI(M), GD (P) — rector, Precision Engineering Complex (Dir PEC) at
Chief Project Director, JF-17 Thunder (CPD JF-17), PIA, Karachi.
AHQ.
20. Air Vice Marshal Usaid Ur Rehman Usmani, SI(M),
4. Air Marshal Farooq Habib, HI(M), GD (P) — Deputy GD (P) — Deputy DG, Civil Aviation Authority
Chief of Air Staff, Training (DCAS T), AHQ. (DDG CAA), Karachi.
5. Air Marshal Muhammad Salman, HI(M), Engg — 21. Air Vice Marshal Syed Noman Ali, SI(M), GD (P) —
Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Engineering (DCAS E), .
AHQ.
22. Air Vice Marshal Zaheer Ahmad Babar, SI(M), GD
6. Air Marshal Mujahid Anwar Khan, HI(M), GD (P)
(P) — Air Officer Commanding, Northern Air Com-
— Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Operations (DCAS O),
mand (AOC NAC), Peshawar.
AHQ.
23. Air Vice Marshal Javad Saeed, SI(M), GD (P) — Air
7. Air Marshal Arshad Mahmood Malik, HI(M), GD (P)
Officer Commanding, Central Air Command (AOC
— Chairman, Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC),
CAC), Lahore.
Kamra.[61]

8. Air Marshal Aasim Zaheer, SI(M), T Bt, GD (P) — 24. Air Vice Marshal Shah Masroor Hussain, SI(M), AD
Deputy Chief of Air Staff, Administration (DCAS A), — Air Officer Commanding, Air Defence Command
AHQ.[61] (AOC ADC), Chaklala.

9. Air Vice Marshal Ahmed Ejaz Nadeem, SI(M), Engg 25. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Khalid Dabir, SI(M),
— Principal, Research Center for Modeling and Sim- GD (P) — .
ulation (RCMS) at NUST, Islamabad.
26. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Haseeb Paracha,
10. Air Vice Marshal Pirzada Kamaluddin Ahmed Sid- SI(M), GD (P) — .
diqui, SI(M), GD (P) — Commandant, PAF Air War
27. Air Vice Marshal Tameez Uddin Shakir Qazi, SI(M),
College (Comdt PAF AWC), Karachi.
GD (P) — .
11. Air Vice Marshal Khawar Hussain, SI(M), GD (P) —
. 28. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Zahid Mehmood,
SI(M), GD (P) — .[61]
12. Air Vice Marshal Shahid Akhtar Alvi, SI(M), GD (P)
—. 29. Air Vice Marshal Muhammad Athar Shams, SI(M),
GD (P) — .[62]
13. Air Vice Marshal Shahid Niaz, SI(M), Engg — DG
Air Weapons Complex (DG AWC), Wah Cantonment. 30. Air Vice Marshal Aamir Masood, SI(M), S Bt, GD (P)
—.
14. Air Vice Marshal Ahmar Shahzad, SI(M), GD (P) —
. 31. Air Vice Marshal Sarfraz Khan, SI(M), GD (P) — .

15. Air Vice Marshal Rana Muhammad Imran, SI(M), 32. Air Vice Marshal Noor Abbas, SI(M), Engg — MD
Engg — Advisor to Chairman Pakistan International Aircraft Rebuild Factory, Pakistan Aeronautical Com-
Airlines, Karachi. plex (PAC), Kamra.

16. Air Vice Marshal Imran Khalid, SI(M), GD (P) — 33. Air Vice Marshal Nadeem Tariq, SI(M), Engg —
Additional Secretary-II (PAF) at Ministry of Defence Deputy MD (JF-17 project), Aircraft Manufacturing
(MoD), Rawalpindi. Factory (AMF), Kamra.
162 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

34. Air Vice Marshal Fawad Yunus Hussain, SI(M), Engg the PAF to be awarded the Nishan-e-Haider for sacrificing
— MD Mirage Rebuild Factory (MRF), Kamra. his life to save an aircraft from being hijacked to India.[63]
Other awards include:
35. Air Vice Marshal Shahab Shafqat, SI(M), Engg — As-
sistant Chief of Air Staff (Electronics), AHQ.
• Squadron Leader Muhammad Mahmood Alam —
awarded for downing nine fighters,[64] five in a
Awards for valour minute,[65][66][67][68][69] of the Indian Air Force in air-
to-air combat.[70]

• Squadron Leader Sarfaraz Ahmed Rafiqui Shaheed —


awarded for refusing to abandon his group of fighters
during a battle despite his guns being jammed. He
continued his attempts to assist his squadron in the
battle by chasing enemy fighters until eventually being
shot down.[71]

Special Forces

Main article: Special Service Wing

Women in the PAF

Previously, women had been employed by Pakistan’s armed


forces in non-combat roles only, such as the medical
corps,[72] and the PAF had remained all-male throughout its
history.[73] However, since 2003 women have been allowed
to enroll in the aerospace engineering and other programs
of PAF Academy Risalpur, including fighter pilot training
programmes.[72] It has been stated that standards are not
compromised for women, those who do not achieve the
same performance as their male counterparts are dropped
from the course. A level of segregation between the genders
is maintained. For example, early-morning parades are per-
formed together but some parts of training, mainly physical
exercises, are done with males and females separated. Ac-
cording to Squadron Leader Shazia Ahmed, the officer in
charge of the first female cadets and a psychologist, this also
improves confidence of the women.[73]
In 2005 it was reported that two batches in the Air Force
Academy’s flying wing contained 10 women, with many
more in the engineering and aerospace wings. Cadet Saba
Khan, from Quetta in Balochistan, applied after reading a
newspaper advertisement seeking female cadets. She was
one of the first four women to pass the first stages of fly-
ing training on propeller-driven light aircraft and move onto
[73]
Air Commodore Muhammad Mahmood Alam “Little Dragon”. Ace faster jet-powered training aircraft.
in a Day of the Pakistan Air Force In March 2006, the PAF inducted a batch of 34 fighter pilots
which included the organisation’s first four female fighter
The Nishan-e-Haider (Urdu:‫( )نشان حیدر‬Order of Ali), is pilots. Three years of training had been completed by the
the highest military award given by Pakistan. Pilot Officer pilots at PAF Academy Risalpur before they graduated and
Rashid Minhas (1951–20 August 1971) is the only officer of were awarded their Flying Badges during the ceremony.
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 163

Certificates of honour were handed to the successful cadets


by a “delighted” General Ahsan Saleem Hayat, vice chief
of the Pakistan Army, who acknowledged that the PAF was
the first of the Pakistan Armed Forces to introduce women
to its combat units. One of the women, Flying Officer Na-
dia Gul, was awarded a trophy for best academic achieve-
ment. The other female graduates were Mariam Khalil,
Saira Batool and the above-mentioned Saba Khan.[72] A
second batch of pilots, including 3 female pilots, graduated
from the 117th GD(P) course at PAF Academy Risalpur in
September 2006. The Sword of Honour for best all-round
performance was awarded to Aviation Cadet Saira Amin,
the first female pilot to win the award. Aviation Cadet Saira Chengdu F-7PG
Amin won the Asghar Hussain Trophy for best performance
in academics.[74]
2007 has been the F-16 Fighting Falcon. 40 of the F-
In September 2009 it was reported that seven women had
16A/B Block 15 models were delivered from 1983 to
qualified as operational fighter pilots on the Chengdu F-7,
1987. Deliveries of another 28 F-16A/B were stopped
the first female combat pilots in the PAF’s history, one of
after the 1990 arms embargo imposed on Pakistan under
them being Ambreen Gull. Commanding Officer Tanvir
the Pressler amendment but 14 of these were later deliv-
Piracha emphasised that if the female pilots “are not good
ered during 2005-2008. The F-16A/B fleet is to be up-
enough as per their male counterparts, we don't let them
graded with MLU (Mid-Life Update) modification kits and
fly.” It was noted that some of the female pilots wear the
Falcon Star Structural Service Life Enhancement kits by
hijab while others do not.[75]
Turkish Aerospace Industries starting in September 2010
at a rate of 1 per month. Four F-16A/B are already un-
Religious Minorities in the PAF dergoing upgrade in the U.S. for delivery in 2011. The
MLU package will include new APG-69v9 radars, Joint
Religious minorities have served in the PAF with distinc- Helmet Mounted Cueing Systems and Link-16 data-links,
tion since its inception: Air Vice Marshal Eric Gordon Hall along with other new communications, targeting and elec-
[78][79]
was Base Commander of Chaklala Air Base during the tronic warfare systems.
1965 Indo-Pak War; Air Commodore Nazir Latif; Group
Captain Cecil Chaudhry fought in the 1965 Indo-Pak War
and, later helped establish the Combat Commanders School
(CCS); Wing Commander Melvin Leslie Middlecoat was
Commanding Officer of No. 9 Squadron during the 1965
Indo-Pak War; Squadron Leader Peter Christy; Patrick
Desmond Callaghan is another Christian officer of who rose
to the rank of Air Vice Marshal. He served as Eastern Air
Force Command and Deputy Chief of Air Staff.[76] Wing
Commander Ronald Felix is a test pilot on the JF-17 Thun-
der since 2010 and was one of two PAF pilots flying the
JF-17 at the 2011 Izmir Air Show in Turkey.

3.2.4 Inventory PAF F-16s in 2010

Combat aircraft In 2006, 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block 52+ were ordered
with a further 18 aircraft optional. 14 of the optional fight-
Main article: List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force ers were ordered in 2010.[80][81] The first batch of 3 F-
See also: List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons 16C/D fighters landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacacobad, on
The PAF currently operates approximately 450 combat air- 26 June 2010.[82][83] Pakistan also received 14 used F-16s
craft of 4 different types, planned to be reduced to 3 types from the US free of cost.[84]
by 2015. There are around 20 front-line squadrons.[77] The PAF is to induct a number of the Chinese Chengdu
The most capable fighter in PAF service from 1983 to FC-20, an advanced PAF-specific variant of the Chengdu
164 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

J-10. 36 fighters equipping two FC-20 squadrons are ex-


pected to be delivered by 2015[85] and, according to some
reports, the FC-20 fleet may eventually be increased to 150
fighters.[86] In September 2015, talks between Russia and
Pakistan began on the delivery of the Sukhoi Su-35 air-
superiority multi-role fighter.[87]

Special mission aircraft

Airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft


were first sought by the PAF in the 1980s, but the require-
ment was not met until December 2009 when the first of
four Saab 2000 Erieye aircraft ordered in 2006 was deliv- PAF Il-78 aircraft.
ered. The remaining three Erieye are expected to be de-
livered in 2010. Built to the PAF’s specifications, the Saab Aerial refueling aircraft
2000 Erieye is fitted with 5 operator stations and 4 com-
mand stations. The aircraft’s Erieye radar has a range of In December 2009 the PAF received its first of four Il-78
450 km and is also capable of identifying the type of air- aircraft which is capable of aerial refuelling as well as trans-
craft and the weapons it is carrying.[88] porting cargo. Aerial refuelling capability was first demon-
Four Chinese ZDK-03 AEW&C aircraft have also been or- strated during the High Mark 2010 exercise on 6 April 2010
dered, with first delivery expected in late 2010.[89] These when two of the PAF’s Mirage III fighters were simultane-
are believed to be a PAF-specific version of the KJ-200, ously refuelled in the air by the Il-78.[88][92][93][94][95]
incorporating a Chinese AESA radar similar to the Erieye
mounted on the Shaanxi Y-8F600 transport aircraft.

Transport aircraft

PAF Super Mushak Trainer

Air defence systems


PAF C-130 Hercules
Crotale is expected to be replaced by Spada 2000.[96]
The C-130 Hercules has been the PAF’s primary tactical
transport aircraft since its induction in the early 1960s. Cur- • MBDA Spada 2000 - A low to medium altitude air de-
rently 5 C-130B and 11 C-130E[90] models are in service, fence system consisting of a radar with 60 km range
upgraded with Allison T56-A-15 turboprops and extended and four 6-cell missile launchers. The Aspide 2000
fatigue lives by Lockheed-Georgia Company.[91] The C- missile can intercept enemy missiles and aircraft at a
130 is supplemented by 4 CASA CN-235 STOL trans- range of over 20 km. A contract for 10 batteries was
ports, although the 4th aircraft is equipped with an interior signed after Spada 2000 was selected over competing
for transporting VIPs such as the PAF Chief of Air Staff. systems from Raytheon, Diehl BGT and Saab AB and
Heavy-lift transports comprise 3 Boeing 707s transferred pre-contract firing tests in Pakistan, which were as-
from Pakistan International Airlines starting 1986. sisted by the Italian Air Force.[97] Latest reports state
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 165

Pakistan is to test the Spada 2000 air defence system


in July 2010, followed by deliveries of first of ten bat-
teries. Deliveries of all ten batteries are reported to
be completed by 2013 with further orders possible.[98]
Pakistan test fired the new SPADA 2000 Plus air de-
fence missile system in July 2010. The missile system
was tested by the Range & Instrumentation Division
of SUPARCO (National Space Agency). Three drone
planes were successfully intercepted and shot down by
the SPADA 2000 Plus Missile System.

• HQ-2 - Chinese version of SA-2 Guideline high alti-


tude air defence system, 12 or more batteries procured
circa 1970s.

• HQ-9 - In October 2003 it was reported that China


had closed a deal with Pakistan to supply an unspec- The first F-16D Block 52 fighter of PAF, rolled out on 13 October
ified number of FT-2000 systems, an anti-radiation 2009, undergoing flight testing in the U.S. prior to delivery.
variant of the HQ-9 long range air defence system,[99]
although in March 2009 a report was published stat-
ing that Pakistan was not considering importing the
missile.[100] It was reported in mid-2008 that Pakistan
intended to purchase a high altitude air defence and
missile defence system and the FD-2000, another vari-
ant of HQ-9, was expected to be chosen.[96][101]

• AML HE 60-20: Recently sighted at PAF Base Nur


Khan. Modified Panhard armoured car with a 20mm
anti-aircraft cannon. Used for on-base security.[102]

Drone technology
JF-17 Thunder
On 7 September 2015, Pakistan became the ninth nation to
develop and use an armed unmanned combat aerial vehi-
cle (drone) named Burraq. Pakistan, first started exploring
the drone technology when it acquired Falco drones from
Selex Galileo of Italy for $40 million in 2008. Since then
Pakistan have been developing Falco in Pakistan Aeronau-
tical Complex in collaboration with the Italian firm. Then,
Burraq was developed which was based on the same Falco
technology. By March 2015, Pakistan was able to test-fire
Burraq armed with an air-to-surface missile named Barq
with pin-point precision. Burraq were used majorly during
the Operation Zarb-e-Azb.[103]

Saab2000 ERIEYE AEW&C Made for PAF on 2008 Farnborough


Modernisation and acquisitions

In light of Pakistan’s significant contribution to the War on AFFDP 2019 (Armed Forces Development Programme
Terror,[104][105] 2019) would oversee the modernisation of the Pakistan Air
[106]
The modernisation stall ended in April 2006 when the Force from 2006 to 2019.
Pakistani cabinet approved the PAF’s proposals to procure The Bush administration on 24 July 2008 informed the
new aircraft and systems from several sources, including US Congress it plans to shift nearly $230 million of $300
modern combat aircraft from the U.S. and China. The million in aid from counterterrorism programs to upgrad-
166 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

July 2010.[122]
On 13 December 2008, the Government of Pakistan stated
that two Indian Air Force aircraft were intercepted by the
PAF kilometres within Pakistani airspace. This charge was
denied by the Indian government.[123]
During talks with a delegation from the French Senate on
Monday 28 September 2009, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza
Gilani stated that the PAF had used most of its stockpile
of laser-guided munitions against militants in the Malakand
and FATA regions and that replacements for such types of
equipment were urgently required.[124]
December 2009 saw the delivery of the PAF’s first Saab
PAF ZDK-03 AEW&C inflight 2000 Erieye AEW&C from Sweden and Il-78MP Mi-
das aerial refuelling tanker/military transport aircraft from
Ukraine.[125][126][127]
ing Pakistan’s aging F-16s.[107] The Bush administration
previously announced on 27 June 2008 it was proposing The PAF is reported to be considering purchasing the
to sell Pakistan ITT Corporation's electronic warfare gear Hongdu L-15 advanced jet trainer to train pilots for high-
valued at up to $75 million to enhance Islamabad’s exist- tech fighters such as the FC-20. Extensive evaluations
ing F-16s.[108] Pakistan has asked about buying as many of the aircraft took place in Pakistan during December
as 21 AN/ALQ-211(V)9 Advanced Integrated Defensive 2009.[128][129]
Electronic Warfare Suite pods, or AIDEWS, and related On 26 June 2010 the first batch of 3 F-16C/D Block
equipment.[109] The proposed sale will ensure that the exist- 52+ fighters were delivered to PAF Base Shahbaz,
ing fleet is “compatible” with new F-16 Block 50/52 fighters Jacobabad.[130] According to Air Chief Marshal Rao Qa-
being purchased by Islamabad. mar Suleman (the then Chief of Air Staff) the new fighters
After 9/11 the U.S. and Pakistan began discussing the re- would eliminate the PAF’s limitations in precision night-
lease of the embargoed F-16s and a purchase of new air- time strike operations,[131] the existing capability being
craft. Of the 28 F-16A/B built under the Peace Gate III/IV based on around 34 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters upgraded
contracts and embargoed in 1990, 14 delivered as EDA with new avionics for night-time precision strike missions
(Excess Defense Articles) from 2005 to 2008.,[110] two of under the Retrofit Of Strike Element (ROSE) programme
which were delivered on 10 July 2007.[111] during 1999-2004.[132][133][134] SABIR (Special Airborne
Mission Installation & Response System) which is a FLIR
Between 2005 and 2008, 14 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fight-
System that has Brite Star II and Star Safire III EO/IR sen-
ers were delivered to the PAF under renewed post-9/11 ties
sors installed on the one C130. (this a 'bolt on system' and
between the U.S. and Pakistan. These had originally been
is installed in place of the parachute door) This system was
built for Pakistan under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts but
extensively used during operation in FATA.
were never delivered due to the U.S. arms embargo imposed
in 1990.[112]
To upgrade the F-16A/B fleet, 32 Falcon STAR kits were Planned acquisitions Pakistan have been in talks with
purchased for the original Peace Gate I aircraft and 35 Mid- China to acquire 30 to 40, JF-31 Stealth fighters also known
Life Update (MLU) kits were ordered, with 11 more MLU as Shenyang FC-31 or J-31 for short.[135]
kits optional, in . 4 F-16A/B being upgraded in the U.S.
to F-16AM/BM, delivery expected December 2011.[110] F-
16A/B in PAF service to be upgraded starting October 2010 3.2.5 Exercises
by Turkish Aerospace Industries, 1 per month.[113][114]
The Peace Drive I contract for 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block The PAF sent a contingent of six F-16A/B fighters
52+ (Advanced Block 52) aircraft, powered by F100-PW- to the international Anatolian Eagle 2004 exercise in
229 engines was signed on 30 September 2006.[115][116] The Turkey.[136][137]
first F-16 to be completed, an F-16D, was rolled out on 13 After around 1 year of planning, in 2005 the PAF launched
October 2009 and began flight testing.[117][118][119][120][121] the High Mark 2005 exercise which lasted for one month
The first batch of F-16C/D Block 52+, two F-16D and one and also involved the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy.
F-16C, landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad, on 26 The scenario saw two opposing forces, Blueland and Fox-
June 2010[82][83] and one more F-16C was received by 5 land, engaging in simulated combat involving both offen-
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 167

dit exercise with the aim of training the PAF’s entire combat
force to undertake such anti-terrorist operations.[142][143]
In December 2009 the PAF sent six Chengdu F-7PG fight-
ers, of No. 31 Wing based at PAF Base Samungli, to the
United Arab Emirates to take part in the Air Tactics Lead-
ership Course (ATLC), also known as Exercise Iron Falcon,
at Al Dhafra Air Base.[144][145][146]
The PAF’s High Mark 2010 exercise was launched on 15
March 2010, the first time a High Mark exercise had been
conducted since 2005, after all PAF received their Air
Tasking Orders (ATO). The country-wide exercise involved
units based all over Pakistan, from Skardu to the Arabian
A PAF F-7PG flies alongside a Mirage 2000-9 and F-16E/F Block Sea, at all Main Operating Bases and Forward Operating
60 fighters of the UAEAF and a RJAF F-16 during ATLC 2009. Bases. Joint operations involving the Pakistan Army and
Pakistan Navy were also conducted, aiming to test and im-
prove integration and cooperation between the three arms.
sive and defensive operations. It was stated that the exercise Operations emphasised a near-realistic simulation of the
would have 3 stages and PAF aircraft would fly 8200 sorties. war-time environment, exposure of PAF aircrews to con-
Involvement of army and navy units was aimed at provid- temporary concepts of air combat, new employment con-
ing more realistic operational scenarios. High Mark 2005 cepts and joint operations between air force, army and
followed the Tempest-1 exercise which was focused purely navy. New inductions such as the JF-17 Thunder fighter,
on air power but differed in terms of duration, intensity and Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and Il-78 Multi-Role Tanker
complexity of air operations.[138] Transports also took part.[147] On 6 April 2010 the end
A contingent of six F-16A/B fighters was sent to Turkey’s of the first phase of exercise High Mark 2010 was cele-
international Anatolian Eagle 2006 exercise. In 2008 the brated with a firepower demonstration at the PAF’s firing
Turkish Air Force sent five F-16C/D fighters and 50 per- range facility in the deserts of Thal. The 90-minute demo
sonnel of 191 Kobras Filo (191 Cobras Squadron) to Pak- involved the new JF-17 Thunder fighter, Saab 2000 Eri-
istan to take part in the joint Operation Indus Viper 2008 eye AEW&C and Il-78 MRTT aircraft. The H-2 SOW
exercise at PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha).[137] (Stand-Off Weapon) was also shown to the public for the
first time, being launched from around 60 km away before
In the summer of 2005 a PAF team of 20 airmen, including hitting its target, and a mock counter-insurgency operation
pilots, navigators, engineers, maintenance technicians and a was performed by troops. The demo heralded the beginning
C-130E was sent to the U.S. to take part in the AMC (Air of High Mark 2010’s second phase where the PAF would
Mobility Command) Rodeo.[139] The PAF later took part in practice joint operations with the Pakistan Army during the
the July 2007 AMC Rodeo.[140][141] army’s exercise Azm-e-Nau-3 (New Resolve 3).[148] During
High Mark 2010 a Chengdu F-7 and Mirage 5 fighter (flown
by Squadron Leader Nasir Mehmood and Wing Comman-
der Atta ur Rehman respectively) practised landing, refu-
elling and take-off operations from a Pakistani motorway.
It was reported that the PAF is in negotiations with the Min-
istry of Communications to set up all required facilities for
Air Force operations on the motorways and highways of
Pakistan.[149][150]
In July 2010 the PAF sent six F-16B fighters of No. 9
Griffins Squadron and 100 PAF personnel to Nellis Air
Force Base in the U.S. to participate in the international
Red Flag exercise for the first time. During the exercise
the PAF pilots practised in-flight refuelling of their F-16s
[151][152][153][154][155]
A PAF Mirage III of No. 7 Bandits Squadron alongside a US Navy with the KC-135 Stratotanker.
F-18 and F-16s of the USAF and RJAF In October 2010 the PAF’s No. 7 Bandits Squadron sent a
team of its Dassault Mirage III ROSE fighters to Jordan to
In 2009, while undertaking combat operations against mili- participate in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise at Azraq
tants in FATA and Swat, the PAF initiated the Saffron Ban-
168 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

and personnel from the PLAAF.[161] Information on which


aircraft were used by each side in the exercise was not re-
leased, but photos of Pakistani pilots inspecting what ap-
peared to be Chinese Shenyang J-11B fighters were released
on the internet. The exercise lasted for around 4 weeks and
was the first time the PLAAF had deployed to and con-
ducted “operational” aerial maneuvers in Pakistan with the
PAF.[162]

3.2.6 Involvement in Pakistani society


See also: 2009 refugee crisis in Pakistan
The Pakistan Air Force has played an integral part in the

Pakistan Air Force airmen are participating in relief operations.


A PAF F-16 is refuelled in-flight by a USAF KC-135 tanker during
Red Flag 2010.
civil society of Pakistan, almost since its inception.[163] In
1996, General Jehangir Karamat described Pakistan armed
forces’ relations with the society:

In my opinion, if we have to repeat of past


events then we must understand that Military
leaders can pressure only up to a point. Beyond
that their own position starts getting undermined
because the military is after all is a mirror image
of the civil society from which it is drawn.
— General Jehangir Karamat on civil society–
military relations, [163]

A PAF Mirage III competes in the Alert Scramble Competition dur- In times of natural disaster, such as the great floods of 1992
ing Falcon Air Meet 2010 in Jordan. or the October 2005 devastating earthquake, air force engi-
neers, medical and logistics personnel, and the armed forces
played a major role in bringing relief and supplies.[164]
Royal Jordanian Air Base.[156][157] January 2011 saw a PAFThe Pakistan Air Force has been involved in relief activi-
contingent of F-16A/B and Dassault Mirage fighters take ties not only in Pakistan but also in many other countries of
part in the Al-Saqoor II exercise in Saudi Arabia with thethe world, such as the relief activities after Bangladesh was
Royal Saudi Air Force.[158][159][160] hit by floods.[164] The Air Force also dispatched relief to In-
In March 2011 a joint Sino-Pakistani exercise, Shaheen 1, donesia, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka after they were hit by the
was conducted involving a contingent of Chinese aircraft 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the resulting tsunami.
3.2. PAKISTAN AIR FORCE 169

The Pakistan Army, Air Force, and Navy sent ships and • Pakistan Navy
helicopters to assist in the tsunami relief operation.[164]
• List of aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force
• List of Pakistan Air Force aircraft squadrons
3.2.7 In popular Pakistani culture
• List of Pakistan Air Force bases
• List of Dassault Mirage III operators
• List of F-104 Starfighter operators
• Pakistan Naval Air Arm

3.2.9 References
[1] World Air Forces 2014 November 28, 2014

[2] Flightglobal - World Air Forces 2015 (PDF),


Flightglobal.com

[3] PAF. “History of PAF”. AIr Force ISPR. Retrieved 28


November 2014.

[4] “Article 243”. Retrieved 18 January 2013.

[5] "http://arynews.tv/en/air-chief-marshal-sohail-aman-takes-over-charge-of-paf/
Retrieved 19 March 2015. External link in |title= (help)

[6] “History of the Pakistan Air Force 1947-1982”, Pakistan Air


Force Book Club, 1982

[7] Fricker, John (1969), “Pakistan’s Air Power”, Flight Inter-


national, p. 89, retrieved 21 September 2009

[8] Fricker, John (1969), “Pakistan’s Air Power”, Flight Inter-


national, p. 90, retrieved 21 September 2009

The bird is the Shaheen Falcon. [9] http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/


1965-war-we-achieved-air-superiority-in-three-days-says-air-force-marshal-a
In Pakistani literature, the shaheen has a special associa- 1805797.html
tion with the poetry of the country’s national poet, Allama [10] “Pakistan’s Air Power”, Flight International, is-
Muhammad Iqbal.[165] It also appears on the official seal of sue published 5 May 1984 (page 1208). Can
the Pakistan Air Force logo. be viewed at FlightGlobal.com archives, URL:
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duced, directed, and televised in the television. The highly 1984%20-%200797.html?search=F-86%20Pakistan
Retrieved: 22 October 2009
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[166]
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[13] Fricker, John. Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965. pp.
• PAF Museum, Karachi 15–17. before we had completed more than of about 270-
degree of the turn, at around 12-degree per second, all four
• PAF Hospitals hunters had been shot down ... My fifth victim of this sortie
started spewing smoke and then rolled on to his back at about
• Pakistan Army 1000 feet.
170 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

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[152] “PAF F-16s depart for RED Flag Exercise in USA”. Re-
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Stealth Fighter”. Foxtrot Alpha. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
[153] “Pakistan Air Force (PAF) At Red Flag Exercise”. Retrieved
[136] “Pakistan Air Force F-16s Fly Off to Turkey for exercise”. 21 July 2010.
www.turks.us. 30 September 2004. Retrieved 25 May [154] “PAF’s F-16 jets leave for 'Red Flag' exercises in US”. Re-
2011. trieved 21 July 2010.
[137] Daly, John C. K. (30 April 2008). “Turkey Holds Joint Air [155] “F16s depart for Red Flag Exercise in US”. Retrieved 21
Force Exercises With Pakistan”. Eurasia Daily Monitor Vol- July 2010.
ume: 5 Issue: 82. The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 23
May 2011. [156] Parsons, Gary. “Video: Falcon Air Meet 2010”. key.Aero
Network. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
[138] “Pakistan Air Force exercise 'Highmark-2005' starts”. Pak-
istan Times (pakistantimes.net). 2005. Archived from the [157] Adams, Chyenne A. “Falcon Air Meet 2010”. f16.net. Re-
original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011. trieved 21 May 2011.

[139] Airlift Tanker Quarterly (PDF). 13 (3). Summer 2005 http: [158] “Pakistan, Saudi air forces conduct joint exercise”. Daily
//www.atalink.org/ATQ/Issues/ATQ_Summer_2005.pdf. Times (Pakistan). 17 January 2011. Retrieved 25 May
Retrieved 26 May 2011. Missing or empty |title= (help) 2011.

[140] “International teams build relationships at AMC Rodeo”. [159] “Pakistan And Royal Saudi Air Forces Conduct Joint Exer-
2007-07-20. Retrieved 26 May 2011. cise “Al Saqoor-Ii"" (PDF). PAF Press Release. Pakistan Air
Force. 16 January 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
[141] Haider, Masood (http://archives.dawn.com/2007/04/25/
nat19.htm). “PAF to participate in US air show”. Dawn [160] “Pakistan and Saudi Arabia Conduct Joint Air Exercise”.
News. Retrieved 26 May 2011. Check date values in: |date= airforce-technology.com. 18 January 2011. Retrieved 25
(help) May 2011.
174 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

[161] “Pak Air force conducts joint exercise with China”. Times The Army has also been an active participant in United Na-
of India. 19 Mar 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2011. tions peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role
in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Ser-
[162] Zambelis, Chris (20 May 2011). ""Shaheen 1” Exercise Sig-
pent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pak-
nals Expansion of China-Pakistan Alliance”. China Brief
Volume: 11 Issue: 9. The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved istan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-
23 May 2011. in-Chief. The Chief of Army Staff (COAS), by statute a
four-star general, is appointed by the President with the
[163] Mazhar Aziz (2008). Military control in Pakistan: the paral- consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Min-
lel state. Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor and ister.[6] The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by
Francis-e-Library. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-415-43743-1. General Raheel Sharif.[7][8]
[164] “Air Force statistics on relief operations”. Air Force statis-
tics on relief operations. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
3.3.1 Mission
[165] “National Symbols of Pakistan”. Government of Pakistan.
Retrieved 2013-08-23. Chapter 2 of PART XII of the Constitution of Pakistan de-
fines the purpose of the Army along with the other parts of
[166] “Pakistan Air Force Drama Sherdil”. Retrieved 28 Novem-
the Armed Forces as:[9]
ber 2014.

The Armed Forces shall, under the direc-


3.2.10 External links tions of the Federal Government, defend Pak-
istan against external aggression or threat of war,
• Official website and, subject to law, act in aid of civil power when
called upon to do so.[10]
• PAF Falcons - Second to None

• Pakistani Air Force aircraft and equipment of Pak- 3.3.2 History


istan(Air recognition)
See also: Military history of Pakistan

3.3 Pakistan Army


1947–1958
Pakistan Army (Urdu: Pak Fauj (IPA: pɑk fɒ~ɔd͡ʒ);
Reporting name: PA) is the land-based service branch of The Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the
the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. The
the independence of Pakistan in 1947. According to the then soon to be created Dominion of Pakistan received six
International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) it had an armoured, eight artillery and eight infantry regiments com-
active force of approximately 644,000 active personnel as pared to the twelve armoured, forty artillery and twenty-one
of 2015.[1] In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for infantry regiments that went to India. Fearing that India
voluntary military service; soldiers cannot be deployed for would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts and
combat until age 18.[2] Pakistan Army has started induct- tribal groups entered the Muslim majority state of Kashmir
ing women as commissioned officers.[3] Pakistani Air Force to oppose the Maharaja of Kashmir 1947. In response to
and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed
and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Forces were then deployed to Kashmir. This led to the
Armed Forces. Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Regular Army units joined
Since its establishment in 1947, the Army (along with its the invasion later on but were stopped after the refusal of
inter–services: the Navy and the Air Force) has been in- the Chief of Army Staff, British officer General Sir Frank
volved in four wars with neighbouring India and several bor- Messervy, to obey Pakistani leader Muhammad Ali Jin-
der skirmishes with Afghanistan.[4] Since 1947, it has also nah’s orders to move the Army into Kashmir. A cease-
maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services fire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupy-
in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and ing the northwestern part of Kashmir and India occupying
aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major the rest. Later, during the 1950s, the Pakistan Army re-
joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation ceived large amounts of economic and military aid from
Zarb-e-Azb [5] Operation Toar-e-Tander (Black Thunder- the United States and Great Britain after signing two mu-
storm) and Operation Rah-e-Nijat (Path to Salvation). tual defence treaties, the Baghdad Pact, which led to the for-
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 175

Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. Indian


Army conquered around 360 square kilometres (139 square
miles)[11] –500 square kilometres (193 square miles)[12] of
Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore.[13] However,
Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had
reached captured the village of Burki.[13][14][15][16] The ra-
tionale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon,
and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been
returned in ceasefire negotiations.[14][15][16] The War even-
tually ended with a United Nations (UN) backed ceasefire
and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration. According
to the Library of Congress Country Studies conducted by
the Federal Research Division of the United States:

The war was militarily inconclusive; each side


held prisoners and some territory belonging to
the other. Losses were relatively heavy—on the
Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and
3,800 troops. Pakistan’s army had been able to
withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of
the fighting would only have led to further losses
and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakista-
nis, schooled in the belief of their own mar-
tial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of
their country’s military defeat by “Hindu India”
and were, instead, quick to blame their failure
to attain their military aims on what they consid-
ered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his
government.[17]
General Ayub Khan arriving to take command of the Pakistan Army
in 1951 At the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casual-
ties of about 3,000 killed. On the other hand, more than
[18][19][20]
mation of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), and 4,000 Pakistani soldiers were killed in the battle.
the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954. Indian sources claim that about 471 Pakistani tanks were
This aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its mod- either destroyed or captured by India. India lost a total of
[21][22]
est beginnings. 128 tanks during the conflict.
However, most neutral assessments agree that India had
the upper hand over Pakistan when ceasefire was de-
1958–1969
clared.[23][24][25][26][27] At the end of the war the Indian
army was in possession of 758.9 miles² (1,920 km²) of
Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 210 mile²
(550 km²) of Indian territory.[28] The territory occupied by
The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kash-
time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a mir sectors,[29][30] while Pakistani land gains were primar-
bloodless coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim ily south in deserts opposite to Sindh and in Chumb sec-
League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would tor near Kashmir in north.[31] An uprising against General
later become Pakistan’s first democratically elected Prime Ayub Khan during 1968 and 1969 resulted in Ayub Khan
Minister. Tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a relinquishing his office as President and Commander-in-
brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch Chief of the Army in favour of General Yahya Khan, who
area during April 1965. The War began after the failure assumed power in 1969. The 16th Division, 18th Division
of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965. On the night and the 23rd Division were raised at some point between
of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war 1966 and 1969 and the 9th Division was also re-raised dur-
front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, The Indian ing this period.
176 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

1969–1971 government.[35][36][37]

Main articles: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, 1971


Bangladesh genocide, Operation Searchlight, and 1977–1999
Bangladesh Liberation War

During the rule of Yahya Khan, the people of East Pakistan


protested against various political and economic disparities
that had been imposed on them by West Pakistan and mas-
sive civil unrest broke out in East Pakistan.
The original plan envisioned taking control of the major
cities on 26 March 1971, and then eliminating all oppo-
sition, political or military,[32] within one month. The
prolonged Bengali resistance was not anticipated by Pak-
istani planners.[33] The main phase of Operation Searchlight
ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands
in the mid of May.
On 16 December 1971, Lt. General Amir Abdullah Khan
Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan
signed the Instrument of Surrender. Over 93,000 Pakistani Two AH-1S Cobra attack helicopters of the Pakistan Army Aviation
personnel surrendered to the joint Indian and Bengali forces Wing at AVN Base, Multan. These were sold to Pakistan by the
US during the Soviet-Afghan war to help defend Pakistan against a
making it the largest surrender since World War II.
possible attack by the Soviets.
According to Maj. (Retd.) Agha Humayun Amin, the Pak-
istan Army commanders had not seriously considered an In 1977, a coup, Operation Fair Play, was staged by General
Indian invasion of East Pakistan until December 1971, be- Zia ul-Haq and the government was overthrown. This led
cause it was presumed that the Indian military would not to the hanging of Bhutto after he was tried and proclaimed
risk intervention by China or the United States (US), who guilty of conspiracy of murdering a political opponent by
were generally close Pakistani allies. Maj Mazhar states that Zia’s handpicked judges. Zia retracted on his promise of
the Pakistan Army’s senior command failed to realize that holding elections within 90 days and ruled as a military dic-
the Chinese would be unable to intervene during the winter tator until his death in an air crash in 1988. General Mo-
months of November to December, due to snowbound Hi- hammad Iqbal Khan served as a joint chief from 1980 to
malayan passes, and the US had not made any real effort to 1984 and was the Chief Martial Law Officer during that
persuade India against attacking East Pakistan.[34] time.
In the mid-1970s, the Pakistan Army was involved in fight-
1971–1977 ing an uprising in the Province of Balochistan. Various
Baloch factions wanted independence or at least greater
A Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) flight was sent to provincial rights. The rebellion was put down on the behest
fetch Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from New York, who at that of the Bhutto government but the Army suffered heavy ca-
time was presenting Pakistan’s case before the United Na- sualties. After Bhutto was deposed, the province returned
tions Security Council (UNSC) on the East Pakistan crisis. to normalcy under General Rahimuddin.
Bhutto returned home on 18 December 1971. On 20 De- In the 1980s, the Pakistan Armed Forces co-operated with
cember, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi the United States to provide arms, ammunition and intel-
where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one ligence assistance to Afghan rebels who were fighting the
as President and the other as Chief Martial Law Admin- Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
istrator. Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Rising tensions with neighboring USSR in their involvement
Administrator of Pakistan. in Afghanistan, Pakistani intelligence community, mostly
The PAF and Navy's fighter pilots have voluntarily served the ISI, systematically coordinated the U.S. resources to the
in Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the Yom Kip- Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against the Soviet
pur War (1973). In the 1973 war one of the PAF pilots, Union's presence in the region. Military reports indicated
Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Is- that the PAF was in engagement with the Soviet Air Force,
raeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian supported by the Afghan Air Force during the course of
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 177

the conflict;[38] one of which belonged to Alexander Rut-


skoy.[38]
During 1st Gulf War, the Pakistan Army contributed troops
for the defence of Saudi Arabia against a possible attack by
Iraq. The 153 SP Air Defence Regiment deployed in Tabuk
scored multiple hits on number of Iraqi Scuds and provided
round the clock air defence protection to Saudi troops in the
area.
Pakistan sent UN Peacekeeping forces to the former Yu-
goslavia during the Yugoslav wars. During the war, Pak-
istan supported Bosnia while providing technical and mili-
tary support. Approximately 90,000 Pakistani people went
to Bosnia during the Yugoslav wars, accounting for 20%
of the volunteer military force. The Inter-Services Intel-
ligence (ISI) allegedly ran an active military intelligence
program during the Bosnian War which started in 1992
lasting until 1995. Allegedly executed and supervised by
General Javed Nasir, the program distributed and coordi-
nated the systematic supply of arms to various groups of
Bosnian mujahideen during the war. The ISI Bosnian con-
tingent was organized with financial assistance provided by
Saudi Arabia, according to the British historian Mark Cur-
tis.[39] Despite the UN arms embargo in Bosnia, Nasir later
confessed that the ISI airlifted anti-tank weapons and mis-
siles to Bosnian mujahideen which turned the tide in fa- Pakistani forces after victory in Operation Black Thunderstorm.
vor of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the
siege.[40][41]
ing to General Pervez Musharraf coming to power in a
bloodless coup. However, this time Prime Minister Nawaz
1999–2008
Sharif sacked Musharraf when he was on his way to Pak-
istan from Colombo. He dismissed him as Chief of Army
Staff and appointed General Ziauddin Butt to that position
instead, when Musharraf’s plane was in the air. That was
not enough, the plane was not allowed to land at the airport
in Karachi and barricades were erected on the runway. The
corps commanders acted swiftly across Pakistan, particu-
larly in Karachi and Islamabad. Brigadiar Muzaffar Us-
mani took control of the airport in Karachi and arrested
the then Inspector General of Sindh Police, Rana Maqbool
Ahmed. Musharraf stepped down as President in August
2008. On 30 July 2009, the Supreme Court of Pakistan
ruled that Musharraf’s imposition of emergency rule was
unconstitutional.[42]
After the September 11 attacks in the United States, Pak-
istan joined the US-led War on Terror and helped the
A Pakistan Army soldier keeping watch at Baine Baba Ziarat in United States Armed Forces by severing ties with the
Swat Taliban and immediately deploying 72,000 troops along
Pakistan’s western border to capture or kill Taliban and
In October 1999, after the Kargil Conflict ended with the Al-Qaeda militants fleeing from Afghanistan. On the
unconditional withdrawal of the Pakistani forces from the north western front, Pakistan initially garrisoned its troops
Indian controlled peaks, the Pakistan Army overthrew a in military bases and forts in the tribal areas. In May
democratically elected government once more, resulting in 2004, clashes erupted between the Pakistani troops and Al-
additional sanctions being applied against Pakistan, lead- Qaeda’s and other militants joined by local rebels and pro-
178 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Taliban forces. However, the offensive was poorly coordi- by October a new leader had emerged, Hakimullah Mehsud.
nated and the Army suffered heavy casualties, while pub- Under his leadership, the Taliban launched another wave
lic support for the attack quickly evaporated. After a two- of terrorist attacks throughout Pakistan, killing hundreds of
year conflict from 2004 until 2006, the Pakistani military people. After a few weeks of air strikes, artillery and mor-
negotiated a ceasefire with the tribesmen from the region tar attacks, 30,000 troops moved on into South Waziristan.
in which they pledged to hunt down Al-Qaeda members, The Army eventually re-took all of South Waziristan.
stop the "Talibanization" of the region and stop attacks in In April 2012 an avalanche struck the 6th Northern Light
Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, the militants did not Infantry Battalion headquarters in Ghyari sector of Siachen,
hold up their end of the bargain and began to regroup and
entrapping 135 soldiers.[44]
rebuild their strength from the previous two years of con-
flict.
Militants took over the Lal Masjid in Islamabad. After 3.3.3 UN peacekeeping missions
a six-month standoff fighting erupted again in July 2007
when the Pakistani military decided to use force to end
the Lal Masjid threat. Once the operation ended, the then
newly formed Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), an um-
brella group of militants based in the Federally Adminis-
tered Tribal Areas (FATA), a semi-autonomous region of
Pakistan, vowed revenge and launched a wave of attacks
and suicide bombings which erupted all over North-West
Pakistan and major Pakistani cities, including Karachi,
throughout 2007.
The militants then expanded their base of operations and
moved into the neighbouring Swat Valley, where they im-
posed Sharia law. The Pakistan Army launched an offen-
sive to re-take the Swat Valley in 2007, but was unable to
clear it of the militants who had fled into the mountains Bell 412 is imported by Pakistan from the U.S.
and waited for them to leave before taking over the valley
again. The militants then launched another wave of terror- Main article: United Nations peacekeeping missions
ist attacks inside Pakistan. The Pakistani government and involving Pakistan
military tried another peace deal with the militants in Swat
Valley in 2008. This was roundly criticized in the West as
In the wake of the new world power equilibrium, a more
abdicating to the militants. After initially pledging to lay
complex security environment has emerged. It is character-
down their arms if Sharia law was implemented, the Pak-
ized by growing national power politics and state implosions
istani Taliban subsequently used the Swat Valley as a spring-
which have necessitated involvement of the United Nations
board to launch further attacks into neighbouring regions,
peace keeping forces for conflict resolution.
reaching to within 60 kilometres (37 mi) of Islamabad.
The United Nations has been undertaking peace keeping
Public opinion then turned decisively against the Taliban
operations since its inception, but the need for employment
terrorists. This opinion was highlighted following the re-
of peace keeping forces has increased significantly since the
lease of a video showing the flogging of a girl by the Pak-
Gulf War. In 1992, there were 11,000 Blue Berets deployed
istani Taliban in the Swat Valley. Similar events and ter-
around the world, by the end of the year the figure rose to
rorist attacks finally forced the Pakistan Army to launch a
52,000. Presently, it exceeds 80,000 troops. Pakistan has
decisive attack against the Taliban occupying Swat Valley
given the largest number of troops for the UN peacekeeping
in April 2009, after having orders received from the politi-
mission which gives Pakistan an eminent position among
cal leadership.[43] After heavy fighting, the Swat Valley was
rest of the nations. Pakistan has always been very active
largely pacified by July 2009, although isolated pockets of
and serious to make its efforts for peace-making process
Taliban remained in the area.
not only in its own region but the whole world despite of
The next phase of the Pakistan Army’s offensive was the many challenges and terrorism activities it has faced.
formidable Waziristan region. A US inmanned combat
The table below shows the current deployment of Pakistani
aerial vehicle (UCAV) bomb strike in FATA killed the
forces in UN Peacekeeping missions.
leader of the Taliban, Baitullah Mehsud, in August. A
power struggle engulfed the Taliban during September, but
• The total number of Pakistani troops serving in
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 179

peacekeeping missions is 7,533, as of August 2015, Subdivision by profession


which is one of the biggest number among rest of
participants.[46] The Pakistan Army is divided into two main branches,
which are Arms and Services.

3.3.4 Organization
Operational commands
Main articles: Structure of the Pakistan Army and List of
serving generals of the Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army operates three commands during peace
time. Each command is headed by General Officer
Commanding-in-Chief with the rank of Lieutenant Gen-
eral. Each command is directly affiliated to the Army HQ
Command structure in Rawalpindi.
According to Globalsecurity.org, drawing on Pakistani me-
The President of Pakistan is the civilian supreme comman-
dia sources, three commands, supervising a number of
der of the Pakistan Armed Forces by statute. The Chief
corps each, have been formed: Northern Command, Cen-
of the Army Staff (COAS), a four-star general, is the high-
tral Command, and Southern Command.[48][49]
est general officer (unless the four-star general is Chairman
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee), a field and opera-
tional commander as well as a highest Army four-star gen- Corps
eral officer, directs the non-combat and combatant oper-
ations from army combatant headquarters in Rawalpindi. A corps is an Army field formation responsible for a zone
The Principal Staff Officers (PSO) assisting him in his within a command theatre. There are three types of corps
duties at the Lieutenant-General level include a Chief of in the Pakistani Army: Strike, Holding and Mixed. A com-
General Staff (CGS), under whom the Military Operations mand generally consists of two or more corps. A corps has
and Intelligence Directorates function; the Chief of Logis- Army divisions under its command. The Corps HQ is the
tics Staff (CLS); the Adjutant General (AG); the Quarter- highest field formation in the army.
Master General (QMG); the Inspector General of Training
There are 13 Corps in Pakistan Army, split between Com-
and Evaluation (IGT and E); the Military Secretary (MS);
bat and Services Arms. The Combat Arms are composed
and the Engineer-in-Chief, a top Army topographer. A ma-
of a mix of Infantry, Mechanized, Armored and Artillery
jor reorganization in GHQ was done in September 2008
Divisions, while the Air Defense, Aviation and Strategic
under General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, when two new PSO
Forces Commands are organized as separate corps. The
positions were introduced: the Inspector General Arms and
Strategic Forces Command is responsible for training, de-
the Inspector General Communications and IT, thus raising
ployment and activation of Pakistan’s nuclear missiles. The
the number of PSO’s to eight.[47]
last Corps is called the Force Command Northern Area
The headquarters function also includes the Judge Advocate (FCNA) which is Headquartered at Gilgit and is reported
General (JAG), and the Comptroller of Civilian Personnel, to have 5 Infantry Brigades.[50][51][52][53][54][55]
the Engineer-in-Chief of the Corps of Engineers who is also
Forces in action or poised for action include XI Corps,
head of Military Engineering Service (MES), all of them
which has been heavily engaged in fighting the Taliban
also report to the Chief of the Army Staff.
and other extremists along Pakistan’s north-western border,
and the 323rd Infantry Brigade, part of Forces Command
Commissioned officers rank Northern Areas, on the Siachen Glacier.
The peace time commands are given below in their correct
Main article: Army ranks of Pakistan order of raising, and location (city).

The rank structure is patterned on the British Army model.


Other field formations
It consists of commissioned officers, non-commissioned of-
ficers and the Junior Commissioned Officers. • Division: An Army Division is an intermediate be-
Non-commissioned officers wear respective regimental tween a Corps and a Brigade. It is the largest strik-
colour chevrons on the right sleeve. Centre point of the ing force in the army. Each Division is headed by
uppermost chevron must remain 10 cm from the point of General Officer Commanding (GOC) in the rank of
the shoulder. Company / battalion appointments wear the Major General. It usually consists of 15,000 com-
appointments badges on the right wrist. bat troops and 8,000 support elements. Currently, the
180 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Pakistan Army Structure 2013

Pakistani Army has 29 Divisions including 20 Infantry


Divisions, 2 Armoured Divisions, 2 Mechanized Divi- Pakistan’s Honor Guards at the Aiwan-e-Sadr, Islamabad
sions, 2 Air Defence Divisions, 2 Strategic Divisions
and 1 Artillery Division. Each Division composes of
several Brigades. formations, viz. brigades, divisions and corps. An infantry
battalion serves for a period of time under a formation and
• Brigade: A Brigade generally consists of around 3,000 then moves to another, usually in another sector or terrain
combat troops with supporting elements. An Infantry when its tenure is over. Occasionally, battalions of the same
Brigade usually has 3 Infantry Battalions along with regiment may serve together for a tenure.
various Support Arms & Services. It is headed by a
Brigadier, equivalent to a Brigadier General in some Most of the infantry regiments of the Pakistani Army orig-
armies. In addition to the Brigades in various Army inate from the old British Indian Army and recruit troops
Divisions, the Pakistani Army also has 7 Independent from a region or of specific ethnicities.
Armoured Brigades, 5 Independent Artillery Brigades, Regiments of the Pakistani Army include:
3 Independent Infantry Brigades, and 3 Anti-Tank
Brigades. These Independent Brigades operate di-
rectly under the Corps Commander (GOC Corps). Special forces

• Regiment: A regiment is commanded by a Colonel. The Special Services Group (SSG) is an independent
commando regiment/corps of the Pakistan Army. It is an
• Battalion: A Battalion is commanded by a Lieutenant-
elite special operations force similar to the United States
Colonel and is the Infantry’s main fighting unit. It con-
Army Special Forces (Green Berets) and the British Army's
sists of more than 900 combat personnel.
SAS.
• Company: Headed by the Major/Captain, a Company
comprises about 120–150 soldiers.
3.3.5 Combat doctrine
• Platoon: An intermediate between a Company and
Section, a Platoon is headed by a Lieutenant or de- The Pakistan Army has developed a doctrine called the Ri-
pending on the availability of Commissioned Offi- poste which is a limited “offensive-defence”[57] doctrine.
cers, a Junior Commissioned Officer, with the rank It has refined it consistently starting in 1989 during the
of Subedar or Naib-Subedar. It has a total strength of Exercise Zarb–e–Momin. This doctrine is fully focused to-
about 30–36 troops. wards Pakistan’s primary adversary, India.
[58]
• Section: Smallest military outfit with a strength of The doctrine is derived from several factors:
about 9–13 personnel. Commanded by a Non-
commissioned officer of the rank of Havildar Major 1. The vulnerability of Pakistan is that so many of its ma-
or Sergeant Major. jor population centers and politically and military sen-
sitive targets lie very close to the border with India. As
such Pakistan can ill-afford to lose large territories to
Regiments
an Indian attack.
There are several battalions or units associated together in 2. 'Strategic depth' in the form of a friendly Afghanistan
an infantry regiment. The infantry regiment in the Pakistani is deemed vital by military planners.
Army is an administrative military organisation and not a
field formation. All the battalions of a regiment do not fight 3. India has substantially enhanced its offensive capabil-
together as one formation, but are dispersed over various ities, with the Cold Start Doctrine. Any counterattack
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 181

would be very tricky against the large number of In- 3.3.6 Political and corporate activities
dian troops involved. The response of the Pakistani
army includes the development of the Nasr missile.
4. Holding formations in both Pakistan and India can See also: Askari Bank
man their forward defensive positions and fortifica-
tions in less than 24 hours. However, Corps level re- The Pakistan Army has always played an integral part in lo-
serves with large stockpiles of munitions will take be- cal politics since its inception mainly on the pretext of lack
tween 24 and 72 hours for mobilization after being of good civilian leadership, corruption, and inefficieny.[59] It
given their orders. In this regard, both armies will be has virtually acted as a third party that has repeatedly seized
evenly matched in the first 24 hours since the Pakistani power in the name of stabilizing Pakistan and ending cor-
units have to travel a shorter distance to their forward ruption. However, according to the political observers, po-
positions. litical instability, lawlessness and corruption are direct con-
sequences of army rule.[60][61]
This doctrine entails Pakistan in the event of hostilities with
The tradition of insubordination of the army towards the le-
India will not wait for the enemy’s offensive, but rather
gitimate leadership of can be traced back to Lt. Gen Frank
launch an offensive of its own. The offensive will be a lim-
Messervy who resisted the orders of Pakistan’s founding
ited advance along narrow fronts with the aim of occupying
father Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This was described as
territory near the border to a depth of 40–50 km. Since In-
the main reason for his early retirement. However it did
dian forces will not reach their maximum strength near the
not prevent him being honored and promoted to general.
border for another 48–72 hours, Pakistan might have parity
Later Douglas Gracey, the C in C of the Pakistan Army
or numerical superiority against the Indians.
did not send troops to the Kashmir front and refused to
The Pakistan hopes to accomplish three things under this obey the order to do so given by Mohammad Ali Jinnah,
strategy:[58] Governor-General of Pakistan.[62] Gracey argued that Jin-
nah as Governor-General represented the British Crown of
1. The enemy is kept off-balance as it will be tied up con- which he himself was an appointee. The same tradition was
taining the Pakistani offensive into its territory rather continued by their successors, Ayub Khan, Zia and Mushar-
than launching an offensive into Pakistani territory. raf, all of whom received honours instead of being tried for
indiscipline, corruption and insubordination.
2. The Pakistani Army hopes to contain the fighting on
the Indian side of the border so that any collateral or The army runs the largest real estate business in Pakistan
other damage will be suffered by India. under the auspices of Defense Housing Societies and other
welfare societies. However out 46 housing schemes directly
3. Indian territory of strategic importance once seized, built by the armed forces, none is for ordinary soldiers or
will give the Pakistani Army a bargaining chip to be civilian officers and personnel employed by the army.[63]
used in the aftermath of a ceasefire brought about by The Army is also engaged in other corporate activities such
international pressure after 3–4 weeks of fighting. as stud and dairy farms meant for the army’s own use. Oth-
ers enterprises perform functions in local civilian economy
Kashmir, Line of Control and the Northern Punjab areas such as bakeries, security services and banking. Army fac-
are heavily fortified and ill-suited for large mechanized of- tories produced such goods as sugar, fertilizer, and brass
fensives. The most likely area where Pakistan and India castings and sold them to civilian consumers albeit at prices
might launch its offensive is the semi-desert and desert sec- higher than those charged from military personnel.[64]
tors in southern Punjab and Sindh provinces. To supple-
ment this doctrine, the Army in the 1990s created a strong Pakistan military has the biggest share in Pakistan’s
centralized corps of reserves for its formations. The force is stock exchange. It operates commercial bank, airline,
known as Army Reserve South and is a grouping of several steel, cement, telecom, petroleum and energy, education,
powerful Corps from Pakistan’s Order of Battle. These for- sports, health [65]
care and even chains of grocery shops and
mations have been rapidly equipped with assets needed for bakeries.
mechanized capability. These reserve formations are dual- Several Army organizations operate in the commercial sec-
capable, meaning they can be used for offensive as well as tor across the country. For example, the National Logis-
defensive (holding) purposes. Pakistan has also increased tics Cell was responsible for trucking food and other goods
its ammunition, fuel and other military stockpiles to last for across the country; the Frontier Works Organization built
45 days in case of a conflict. During the 1965 war for in- the Karakoram Highway to China; and the Special Com-
stance, Pakistan only had 13-day reserves which hampered munication Organization maintained communications net-
its military operations. works in remote parts of Pakistan.
182 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

3.3.7 Involvement in Pakistani society during which they participate in regular training cycles and
have the opportunity to take academic courses to help them
See also: 2009 refugee crisis in Pakistan advance.

The Pakistan Army has played an integral part in the civil


Officer ranks
society of Pakistan, almost since its inception.[66] In 1996,
General Jehangir Karamat described Pakistan armed forces’
Each year, about 320 men enter the Army bi-annually
relations with the society:
through the Pakistan Military Academy at Kakul in
Abbottabad in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; a small number—
In my opinion, if we have to repeat of past like doctors and technical specialists—are directly re-
events then we must understand that Military cruited, and are part of the officer corps. The product of
leaders can pressure only up to a point. Beyond a highly competitive selection process, members of the of-
that their own position starts getting undermined ficer corps have completed twelve years of education and
because the military is after all is a mirror image spend two years at the Pakistan Military Academy, with
of the civil society from which it is drawn. their time divided about equally between military training
— General Jehangir Karamat on civil society– and academic work to bring them up to a baccalaureate ed-
military relations, [66] ucation level, which includes English-language skills.

In times of natural disaster, such as the great floods of 1992 Academic institutions
or the October 2005 devastating earthquake, army engi-
neers, medical and logistics personnel, and the armed forces The Army has twelve other training and educational es-
played a major role in bringing relief and supplies. tablishments, including schools concentrating on specific
skills such as infantry, artillery, intelligence, engineering,
The Pakistan Army has been involved in relief activities
or mountain warfare. The National University of Sci-
not only in Pakistan but also in many other countries of the
ences and Technology (NUST) has been established which
world, such as the relief activities after Bangladesh was hit
has absorbed the existing colleges of engineering, signals,
by floods. The Army also dispatched relief to Indonesia,
electrical engineering and medicine. At the apex of the
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka after they were hit by the 2004
army training system is the Command and Staff College at
Indian Ocean earthquake and the resulting tsunami.
Quetta, one of the few institutions inherited from the colo-
nial period. The college offers a ten-month course in tac-
3.3.8 Personnel tics, staff duties, administration, and command functions
through the division level. Students from foreign countries,
According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies including the United States, have attended the school but
(IISS) the Pakistan Army has an active force of 642,000 reportedly have been critical of its narrow focus and fail-
personnel as of 2015.[1] ure to encourage speculative thinking or to give adequate
attention to less glamorous subjects, such as logistics.
The senior training institution for all service branches is
Enlisted ranks the National Defence University, Islamabad. Originally
established in 1971 at Rawalpindi, to provide training in
Most enlisted personnel used to come from rural families, higher military strategy for senior officers, the institution
and many have only rudimentary literacy skills, but with was relocated to Islamabad in 1995. According to Aqil
the increase in the literacy level the requirements have been Shah, the NDU is significant for understanding the insti-
raised to Matriculate level (10th Grade). Recruits are pro- tutional norms of military tutelage in Pakistan because it
cessed gradually through a paternalistically run regimental constitutes the “highest forum where the military leadership
training center, taught the official language, Urdu, if nec- comes together for common instruction.” Without graduat-
essary, and given a period of elementary education before ing from the NDU (or a foreign equivalent), no officer can
their military training actually starts. become a general. Besides, the NDU training program rep-
In the thirty-six-week training period, they develop an at- resents a radical shift from the emphasis on operational and
tachment to the regiment they will remain with through staff functions in the training of junior officers (for exam-
much of their careers and begin to develop a sense of be- ple, majors at the Staff College) to educating colonels and
ing a Pakistani rather than primarily a member of a tribe brigadiers about a broad range of strategic political, social,
or a village. Enlisted men usually serve for eighteen years, and economic factors as they affect national security. In
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 183

that sense, it constitutes the senior officer corps’s baptism Uniforms


into a shared ideological framework about the military’s ap-
propriate role, status, and behavior in relation to state and Pakistan Army uniforms closely resemble those of the
society. These shared values affect how these officers per- British Armed Forces. The principal colour is greenish
ceive and respond to civilian governmental decisions, poli- brown. Dress uniforms were worn mostly on formal oc-
cies, and political crises.[67] It also offers courses that allow casions. The service uniform was worn for daily duty. The
civilians to explore the broader aspects of national security. service uniform for the ground forces was khaki (sand/tan)
In a program begun in the 1980s to upgrade the intellectual cotton. Officers purchased their uniforms, but enlisted per-
standards of the officer corps and increase awareness of the sonnel received a standard uniform issue, which consisted
wider world, a small group of officers, has been detailed of service and field uniforms, fatigues, and in some cases,
to academic training, achieving master’s degrees and even dress uniforms. The uniforms consisted of shirt, trousers,
doctorates at universities in Pakistan and abroad. sweater, jacket or blouse, and boots. There is also a white
Pakistani officers were sent abroad during the 1950s dress uniform. The fatigues were the same for winter and
and into the 1960s for training in Britain and other summer. Heavy winter gear was issued as needed. Head-
Commonwealth countries, and the United States, where gear included a service cap for dress and semi-dress and
trainees numbering well in the hundreds attended a full a field cap worn with fatigues. Army personnel also wear
range of institutions ranging from armoured and infantry berets, usually worn in lieu of the service cap.
schools to the higher staff and command institutions. Af- Brown and black and more recently former US BDU style
ter 1961 this training was coordinated under the Interna- camouflage fatigues are worn by army troop units. The uni-
tional Military Education and Training (IMET) program, form of a Pakistan army soldier exhibits much information
but numbers varied along with the vicissitudes of the United i.e.
States-Pakistan military relationship. Of some 200 officers
being sent abroad annually in the 1980s, over two-thirds Pakistan Army has introduced pixilated arid camouflage
went to the United States, but the cessation of United States pattern in uniform and resized qualification badges which
aid in 1990 entailed suspension of the IMET program. In are now colourless and service ribbons are no longer worn
1994 virtually all foreign training was in Commonwealth along with the ranks are now embroidered and are on chest.
countries. However, after the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan again The name is embroidered and is on right pocket and the left
begun sending officers to US Army schools. Today there pocket displays embroidered Pak Army. Flag of Pakistan
are more than 400 officers serving in foreign countries. Of- is placed over the black embroidered formation sign on the
ficers retire between the ages of fifty-two and sixty, depend- left arm and adventure course insignias are put up as per
ing on their rank. ADR for khaki uniform,[68] decorations & awards[69] and
the ranks.[70]

Science and technology


Ethnic composition

Apart from conducting military operations, exercises, and


military ethics, the Pakistan Army maintains its own sci- Traditionally, the Army was a predominantly Punjabi force
ence and technology corps and organizations. Most notable because of its dominant population (Punjab is the most
science and engineering corps including Military Engineer- populous province of Pakistan, with approximately 55% of
ing Service (MES) Corps of Engineers, Corps of Electrical the country’s total population). From the early 20th cen-
and Mechanical Engineering (EME), and Frontier Works tury in British controlled regions of Pakistan, three districts:
Organisation. Its Army Strategic Forces Command served Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Campbellpur (now Attock) dom-
as the primary military organization in the matters of con- inated the recruitment flows.
ducting and directing research on nuclear and space (such Large extensive efforts have been made to bring all eth-
as military satellites). The cadets and officers of the Pak- nicities on par, presently the Army recruitment system is
istan Army who wished to study science and technology are enlisting personnel district-wise irrespective of provincial
given admission at the College of Electrical and Mechanical boundaries. This decision has given a fair chance to every
Engineering (CEME) and the Military College of Engineer- citizen of Pakistan to be part of the Pakistan Army as each
ing where the scientific and military education are taught. district possesses a fixed percentage of seats in all branches
The admissions of engineering colleges are not restricted to of the Army, as per census records. By 2005, the Punjab
civilians as they can also gain admission and graduate with representation in the Army was down to 43%, from 63% in
engineering and science degrees. 1991, with further drops projected.[64][71]
184 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Women and non-Muslims

Main article: Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces

Women have served in the Pakistan Army since its founda-


tion. Currently, there is a sizeable number of women serv-
ing in the Pakistan Army. Most women are recruited in
the Army to perform medical and educational work. There
is also a Women’s Guard section of Pakistan’s National
Guard where women are trained in nursing, welfare and
clerical work and there are also women recruited in very
limited numbers for the Janbaz Force. Only recently has
Pakistan began to recruit women for Elite Anti-Terrorist
Police Force in 2007, several female graduates were nomi-
nated to be Sky Marshals for Pakistan-based airlines.[72] In
addition recently eight of the 41 cadets from the Pakistan
Military Academy at Kakul became the first women guards
of honour.[73] Pakistan is the only country in the Islamic
world to have female Major Generals in the Army.[74] Ma-
jor General Shahida Malik an Army doctor was Pakistan’s
first female two-star general.
Between 1947 and 2000, Pakistani Hindus were barred
from joining the Army. This was changed in 2000 and since
then, Pakistani Hindus were admitted for the first time. To-
day, people of all faiths or no faith may join and serve. Non
Muslims are allowed to sit in all examinations and can serve
in any part of the Pakistan Army. They can also be pro-
moted to any rank.[75]
There have been numerous Christians who have risen to
the rank of Brigadier. In April 1993 the first Christian
promoted to the rank of Major General was Julian Peter
who commanded the 40th Strike Division in Okara Cantt.
In 2009 Brigadier Noel Israel Khokhar was also promoted
to the rank of Major General. Major General Noel Israel
Kokhar commanded the 23rd Division in Jehlum Cantt.
Capt. Hercharn Singh, as the first Sikh, is Commissioned
Officer in Pakistan Army. He was commissioned in Baloch
Regiment. Currently, he is serving as an ADC to a Corps Nishan-e-Haider; Pakistan’s highest military award.
Commander.

Victoria Cross, it has only been awarded to 10 Pakistan


Recipients of Nishan-e-Haider Army personnel since 1947:

The Nishan-e-Haider (Urdu: ‫( )نشان حیدر‬Sign of the Recipients of foreign awards


Lion) is the highest military award given by Pakistan, rank-
ing above the Hilal-i-Jur'at (Crescent of Courage). Nishan-
Two Pakistani pilots belonging to the army aviation branch
e-Haider recipients receive an honorary title as a sign of
of Pakistan Army who carried out a daring rescue of a
respect: Shaheed meaning martyr for deceased recipients.
mountaineer were given Slovenia’s top award for bravery.
As of 19 September 2013, all Nishan-e-Haider awards have
Slovenian, Tomaz Humar got stranded on the western end
thus far been given to the people engaged in battles with
of the 8,125m Nanga Parbat mountain where he remained
India. for around a week on top of the world’s ninth-highest peak.
Similar to the American Medal of Honor or the British The helicopter pilots plucked the 38-year-old from an icy
3.3. PAKISTAN ARMY 185

ledge 6,000m up the peak known as “killer mountain”. [2] CIA world Fact BOOK http://www.theodora.com/
wfbcurrent/pakistan/pakistan_military.html
The Slovenian President presented Lt Col Rashid Ullah Beg
and Lt Col Khalid Amir Rana with the Golden Order for [3] http://www.servetopakistan.com/lcc.html
Services in the country’s capital, Ljubljana, for risking their
lives during the rescue mission, a Pakistan Army statement [4] “History of Pakistan Army”. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
said.[76]
[5] https://www.ispr.gov.pk/zarbeazb. Missing or empty |title=
Pakistan Army team was awarded a gold medal at the presti- (help)
gious Cambrian Patrol Exercise held in Wales in 2010. Ac-
[6] “Article 243”. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
cording to ISPR, “Rawalpindi based X Corps team repre-
sented Pakistan Army in Exercise Cambrian Patrol – 2010, [7] AMIR QURESHI (2011). “Pakistan’s Top Military Officer
held from 11–13 October 2010 and by the Grace of Al- Cancels Trip to US”. ABC news. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
lah, the team showed an excellent performance by winning
a Gold Medal in the event, which is a big honour not only [8] BBC (29 September 2010). “New Pakistan Chairman of
for Army but for the Country as a whole.”[77][78][79][80] Joint Chiefs of Staff named”. BBC Pakistan. Retrieved 18
January 2013.

[9] [Chapter 2. Armed Forces] of [Part XII: Miscellaneous].


3.3.9 Equipment Pakistani.org.

Main article: Equipment of the Pakistan Army [10] "[Chapter 2. Armed Forces] of [Part XII: Miscellaneous]".
Pakistani.org. Retrieved 15 May 2012.

The equipment currently in use by the Pakistan Army is di- [11] Praagh, David. The greater game: India’s race with destiny
vided into the following main sections: small arms, armour, and China. McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP, 2003. p. 294.
artillery, aircraft and air defence systems.Domestic suppli- ISBN 978-0-7735-2639-6. ISBN 0-7735-2639-0.
ers provides most of the hi-tech equipment to the Pakistan
[12] Musharraf, In the Line of Fire, page 45.
Army, whereas foreign hi-tech equipment are of either Chi-
nese, European or American origin. [13] Melville de Mellow (28, November 1965). “Battle of
Burki was another outstanding infantry operation”. Sainik
Samachar.
3.3.10 Sports
[14] Hagerty, Devin T. (2005). South Asia in World Politics.
Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2.
See also: Pakistan Army basketball team
[15] William M. Carpenter, David G. Wiencek. Asian secu-
rity handbook: terrorism and the new security environment.
The Pakistan Army has a noteworthy sports program with
M.E. Sharpe, 2005. ISBN 0-7656-1553-3.
elite athletes in many sports disciplines.[81] An example of
the program’s success is its basketball program which reg- [16] John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press, 2001. ISBN
ularly provides the Pakistan national basketball team with 0-275-97779-X.
key players.[82]
[17] “The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965”. Memory.loc.gov. 5 July
1977. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
3.3.11 See also [18] Sumit Ganguly. “Pakistan”. In India: A Country Study
(James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, editors). Library
• Pakistan of Congress Federal Research Division (September 1995).

• List of serving generals of the Pakistan Army [19] “Indo-Pakistan Wars”. Microsoft Encarta 2008. also
Archived 31 October 2009.

[20] Thomas M. Leonard. Encyclopedia of the developing world,


3.3.12 References Volume 2. Taylor & Francis, 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-
97663-3.
[1] “Country comparisons – commitments, force levels and
economics”. The Military Balance. International Insti- [21] R.D. Pradhan & Yashwantrao Balwantrao Chavan (2007).
tute of Strategic Studies. 115 (1): 486. 10 February 1965 War, the Inside Story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan’s
2015. doi:10.1080/04597222.2015.996366. ISSN 1479- Diary of India-Pakistan War. Atlantic Publishers & Distrib-
9022. Retrieved 28 September 2015. utors. p. 47. ISBN 978-81-269-0762-5.
186 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

[22] Spencer Tucker. Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Im- [36] Simon Dunstan (20 April 2003). The Yom Kippur War 1973
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[23] Hagerty, Devin T. (2005). South Asia in World Politics. [37] P.R. Kumaraswamy (11 January 2013). Revisiting the Yom
Rowman & Littlefield. p. 26. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2. The Kippur War. Routledge. pp. 75–. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-
invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts 4. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
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second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened [38] “HISTORY OF PAF”. Pakistan Air Force. Retrieved 20
on 22 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat. December 2011.

[24] “Pakistan :: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965”. Library of [39] Curtis, Mark. Secret Affairs Britain’s Collusion with Rad-
Congress Country Studies, United States of America. April ical Islam. (New updated ed.). London: Profile. ISBN
1994. Retrieved 2 October 2010. Quote: Losses were rel- 1847653014.
atively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 [40] "'Pak defied UN, supplied arms to Bosnia'". Press Trust of
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withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting
would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for [41] “Javed Nasir”. ISI Directorship. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
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[42] Masood, Salman (1 August 2009). “Musharraf Decree in
[25] Wolpert, Stanley (2005). India (3rd ed. with a new pref- '07 Was Illegal, Court Rules”. The New York Times.
ace. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 235.
ISBN 0520246969. Quote: India, however, was in a po- [43] Alexander, Paul (11 June 2009) Pakistan public opinion
sition to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan’s turning against Taliban. Associated Press via Yahoo News
capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and
[44] “Huge search for trapped Pakistani soldiers”. Al Jazeera. 7
controlled Kashmir’s strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to
April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
Ayub’s chagrin.
[45] “UN Mission in Democrative Republic of Congo
[26] Kux, Dennis (1992). India and the United States : Estranged (MONUC)". Web.archive.org. 26 September 2007.
democracies, 1941-1991. Washington, DC: National De- Archived from the original on 26 September 2007.
fense University Press. p. 238. ISBN 0788102796. Quote: Retrieved 15 May 2012.
India had the better of the war.
[46] “Ranking of Military and Police Contributions to UN Op-
[27] “Asia: Silent Guns, Wary Combatants”. Time. 1 Oc- erations” (PDF). UN Peacekeeping. United Nations. 31 Au-
tober 1965. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Quote: India, gust 2015. p. 1. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Alternate
link: http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/printout/0, [47] Iftikhar A. Khan. “Kayani shakes up army command” Dawn
8816,834413,00.html (Pakistan), 30 September 2008

[28] “Delhi plans carnival on Pakistan war- Focus on 1965 con- [48] :: India Strategic::. Indiastrategic.in.
flict and outcome”.
[49] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Corps. Globalsecurity.org.
[29] “Modi govt plans 1965 war carnival”.
[50] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Corps. Globalsecurity.org
[30] The Story of My Struggle By Tajammal Hussain Malik (20 May 2009).
1991, Jang Publishers, p. 78
[51] Army Air Defence Command. Globalsecurity.org.
[31] Khaki Shadows by General K.M. Arif, Oxford University
[52] History. Army Air Defence. Pakistanarmy.gov.pk.
Press, ISBN 0-19-579396-X, 2001
[53] Army Aviation. Globalsecurity.org.
[32] Ṣiddīq Sālik (1977). Witness to surrender. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. pp. 63, 228, 229. ISBN 978-0-19-577257-9. [54] Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). Army Strategic
Retrieved 4 June 2011. Forces Command (ASFC). Global Security.
[33] Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, pp. 2–3 [55] Military. Northern Area Command. Globalsecurity.org.

[34] Major (Ret) A.H. Amin, The Pakistan Army from 1965 to [56] Pakistan Army Order of Battle – Divisions. Globalsecu-
1971, Defence Journal, November 2000 rity.org.

[35] Bidanda M. Chengappa (1 January 2004). Pakistan: Islami- [57] General Mirza Aslam Beg. 50 Years of Pakistan Army: A
sation Army And Foreign Policy. APH Publishing. pp. 42–. Journey into Professionalism, Pakistan Observer, 21 August
ISBN 978-81-7648-548-7. Retrieved 22 February 2013. 1997.
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 187

[58] BHARAT RAKSHAK MONITOR: Volume 3(6). Bharat- [79] “Inter Services Public Relations – PAKISTAN”. ISPR. Re-
rakshak.com. trieved 15 May 2012.

[59] Pamela Constable, Kamran Khan (16 October 1999). [80] Times of Pakistan. “When going gets tough, tough get go-
“Army Gets A Foothold In Pakistan; Coup Leader, U.S. En- ing | Times of Pakistan”. Timesofpakistan.pk. Retrieved 15
voy Discuss New Government”. Washington Post. May 2012.

[60] Shaheen Sehbai Corrupt Musharraf’s Generals, Exposed by [81] Pakistan Army – Sports, www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk. Re-
Musharraf’s Generals. antisystemic.org trieved 19 June 2012.

[61] Shyam Bhatia (17 September 2003) Corruption rooted in [82] Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games, www.
Pak army: PPP. Rediff nation.com.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2012.

[62] Hilali, A. Z. (1997). “Kashmir dispute and UN mediation


efforts: An historical perspective”. Small Wars & Insurgen- 3.3.13 Further reading
cies. 8 (2): 61. doi:10.1080/09592319708423174.

[63] Siddiqa, Ayesha (2007) Military Inc. Karachi: Oxford Uni- • Cloughley, Brian. A History of the Pakistan Army:
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547495-4 Wars and Insurrections (4th ed. 2014); 416pp

[64] Pakistan Army. Globalsecurity.org. • International Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett,
James (ed.) (3 February 2010). The Military Balance
[65] http://www.fascistarmy.org/ 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-557-5.
[66] Mazhar Aziz (2008). Military control in Pakistan: the paral-
lel state. Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor and • Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and
Francis-e-Library. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-415-43743-1. Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Indepen-
[67] Aqil Shah, The Army and Democracy: Military Politics in
dence to Kargil, 1947–1999. RoseDog Books. ISBN
Pakistan (Harvard University Press, 2014), pp. 8–9 9780805995947

[68] John Pike. “Army Qualification Badges”. Globalsecu-


rity.org. Retrieved 27 November 2012. 3.3.14 External links
[69] John Pike. “Army Awards & Decorations”. Globalsecu- Official websites
rity.org. Retrieved 27 November 2012.

[70] John Pike. “Army Rank”. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 27 • Official website of Pakistan Army launched on 6 April
November 2012. 2009
[71] Punjab’s dominance in Army being reduced: ISPR -DAWN • Official website of Inter Services Public Relations
– Top Stories; 14 September 2007. Archives.dawn.com (14 (ISPR)
September 2007).
• Official website of International Defence Exhibition
[72] “Pakistan Female Sky Marshals”. BBC News. 23 July 2002.
and Seminar (IDEAS)
Retrieved 21 January 2007.

[73] “Pakistan Female honour guards”. Retrieved 21 January Web resources


2007.

[74] “Pakistan is the only country in the Islamic world to have • GlobalSecurity.org
women Major Generals”. Retrieved 16 April 2007.
• defence.pk – Pakistan Defence
[75] http://www.dawn.com/news/1189939/
where-should-a-pakistani-hindu-go • PakSoldiers.Com – Pakistan Military & Defence
News
[76] BBC: Pakistan pilots get bravery award. BBC News (15 June
2007).

[77] “Pakistan Army Wins Gold Medal @ International Cam- 3.4 Pakistan Navy
brian Patrols Exercise – Page 3 – Iran Defense Forum”. Iran-
defence.net. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
The Pakistan Navy (Urdu: ‫ن‬ ; � )
[78] “Leading News Resource of Pakistan”. Daily Times. 21 Oc- (reporting name: PN) is the naval warfare branch of
tober 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2012. Pakistan Armed Forces, responsible for Pakistan's 1,046
188 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

kilometres (650 mi) of coastline along the Arabian Sea, The Pakistan Navy came into existence on the Fourteenth
and the defence of important civilian harbours and mili- of August, 1947 with the establishment of the State of
tary bases. The Pakistan Navy came into the existence af- Pakistan.[9] The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee
ter the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The President of (AFRC) divided the Royal Indian Navy between India and
Pakistan serves as the Supreme Commander of the Navy Pakistan. The Royal Pakistan Navy secured two sloops, two
under Article 243 (2) of the Constitution of Pakistan, and frigates, four minesweepers, two naval trawlers, four har-
the Chief of Naval Staff heads the Navy. Navy Day is cel- bour launches and some 358 personnel (180 officers and 34
ebrated on 8 September in commemoration of the Indo- ratings). Because of the high percentage of delta areas on its
Pakistani War of 1965.[3] coast, Pakistan also received a number of harbour defence
The Pakistan Navy’s current and primary role is to protect motor launches. As part of the Commonwealth of Nations,
the prefix “Royal” was used until the state was proclaimed
the country’s economic and military interests at home and [9]
abroad, executing the foreign and defence policies of the a republic in 1956.
Government of Pakistan through the exercise of military The Navy endured a difficult history, only 200 officers
effect, diplomatic activities and other activities in support of and 3000 sailors were inherited to the Navy, the most se-
these objectives.[4][5] In the 21st century, the Pakistan Navy nior being Captain HMS Choudri who had little experience
also focuses on limited overseas operations, and has played in military staffing.[10] The Navy suffered perennial prob-
a vital role in the establishment of the Pakistan Antarctic lems with inadequate staff, lack of operational bases, and
Programme.[6][7] poor technological and personnel resources. It was also the
The Pakistan Navy is supported by the Pakistan Coast smallest branch of the armed forces in terms of technical
Guard, and the Maritime Security Agency (MSA), the staff, equipment, [10]
and officers, as compared to the army and
paramilitary forces of Pakistan. air force.
To overcome these difficulties, the Navy launched a re-
The Navy is undergoing extensive modernisation and ex-
pansion as part of Pakistan’s role in the War on Terror. cruitment program for the young nation, starting in East-
Pakistan but it proved to be very difficult to sustained the
Since 2001, the Pakistan Navy has increased and expanded
its operational scope, and has been given greater national program; therefore, program was moved back to Pakistan
to concentrate the preferred recruitments for the Western
and international responsibility in countering the threat of
sea-based global terrorism, drug smuggling, and piracy. In Pakistanis.[10]
2004, Pakistan Navy became a member of the primarily
NATO Combined Task Forces CTF-150 and CTF-151.[8]
The beginning
The Constitution of Pakistan makes the President of Pak-
istan the civilian Commander-in-Chief. The Chief of Naval
Staff (CNS), by statute a four star admiral, is appointed by
the President with the consultation and confirmation needed
from the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The Chief of Naval
Staff is subordinate to the civilian Defence Minister and
Secretary of Defence, and commands the Navy.

3.4.1 History
Today is a historic day for Pakistan, doubly
so for those of us in the Navy. The Dominion Frigate Shamsher in 1951
of Pakistan has come into being and with it a
new Navy – the Royal Pakistan Navy – has been During the first war with India in 1947–48, the Navy saw no
born. I am proud to have been appointed to action as all fighting was restricted to land] and air combat
command it and serve with you at this time. In missions. On operational planning, Captain HMS Choudri
the coming months, it will be my duty and yours engaged on commandeding a destroyer from Karachi to
to build up our Navy into a happy and efficient Mumbai to oversee the evacuation of Indian emigrants to
force Pakistan.:474[11] In 1948, Pakistan Navy engaged in hu-
— Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of manitarian missions to evacuate Indian immigrants trapped
Pakistan, addressing the Naval Academy in in disputed and hostile areas, with its frigates operating
March 1948., [9] continuously.[10] The Chief of Naval Staff, Rear-Admiral
James Wilfred Jefford, had created a “Short-term Emer-
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 189

gency Plan (STEP)" to work up the frigates and naval


defences.[10] In 1948, the directorate-general for Naval
Intelligence (DGNI), a staff corps, was established un-
der Lieutenant-Commander Syed Mohammad Ahsan, who
served as its first Director-General, in Karachi. When the
1947 war came to an end, the Navy began expanding its fa-
cilities and bases, establishing a headquarters in Karachi. In
1949 it acquired its first O Class destroyer from the Royal
Navy.[10]
The Pakistan Navy heavily relied its dependency on gener-
ous donations from the Royal navy with two battle destroy-
ers, the PNS Tippu Sultan and PNS Tariq.[12] The Tippu
Sultan was commissioned on 30 September 1949, under
Commander P.S. Evans, whilst the Tariq was placed un-
PNS Badr, a destroyer visiting Britain, 1957.
der the command of Lieutenant-Commander Afzal Rah-
man Khan. The two destroyers formed the 25th Destroyer
Squadron. The PNS Jhelum and PNS Tughril, under Com- Pakistan flag replaced the Queen’s colour and the White En-
mander Muzaffar Hasan, also joined the Royal Pakistan sign respectively. The order of precedence of the three ser-
Navy.[12] vices changed from Navy, Army, Air force to Army, Navy,
In 1950, the Navy underwent extensive nationalization and Air Force.
consolidation programs, in which large numbers of native In February 1956, the British government announced the
officers were promoted. Dockyard, logistics, and engineer- transfer of several major surface combat ships to Pakistan.
ing services were formed, and vigorous efforts were made to These warships − a cruiser and four destroyers − were pur-
integrate the navy presence in East-Pakistan into a full de- chased with funds made available under the U.S. Military
velopment plan for the navy, thereby creating opportunities Assistance Program. The acquisition of a few additional
for people in East-Pakistan to participate in the build-up. warships from 1956 to 1963 – two destroyers, eight coastal
During this period, certain key positions in Naval Combat- minesweepers, and an oiler − was the direct result of Pak-
ant Headquarters (NHQ) were given to native officers, in istan’s participation in the anti-Communist defence pacts
place of Royal Navy officers. Commander Khalid Jamil SEATO and CENTO. During this time the Navy made an
was appointed as the navy’s first Pakistani Deputy Chief effort to acquire its first submarine, but the attempts were
of Naval Staff (DCNS), while Rear-Admiral James Wil- rebuffed as the political situation in Pakistan worsened in
fred Jefford served as first chief of naval staff until 1953. the 1950s.[10]
Jefford was assisted by Deputy Chief of Staff Commander
M. A. Alavi, whilst other administrative positions were re-
designed and created by the Pakistan Government. In the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965
mid-1950s, the Ministry of Finance awarded contracts to
the Pakistan Army's Corps of Engineers for the construc- Main article: Operation Somnath
tion of NHQ in Karachi and the Karachi Naval Dockyard.
During this time, a number of goodwill missions were car-
The Navy was well-prepared when, following the 1965
ried out by the navy’s combatant ships, and non-combat
Kashmir incursion, war again erupted between Pakistan and
missions were conducted under the auspices of the Royal
India.[10] Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Afzal Rahman Khan
Navy. Pakistan Navy ships cruised and visited ports world-
ordered all units of the Pakistan Navy to take up defensive
wide with the Royal Navy. In 1950, Commodore Chaudhry
positions off the coast, but did not order any offensive op-
took command of PNS Shamsheer; in 1953 he became the
erations in the Bay of Bengal.[10] As the Indian Air Force's
navy’s first Pakistani chief of naval staff, handing over com-
repeated sorties and raids disrupted PAF operations, the
mand of the 25th Destroyer Squadron to Captain Romould
Navy assumed a more aggressive role in the conflict. On
Nalecz Tyminski, the first Polish officer to serve in the Pak-
2 September, the Navy deployed its first long-range sub-
istan Navy.
marine, the PNS Ghazi, which was charged with gathering
In 1956, the Parliament of Pakistan unanimously passed intelligence on Indian naval movements. The flagship sub-
the 1956 Constitution of Pakistan and proclaimed the State marine of Pakistan, was directed by Commander Karamat
of Pakistan as an Islamic Republic under the new consti- Rahman Niazi (later a four-star admiral). In addition to en-
tution. The prefix Royal was dropped, and the service was gaging Indian frigates, missiles boats, or corvettes, Ghazi
re-designated the Pakistan Navy, or “PN”. The PN Jack and was also tasked with diverting threats posed by the aircraft
190 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

carrier INS Vikrant.


The Pakistan Navy was poorly represented in East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh), and lacked capacity for conducting of-
fensive operations in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet was al-
most entirely deployed in (West) Pakistan. In East Pak-
istan, the Navy deployed the Naval Special Service Group
and the entire formation of Pakistan Marines (PM), initially
charged with conducting expeditionary operations. The city
of Karachi, the hub of Pakistan’s maritime trade, housed the
combatant headquarters of the Pakistan Navy. Although
proposals were made to increase the naval presence in East
Pakistan, no serious reforms were made. On 15 March
1971, the Navy special forces launched a counter-terrorism
and counter-insurgency operation codenamed Operation
Jackpot, and in April followed it up with a full-scale offen-
sive codenamed Operation Barisal. This was followed by
The submarine PNS Ghazi during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965.
the deployment of PNS Ghazi East Pakistan, initially for
Pakistan suffered the loss of the long-range submarine (as well as
100 personnel) in 1971, when it was sunk under mysterious circum- the purpose of gathering intelligence on Indian naval move-
stances. ments.

On the night of 7/8 September, a Pakistani squadron com- At then end of East-Pakistan crisis.... We
prising four destroyers, one frigate, one cruiser, and one (Pakistan Navy, Eastern Command) had no
submarine, under the command of Commodore S.M. An- intelligence and hence, were both deaf and blind
war, launched Operation Dwarka, an attack on radar facili- with the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force
ties used by the Indian Air Force in the small coastal town pounding us day and night....
of Dwarka. The operation ended with limited damage to — Admiral Mohammad Sharif, to U.S. Admiral
the area. Zumwalt in 1971, .[14]
Ghazi was deployed against the Indian Navy’s western fleet
at Bombay (Mumbai).On 23 September, Ghazi ended her
operations and proceeded to Karachi Naval Dockyard.
Operation Dwarka had greatly increased the prestige of the
Pakistan Navy.[13] It had also alerted Indian commanders to
the significant threat posed by the Pakistan Navy, and to its
own naval shortcomings.[13] The Pakistanis did, however,
acquire three Daphné class submarines from France, while
operating Tench class submarine from the United States,
and established the Naval special forces in 1966.[10] The
Navy also attempted to establish a naval air service, com-
posed of fighter jets, but this proved impossible due to
budgetary constraints and the opposition of the Air Force,
which was reluctant to risk and lose its aircraft in open-sea
operations.[10]
Indifference toward naval affairs by then-President General
Ayub Khan further deteriorated and jeopardized the oper-
ational scope of the Navy. In 1970, General Yahya Khan
began a series of reforms which increased the Navy’s role
in national defense.

Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 PNS Nazim, which previously took part in the Vietnam and Korean
Wars in the US Navy as USS Wiltsie (DD-716).
Main articles: Operation Barisal, Operation Jackpot, and
Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 In 1969, former Commander of the Navy Admiral Syed
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 191

Mohammad Ahsan was sent to East Pakistan, and became missile boat.”.[18] After the friendly attack, all naval surface
overall commander of Pakistani armed forces there.[15] Un- operations came to a halt under the orders of chief of naval
der his direction, the navy’s presence in East Pakistan was staff.[18]
tripled.[15] Command-size naval assets were expanded, with The Navy’s only long range submarine, Ghazi, was deployed
an administrative unit operating in East Pakistan. The East-to the area but, according to neutral sources, it sank en
ern Naval Command posed a significant threat to the Indian route under mysterious circumstances.[19] Pakistani author-
Navy’s counterpart Eastern Naval Command.[15] Therefore, ities state that it sank either due to internal explosion or det-
the Indian Navy launched an operation (somewhat con- onation of mines which it was laying at the time.[20] The In-
fusingly, also codenamed 'Jackpot'), to disrupt the East-
dian Navy claims to have sunk the submarine.[21][22][23][24]
ern High Command and threaten its existence in the East- The submarine’s destruction enabled the Indian Navy to en-
ern wing. With East Pakistan having been surrounded
force a blockade on then East Pakistan.[25] According to the
on all three landward sides by the Indian Army, the PN defence magazine, Pakistan Defence Journal, the attack on
was attempting to prevent India from blocking the coast as
Karachi, Dhaka, Chittagong and the loss of Ghazi, the Navy
well.[15] no longer was able to match the threat of Indian Navy as it
On 4 December, the Indian Navy launched a naval attack, was already outclassed by the Indian Navy after the 1965
Operation Trident, consisting of 3 OSA class missile boats war.
escorted by two anti-submarine patrol vessels. Nearing The damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and Indian Air
Karachi’s port area, they launched SS-N-2 Styx anti-ship Force on the PN stood at seven gunboats, one minesweeper,
missiles, which the obsolescent Pakistani naval ships had two destroyers, three patrol craft belonging to the Pakistan
no viable defense against.[16] PNS Muhafiz and PNS Khy- Coast Guard, 18 cargo, supply and communication ves-
ber were both sunk, while PNS Shahjahan was damaged sels, and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and
beyond repair. It was a stunning victory for India, with no docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant
damage to their navy’s attacking squadron. navy ships; Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi;[26] and
On 8 December 1971, the Hangor, a Daphné class subma- ten smaller vessels were captured.[27] Around 1900 person-
rine, sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri off the coast of nel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by In-
Gujarat, India. This was the first sinking of a warship by dian forces in Dhaka.[28] The Indian Navy lost 18 officers
a submarine since World War II, and resulted in the loss and 176 sailors[17][29] and a frigate, while another frigate
of 18 officers and 176 sailors of the Indian navy. The same was damaged and a Breguet Alizé naval aircraft was shot
submarine also severely damaged another warship, INS Kir- down by the Pakistan Air Force. According to one Pakistan
pan.[17] Attempts were made by Pakistan to counter the scholar, Tariq Ali, the Pakistan Navy lost a third of its force
Indian missile boat threat by carrying out bombing raids in the war.[30] Despite the limited resources and manpower,
over Okha harbour, the forward base of the missile boats. the Navy performed its task diligently by providing support
The Indian Navy retaliated with an attack on the Pakistani to inter-services (air force and army) until the end.[31] The
coast, named Operation Python, on the night of 8 Decem- primary reason for this loss has been attributed to the cen-
ber 1971. A small group of Indian vessels, consisting of tral command’s failure in defining a role for the Navy, or the
a missile boat and two frigates, approached Karachi. The military in general, in East Pakistan. Since then the Navy
Indian ships sank the Panamian vessel Gulf Star, while the has sought to improve the structure and fleet by putting spe-
Pakistan Navy’s PNS Dacca and the British ship SS Har- cial emphasis on sub-surface warfare capability as it allows
mattan were damaged. Python was a complete success for for the most efficient way to deny the control of Pakistani
the Indian Navy, and a psychological trauma for Pakistan sea lanes to an adversary.
Navy, the human and material cost severely cutting into its
combat capability.[18] Civilian pilots from Pakistan Inter-
national Airlines volunteered to conduct surveillance mis- Cold war operations
sions with the PAF, but this proved less than helpful when
they misidentified a Pakistan Navy frigate, PNS Zulfikar, as See also: Operation Umeed-e-Nuh, Operation United
an Indian missile boat.[18] PAF planes made several attack Shield, Operation Parakram, and Soviet war in Afghanistan
runs before finally identifying the Zulfikar.[18] The friendly
attack resulted in further loss of navy personnel, as well
Pakistan fully endorse the requirements of a
as the loss of the ship, which was severely damaged. The
strong navy, capable of safeguarding Pakistan’s
Pakistan Navy’s operational capabilities were now virtually
sea frontiers and her Lines of Communication,
extinct, and morale plummeted.[18] Indian Navy observers
monitoring and protecting her exclusive eco-
noted that the “PAF pilots failed to recognize the differ-
nomic zone. Continuous efforts are at hand to
ence between a large PNS Zulfikar frigate and a small Osa
provide the best available equipment to the Navy
192 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

despite all economic constraints. fleet from 8 to 16 surface combatants in 1989. In 1982,
— Pervez Musharraf, 1999, [32] the Reagan administration approved US$3.2 billion mili-
tary and economic aid to Pakistan. Pakistan acquired eight
Brooke and Garcia-class frigates from United States Navy
After the 1971 war, the Navy had to be re-organized, re- on a five-year lease in 1988. A depot for repairs, USS Hec-
visioned, and re-established after being destroyed its facil- tor followed the lease of these ships in April 1989. How-
ities, manpower, and operational basis during the war by ever, after the Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan in
the Indian Navy.[31] The coming Chief of Naval Staff Ad- 1989 US President George Bush was advised to no longer
miral Muhammad Sharif reconstituted the Navy and gave certify that Pakistan was not involved in the development of
commissioned to Naval Air Arm of the Navy.[31] During the nuclear weapons and the Pressler amendment was invoked
course of war, the co-ordination between Inter-services was on 1 October 1990. The lease of the first Brooke class
limited, lack of communication, poor execution of joint- frigate expired in March 1993, the remaining in early 1994.
operations, this led to the establishment of Joint Chiefs This seriously impaired the Pakistan Navy, which was com-
of Staff Committee.[31] In a small span of time, the navy posed almost entirely of former US origin ships. Realiz-
facilities, manpower and profile of Navy was quickly ar- ing the US U-turn policy, Pakistan began to concentrate on
ranged and raised by Admiral Muhammad Sharif, and his self-reliance for its military equipment needs. Prime Min-
services to Navy led him to be appointed as first navy admi- ister Benazir Bhutto successfully negotiated and signed an
ral Chairman of Joint Chiefs Committee of Pakistan Armed agreement with France to sell the Agosta class submarine
Forces.[31] for Pakistan Navy, including the technology transfer of Air-
The Pakistan Navy came into public notice in 1974 after independent propulsion to Pakistan. This agreement was re-
it had reportedly applied a naval blockage and played an portedly highly controversial but it had tripled the war capa-
integral role to stop the arm smuggled in Balochistan con- bilities of Pakistan Navy, despite Indian protests that were
flict.[31] After the discovery of Arms in the Iraqi Embassy in lodged internationally. The United Kingdom approved the
Pakistan, the Navy made an effort to apply a naval blockade sale of Westland Lynx and Sea King helicopters, equipped
to prevent arms smuggling in the Province. Later, the navy with ASW missiles which further enhanced the capabilities
provided logistic support to the Army and the Air Force in of Pakistan Navy.
the conflict.[31] After the success of atomic project in 1998, several propos-
als were called and made for Pakistan Navy to transformed
into a nuclear navy. In 1990, the Navy began negotiations
with People’s Liberation Army Navy to lease a nuclear sub-
marine, a Chinese Type 091 Han class submarine after ri-
val India Navy leased a Russian-based Charlie 1 class nu-
clear from Soviet Union.[34] However, the Navy cancelled
the negotiations with the Chinese Navy after the learning
the Indian Navy had returned the Russian submarine was
returned in 1991.[34] In 1991, the Navy became involved
with Operation Restore Hope after learning the death of
personnels of Pakistan Army in Somalia. The Navy dis-
patched one submarine and two destroyer frigates to support
the US Navy’s operations in Somalia. The Navy also took
participation in Operation United Shield in 1995 with the
The Daphne class submarine Ghazi (S-134) deployed during the United States, dispatching two destroyers to support the US
Operation Restore Hope. Navy’s operation and concluded its side of operation after
evacuating personnel and equipments of army and air force.
From her inception, the Navy sought to diversify its pur-
During the Kargil War episode, the Pakistan Navy was
chases instead of depending solely on the United States,
deactivated along with the Pakistan Air Force, according
which had placed an arms embargo on both India and
to Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Fasih Bokhari. How-
Pakistan.[33] After 1971, the Navy sought more combat-
ever, when Indian Navy launched Operation Talwar, Pak-
ant vessels from friendly countries notably, France and
istan Navy responded by deploying the submarines and de-
China.[33] Thus, its extreme modernization programme led
stroyers combatant ships to keep Indian Navy from Ports
the Pakistan Navy to become the first navy in South Asia
of Karachi and Baluchistan.[32] The Naval Air Arm main-
to acquire land-based ballistics missile capable long range
tained its reconnaissance and patrol operations near at the
reconnaissance aircraft.[33] During the 1980s, the Pakistan
Arabian sea. In 1999, another proposal was raised to
Navy enjoyed unprecedented growth, doubling its surface
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 193

switched the Air-independent propulsion of Agosta sub- The international observers noted that the wreckage fell
marine to substitute with Nuclear propulsion, however the well within Pakistan’s territory, giving credence to the Pak-
proposal was dismissed.[32] During the 2001–2002 India- istan’s claim. But the investigation conducted by the Naval
Pakistan Standoff, the Pakistan Navy was a put on high- Intelligence revealed that the crash site was spread over 2
alert and more than a dozen warships were deployed near km on both sides of the border and the majority of the
at the Arabian Sea. In 2001, the Navy took considera- wreckage was on the Indian side. The Indian government
tion of deploying the nuclear weapons on its submarines al- released the bodies of all the 16 personnel killed in the
though none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in crash, asserting their point that the aircraft crashed in India.
the submarines.[34] The Indian Air Force stated that “the Atlantique was trying
to return to Pakistan’s airspace after intruding more than
10 nautical miles (19 km) and as such was headed towards
Indo-Pakistani war of 1999 Pakistan....” This incident resulted in escalated tensions be-
tween the two neighbouring countries.[35]
Main articles: Atlantique Incident and Indo-Pakistani War
of 1999 In October 1999, another mishap claimed the loss of Navy’s
P3C Orion (anti-submarine warfare) aircraft crashed while
on routine exercise towards the coastal town of Pasni in
Although the Navy was restricted from participating in the Balochistan Province.[36] In this non-combat mission, the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 (or the Kargil war), it came un- casualties stood with twenty one personnel, including two
der much pressure to protect the civilian and military bases navy fighter pilots, eleven sailors and ten senior officers died
in Pakistan while performing non-combat missions in the in the incident. The cause of the incident was stated as a
coastal areas. The Indian Navy’s rapid movement pushed technical failure. The P3C Orion was originally developed
the Navy to take active measures and responded by deploy- for the US by Lockheed Martin.[37]
ing a large formation of submarines to gather intelligence on
the movement of Indian naval vessels, their activities and
presence. However the Navy did not undertake any mili- Naval Strategic Force Command
tary engagement with the Indian Navy. In the post Indo-
Pakistani war of 1999, the Navy became involved in a mil- In August 2012, the Pakistan Navy inaugurated the Naval
itary engagement with the Indian Air Force when the local Strategic Force Command headquarters, described by the
Pakistan media reported that the Navy had suffered seri- military as the custodian of the country’s nuclear second
ous casualty in non-combat missions in terms of losing air- strike capability.[38]
craft and personnel, roughly occurred just two weeks since
the end of Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 in Northern Pak-
istan. On 10 August 1999, the Indian Air Force's two MiG Multi-national operations
21FL fired and shot down the reconnaissance navy plane,
the Atlantic, with sixteen personnel, including four naval Between 11–21 May 2008, Pakistani warships PNS Badr
fighter pilots on board. All hands and the aircraft were (D-182), PNS Shahjahan (D 186), and PNS Nasr (A-47),
lost when it was shot down in the border area of the Rann as well as the Pakistan Air Force Explosive Ordnance Dis-
of Kutch region by Indian Air Force, with both countries posal team, participated in Exercise Inspired Union – multi-
claiming the aircraft to be in their respective airspace. national exercises in the North Arabian Sea that also in-
cluded the American destroyers Curts and Ross.[39]

Tsunami relief activities

The Navy has been involved in some peacetime operations,


most notably during the tsunami tragedy that struck on 26
December 2004. Pakistan sent her combatant vessels to Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, and the Maldives to help in rescue and
relief work.[40]
Pakistan Navy dispatched its two combatant vessels, PNS
Tariq, a destroyer, PNS Nasr, a Logistic support ship,
were deployed in the region. Under the tactical direc-
tion of former Chief of Naval Staff Admiral (retired)
A Pakistan Navy P3C Orion getting airborne in 2010. Shahid Karimullah, Pakistan Navy ships immediately ren-
194 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

dered their assistance to Government of Maldives for evac- far more difficult operations in Northern Pakistan, and its
uation of stranded tourists/locals from islands. Pakistan combatant assets fought Taliban insurgency in Western bor-
Navy continued this humanitarian assistance through ren- der with the ground forces. On 22 May 2011, the Navy’s
dering diplomatic and material support by sending two first engagement with Pakistani Taliban took place in PNS
more ships with sizeable relief efforts to Indonesia and Sri Mehran, the headquarters of the Navy’s Naval Air Arm and
Lanka.[41] Pakistan Navy later assigned another relief mis- the most populous Pakistani military installation, located
sion to Sri Lanka dispatching two more combatant vessels. near the PAF’s Faisal Air Force Base of Karachi, Sindh.
PNS Khaiber and PNS Moawin were dispatched to assist In the course of the event, around 15 attackers killed 18
Sri Lanka.[42] These vessels had three helicopters, a 140th naval personnel and wounded 16 in a sophisticated terror-
Marine Expeditionary Force, military and civilian doctors, ist attack. According to the United States and Western in-
and paramedics. Besides, relief goods – medicines, med- telligence sources, the attack was far more dangerous than
ical equipment, food supplies, tents, blankets- are being the 2009 Pakistan Army General Headquarters attack, and
sent in huge quantities.[43] The diameter of relief operations was better planned and more rehearsed than the previous
were expanded to Bangladesh. And, Pakistan Naval ves- attacks. It was the biggest attack on the Navy and its as-
sels, carrying other Pakistan Armed Forces units, landed in sets since 1971, and is believed to be the last major at-
Bangladesh for the first time since December 1971. The tack of militant mastermind Ilyas Kashmiri before being
Navy, Army, and the Air Force had carried out the relief killed in the drone strike. The Special Service Group Navy
operations in the Bangladesh, where the Pakistani forces (SSG(N)), carried out the counter-attack, which was the
also anticipated reconstruction of civil infrastructure in the largest operation led by SSG(N) since Operation Jackpot
country.[44] of 1971.

Operation Madad Operations in War on Terror

Main articles: Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy) and 2010 Main articles: Operation Rah-e-Nijat, PNS Mehran Op-
Pakistan floods eration, Operation Black Thunderstorm, and Operation
Umeed-e-Nuh
Since 1995, the operational scope of Navy has increased,
As Army and Pakistan Air Force (PAF) gained momen-
tum on militancy, the Navy took the whole responsibility
of conducting the largest search and rescue operations in
the 2010 floods. The Navy rescued and evacuated more
than 352,291 people after launching the Operation Madad
(English: “Help”) throughout Pakistan in August 2010.[45]
Since then, the Navy had provided 43,850 kg of food and
relief goods to flood victims; 5,700 kg of ready-to-cook
food, 1,000 kg of dates and 5,000 kg of food has been dis-
patched to Sukkur. The Pakistan Naval Air Arm had air
dropped more than 500 kg of food and relief good in Thal,
Ghospur and Mirpur areas.[46] As of January 2011, under
the program PN Model Village, the Navy is building the
model houses in the affected areas. More than 87 houses
were built and had been distributed to the local internally
Admiral Bashir meets with the US Army General David Petraeus,
displaced person (IDPs). About 69,011 people have been top commander of US forces in Afghanistan, to initiate peace ini-
treated in PN medical camps.[47] tiatives and counter-terrorism operations against Taliban forces in
Afghanistan.

War in North-West
first participating in combat operation, Operation United
Shield with the United States Navy. Since 2007, the Navy
Main article: PNS Mehran Operation has shifted into focusing the large-scale special operations
and strike operations. The Navy plays an active role in the
The Navy has been active as early as 2006–07 to track down multinational NAVCENT, CTF-150, CTF-151, Operation
the terrorist elements and al-Qaeda operatives around the Enduring Freedom.[48] The command of the force was
country as part of the campaign against the terrorism. To give to Pakistan from 24 March 2006, until 25 February
limit the pressure on army and air force, the Navy executed 2008. Under Pakistan’s leadership, CTF 150 coordinated
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 195

patrols throughout their area of operations to help commer- NOR) under a rear-admiral, conducted overland, signal in-
cial shipping and fishing operate safely and freely in the telligence, and bombing missions in the Tribal belt while
region. Additionally, CTF 150 Coalition ships made 11 its navy fighter jets attacked the hidden secretive places
successful at-sea rescues and made the largest drug bust of militants.[54] In the anti-terror, naval-based airborne
in the CTF 150 AOO since 2005.[49] Pakistan has con- missions using precision bombing tactics provided by the
tributed 13 different ships to CTF 150 and the current US Navy, the Pakistan Navy played a vital role in force-
one being PNS Tariq.[50] Development continues on new projection of its naval forces that played a significant role
warships, weapons, weapons technology, and as well as in controlling the insurgency, terrorism as well as proved
building the nuclear submarine for its current operational the ability to conduct successful operations far from coastal
capabilities.[51] areas won many presidential citations and praised by the
government and the international recognition.[54]
Since 2007, the Navy actively participated in Operation
Black Thunderstorm, Operation Rah-e-Nijat, Operation
Mehran, Operation Maddad, and is a major participant in
War on Terror and the War in tribal areas of Pakistan. Due 3.4.2 Command structure
to its operational capabilities and ability to project force far
from coastal areas of Pakistan, for instance the Northern According to the Constitution, the President of Pakistan is
Pakistan and abroad, the Navy remains potent asset for the the civilian commander-in-chief of Pakistan Armed Forces
Commander-in-Chief (the President of Pakistan) as well as while the Prime Minister of Pakistan served as the chief ex-
the chief executive of the country (the Prime minister of ecutive of Pakistan Armed Forces, both the people-elected
Pakistan). civilians, the President and Prime minister, maintains a
civilian control of the military.
The Chief of Naval Staff (CNS), a four-star admiral, is a
member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee as well as
the National Security Council (NSC) and the Nuclear Com-
mand Authority, and is responsible for the sea defence of
the country. They direct the non-combat and combatant
operations from naval combatant headquarters (NHQ) in Is-
lamabad, near army combatant headquarters (GHQ).
The Chief of Naval Staff has seven Deputy Chiefs of
Naval Staff, ranging from Rear Admirals to Vice-Admirals;
the Chief of Staff (COS) under whom the Naval Oper-
ations and Intelligence Directorates functions; the Naval
Secretary (NS); the Quarter-Master General (QMG); the
Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN); the Engineer-in-Chief;
An elite member of Navy’s Special Service Group Navy (SSGN) is
silhouetted by the setting sun abroad PNS Babur while under way
the Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST); the Director-General
in the Arabian Sea 25 November 2007 of Training and Joint Warfare (DG Trig); the Directorate-
General for Naval Technologies Complex (NTC); and the
Despite its seaborne mission, the Navy had played an ac- Chief of Naval Logistics (CNL). The responsibilities of
tive role in controlling the insurgency in Tribal Belt in Deputy Chief of Naval Staff are listed below:
Western Pakistan, mostly taking roles in managing logistics
and intelligence gathering as well as conducting ground op-
erations with the army in Western areas to track down the Deputy chiefs
al-Qaeda operatives. In 2011, the major terror bombing
took place in Navy’s assets in various locations of Karachi • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations
by Al-Qaeda; the first of the bombings took place on 21 (DCNS Operations)
April 2011 on two naval buses and second bombing incident
on 28 April 2011 on a naval coaster. An estimated 12 lives • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evalua-
have been lost since the start of the bombing. [52]
A third tion (DCNS Training and Evaluation)
bombing, and final bombing took place on 22 May 2011.
• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Personnel
The attack was on the PNS Mehran base in Karachi.[53]
(DCNS Training and Personnel)
Since 2004, the Navy has been readily used in overland
counter-insurgency operations, to ease off the pressure to • Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (DCNS Ma-
Army and Air Force.[54] The Northern Command (COM- terials)
196 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Supplies (DCNS Depots command


Supply)
The Pakistan Navy has a major Depot command which con-
• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Projects (DCNS
sists of 11 units
Projects)
• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Strategic Forces • • Commander Depot Group (COMDEP)- This
Command is a Type Command of Supply Branch located in
Karachi
• Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Administration)

Combatant commands Headquarters

The Pakistan Navy has six major combatant commands Pakistan Naval Combatant Headquarters, The NHQ, is lo-
cated in Islamabad, at the neighbourhood of the GHQ of
• Commander of Pakistan Naval Fleet (COMPAK) Pakistan Army. The NHQ function also includes the Judge
– The command heads the surface, sub surface and Advocate General Corps of Navy, and the Comptroller of
aviation commands.[55] COMPAK is headquartered in Civilian Personnel, the Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)
Karachi, Sindh. Previously, it included the 25th and of the Hydrographic Corps; the Engineer-in-Chief of Naval
18th Destroyer Squadron (with Gearing class D16O, Engineering Corps (NEC).
D164-168).
• Commander Naval Air Arm (COMNAV) – 3.4.3 Personnel
Looks after the Naval air stations, and is the
commander of the Naval Aviation, reporting into
COMPAK.[56]
• Commander Karachi (COMKAR) – The Comman-
der Karachi is responsible for the command of the
shore establishment, naval facilities within Karachi.
The COMKAR also provide services and training fa-
cilities for the Navy. The COMKAR also looks after
the military protocol at Karachi. This command’s re-
sponsibilities also include harbour defence.
• Commander COAST (COMCOAST) – The special
command of SSG(N), Marines and Coastal stations.
• Commander Logistics (COMLOG) – This com-
mand looks after the repair, maintenance and logistic
infrastructure of PN. Pakistan Navy Officers on Guard By the Standard of the Navy and
• Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST) Conducts all the Naval Jack
types of operational training at Sea
As of 2008, the Pakistan Navy has approximately 25,000
• Commander North (COMNOR) – Looks after the active duty personnel.[1] With additional 1,200 Marines and
Naval installations in the north of Pakistan. The more than 2,500 Coast Guard; 2,000 active-duty Navy per-
COMNOR commands the naval facilities in North- sonnel in the Maritime Security Agency. In addition there
west Pakistan, Azad Kashmir, and Northern Areas of were 5,000 reserves, total combing forces exceeding 35,700
Pakistan. The COMNOR is also a major part of Pak- personnel.[1] In 2007, Navy gave commissioned to the first
istan’s Northern Naval Command. Baloch naval squadron, consisting of around 53 women of-
ficers and 72 Baloch sailors.[58] In 2012, the Navy pushed its
• Commander WEST (COMWEST ) – Looks after
personnel strength to Baluchistan after sending a large for-
the Naval installations in the west of Pakistan. The
mation of Baloch university students to Navy Engineering
naval bases are Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar and Jiwani.
Colleges and War College as well as staff schools to com-
The COMWEST is a major component of the West-
plete their officer training requirements.[59] The Navy es-
ern Naval Command of Pakistan Navy.
tablished three additional facilities in Balochistan to super-
• Commander Central Punjab (COMCEP)[57] vise the training to its personnel.[59]
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 197

(NEE). The Naval War College is a post-graduate and post-


doctorate college that specialises in the techniques and de-
veloping ideas for naval warfare and passing them along to
officers of the Navy.[60] Other college includes the College
of Logistics and Management (conducts research in mil-
itary logistics); and Strategic Institute for Naval Affairs
which conducts research on specialising in imparting Naval
Warfare techniques to officers of the Pakistan naval forces.
The senior training institution for all service branches is
the National Defence University (NDU) at the Islamabad.
Originally established in 1971 at Rawalpindi, the university
is mandate to provide training in higher military strategy for
senior officers, the institution was relocated to Islamabad in
1995. It also offers courses that allow civilians to explore
the broader aspects of national security, defence policy and
war studies. In a program begun in the 1980s to upgrade
the intellectual standards of the army, air force, marines and
naval officers and increase awareness of the wider world, a
large group of officers, has been detailed to academic train-
ing, achieving master’s degrees and even doctorates at uni-
versities in Pakistan and abroad.
See also: List of Pakistan Navy admirals

3.4.4 Ranks and uniforms


Then, Commodore, Khan Hasham Bin Saddique of Pakistan Navy,
left, hands a spyglass to French navy Rear Adm. Jean L. Kerignard
during a change of command ceremony aboard PNS Tippu Sultan The rank structure is patterned on the British Army model.
(D 186) while in port at Mina Salman Pier, Bahrain, 25 February It consists of commissioned officers, non-commissioned of-
2008. ficers and the Junior Commissioned Officers.
Main article: Naval ranks and insignia of Pakistan
Education and training

The Pakistan Navy maintains large educational organisa- 3.4.5 Science and technology
tions, accredited institutions and scientific organisations to
support the combatant and non-combatant missions, oper-Apart from executing military operations, the Navy also
ations and shores activities on land. Its academic and ac-
maintains its own science and technology organisations and
credited four-year university, the Pakistan Naval Academy,
commands to promote scientific activities, knowledge, and
is the home of naval cadets for the future officers of Pak-
engineering facilities in the navy. The Navy operates the
istan Navy, and offers academic degrees programmes at Naval Directorate for Hydrography, served as the opera-
its academy. The Pakistan Naval Academy also has pro- tional scientific naval oceanographic program for the Navy.
vided education, athletic programs and military training
The Navy also administer and operates the astronomical
programmes to the officers of allied navies, among notables
observatory known as Pakistan Naval Observatory, with
including the Chief of Staff of the Qatar Royal Navy (QRN)
primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation, and
and many high-ranking officers of Royal Saudi Navy (RSN) Timing (PNT) for the Navy and the Ministry of Defence
as well as other navies in the Gulf were graduates of the
(MoD), though the Navy has also played a vital role in na-
Pakistan Naval Academy. The academy is a full-fledged tion’s civilian space authority, the Space Research Com-
academic and scientific institution catering to the needs to
mission in conducting studies on Astrophysics, Astronomy
Pakistan junior naval officers. and Mathematics. The Naval Strategic Forces Command
The Pakistan Navy also managed, administers, and man- served as the primary scientific and military organisation
aged the various academic research universities in the for the Navy, the command is charged with battling with
country, including the Naval Educational Establishment naval-based nuclear weapons and controlling the operations
198 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

of nuclear submarines. 3.4.6 Special Operations Forces

Special Services Group (N)

Main article: Special Service Group Navy


The Special Service Group Navy (reporting name: SSG-

A campus of Navy Engineering College (PNEC) in Karachi.

Naval SSG conducting force-protection and under-water special


The other educational facilities training institutions are in- forces training with their United States Navy counterparts, the US
cluded the PNS Bahadur, that conducts weapon system Navy SEALs.
specialist courses; the PNS Himalaya, for providing the
combat surface training courses for the NCO, JCO, and [N]) are the principle and elite special operations force
recruited sailors while the Higher Educational Training (SOF) of the Pakistan Navy, part of the Naval Strategic
(HET) is a way to be commissioned officer from sailors. Forces Command. The unit was established by then-CNS
The PNS Karsaz is the largest and most organised techni- Admiral S. M. Ahsan under the advice and guidance of
cal and naval combat training establishment of the Navy. United States Navy SEALs, in 1966. The SSG-N’s first
The Karsaz has the privilege to host many heads of states combat operation took place in 1971 and its operational
since its commissioning. Karsaz served as a mother unit diameter has increased since then. SSG-N training is ex-
who gave birth to Naval Air Station Mehran, the Navy En- tremely tough, one of the toughest courses offered by the
gineering College, PNS Bahadur, and other Navy units and Pakistan Armed Forces and in the world. The SSG-N train
naval bases in that area. The unit celebrated its golden together first with the special forces of the Pakistan army
jubilee in 2003 under the command of Commodore M. and air force, then the special airborne, seaborne, and div-
Bashir. Chaudhry. The PNS Karsaz also houses one of ing courses are taught by the instructors to the recruiters of
the most modern Special Children School which was built the veteran Navy commandos and elite operatives. SSG-
at the cost of Rs. 88.00 Millions during 2003–05. Cdre M. [N] personnel are often sent to the United States to com-
Bashir Chaudhry who was the commandant Karsaz during plete their training with the US Navy SEALs in Colorado
this period was the force behind this project who collected and California. Due to its interminable nature, the SSG-
the funds through philanthropists, got the school designed [N] are a classified and clandestine unit and their history
through NESPAK and finally constructed & put it into oper- of operations has never been released in the public domain.
ation. The Rangoon Vala Trust (RVT) contributed the most Although the official strength of the unit remains classified,
in the funding of this school and other Navy sponsored pro- its estimated strength is thought to be between 1000 and
grammes. 1240 personnel in three regiments.
The Navy Engineering College is one of the most recog-
nised institute of the Navy and offers under-graduate, post- 3.4.7 Relationships with other service
graduate, and doctoral programmes in engineering, science
and technology disciplines. The Navy Engineering College
branches
is controlled by the Navy but it has been an affiliated with
Marines
the National University of Sciences and Technology and has
become its constituent Pakistan Navy Engineering College,
where officers and civilian students are offered degrees in Main article: Pakistan Marines
Electrical, Mechanical, Electronics and industrial and man-
ufacturing engineering. The Navy established the Pakistan Marines on 1 June 1971,
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 199

by Admiral S.M. Ahsan, but they were decommissioned in The Navy also maintains a paramilitary division which pre-
1974 due to their poor performance. However, after the
Navy first reorganised, re-established, and re-visioned it-
self, proposals to establish Pakistani marines roughly equiv-
alent to the United States Marines Corps were kept un-
der consideration.[61] Finally on 14 April 1990, the Pak-
istan Marines were again re-commissioned in the Navy with
about 2,000 men who were drafted[62] with plans to signif-
icantly expand the force to the size of a corps of approxi-
mately 45,000, by 2015. The Marines are under the control
of the Pakistan Navy, using the same naval ranks. They are
headquartered at PNS Qasim in Karachi.[61]

Pakistan Navy personnel conducting a Maritime Interdiction Oper-


ation exercise with the United States Navy.

vents federal navy personnel from acting in a law enforce-


ment capacity. The Maritime Security Agency (MSA) ful-
fils the law enforcement role in naval operations. The MSA
has the capacity to conduct search and rescue operations in
deep waters of Pakistan.[63] The Agency was established af-
ter adopting the genesis at the UN Convention on the Law
of the Sea in 1982.[63] Pakistan ratified the UN Conven-
tion in 1997 but established the MSA on 1 January 1987,
for enforcement of national and international laws, policies
Pakistan Marines dressed in operational camouflage uniforms, dur- and conventions at sea.[63]
ing training with United States and Kuwaiti counterparts.

The first Officer Commanding of the Pakistan Marines was


an OF-4 rank officer, Commander M. Obaidullah.[61] On
14 April 1990, a marine training base was commissioned
to provide security cover to naval assets. The Navy de-
cided to establish the Marines at Kasim Fort which was at
that time under the operational control of PNS Himalaya.
Finally on 25 November 1990, PNS Qasim was commis-
sioned and became the marines’ combatant headquarters,
initially comprising eight naval officers, 67 Chief petty offi-
cers and petty officers, as well as 43 marine officers.[61] The
Marines specialise in seaborne operations, using the mobil-
ity of the Navy, although they are part of the Navy, not a
separate branch. Marines wear camouflage uniforms when A unit of Pakistan Navy personnel marching in Karachi.
deployed to an operational environment but otherwise they
wear Navy dress uniforms.[61] The size of the Marines were The MSA gained its constitutional status in 1994 by the
tripled by Admiral Shahid Karimullah who pursued the case Parliament and is now placed under the command of the
of an additional battalion and its development plan. Since Navy, commanded by an officer of two-star rank, a Rear-
its inception, the Pakistan Marines have been deployed in Admiral.
the Sir Creek region of the Indo-Pakistan borders.[61]
The Pakistan Coast Guard serves the same purpose as the
Navy but, is a separate branch from it.[64] The Coast Guard’s
Coast Guard duties include relief efforts in the coastal areas of Pakistan,
riverine rescue operations, and distribution of military ra-
Main articles: Pakistan Coast Guard and Maritime Security tions.[64] The Coast Guard does not perform operations in
Agency deep waters, rather such operations are performed by the
200 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

MSA.[64] However, it uses the mobility of the Pakistan


Navy depending on the type of operations it conducts. The
Coast Guard is under the command of the Pakistan Army
and contains active-duty army members. It is commanded
by a two-star rank Major-General.[64]

3.4.8 Branches

• Operations

• Above Water Warfare


• Underwater Warfare PNS Zulfiqar
• Navigation, Operations & Hydrography
• Communication & Electronic Warfare

• Marine Engineering

• Mechanical/ Propulsion
• Electrical
• Hull/ Shipwright

• Weapon Engineering

• Radio
• Fire Control PNS Alamgir

• ordnance

• Air Engineering

• Avionics
• Aerospace

• Logistics

• Medical Service

• Supply Branch

• Depots PNS Tippu Sultan

• Maintenance Offices
Frigates
• Special Branch (IT)
The names of commissioned combat and non-combat ships
of the Pakistan Navy are prefixed with the capital letters
3.4.9 Naval fleet “PNS” (“Pakistan Naval Ships”). The names of ships are
selected by the Ministry of Defence, often to honour im-
Main article: List of active Pakistan Navy ships portant people or places in the history of Pakistan. The of-
fensive surface fleet of the Navy comprises 10 combat ships,
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 201

PNS Larkana Class Missile Boat

The frigate PNS Alamgir (former guided-missile frigate USS McIn-


erney (FFG-8), being handed over to Pakistan Navy on 31 August
2010 at US Naval Station Mayport, Fla.

yet been disclosed, but they could include the Mk 41


Vertical Launch System for the Evolved Sea Sparrow Mis-
sile (ESSM) as well as Mk 32 torpedo tubes for Mk 46 Anti-
Submarine Warfare (ASW) torpedoes. The frigate USS
PNS Badr with USS Tarawa (LHA-1)
McInerney (FFG-8) with limited anti-submarine warfare
capability was handed over on 31 August 2010. The ship
has been named PNS Alamgir (FFG-260) after the great
including five former Royal Navy Amazon class frigates. Mughal Emperor Alamgir. The ship was transferred to Pak-
PNS Badr has been decommissioned recently. The Navy istan at Mayport, Florida.
intends to decommission the ships from their active service According to Jane’s, at the military convention IDEAS
between 2010 and 2020. In 2005, the Pakistan Navy or- 2004, former chief of naval staff Admiral Shahid Karimul-
dered four F-22P light frigates from China in a deal worth lah commented that at “least four additional new-built
$750 million.[65] The first has been commissioned and the frigates will be acquired by the navy.” As of 2011, three
remainder by 2013.[65] This was the semi-nationalized pro- of the four frigate are larger and superior to the first Chi-
gramme that was built under the supervision of the People’s nese F-22P. The frigates are likely have a better air defence
Republic of China. The first frigate was built in Karachi system and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capability, and
Shipyard and its first lead ship was delivered on 5 April use more advanced sensors, radar and electronics. Pakistan
2008. The F-22P Zulfiquar-class frigate Programme suc- Navy is also reported to have been interested in Turkish
cessfully ended when the F-254 PNS Aslat was delivered TF-2000 class frigates.
in July 2011. All four frigates have the ability to embark
Harbin Z-9 helicopters on deck.[65] The F-22P is an im-
proved version of the Type 053H3 Jiangwei II class light Corvettes & missile boats
frigate, and has a displacement of at least 2500 tons.[65]
According to Jane’s, the Pakistan Navy was expected to The Pakistan Navy operates two Jalalat II class and two Jur-
place a formal request to the US for six Oliver Hazard Perry rat class missile boats each armed with four Chinese C-802
class frigates to augment its surface fleet. These were to anti-ship missiles. The Jalalat II Class were locally pro-
replace their 40-year-old ex-British Type-21 frigates and duced using a German design, and the Jurrat class, which
act as stop-gaps until new Chinese-built F-22P frigates and was also locally produced, is considered as an improved ver-
corvettes are built and commissioned. However, in 2010 sion of the Jalalat II class, with better sensors and propul-
only one, the USS McInerney — a guided missile frigate, sion.
was transferred to the Pakistan Navy, after a $65 million In November 2006 the Pakistan Navy ordered two MRTP-
refit. In 2013 the United States Congress “deliberately” 33 and two MRTP-15 missile boats from Yonca-Onuk ship-
placed “impossible” conditions on the transfer of further yards of Turkey.[67] both have been delivered. The Navy
ships to Pakistan.[66] has an overall requirement of eight MRTP-33s.
The weapons systems on the Navy’s FFG-8 have not Pakistan Navy has also ordered two fast attack craft/missile
202 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

boats, the 500–600 tons Azmat class, equipped with


C802/803 anti ship missiles from China in December 2010.
The first boat P1013 PNS Azmat was handed over to Pak-
istan Navy on 23 April 2012 and 2nd (PNS Dahshat) on 16
August 2012. These are the largest class of missile boats
inducted in the Pakistan Navy as of 2012. Pakistan Navy is
also, negotiating Milgem class corvettes with Turkey.

Fleet composition

This is a list of ship classes in the Pakistan Navy:[68][69][70]


An Agosta 90B Submarine in operation.
Submarines of the Pakistan Navy

See also: Khalid class submarine, Karachi Shipyard, and the rest would be completed successively in 12 months”.[75]
Karachi Naval Dockyard However, in 2009, it was reported that the Navy had can-
celed its plans with HDW, the German government adjourn
the deal further deliberation leading the Navy to cancel the
The programme of (submarine technology contract with HDW while the German government seemed
transfer) Agosta class submarine, envisages not-interested to transfer the submarine technology to Pak-
a very high degree of transfer-of-technology, istan. However, the German government insisted that “a
which is bound to benefit the local industry in final decision should be made soon”.[73] In 2012, an undis-
improving our indigenous capability of building closed navy officials confirmed to media and news chan-
air-independent propulsion, which is a viable nels that the plan of acquiring German submarines has been
substitute of nuclear propulsion.... scrapped, dismissed as the Navy is no longer interested in
— Rear Admiral Gulzaman Malik, Commander the German submarines. Instead, the Navy has stepped
of Submarine Service Force, 1999, [32] into build the nation’s first indigenously built nuclear sub-
marine, which will be built by the Navy’s PNEC nuclear
engineers, assisted by the civilian PAEC's nuclear engineers
The Submarines Service Force (SSF) is the major com- and scientists.[73]
mand and aggressive command of Pakistan Navy, with pri- The X-Craft submarines are charged with carrying out
mary mission including the commencing of peaceful en- the mine laying, torpedo attacks, frogman operations and
gagement, surveillance and intelligence management, spe- commando landing, roughly for special forces operations.
cial operations, precision strikes, battle group operations, Three submarines of this class are operated by the Navy.
and the control of Pakistan’s border seas. The Subma- In 1985, the Italian Navy signed an understanding memo-
rine command also takes responsibility to protect coun- randum with the Navy and assisted the Navy to locally built
try’s sea lanes of communication as well as to protect the these midget submarines.[76] The Italian defence contrac-
economical interests, foreign trade and development of the tor, the COSMOS, supervised the first construction of the
country.[73][74] submarine while other two were built by Pakistan.[76]
In mid-2006, the Navy announced its requirement of three All of the Navy’s submarines have been equipped with Anti-
new fast-attack submarines to replace the two Agosta-70 ship missile (AShM) which can be fired while submerged.
submarines and rebuild its submarine fleet— after retiring The three submarines, the Khalid class, are equipped and
the four Daphne Class.[73] Immediately, the French defence capable of firing Exocet missiles, while the older Agosta
consortium, the DCN, offered its latest export design— the 70A submarines have been equipped with United States
Marlin class submarine— which is based on the Scorpène Harpoon missiles. The PNS Hamza submarine has an AIP
class submarine, but also uses technology from the Bar- reactor, containing the MESMA Air Independent Propul-
racuda nuclear attack submarine.[73] However, the Navy sion system, while the PNS Khalid and PNS Saad were up-
chose the Type 214 submarine, during the “IDEAS 2008 graded with the same MESMA AIP reactor system. The
exhibition”, the HDW director Walter Freitag told the me- Navy also plans to integrate the Boeing Harpoon Block-II
dia that: “The commercial contract has been finalized up to missile on to its Agosta-90B submarines; and the Agosta-
95%. The first submarine would be delivered to the Pak- 90Bs are capable of firing Black Shark torpedo, an Italian
istan Navy in 64 months after signing of the contract while made naval variant.
3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 203

Since 2001, the Navy has been seeking to enhance its strate-
gic strike and precision capability by developing naval vari-
ants of the Babur land attack cruise missile (LACM).[73]
The Babur LACM has a range of 700 km and is capa-
ble of using both conventional and nuclear warheads.[73]
Future developments of LACM include capability of be-
ing launched from submarines, surface combatants and
aircraft.[73]
Since 1964, the submarines have been active with Pak-
istan Navy, and five active-duty diesel electric submarines
and three midget submarines, MG110, are in SSGN
command.[77]
In April 2014, the Pakistan Navy announced that it is in the A Pakistan Navy P-3C Orion in 2010
process of shifting primary operations and naval assets, in-
cluding its entire fleet of diesel-electric submarines (SSKs),
from Karachi to the Jinnah Naval Base in Ormara.[80] become a full-fledged and potent service of the Navy. From
1993 to 1994, the Navy stepped in its efforts in sea-airborne
operations when PAF donated and inducted five Mirage 5
Patrol Craft ROSE fighter jets, later transferred the entire squadron to
Navy armed with Exocet missiles.[13] Since then, the Mi-
Pakistan currently operates a range of patrol vessels pro- rage 5 are piloted by the navy fighter pilots after passing the
cured from Turkey, China and the USA, as well as some course with PAF Academy and certifying a diploma from a
domestically built. They are primarily divided among weapons system and combat training school.[13] The Mirage
the 10th Patrol Craft Squadron and the Fast Patrol Craft 5 belonged to the PAF as well as operated by the air force,
Squadron.[81] but are piloted by the Navy fighter pilots who are under the
command of senior ranking Navy officer.[13] The Westland
On 10 June 2015, a formal agreement was signed be-
lynx helicopters have now been removed from active ser-
tween the Pakistani government and the “China Ship Trad-
vice and a tender has been issued for their removal.[84]
ing Company” for the sale of total six patrol boats which
will eventually replace the ageing Barkat Class Boats of Pakistan Naval Air Arm Pakistan Naval Aviation is an im-
PMSA. Of these ships four will be 600ton while two will portant arm of the Pakistan Navy and assists in the surface
be 1500 ton. Three (600 ton) and one 1500 ton boats will and submarine flights to guarantee the safety of Pakistan
be built in China, and one 600ton and ond 1500 ton at sea borders.
the “Karachi Shipyards and Engineering Works”. The con- The PN Aviation Force consists of:
tract price was not disclosed but a senior Pakistani official
said at least USD 130 million had been allocated. CSTC
(China) has launched two 600 ton boats three months ahead • 3 ATR-72−500 -Anti submarine Warfare. 2 Atr72
of scheduled time.PMSA Basol is the second ship launced acquired on 16 August 2013 while 3rd one on 22
by CSTC.while one 600 ton boat is under construction at September 2015. Both are currently having modern-
KSEW which is expected to be delivered in early 2017. [82] ization in a German Firm for ASW role Scheduled to
be delivered at end of 2017.

• 6 Westland Sea King Mk.45 – Anti-submarine/ Anti-


3.4.10 Pakistan Naval Air Arm Surface Warfare helicopters have been based at
Karachi.
Main article: Pakistan Naval Air Arm
After realising the naval failure in the 1971 war, the Navy • 8 Aérospatiale SA-319B Alouette III – SAR
sought to modernise.[83] The Navy took the research on us- transport/anti-ship helicopters[85]
ing the aircraft at sea in 1971, after the war. Its aerial
fighting unit is known as Naval Air Arm (also known as • 7 Lockheed P-3C Orion – Naval surveillance/anti-
Naval Aviation) apart from the PAF. The naval fighter pilot submarine warfare aircraft/airborne early warn-
course was introduced by the Navy and trained its fighter ing/airborne and bombing missions. Future supply of
pilots at the Pakistan Air Force Academy, furthermore the 7 more under an agreement with Lockheed Martin
navy pilots later went to Combat Commander’s School for signed in 2006.[86] Two upgraded P-3C Orion deliv-
fighter jet training. Since the 1970s, the naval air arm has ered on 7 January 2010 while one was delivered in
204 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

November 2009. Another two advanced P-3C Orion 3.4.11 See also
aircraft to be delivered soon .[87][88]
• Pakistan Coast Guard
• 7 Fokker F27-200 Friendship – Naval surveillance
• Pakistan Naval Academy
aircraft[89]
• Pakistan Navy War College
• 4 Hawker 850 – Charged with electronic warfare as
well transporting VIP personalities, individuals, or • Kalmat Naval Base
groups.
• Ahsan Naval Base
• 32+ Dassault Mirage V – Anti-ship attack aircraft • Jinnah Naval Base
flown by Navy fighter pilots which are based at PAF
base Masroor in Karachi[89] (the fighter jets are oper- • Makran Naval Base
ated by the Pakistan Air Force but piloted by the Navy
• Mehran Naval Base
fighter pilots who served under the command of the se-
nior ranking Navy officer) scheduled to be retired and • Qasim Naval Base
replaced by JF-17 Thunder(Block II) in 2015 but are
in active-duty service with the Navy.
3.4.12 References
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles include NESCOM Burraq,
Satuma Spy, Satuma Informer and the UQAB-II[90] Citations
drone.
[1] The Military Balance 2010, p. 367, International Institute
• 12 Harbin Z-9EC anti-submarine warfare helicopters for Strategic Studies (London, 2010).
equipped with a surface-search radar, low frequency
[2] Flightglobal - World Air Forces 2015 (PDF),
dipping sonar, radar warning receiver, Doppler navi-
Flightglobal.com
gation system and armed with torpedoes.
[3] Pakistan Times | Top Story: Defence Day in Pakistan to-
day; President, PM ask nation to imbibe spirit of ’65 War
Pakistan Naval Air Defence Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine.

[4] Pakistan Navy (18 March 2008). “Pakistan Navy: Roles and
Main article: Pakistan Naval Air Arm Function”. Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR).
Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs. Retrieved 2011.
In 2010, the Navy established another command after Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
launching an air defence system, using the infrared hom- [5] Khan, Pakistan Navy (retired), current research officer
ing man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADs) system. at Pakistan Naval War College, Commander Muhammad
The new command which is known as Pakistan Naval Air Azam (2011). “Options for Pakistan Navy: § Pakistan Navy:
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[39] Lt. (j.g.) Bryan Boggs, USN (6 June 2008). “USS Curts,
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After the war, however, teams of divers confirmed that it [42] PN ships to arrive in Indonesia for relief operation in
was an internal explosion that sank the Ghazi. The log of tsunami-hit areas
the Ghazi was recovered and the last entry as far as I can
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206 CHAPTER 3. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

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3.4. PAKISTAN NAVY 207

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Internet

• “Orbat”. Naval and Maritime Security Agency Warship


Names 1947–2005. Retrieved 22 June 2005.

3.4.13 External links


• Official website
Chapter 4

Geography

4.1 Geography of Pakistan

The geography of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ِ ن‬ ‫ ) ا‬is a pro-


found blend of landscapes varying from plains to deserts,
forests, hills, and plateaus ranging from the coastal areas
of the Arabian Sea in the south to the mountains of the
Karakoram range in the north. Pakistan geologically over-
laps both with the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates
where its Sindh and Punjab provinces lie on the north-
western corner of the Indian plate while Balochistan and
most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie within the Eurasian
plate which mainly comprises the Iranian Plateau. Gilgit-
Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian
plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes where the
two tectonic plates collide.
Pakistan is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to
the west and Iran to the southwest while China borders the
country in the northeast. The nation is geopolitically placed
International and provincial boundaries of Pakistan
within some of the most controversial regional boundaries
which share disputes and have many-a-times escalated mil-
itary tensions between the nations, e.g., that of Kashmir
with India and the Durand Line with Afghanistan. Its west- 4.1.1 International boundaries
ern borders include the Khyber Pass and Bolan Pass that
Pakistan shares its borders with four neighboring countries
have served as traditional migration routes between Central
Eurasia and South Asia. – Afghanistan, China, India, and Iran – adding up to about
6,975 km (4,334.1 mi) in length (excluding the coastal ar-
Area - comparative: more than twice the size of Califor- eas).
nia, slightly larger than Alberta
Pakistan definitely borders Afghanistan at the Durand Line,
Land boundaries: 2,250 km (1,398.1 mi), which runs from the Hindu Kush
Maritime claims: and the Pamir Mountains. Its proposal was drafted by
contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) and named after the former secretary of British India Sir
continental shelf: 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the Henry Mortimer Durand. When Pakistan became inde-
edge of the continental margin pendent in 1947 however, the legitimacy of the demar-
exclusive economic zone: 350 nautical miles (648.2 km) cation was questioned and disputed by Afghans and the
territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Pakhtun or Pashtun tribes. Afghanistan claimed the border

208
4.1. GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN 209

flict between their National Armies facing each other.


The Pakistan-India ceasefire line runs from the Karako-
ram Pass west-southwest to a point about 130 kilometers
northeast of Lahore. This line, about 770 kilometers long,
was arranged with United Nations (UNO) assistance at the
end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48. The ceasefire
line came into effect on January 1, 1949, after eighteen
months of fighting between Indian forces and Afridi trib-
als which Pakistan had sent to occupy Kashmir and was last
adjusted and agreed upon by the two countries according
to the Simla Agreement of July 2, 1972 between Indira
Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Since then, it has been
generally known as the Line of Control or the (LoC).
The Pakistan-India boundary continues irregularly south-
ward for about 1,280 kilometers, following the line of the
International boundaries of Pakistani terrain (non-annotated).
1947 Radcliffe Award, named for Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the
head of the British boundary commission on the division
of the Punjabs of Pakistan and in united Bengal of India
was imposed upon their weak nation by stronger influences into Pakistan’s Eastern wing of Mashriqi-Pakistan on 13
and favoured the establishment of another separatist state August 1947. Although this boundary with India referring
to be called Pakhtunistan.[1] The Durand Line remained only to present-day Pakistan and not aimed at formerly East
disputed until 1994 when it was finally accepted. A nar- Pakistan borders except only all three governments claim-
row strip of Afghan-occupied Gorno-Badakhshan territory ing the status of the district of Firozpur and Pathankot be-
called the Wakhan Corridor extends between Pakistan and tween Pakistan and India. It remains another unresolved
Tajikistan.[2] From the eastern tip of the Wakhan Corridor issue although it is not formally disputed; passions still run
starts the Sino-Pak border between the People’s Republic very high indeed on both sides of the international border.
of China and Pakistan spanning about 510 km (316.9 mi). Many had expected the original boundary line to run far-
It carries on south-eastward and ends near the Karakoram ther to the west, thereby ceding the Lahore region to India,
Pass. This line was determined from 1961 to 1965 in a possibly granting them all of Gujranwala Division: Sialkot,
series of agreements between China and Pakistan and fi- Narowal, Gujrat, districts and Sheikhupura, Okara, Kasur
nally on 03-03-1963 both the governments, of Islamabad districts of Lahore Division; and others had expected the
and Beijing, formally agreed. It is understood that if the line to run much farther east, possibly granting them control
dispute over Kashmir is resolved, the border would need to of Delhi, the imperial capital of the Mughal Empire includ-
be discussed again.[2] ing an east Punjab state for Sikhs of their own to govern.
The boundary with Iran, 909 km (564.8 mi), was first de- The southern borders are far less contentious than those
limited by a British commission in the same year as the in northern Pakistan (Kashmir). The Thar Desert in the
Durand Line was demarcated, separating Iran from what province of Sindh is separated in the south from the salt flats
was then British India’s Balochistan province.[2] Modern of the Rann of Kachchh (Kutch) by a boundary that was
Iran has a province named Sistan va Balochistan that bor- first delineated in 1923-24. After independence and disso-
ders Pakistan and has Balochis in an ethnic majority. In lution of Empire, Independent and free Pakistan contested
1957 Pakistan signed a frontier agreement with Iran in the southern boundary of Sindh, and a succession of bor-
Rawalpindi according to which the border was officially de- der incidents resulted. They were less dangerous and less
clared and the two countries haven't had this border as a widespread, however, than the conflict that erupted in Kash-
subject of serious dispute at all. The Northern Areas has mir in the Indo-Pakistani War of August 1965 started with
five of the world’s seventeen highest peaks along with high- this decisive core of issues. These southern hostilities were
est range of mountains the Karakoram and Himalayas. It ended by British mediation during Harold Wilson’s era, and
also has such extensive glaciers that it has sometimes been both sides accepted the award of the Indo-Pakistan Western
called the "Third Pole". The international border-line has Boundary Case Tribunal designated by the UN secretary
been a matter of pivotal dispute between Pakistan and India general himself. The tribunal made its award on February
ever since 1947, and the Siachen Glacier in northern Kash- 19, 1968; delimiting a line of 403 kilometers that was later
mir has been an important arena for fighting between the demarcated by joint survey teams, Of its original claim of
two sides since 1984, although far more soldiers have died some 9,100 square kilometers, Pakistan was awarded only
of exposure to the cold than from any skirmishes in the con- about 780 square kilometers. Beyond the western terminus
210 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY

of the tribunal’s award, the final stretch of Pakistan’s bor- The northern highlands
der with India is about 80 kilometers long, running east and
southeast of Sindh to an inlet of the Arabian Sea. The northern highlands include parts of the Hindu Kush,
the Karakoram Range, and the Himalayas. This area in-
cludes such famous peaks as K2[3] (Mount Godwin Austen,
at 8,611 meters the second highest peak in the world).
Outline of Pakistan More than one-half of the summits are over 4,500 me-
ters, and more than fifty peaks reach above 6,500 meters.
4.1.2 Geographical regions Travel through the area is difficult and dangerous, although
the government is attempting to develop certain areas into
tourist and trekking sites. Because of their rugged topogra-
phy and the rigours of the climate, the northern highlands
and the Himalayas to the east have been formidable barriers
to movement into Pakistan throughout history.

K2, at 8,619 metres (28,251 ft), is the world’s second highest peak

South of the northern highlands and west of the Indus River


Topography of Pakistan plain are the Safed Koh Range along the Afghanistan border
and the Sulaiman Range and Kirthar Range, which define
the western extent of the province of Sindh and reach al-
Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the
northern highlands; the Indus River plain, with two ma- most to the southern coast. The lower reaches are far more
arid than those in the north, and they branch into ranges that
jor subdivisions corresponding roughly to the provinces of
Punjab and Sindh; and the Balochistan Plateau. Some ge- run generally to the southwest across the province Balochis-
tan. North-south valleys in Balochistan and Sindh have re-
ographers designate additional major regions. For exam-
ple, the mountain ranges along the western border with stricted the migration of peoples along the Makran Coast
Afghanistan are sometimes described separately from the on the Arabian Sea east toward the plains.
Balochistan Plateau, and on the eastern border with India, Several large passes cut the ranges along the border with
south of the Sutlej River, the Thar Desert may be consid- Afghanistan. Among them are the Khojak Pass, about
ered separately from the Indus Plain. Nevertheless, the eighty kilometres northwest of Quetta in Balochistan; the
country may conveniently be visualized in general terms Khyber Pass, forty kilometres west of Peshawar and leading
as divided in three by an imaginary line drawn eastward to Kabul; and the Broghol Pass in the far north, providing
from the Khyber Pass and another drawn southwest from access to the Wakhan Corridor.
Islamabad down the middle of the country. Roughly, then, Less than one-fifth of Pakistan’s land area has the potential
the northern highlands are north of the imaginary east-west for intensive agricultural use. Nearly all of the arable land is
line; the Balochistan Plateau is to the west of the imaginary actively cultivated, but outputs are low by world standards.
southwest line; and the Indus Plain lies to the east of that Cultivation is sparse in the northern mountains, the south-
line. ern deserts, and the western plateaus, but the Indus River
Elevation extremes: basin in Punjab and northern Sindh has fertile soil that en-
lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m ables Pakistan to feed its population under usual climatic
highest point: K2 (Mt. Godwin-Austin) 8,611 m conditions.
4.1. GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN 211

The Indus plain The Sulaiman Mountains dominate the northeast corner and
the Bolan Pass is a natural route into Afghanistan towards
Main article: Indo-Gangetic plain Kandahar. Much of the province south of the Quetta region
is sparse desert terrain with pockets of inhabitable towns
mostly near rivers and streams. The largest desert is the
The name Indus comes from the Sanskrit word sindhu,
Kharan Desert which occupies the most of Kharan District.
meaning ocean, from which also come the words Sindh,
Hindu, and India. The Indus, one of the great rivers of the This area is subject to frequent seismic disturbances be-
world, rises in southwestern Tibet only about 160 kilome- cause the tectonic plate under the Indian plate hits the plate
tres west of the source of the Sutlej River, which joins the under Eurasia as it continues to move northward and to
Indus in Punjab, and the Brahmaputra, which runs eastward push the Himalayas ever higher. The region surrounding
before turning southwest and flowing through Bangladesh. Quetta is highly prone to earthquakes. A severe quake
The catchment area of the Indus is estimated at almost in 1931 was followed by one of more destructive force in
1 million square kilometres, and all of Pakistan’s major 1935. The small city of Quetta was almost completely de-
rivers—the Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej—flow stroyed, and the adjacent military cantonment was heavily
into it. The Indus River basin is a large, fertile alluvial plain damaged. At least 20,000 people were killed. Tremors
formed by silt from the Indus. This area has been inhabited continue in the vicinity of Quetta; the most recent ma-
by agricultural civilizations for at least 5,000 years. jor earthquake occurred in October 2008. In January
1991 a severe earthquake destroyed entire villages in the
Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, but far fewer people were killed in
Sistan Basin the quake than died in 1935. A major earthquake centred in
the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa’s Kohistan District in 1965 also
caused heavy damage.

4.1.3 Climate
Main article: Climate of Pakistan
Pakistan lies in the temperate zone, immediately above the

Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification

Satellite image of the Sulaiman Range

Main article: Sistan Basin

Balochistan is located at the eastern edge of the Iranian


plateau and in the border region between Southwest, Cen-
tral, and South Asia. It is geographically the largest of the
four provinces at 347,190 km² or (134,051 square miles) Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification.
of Pakistani territory; and composes 48% of the total land
area of Pakistan. The population density is very low due to tropic of cancer. The climate varies from tropical to tem-
the mountainous terrain and scarcity of water. The southern perate. Arid conditions exist in the coastal south, character-
region is known as Makran. The central region is known as ized by a monsoon season with adequate rainfall and a dry
Kalat. season with lesser rainfall, while abundant rainfall is expe-
212 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY

Pakistan’s largest city, Karachi, which is also the country’s


industrial center, is more humid than Islamabad but gets
significantly lesser rainfall. Only July and August average
more than 50 millimetres (1.97 in) of rainfall in the Karachi
area; the remaining months are exceedingly dry with little
rainfall. The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi
than in Islamabad, ranging from an average daily low of 13
°C (55.4 °F) during winter evenings to an average daily high
of 34 °C (93.2 °F) on summer days. Although the summer
temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab, the high
humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort.

4.1.4 Natural resources and primary indus-


try
Water resources

Main article: Water resources management in Pakistan


Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan

Hydrological power is a renewable resource which bene-


fits Pakistan a lot. After the Indus Water Treaty on 1960
World Bank decided that River Sutlej, Ravi and Beas water
Dust storm over Pakistan and surrounding countries, April 7, 2005 will be used by India and River Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
water will be used by Pakistan. Pakistan was told to build 2
Dams one Tarbela And second Mangla, 5 Barrages, 8 Link
rienced by the province of Punjab, and wide variations be- Canals and one gated siphon. For this India was told to Par-
tween extremes of temperature at given locations. Rainfall ticipate 60% while Pakistan will participate 40%. Pakistan
varies from as little as less than 10 inches a year to over 150 is considering to develop wind turbines to fulfill the demand
inches a year, in various parts of the nation. These gener- for electricity.solar power is now slowly flourishing but it is
alizations should not, however, obscure the distinct differ- still installed on a small scale.
ences existing among particular locations. For example, the Pakistan Largest River is known as River Indus which Flows
coastal area along the Arabian Sea is usually warm, whereas from Tibet China and enters through Pakistan by KPK.
the frozen snow-covered ridges of the Karakoram Range River Indus System is known as Indus System. It is divided
and of other mountains of the far north are so cold year into two plains. Upper Indus Plain starts from Northern
round that they are only accessible by world-class climbers Pakistan and ends up at Mithankot. River Indus has tribu-
for a few weeks in May and June of each year. taries on both western and eastern side. River Indus east-
Pakistan has four seasons: a cool, dry winter marked by ern tributaries are River Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, Ravi and
mild temperatures from December through February; a hot, Beas. These four rivers flow in Punjab. These four rivers
dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy meet at Panjnad where they are known as River Panjnad.
season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through River Indus western tributaries are River Swat, Kabul, Kur-
September; and the retreating monsoon period of October rram, Tochi, Gomal, Zhob. These rivers join River Indus
and November. The onset and duration of these seasons at KPK. At Mithankot these rivers finally meet with River
vary somewhat according to location. Indus. After this River Indus flows alone through Lower In-
dus Plain. Lower Indus Plain Starts from Mithankot up to
The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an Thatta where River Indus meets with the Arabian Sea. This
average daily low of 5 °C (41.0 °F) in January to an aver- place is also known as Indus Delta.
age daily high of 40 °C (104 °F) in June. Half of the an-
nual rainfall occurs in July and August, averaging about 300
millimetres (11.81 in) in each of those two months. The re- Fuel resources
mainder of the year has significantly less rain, amounting to
about 100 millimetres (3.94 in) per month. Hailstorms are Main article: Fuel extraction in Pakistan
common in early spring.
4.1. GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN 213

Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly The environmental issues is a great problem for the nature
sizable natural gas reserves, petroleum oil reserves, coal and nation of Pakistan and has been disturbing the balance
fields and large hydropower potential. between economic development and environmental protec-
tion. As Pakistan is a large importer of both exhaustible
and renewable natural resources and a large consumer of
Agriculture fossil fuels, the Ministry of Environment of Government
of Pakistan takes responsibility to conserve and protect the
Main article: Agriculture in Pakistan environment.
Current issues: water pollution from raw sewage, indus-
About 97% of Pakistan’s total land area is under cultiva- trial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh
tion and is watered by one of the largest irrigation systems water resources; a majority of the population does not
in the world. The most important crops are cotton, wheat, have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion;
rice, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, millets, pulses, oil seeds, desertification.
barley, fruits and vegetables, which together account for
more than 75% of the value of total crop output.
Natural disasters

Fishery Main article: List of natural disasters in Pakistan

Main article: Fishing in Pakistan Pakistan is subject to frequent earthquakes which are
often severe (especially in north and west) and severe
Fishery and fishing industry plays an important role in the flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August).
national economy of Pakistan. With a coastline of about Landslides are common in the northern mountains.
814 km, Pakistan has enough fishery resources that remain
to be fully developed. It is also a major source of export
Protected areas
earning.
Main article: Protected areas of Pakistan
Forestry
There are 14 national parks, 72 wildlife sanctuaries, 66
Main article: Forestry in Pakistan game reserves, 9 marine and littoral protected areas, 19 pro-
tected wetlands and a number of other protected grasslands,
shrublands, woodlands and natural monuments.
About only 4% of land in Pakistan is covered with forests.
The forests of Pakistan are a main source of food, lumber,
paper, fuel wood, latex, medicine as well as used for pur- International agreements
poses of wildlife conservation and Eco tourism.
Pakistan is a party to several international agreements re-
lated to environment and climate, the most prominent
Mining among them are:

Main article: Mining in Pakistan


4.1.6 Suffix of regions and towns
The Salt Range in the Potwar Plateau has large deposits of
Parts of region and settlement names:
rock salt. Pakistan has extensive mineral resources, includ-
ing fairly sizable reserves of gypsum, limestone, chromites,
iron ore, rock salt, silver, gold, precious stones, gems, • khel (Urdu: ) means the Pukhtoon society is in-
marbles, tiles, copper, sulfur, fire clay and silica sand. dividualistic despite the rigid behavior prescribed by
clan membership: Darra Adam Khel ‫درہ آدم خیل‬.
• -abad (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ آ د‬means settlement or town. Exam-
4.1.5 Environment and conservation ple: Islamabad, Faisalabad.
Main article: Environmental issues in Pakistan • -dera (Urdu: ‫ ) ڈ � ـ‬means settlement or town. Exam-
ple: Dera Ismail Khan.
214 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY

• -garh (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ ھ‬means fort or settlement. Example:


Islamgarh.

• -goth (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ‬means settlement or town. Ex-


ample: Yousuf Goth.

• -istan (Urdu: ‫ن‬ ‫ ) ـ‬means land. Example: Baltistan.

• -kot (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ ٹ‬means settlement or town. Exam-


ple: Islamkot, Sialkot.

• -nagar (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ‬means settlement or town. Exam-


ple: Islamnagar.
ُ
• -pur (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ ر‬means settlement or town. Example:
Nasarpur.

• -wal (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ ال‬means settlement or town. Example:


Khanewal.

• -wala (Urdu: ‫ ) ـ اﻻ‬means settlement or town. Exam-


ple: Gujranwala.

• -tando (Urdu: ‫ ) و ـ‬means settlement or town. Ex-


ample: Tando Allahyar.
Rawat Fault line near Islamabad

4.1.7 See also


4.2 Geology of Pakistan
• Extreme points of Pakistan

• Geology of Pakistan The geology of Pakistan encompasses the varied land-


scapes that make up the land constituting modern-day
• Zomia (geography) Pakistan, which are a blend of its geological history, and
its climate over the past few million years.
• Fisheries Research and Training Institute, Lahore The Geological Survey of Pakistan is the premier agency
Pakistan responsible for studying the country’s geology.[1]

4.1.8 References

[1] Brecher & Wilkenfeld 1997, p. 147 4.2.1 Tectonic zone

[2] “Pakistan: Geography”. US Country Studies. Retrieved Main article: Tectonics zones of Pakistan
2008-05-05. Pakistan geologically overlaps both with the Indian and
the Eurasian tectonic plates where its Sindh and Punjab
[3] K2 – Britannica.com provinces lie on the north-western corner of the Indian plate
while Balochistan and most of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa
lie within the Eurasian plate which mainly comprises the
4.1.9 External links Iranian plateau, some parts of the Middle East and Central
Asia. The Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir lie mainly in
• Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan Central Asia along the edge of the Indian plate and hence
are prone to violent earthquakes where the two tectonic
• Pakistan Geographic plates collide.
4.3. CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN 215

4.2.4 References
[1] Geological Survey of Pakistan

4.3 Climate of Pakistan

Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification

Earthquake hazard zones of Pakistan

4.2.2 Earthquakes

Main article: List of earthquakes in Pakistan

Since it lies in the centre of tectonic plates, Pakistan has


been vulnerable to a number of deadly earthquakes.

Paksitan map of Köppen climate classification.


4.2.3 Mining
Pakistan has recorded one of the highest temperatures in the
world – 53.5 °C (128.3 °F) – on 26 May 2010. It is not only
Main article: Mining in Pakistan the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan, but also
the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded in
Mining is an important industry in Pakistan. Pakistan has the continent of Asia.[1][2] As Pakistan is located on a great
deposits of several minerals including coal, copper, gold, landmass north of the tropic of cancer (between latitudes
chromite, mineral salt, bauxite and several other minerals. 25° and 35° N), it has a continental type of climate char-
There are also a variety of precious and semi-precious min- acterized by extreme variations of temperature, both sea-
erals that are also mined. These include peridot, aquama- sonally and daily. Very high altitudes modify the climate in
rine, topaz, ruby, emerald, rare-earth minerals bastnaesite the cold, snow-covered northern mountains; temperatures
and xenotime, sphene, tourmaline, and many varieties and on the Balochistan Plateau are somewhat higher. Along the
types of quartz. coastal strip, the climate is modified by sea breezes. In the
The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation is the re- rest of the country, temperatures reach great heights in the
sponsible authority for the support and development of the summer; the mean temperature during June is 38 °C (100
mining industry. Gemstones Corporation of Pakistan looks °F) in the plains, the highest temperatures can exceed 47
after the interests of stake holders in gemstone mining and °C (117 °F). In the summer, hot winds called Loo blow
polishing as an official entity. Baluchistan province is the across the plains during the day. Trees shed their leaves to
richest in mineral resources available in Pakistan. While avoid loss of moisture. The dry, hot weather is broken occa-
recently Sindh discovered coal deposits in Thar. Khyber sionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily
Pakhtunkhwa is rich in gems. Most of the mineral gems lower the temperature. Evenings are cool; the diurnal vari-
found in Pakistan exist here. Apart from oil, gas and some ation in temperature may be as much as 11C to 17C. Win-
mineral used in nuclear energy purposes which comes di- ters are cold, with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab
rectly under federal control mining of other minerals is of about 4 °C (39 °F) in January, and sub-zero temperatures
provincial issue. Currently around 52 minerals, are mined in the far north and Balochistan.
and processed in Pakistan. The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two
216 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY

These dust storms are quite violent. Dust storms dur-


ing the early summer indicates the arrival of the mon-
soons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the ar-
rival of winter.

• Heat waves occur during May and June, especially


in southern Punjab, central Balochistan and interior
Sindh.

• Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern


Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir.

• Continental air prevails during the period when there


is no precipitation in the country.

Pakistan has four seasons: a cool, dry winter from Decem-


ber through February; a hot, dry spring from March through
May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon pe-
Regions where Snow Falls in Pakistan (Region: North half of Azad riod, from June through September; and the retreating mon-
Kashmir, Gilgit–Baltistan, Extreme northern Punjab, Northern soon period of October and November. The onset and dura-
half of Khyber-Pakhtunkhawa province and Northern Balochistan. tion of these seasons vary somewhat according to location.
Personal estimation.) The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an
average daily low of 2 °C in January to an average daily
main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan; oth- high of 38 °C in June. Half of the annual rainfall occurs in
erwise, Continental air prevails for rest of the year. Fol- July and August, averaging about 255 millimeters in each
lowing are the main factors that influence the weather over of those two months. The remainder of the year has signif-
Pakistan. icantly less rain, amounting to about fifty millimeters per
month. Hailstorms are common in the spring.
• Western Disturbances mostly occur during the win- Pakistan’s largest city, Karachi, which is also the country’s
ter months and cause light to moderate showers in industrial center, is more humid than Islamabad but gets
southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy less rain. Only July and August average more than twenty-
showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area; the remaining
the country. These westerly waves are robbed of most months are exceedingly dry. The temperature is also more
of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan. uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad, ranging from an av-
erage daily low of 13 °C during winter evenings to an av-
• Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for erage daily high of 34 °C on summer days. Although the
weeks in upper Sindh, central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab,
and Punjab. the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of dis-
• Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the comfort.in islamabad,there are cold winds from the north
month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan of Pakistan[3]
excluding western Balochistan, FATA, Chitral and
Gilgit–Baltistan. Monsoon rains bring much awaited
relief from the scorching summer heat. These mon- 4.3.1 Extreme weather events
soon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause sig-
nificant flooding, even severe flooding if they interact Highest temperature and rainfall ever recorded
with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country.
Main article: List of extreme weather records in Pakistan
• Tropical Storms usually form during the summer
months from late April till June and then from late
September till November. They affect the coastal lo- The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low
calities of the country. temperatures, heaviest rainfall and flooding. The highest
temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53.5 °C (128.3
• Dust storms occur during summer months with peak °F) which was recorded in Mohenjo-daro, Sindh on 26 May
in May and June, They are locally known as Andhi. 2010. It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded
4.3. CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN 217

in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temper- 207 millimetres (8.1 in) of rain fell in 24 hours.[8] In 1992
ature ever recorded on the continent of Asia.[4][5] and the flooding during Monsoon season killed 1,834 people across
fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth. The the country, in 1993 flooding during Monsoon rains killed
highest rainfall of 620 millimetres (24 in) was recorded in 3,084 people, in 2003 Sindh province was badly affected
Islamabad during 24 hours on 24 July 2001. The record- due to monsoon rains causing damages in billions, killed
breaking rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rain- 178 people, while in 2007 Cyclone Yemyin submerged
fall in Islamabad in the previous 100 years. lower part of Balochistan Province in sea water killing 380
people. Before that it killed 213 people in Karachi on its
way to Balochistan.
Tropical cyclones and tornadoes

Main article: Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan 2010 Floods Main article: 2010 Pakistan floods

Each year before the onset of monsoon that is 15 April to 2010 July floods swept 20% of Pakistan’s land, the flood
15 July and also after its withdrawal that is 15 September is the result of unprecedented Monsoon rains which lasted
to 15 December, there is always a distinct possibility of the from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
cyclonic storm to develop in the north Arabian Sea. Cy- North eastern Punjab were badly affected during the mon-
clones form in the Arabian sea often results in strong winds soon rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By mid-
and heavy rainfall in Pakistan’s coastal areas. However tor- August, according to the governmental Federal Flood Com-
nadoes mostly occur during spring season that is March and mission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least
April usually when a Western Disturbance starts effecting 1,540 people, while 2,088 people had received injuries,
the northern parts of the country. It is also speculated that 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million peo-
cycles of tornado years may be correlated to the periods of ple had been displaced.[9] One month later, the data had
reduced tropical cyclone activity. been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with in-
juries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed.[10] The
flood affected more than 20 million people exceeding the
Drought combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake and the 2010
Main article: Drought in Pakistan Haiti earthquake.[11][12] The flood is considered as worst in
Pakistan’s history affecting people of all four provinces and
The drought has become a frequent phenomenon in the Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan.[13]
country. Already, the massive droughts of 1998-2002 has
stretched the coping abilities of the existing systems to the
limit and it has barely been able to check the situation from 2011 Sindh floods Main article: 2011 Sindh floods
becoming a catastrophe. The drought of 1998-2002 is con-
sidered worst in 50 years. According to the Economic Sur- The 2011 Sindh floods began during the monsoon season in
vey of Pakistan, the drought was one of the most significant mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in
factors responsible for the less than anticipated growth per- Sindh, Eastern Balochistan, and Southern Punjab.[14] The
formance. The survey terms it as the worst drought in the floods have caused considerable damage; an estimated 270
history of the country. According to the government, 40 civilians have been killed, with 5.3 million people and 1.2
percent of the country’s water needs went unmet.[6][7] million homes affected.[15] Sindh is a fertile region and of-
ten called the “breadbasket” of the country; the damage and
toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy is said to be
Floods
extensive. At least 1.7 million acres of arable land has been
inundated as a result of the flooding.[15] The flooding has
Main articles: Monsoon of South Asia and List of floods in
been described as the worst since the 2010 Pakistan floods,
Pakistan
which devastated the entire country.[15] Unprecedented tor-
rential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts
Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most de- of Sindh province.[16]
structive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, other floods
which caused destruction in the history of Pakistan, in-
clude the flood of 1950, which killed 2910 people; on 1 4.3.2 See also
July 1977 heavy rains and flooding in Karachi, killed 248
people, according to Pakistan meteorological department • Climate of Islamabad
218 CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY

• Climate of Karachi [14] “Pakistan floods: Oxfam launches emergency aid response”.
BBC World News South Asia. 14 September 2011. Retrieved
• Climate of Lahore 15 September 2011.
• Climate of Rawalpindi [15] “Floods worsen, 270 killed: officials”. The Express Tribune.
September 13, 2011. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
• Climate of Peshawar
[16] http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Latest-News/Latest-News.
• Climate of Quetta html
• Climate of Multan
• Climate of Hyderabad
• Climate of Nawabshah
• Climate of Gwadar
• 2001 Islamabad Cloud Burst
• List of extreme weather records in Pakistan

4.3.3 References
[1] http://www.pakmet.com.pk/latest%20news/Latest%
20News.html

[2] http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/
comment.html?entrynum=1559&tstamp=

[3] http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/25.htm

[4] “Wunder Blog : Weather Underground”. Wunder-


ground.com. Retrieved 6 September 2010.

[5] “Pakmet.com.pk :Extreme Heat wave in Pakistan”. Pak-


met.com.pk. Retrieved 6 September 2010.

[6] http://www.ndma.gov.pk/Publications/livingwithdisasters.
pdf

[7] http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/publication/9%
20sept/Drought/drought%20coping%20in%20afghanistan.
pdf

[8] “Dawn.com: Heavy Rain in Karachi”. Dawn.com. Re-


trieved 6 September 2010.

[9] Ahmadani A (August 19, 2010). “Heavily Funded FFC Fails


to Deliver”. TheNation. Retrieved October 17, 2010.

[10] Singapore Red Cross (September 15, 2010). “Pakistan


Floods:The Deluge of Disaster - Facts & Figures as of 15
September 2010”. Retrieved October 18, 2010.

[11] South Asia, BBC News (14 August 2010). “Floods affect
20m people – Pakistan PM Gilani”. British Broadcasting
Corporation. Retrieved 14 August 2010.

[12] “Floods in Pakistan worse than tsunami, Haiti”. gulfnews.


Retrieved 12 August 2010.

[13] “Dawn.com : 2010 Pakistan Floods”. Dawn.com. Retrieved


6 September 2010.
Chapter 5

Text and image sources, contributors, and


licenses

5.1 Text
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Sloan, Calaschysm, Syed Ahmad Al-Joofri, Paul Magnussen, Khakhan, Deville, KingKane, Jrajesh, Zzuuzz, Amirwasim, Yahoo, Muhammad
sumair, RWHaworth, Bayerischermann, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Theda, Jwissick, Arthur Rubin, SMcCandlish, Fionn-
MacCool, La Pizza11, Mercenary2k, GraemeL, Aeon1006, JoanneB, Nezerkhan, Pavone~enwiki, Mordacil, Schajee, Shyam, Peter, Scouter-
sig, Crima, Emc2, NawedKhan, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, SuperJumbo, Tierce, Krikkit4, Tajik, Squell, Kungfuadam, Ief, Canadianism,
RG2, Afroz~enwiki, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, Hussainahsan, Amberrock, Flamma, DVD R W, Amershahzad@hotmail.com, NickelShoe,
Hide&Reason, Matt Heard, Parvez gsm, PCode, Street Scholar, Eog1916, Luk, DocendoDiscimus, Sardanaphalus, Maliihsan, Fossfp, Hyper-
excel, Zeesh, SmackBot, Laughing Man, YellowMonkey, Jamott, Saravask, NSLE, David Kernow, Reedy, Somizulfi, Prodego, KnowledgeOf-
Self, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Bggoldie~enwiki, K-UNIT, Waqas.usman, Gnangarra, WikiuserNI, Pgk, Saimdusan, Od Mishehu, Gda27, Jacek
Kendysz, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Big Adamsky, Esaborio, Zeeshan8 8, Spasage, EncycloPetey, Delldot, Mgreenbe, Mad-
hev0, PJM, Agentbla, JJay, Fnfd, Kintetsubuffalo, Janneman, Aivazovsky, Zohab, CuriousOliver, Tommstein, Chokerman, Xaosflux, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Nabs, Betacommand, M.Imran, Polaron, Angelbo, Holy Ganga, Honbicot, Cabe6403, Mandock, PEACE, Rashid8928,
Anwar saadat, Sinblox, Anachronist, Chris the speller, Aucaman, Jamie C, TimBentley, Philosopher, Ottawakismet, Dervesh99, Persian Poet
Gal, Paranda, Exsol, Ian13, Bjmullan, Ats edu, Raja Hussain, Jayanta Sen, MalafayaBot, Freedom skies, RayAYang, Acid2base, Akanemoto,
Bazonka, Ryecatcher773, Mark7-2, Ikiroid, Kungming2, Sisodia, Ahmed.pervez, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Zzzbeauty, 52xmax, Hongooi, Kon-
stable, Antonrojo, AKMask, Jaaf, Raoraza, Rama’s Arrow, Royboycrashfan, Newmanbe, Zsinj, Xchbla423, Snakes~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Shahkaal, Salin, VarunGupta, Cripipper, OrphanBot, Afaruqui, MBlume, Nixeagle, Zah00r, AFRAZULQURAISH, Shibo77,
MJCdetroit, Geoffrey Gibson, TheKMan, R.F.La Fontaine, Wes!, Krsont, Underorbit, Bolivian Unicyclist, Mr.Z-man, SundarBot, Ajitvin,
Easwarno1, Grover cleveland, Huon, Cheenamalai, Migueldavid, Arab Hafez, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Krich, Ritchie333, Emre D.,
Obscure41, Georgiebest7, Alakazou1978~enwiki, Bobadot, Nakon, Jackohare, Caniago, Hv1972, TedE, Jiddisch~enwiki, RJN, Shamir1, MrP-
Monday, RandomP, Cutejoe, Weregerbil, Farhat Jawed Sheikh, DMacks, Bengl, PaulMison, Maelnuneb, Kotjze, Meetfazan, Babil79, Lorn10,
Kthsujal, Salamurai, Where, Nmpenguin, Monikahingorani, Muhammad Hamza, Pilotguy, Chrisjonesmic, Kukini, Ricky@36, Prasi90, Drmaik,
Ceoil, ChJameel, Ohconfucius, Asksriram, Cyberevil, Camenzind~enwiki, Kuzaar, FAH1223, Yahya01, Lambiam, Yannismarou, Nishkid64,
FunkyFly, Rory096, Afghan Historian, Swatjester, Siva1979, Sambot, Kuru, John, The idiot, Markdr, Scientizzle, Vgy7ujm, J 1982, Heimstern,
Majidakram, Fast track, Loodog, Acitrano, Zmustafa, AbbasJin, The Boogie Man~enwiki, Clare., Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Benesch,
Edwy, Shakilahmed, Alienx, Kashmiri, Woer$, Mgiganteus1, Green Giant, Stefan2, Napnapnap, Mr. Lefty, PseudoSudo, Yogesh Khandke,
Aarandir, Rehanaqeel, David Matthews, Speedboy Salesman, Alim online, Tarikur, CylonCAG, Icekingx, BillFlis, Volatileacid, Andypandy.UK,
Slakr, Shangrilaista, Crazy Fox, Beetstra, Mr Stephen, DesiTwist, AxG, Martian.knight, Ambuj.Saxena, Ryulong, Danireh, Jstreutker, Wahaz,
Kikadom, Peter Horn, Zapvet, Jose77, RMHED, Galactor213, Espreon, Drfighar, Zameenzad, Jnk, BLADE, Informedbanker, Levineps, Es-
oltas, Magnaclash, Nehrams2020, Aursani, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Syedson, Dasreich12, Roxi1, EricStyles, Falcon007, Jeev, Spartian, Joseph
Solis in Australia, Ultimatejester, Shoeofdeath, Digitalsurgeon, J Di, Realitea, Haus, Chutiyaallah, Zeeshan.baig, Nightrider083, UNKNOWN
BUT LETHAL, Sam Li, Afaqsheikh, Vissax, W123, Chiesnick, Yass9, Oblongpoo, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, ALM scientist,
Ouishoebean, Nquotes, Nobleeagle, RaviC, Timrem, Mirzaobaig, Jibran1, IronChris, PKDubey, Afghana~enwiki, Orangutan, VazSingh, Comen
get@yahoo.com, Switchercat, King-of-no-pants, JForget, Ollie, KNM, Indianin06, Thedemonhog, DangerousPanda, Redaktoer, Calmargulis,
Darkred, Mattbr, Wafulz, Kevin McE, Scohoust, Mrlego9, Ahmad R Shahid, Humzaay, Famir, Virgule82, CWY2190, R9tgokunks, Basawala,
GHe, Ibadibam, Usmanshahzada, Usgnus, Orthuberra, TimeMachineWithLasers, Hugamuto, AshLin, Shizane, Farazilu, Avillia, RamziKhattar,
Ankimai, Timtrent, Bungalowbill, Mike 7, Elendal, Imdabs, MikeWren, TJDay, Gangstarap4lyf, Beh-nam, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Clappingsi-
mon, Wikien2009, Boscoecrews, Ntsimp, Sk.Sajjad, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Subravenkat, Reywas92, Mike Christie, Adi676, Dadofsam,
Ramitmahajan, Achangeisasgoodasa, Qbadge, Bkoshy88, Gogo Dodo, Raswa, Bornsommer, Muhammadhani, Llort, ST47, Tiak, FCLasdf,
Bobbinastic, Mshahidnawaz9, Studerby, Hazdinho, Tkynerd, Acs4b, Delta Spartan, Tapsboy, Umi 89, Yaser88, Tawkerbot4, JoSePh, Kim
abdalian, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Dipics, Shanti1970, Jitbit, Sikanderfayyaz, Sharonlees, Tarun123v, After Midnight, Afinebalance, Gonzo
fan2007, Jlpspinto, Voldemortuet, Robertsteadman, Daniel Olsen, J.Wright, Crum375, NadirAli, Rocket000, Casliber, Aditya Kabir, Jabir99,
CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, Oldpantsnewjersey, VoABot, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Dr.Bhatta, Wikid77, Islescape, Banksy1988, Dogaroon, An-
shuk, Harmless rebellion, Memty Bot, Amitsekhri, Stanwatch, F J, Graphicalx, Cyberxperts, Anupam, Pepperbeast, Young Pioneer, Headbomb,
Ab041937, RevolverOcelotX, Faisal.ayaz, Pjvpjv, Marek69, John254, Ahmed27, Zulfikkur, Bobblehead, I do not exist, Ullebulle, Merbabu,
Sanjiv2006, Kulveer, X201, Inner Earth, Som1Udontknow, Warfwar3, Hcobb, Jhb0440, Doorsie, HistoryMaster 1, DaveJ7, CharlotteWebb,
Therequiembellishere, The Hybrid, Nateeeeeeer, Afsar khalil, Redline451, Nick Number, Mm11, Railer 896, Eric9297, Khaqan, Heroeswith-
metaphors, Javed Ali, MinnesotanConfederacy, Stevvvv4444, Manzil, Laterie, HussainAbbas, Dawnseeker2000, Sonisona, Nizamarain, Talkn-
share, AlefZet, Escarbot, M Asif, I already forgot, KrakatoaKatie, Hires an editor, 1337kat, Canadian, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Konman72,
Majorly, Kaasje, Luna Santin, Nshuks7, Ram infinity, Mousebelt, Aakhawaja, 49oxen, Zilox, Opelio, Yomangani, Godboleishan, Imranrabb,
Dr. Blofeld, Doc Tropics, Robzz, Meccanized85~enwiki, 2bornot2b, THEunique, Credema, Emoxer, Abc123$, Yellowdesk, Alphachimpbot,
RedCoat10, Mutt Lunker, Dictyosiphonaceae, Ksquarekumar, DTAD, Babakexorramdin, Wikimart, Maakhter, Storkk, Sharjeel aziz, CDave,
Myanw, Uchohan, Saqib22, Canadian-Bacon, Waqaar786, Crissidancer88, MikeLynch, ZulfiOKC, Ecopack, JAnDbot, Dogru144, Deflective,
Husond, Thaimoss, Clouds9000, Samar, Vs1, Kaobear, DuncanHill, Daryakhan, Aleezain, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Sal150, A1 salah, Eri-
coides, Scythian1, Marioguy, Zaindy, Qateel Shifai, Hello32020, Hamidthebest, JohnnyZZ, Indian Overlord Xenu, I'm a lumberjack and I'm ok,
Kidal, Hut 8.5, 100110100, Sydney2020, Dricherby, Mips, TheEditrix2, Black Samurai, Joshua, Kshatriyaaz, Unar2002, Zendu, Faisal Ahmad
Jafri, SvenG, Dildar Hussain, Abu ali, Ecki~enwiki, Magioladitis, Engine Gone Loco, Advil, DuChampFitz, Creationlaw, YAM, Bongwar-
5.1. TEXT 221

rior, VoABot II, Meredyth, Fedisking, MartinDK, AuburnPilot, Tangelito, AtticusX, Jetstreamer, Kuyabribri, JNW, Cypher056E, Khalidkhoso,
One2one, Attock, Abbashameed, Yob egroeg, Rivertorch, Lucyin, Saurabhzutshi, InfinityLiger, Hussain detho, Zee18, PEAR, Zandweb~enwiki,
Pakistan 2005, Soleado, Catgut, Vikrammat, Chkchgkgchk, Jessicapierce, ClovisPt, StudentWarz, Chandin76, Cgingold, Tuncrypt, Cyktsui, Sid-
dharth998, Nuklep1, Rahul M, Edmundwoods, NLOleson, Pabu Kympa, Beagel, Yehowowrqw, Hkelkar, Msoamu, Bilalsarwar, Parunach, Dhar-
madhyaksha, Airwalk451, Rdmt319, S Seagal, Glen, Rif Winfield, DerHexer, Drshenoy, Edward321, Kamran abbas, Jahangard, Lijnema, Khalid
Mahmood, Anilkumarsaxena, Jeff Saxton, Cloudz679, Patstuart, Andy4226uk, Bluefox12, Adil zia, Ugamma1, Oahmad, Rickard Vogelberg,
Smartinfoteck1, Riccardobot, S3000, Atulsnischal, Skumarla, Leaderofearth, Shinas, Hdt83, Pakeventing, Smartinfoteck2, Dr.khan, Arjun01,
Analytikone, KarBOT, Axlq, Shahroze, Pwnz0r1377, Rettetast, Phasechange, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Max1947, Ravichandar84, Keith D,
Dheerajsoni, Cdcdoc, Haxanet, David matthews, R'n'B, Cdhamelia, CommonsDelinker, Sikh-history, The Telephone Company, Mak2007,
Aliazimi, Nono64, AgarwalSumeet, Patar knight, Jmccormac, UnitedPakistan, Popeye Doyle, Lilac Soul, Shafqathussain, Userabc, Artax-
iad, Ssolbergj, J.delanoy, Actress Loraine, Abecedare, Mr partha, DrKay, DandyDan2007, Fowler&fowler, Usman uk, Darthrishi, Arrow740,
JamesR, NisarKand, Bogey97, Numbo3, Alpineswift, Uncle Dick, VitaleBaby, Mohammad adil, Stephanwehner, Mohsin Ahmed, Knonie,
Jerry, WarthogDemon, MosRaza, Punit.jamba, Rdhinakar, Mianhassan, U CDT, LegolasLover, Indarjeet, G 2d, Keesiewonder, Seema0300,
Alex2706, Mramsay0814, M alisyed, J.A.McCoy, Sunnybondsinghjalwehra, Nausherwan81, Mcboi1992, The Human Trumpet Solo, Ah-
madsyed 05, Dispenser, Johnbod, Kevspencer, James Huddz, Gman124, SpigotMap, Nemo bis, Alirox, Ahsaniqbal 93, Chintu rohit, Congram,
Plasticup, Alecperkins, Midnight Madness, Quickpot, Darrendeng, Ajobin, 409rules, SJP, Einstein90, Malerin, Hastymashi, Flatterworld, Jplay,
Student7, Fjbfour, Jatt2006wiki, Sony g, Humayun me, Eljusto1, Dvenedam, Kgm1, The Right Honourable, Ridwan Gazi, KylieTastic, Wizzard
Of Osmania, Tridungvo, Abdars, Zeeshani, Ivazir, GLHamilton, JimmySmitts, Jjhcap99, Tigerscratch, Stonamhs, Nimora, Ssd175, Mike V,
Rana72bd, TopGun, Tahirakram, Jaysfans, Nomi887, Mohammadali123456, Scott Illini, Andy Marchbanks, Inwind, King of Spirits, Tewari326,
Cutest, Abrahamavich, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Moore87, Taiwania Justo, WWGB, Redtigerxyz, Irfaanrashid, SimDarthMaul, Agamem-
nus, Xnuala, Nt92116, 007ketan, Vranak, Visual.csharp, PeaceNT, Scienceinc., W2ch00, VolkovBot, Staryash, Rayis, Derekbd, Statistiki, Tim-
monsgray, Ani dutta1991, Alex"da Bender” Murphy, Vlma111, Webkami, Tesscass, Saurabh.msh, Fences and windows, Deuraadnan, Paking,
Toddy1, Aesopos, KettleIntimacy, Philip Trueman, Marekzp, ImranAkbarMohammed, Jackstraw2010, Yousaf survey, TXiKiBoT, Rollo44, Pa-
hari Sahib, GimmeBot, Suprah, Ariannarama, Zeshanfarooqi, Maximillion Pegasus, JJ WELLCOOL, RyanB88, Uch, Dchall1, Rei-bot, Hissami,
Atelerix, Carebear and Michigan, L05CAEVA, Chogo, Dod2k7, Aymatth2, H3xx, Self Image, Srsiddiq, Schroedi, Cerebellum, Mandot, Bibi-
jee, JhsBot, DyceBot, ^demonBot2, Seb az86556, Noor Aalam, Razzsic, Joedamadman, Chocolate Horlicks, Nikkul, Azhar aslam, Sodicadl,
Blabajubajoo, Tidying Up, Wenli, Rajaimrannisar, Haqquei, Usergreatpower, BobTheTomato, Triesault, Kalintor, Meters, Grimly, Wali26,
Александр Мотин, Synthebot, Bhrasheed, Novicenovice, Hanskarlperez, Kamranzaidi, Dylan mcghee, Kamtanoli375, Master of the Oríchalcos,
Linebacker767, Eliteforce, Brianga, ChewbaccaDefence, Dmcq, Wikipedianpk, Muneebandirfan, TheFuzzyFive, Dick Shane, Winter Maiden,
AlleborgoBot, Symane, Wisamzaqoot, Logan, Pgeril, Rongmon Kokai, Mrcoldfire, Lohar, Ghaus, LesterFreamon, EmxBot, Austriacus, Irtiqaa,
Mshujaweb, Njmemo420, Sabihlashari, Paknews, Arjun024, Cornflake Man, Tw166y, Copana2002, SieBot, Salehahaque, Zain1987, Calliope-
jen1, Izady, Tiddly Tom, Bhaur, Pakchat, WereSpielChequers, Skunky6969, WTucker, Rodomontade, DavisGL, Fantastic fred, Buddyonline7,
Caltas, Takolavo, Ravensfire, Triwbe, SyedNoomanNaqvi, Lucasbfrbot, Shoaibik, Smsarmad, Hotel Alpha, Gimligimli1, Talalriaz, Michealkelly,
Mahu6000, Juggler4rent1, Aamerabbas, KnowledgeHegemony, Aspenocean, Adamknufc, Norsktroll, Aillema, Flyer22 Reborn, Naumanshar-
jeel, Halla19832003, Belinrahs, Oate238ca4ada42, Zaibaslim, Alexso, Carnun, Jimthing, Tabusharma, Mattmeskill, Oxymoron83, Vmrgrsergr,
Goustien, Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Slumbookawalk, Polbot, SH84, Mmargao, Iain99, Sanya3, Fratrep, KINGHERBIE, Onopearls, Mitch1981,
Anakin101, LloydKame, Pprmonkey, Grrahnbahr, Gtadoc, LonelyMarble, Stfg, Vice regent, Rathee, Msk jatt, GobletG, Aasadmeo, Bubai.c,
Sir~enwiki, Vanished User 8902317830, Sinhala freedom, Dabomb87, CARLMART, Anandbharti, Varanwal, Illinois2011, TubularWorld,
Massmurdergenesis, Sitush, Finetooth, Ramacan1, Vishalsh521, Khan1982, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Romit3, WikipedianMarlith,
Jami Riz, Deavenger, RegentsPark, Pdalvi, Martarius, Beeblebrox, User aaqib12, Apuldram, ChicagoGooner, Alam82, ClueBot, Knightrun-
ner, Drsyedshafqat, Harsh.freewill, Clivemacd, Noorkhanuk85, PipepBot, Snigbrook, Nano Dan, Fyyer, Kotniski, Shri.shell1, Anand jha2007,
Icarusgeek, Lexington1, Rjd0060, EoGuy, Sherazkamran, Himhifi, Pi zero, Whalley1234, Silkccut, 2close2u, Taroaldo, Willhardie, Farhanis-
farhan, Daniel Hershcovich, Specac, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ishan 373, Watti Renew, Pranav17, Mazhar.dk, CounterVandalismBot, Yenemus, Aown,
Niceguyedc, Theschmoe, Malik07, Peanut4, Myopia123, Shovon76, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Grandmastergrawp, Adeelpscuok, Peteruetz, Ku-
marsa, Bensci54, Madman445, Faisal4pro, Johnplayer505, Auntof6, Leezer~enwiki, Pk-user, F-402, Xinjao, Sirius85, Ahsenejaz, Sonado,
Detroiterbot, AntiVMan, Shamashashim, Mb62020, King wiston, Tomeasy, Sunil060902, Narayanan.vn, Ottre, Uniquepakistan, Trombones-
rule12345, Mfa fariz, Wiki dr mahmad, TheGreenEditor, Joeparker, Swathi.xeret, Coinmanj, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Cacaboo, Rashidr, Shan-
wasif, Dangeshwar, ARCoolguy, Singhgu, Datas, Aqeelahmad1, Fouady, Joshyboy13, Elizium23, Wajahat malik, Eclipsian, Mickey gfss2007,
Mikaey, SchreiberBike, SyedNaqvi90, The golden easter party man, Ardeshire Babakan, Another Believer, Kslall8765, Wikihund, Samantha555,
Subash.chandran007, Jopetersen, Dana boomer, Antalope, Nholmes5, AajT, Mhockey, Smarkflea, IJA, Elatb, Azamishaque, Habibfriend, Sher-
Abdul8, Attaboy, Liberal Humanist, Snotbrain, Nimrodboz, Sunquanliangxiuhao, DumZiBoT, Asifkhalil, Shoaib72 Y, Darkicebot, Khanvez,
XLinkBot, Msriaz, Pakman290, Punjabi101, Awaisqarni, Fahadsaeed50, DenisLG, Steven407653, Mitch Ames, Amit20081980, WikHead,
SilvonenBot, Kontractkilla, Bnationalp, Luigi Salvatore Vadacchino, Abdulla farrukh, Maijinsan, Atomicdor, Jonathanmoyer, Good Olfac-
tory, Saxonthedog, UnknownForEver, Gggh, Wkiipdeia, Arafiq786, Jhendin, Atin Bhattacharya, Camie123, Gad905, Rageohol, Mortense,
September88, Altetendekrabbe, AnonyLog, Jafeluv, Lazosiblings, Jojhutton, Betterusername, Jmlthr, Misaq Rabab, Shahidfarrukh, Pir2008,
Srimanta.Bhuyan, Sirsharif, Njaelkies Lea, Paraphrased, Pryde 01, Vishnava, FourThousandTwelve, Saberwolf116, Rejectwater, Ka Faraq
Gatri, Download, Anish9500, CarsracBot, FluffyWhiteCat, Poloplayers, Talha, Debresser, Favonian, Rajpoot91, OneBlood30, Scott MacDon-
ald, Chattha99, Blaylockjam10, Andyp777, Ln (-x) = ln x + (pi)i, Raayen, Numbo3-bot, Bigzteve, Paknur, Equilibrium007, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
‫ماني‬, David0811, Jarble, Aarsalankhalid, Cchow2, Gopeople, Rbenzecry, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, WikiDan61, Granpuff, Willydick,
Ambi92, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, MSClaudiu, Edoe, Guy1890, Nirvana888, Shaistakausar.pk, Mmxx, Beeswaxcandle, Nallimbot, Ata Fida
Aziz, Dfgxx, KamikazeBot, Sansonic, Pk5abi, Plasticbot, Jalal0, Thelonerex, Koman90, Qaatil, Jessi1989, AnomieBOT, Turkish Flame, 1exec1,
Moarrikh, Jlglover, Cptnono, Jimwest88, Blackknight12, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Jeff Muscato, Materialscientist, Alawadhi3000, Garagebarrage,
Citation bot, Samar60, Incredibleahmadiyya, Dewan357, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, B. Fairbairn, Quebec99, LilHelpa, TUFKAAP, MauritsBot,
Xqbot, Ali944rana, Timir2, S h i v a (Visnu), Viola v, A Fantasy, Supersaiyan474, Fern 24, Bizzleinc, Ferhanashiq, FarhanDanish, Hayatomer-
malik, Brad101AWB, Anna Frodesiak, Emmastc, Averroist, Cyphoidbomb, Maqsoodshah01, Tariqashraf, NapoleonARS, Anonymous from the
21st century, J04n, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser, Mianhammad59, Cookiemohnsta, Ed8r, Omnipaedista, Umar Zulfikar Khan, Chrismiceli, Mark
Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Shayanshaukat, Wikireader41, WALTHAM2, Lunar Dragoon, Brutaldeluxe, Ali-Rana-77, Trafford09, AzanGun,
Cyfraw, Dk5552, Muhammad Farooq, GhalyBot, Qwerbgmnb, Canned Soul, Phirefor1, Strider11, Iggymwangi, Prezbo, Mughalnz, Coolbd,
222 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Archiver of Records, ClueBot NG, Saiwiki95, W.Kaleem, Moicinemaniac, Pradyumnas741, TheLonelyRex, NIKHILESH9, LogX, Dmr-rsf,
Code16, Lm 997, AStannard, Kman665, Floatjon, Chitransh Gaurav, Tariq hilal, RJFF, Frietjes, Milad930, Hazhk, Monsoon Waves, Muham-
mad Ali Khalid, Modemlogic368, Patapsco913, Qadeer294, CaroleHenson, Khattak1613, Shoaibsmarty, PakistaniAhsan, Ykwyr, North At-
lanticist Usonian, Secret of success, IgnorantArmies, Jrobin08, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, Muzammil901, Alexandru M., Rohail 2012,
AnsarParacha, Bhavin169, Strike Eagle, Regulov, BG19bot, VonBismarck, Trip Tucker, Drspaz, Ali15uk, Umais Bin Sajjad, Sahara4u, HIDEC-
CHI001, Stumpy05, Meinterasaalkahoon, AvocatoBot, Hassalsharif, Darkness Shines, Jogi don, Pakistani47, Kadoshim, Sarbartho.mukherjee,
Mark Arsten, Mintri, Compfreak7, Melotown, Jhfjdhfjhsdfkd, Azad888, LorLeod, Sreesha.c.n, Cadiomals, Agila81, AnwarInsaan, Eeshuger-
man, Bokmanrocks01, Sheikh Mohammad Shahzeb, Account.ka.naam, Ernio48, Maurice Flesier, Jawadreventon, Raju ban, Khushwanaseer,
Ices2Csharp, Ciclone, Adamstraw99, Chehticham, Fluffernutter2, Love4pakistan, Shashwatpkumar, Aks23121990, Shredder2012, Sherepun-
jab, Novajet, Poarps, Pseudofusulina, BattyBot, Factsearch, Thebuck093, Kool777456, Richmasterninja, Highstakes00, Fajjuify, Johnsc12,
Morsecoder, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, FarazT, ChrisGualtieri, Lasharionline, Glaxal, Shahbazmalik97, Murali.gudipudi, Hipityhopity, Psnttp,
Dadamkhan, Adnan bogi, Ankit21694, TheJJJunk, CarrieVS, Khazar2, IceBrotherhood, Soulparadox, Farhan Khurram, Ivan trus, Gharjistan,
Stumink, Faberglas, Dude1830, Symphonic Spenguin, VS511, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Profpremrajpushpakaran, BigJolly9, Shahhh, Hmains-
bot1, Mogism, Tellonlytruth, Wanishah, Vdr11, Ubed junejo, Alf54354353, Delljvc, PeerBaba, Samudrakula, Lugia2453, WaqarAhmedPK,
Ms1288, Abdullah Alam, Lucky102, Sabbarish.govindarajan, RingerHere!, Ovsek, TripWire, Nakashchit, Eaak79, Samee, Daniyal7871, Rao
Asghar, Fareed30, Kashif choudhary, Faizan, Ahmed 313-326, Mirfanmaqsood, La23553, Communist4444, CsDix, Capitals00, Frenchmalawi,
Wanishahrukh, PrinceCharming786, Partho Chacko, The Anonybot, Rattan Hajveri, Suhayb.Manzer, Evano1van, EvergreenFir, Dwscomet,
Supersaiyen312, MysticSpiritOfTheNight, Wamiq, Ahmed.wikipedian, Rana Mohammad Talha Tariq, LouisAragon, Bhutta1984, Wikiuser13,
Mainashfaq, Saladin1987, ‫عراقي‬1, Amfmaads, Nikhilmn2002, Nawabmalhi, Eagle3399, Rvthkr4, Citobun, Achmad Fahri, Sholokov, Fitzcar-
malan, Asadwarraich, ShinHerzl, Kind Tennis Fan, Yoonadue, Blondeguynative, SJ Defender, Adjutor101, Fahri Ahmad, Irfanbodla, Rajku-
mararslan, Goodfaith17, Chipperdude15, Andreas11213, Ali Zifan, ThecentreCZ, Meteor sandwich yum, Uck22, RioDevez, Jazzmusician94,
Theparties, Faizannehal, Edward93, Qasim900, Owllord97, Inside99, Manish2542, WikiWinters, Stampschick, Nauriya, Sajjad Altaf, Esmost,
Monkbot, Muntazir764, Wwikix, Nestwiki, Filedelinkerbot, Ryopus, Hjalnobel, Lilpiglet, Septate, Mindraker2, LandyZA, Vinícius94, Owais
Khursheed, Waldorfbp, AndyChua89, Sher Aziz, Faraz.sayyed5, ElectronicKing888, UsmanKhan, Typewriter123, Thehood1, Syed Hassan
Raza Bukhari, Shuayb Sahib, SheriffIsInTown, Nimrainayat6290, Jaggajat, Mujeeb Rahman Chandio, Maounkhan780, Nawab khan baloch,
Aledownload, Steelypip, KH-1, Editinf, Plutowuto, Leflox, SM Fire, Kautilya3, Saqib, Krzyhorse22, 468SM, Bongan, EChastain, Micaman45,
FreeatlastChitchat, Saadkhan12345, TheSawTooth, Pak de beauty, Aimewiki, Anasaitis, Alicia Florrick, GoldCoastPrior, Mean2014, \\'arrior
786, Mll mitch, Sudhirdeshwal, Human3015, Randhwasingh, LavaBaron, MK-Globetrotter, RayPerdes, Conradjagan, Hafiz Tariq Mehmood,
Truman098, Roshan014, Xtremedood, GeneralizationsAreBad, Ggok12, Jerodlycett, Robiaid, Asad Saad 121, Humna Mehwish, Ankush 89,
KasparBot, Eulalefty, Sharif.tamal, Impactor3318, Capankajsmilyo, 786wiki, Sanjayshivalak, Boxman88, Zalingeishahpur, Superangles, AL-
SHEIKHULSHEIKH, Lkhoughton, Engr Noman Ashraf, Khan839, Zmaghndstakun, ‫ثناءاللہ‬, TheMiddleEuropeaner, NashManshor98, Twit-
teristhebest, Firebrace, MBlaze Lightning, Filpro, MrTahirHabib, Hussainabbas1988, Nyetoson, Ele-phunk, Loorha, Akhila3151996, Hegday,
Retention7, EDMultra7, Srivarunhota, Towns Hill, Tipus9385, Ideal75, Df32jhhhhhds5, Shahrukhwani1, Districtdt, RickyRolling, Lahoreqa-
landars, Pukhtunkhwa, GreenC bot, Son of ATM, Rvaghav, Motivação, Mynameisparatha, Shaanveer khanna, Arindami34, Beatitudinem, Heart
of Destruction, Metaphysicswar, Sindh historican, Øystein.Eide, SyedMoidAhmad, 001blondjamie, Harppen, K.K Khel and Anonymous: 2061
• History of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan?oldid=749330167 Contributors: General Wesc, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Koyaanis Qatsi, DanKeshet, Guppie, Andre Engels, Danny, Shii, Panairjdde~enwiki, Camembert, Smelialichu, Sannse, Theanthrope,
Geoffrey~enwiki, Stan Shebs, Darkwind, Pratyeka, Kimiko, Efghij, John K, Ruhrjung, Technopilgrim, Charles Matthews, Wik, Tpbradbury,
Imc, PakAtheist, Saltine, Topbanana, Fvw, Warofdreams, Owen, Twang, Robbot, RedWolf, Donreed, Stewartadcock, Henrygb, Flauto Dolce,
Diderot, Michael Snow, Roozbeh, Seano1, DigiBullet, Aomarks, MaGioZal, Wiglaf, Cobaltbluetony, Everyking, Per Honor et Gloria, Jr-
dioko, Ragib, Gadfium, Utcursch, Andycjp, Sohailstyle, Geni, Marriex, Aurevilly, Piotrus, Thparkth, Mike Rosoft, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnur-
ture, Bornintheguz, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Zain engineer, Bender235, Kwamikagami, RobNS, Sole Soul, Vervin,
Cmdrjameson, Adrian~enwiki, JW1805, Darwinek, Jamalpanhwar, Idleguy, Omerlives, Craigy144, Arunreginald, Hu, Wtmitchell, Velella,
Knowledge Seeker, Awais141, Jguk, SteinbDJ, Zntrip, Roylee, Angr, Firsfron, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Jacobolus, Robert K S, JBellis,
Dangerous-Boy, Eaolson, PeregrineAY, Marudubshinki, Paxsimius, Jan van Male, BD2412, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Koavf, Tombseye, Bill37212,
Phrood~enwiki, The wub, Bhadani, Yuber, Dinosaurdarrell, Ground Zero, CalJW, Hottentot, Kolbasz, Cogitor, Chokerman88, Gdrbot, Bg-
5.1. TEXT 223

white, Banaticus, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sortan, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Conscious, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, Mag-
icmonster, Siddiqui, Welsh, Rjensen, Joelr31, Bhola, Benne, Mkill, Samir, Davidsteinberg, Priyanath, Tachs, .marc., Szhaider, Igiffin, Dev-
ille, Jrajesh, Rudrasharman, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, De Administrando Imperio, Hunnyhiteshseth, Curpsbot-unicodify, Mdwyer, Udimu,
Victor falk, Parvez gsm, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Reedy, Jagged 85, Davewild, Spasage, Bradtcordeiro, Paxse, Comman-
der Keane bot, Srkris, Gilliam, Brianski, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, Jamie C, TimBentley, Jm307, Thumperward, Freedom
skies, Colonies Chris, Rama’s Arrow, OrphanBot, Nunocordeiro, Huon, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Valenciano, VegaDark, Asiir, Farhat Jawed
Sheikh, Wizardman, Bulgaroctonus, Bejnar, Ohconfucius, Nishkid64, Afghan Historian, Niels, BrownHairedGirl, Unre4L, Khazar, Fast track,
Japan01, Benesch, Woer$, Green Giant, Jimvin, IronGargoyle, MaximvsDecimvs, Ryulong, Skinsmoke, BLADE, Iridescent, Falcon007, Ska-
pur, Digitalsurgeon, Nightrider083, Jontomkittredge, FairuseBot, Dlohcierekim, Nobleeagle, Lincmad, ChrisCork, J Milburn, CmdrObot, IP
Address, Reahad, Richard Keatinge, Yaris678, Themightyquill, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Future Perfect at Sunrise, TicketMan, Chasing-
sol, Kazubon~enwiki, B, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Legis, Kozuch, Maziotis, NadirAli, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Islescape, Armanaziz, Mickw,
Rzafar, Bobblehead, Itsmejudith, Merbabu, Nick Number, HussainAbbas, AntiVandalBot, Dictator Asad, Cjs2111, Darklilac, Saqib22, Hu-
sond, DuncanHill, Bakasuprman, MER-C, Rueben lys, Dildar Hussain, Magioladitis, Advil, VoABot II, AtticusX, Khalidkhoso, TinaSparkle,
Indian 123, Jawandapuck, Hkelkar, JaGa, Smartinfoteck1, Atulsnischal, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Corlyon, Mausy5043, J.delanoy, Abecedare,
Fowler&fowler, Uncle Dick, Mianhassan, Plasticup, InspectorTiger, Sarayuparin, Rumpelstiltskin223, Remember the dot, Intothefire, Mike V,
TopGun, The Behnam, Squids and Chips, GrahamHardy, Idioma-bot, Agamemnus, Signalhead, Thomas.W, Jeff G., BoogaLouie, Sannita, Philip
Trueman, AliHussain, HamzaOmar, Oshwah, Rollo44, Pahari Sahib, Tovojolo, Vipinhari, Mandot, Spregula, Noor Aalam, Razzsic, Michaeld-
suarez, Falcon8765, Scheibenzahl, Master of the Oríchalcos, SaifullahKhalid, Loje, Lylefor, SieBot, StAnselm, Whiskey in the Jar, Zain1987,
WereSpielChequers, Smsarmad, Mar(c), FunkMonk, Flyer22 Reborn, Perspicacite, Vmrgrsergr, Kosack, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Aravind V
R, MadmanBot, Denisarona, Sitush, ImageRemovalBot, Utergar~enwiki, Apuldram, ClueBot, Atletiker, Akhil Bakshi, EoGuy, Sherazkam-
ran, Distell, Masoodurrehman, Malik07, Ilangocal, Auntof6, Xinjao, Excirial, CohesionBot, M4gnum0n, Wiki dr mahmad, Rhododendrites,
Noteremote, New4325, SoxBot, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Azamishaque, Indopug, Nafsadh, Dougatwiki, XLinkBot, Fastily, Amit20081980,
WikHead, Maijinsan, Atomicdor, UnknownForEver, MatthewVanitas, GDibyendu, Addbot, Kiyura, DOI bot, Misaq Rabab, Leszek Jańczuk,
Download, Glane23, Lihaas, Talha, AnnaFrance, Favonian, SamatBot, Tassedethe, Paknur, Lightbot, Bermicourt, Luckas-bot, Yobot, World-
bruce, Legobot II, Kipoc, Ata Fida Aziz, Sivanesh, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Aashah86, Drsanjaymd, Ulric1313, Csigabi, Materialscientist,
Citation bot, OllieFury, Dewan357, LilHelpa, S h i v a (Visnu), Fern 24, GenQuest, Nahcamuk, Tyrol5, J04n, Frosted14, Miffy bunny, Ed8r,
Umar Zulfikar Khan, Mathonius, Shadowjams, Sandeepraghuwanshi, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Ironboy11, Scurrminator, Amartya ray2001,
K.Khokhar, Samplingwithreplacement, BenzolBot, M2545, Citation bot 1, Taeyebar, Pinethicket, Elockid, McSnath, MJ94, MirNaveed, Re-
consider the static, BurgerKing2008, Cl!ckpop, Lightlowemon, Trappist the monk, Michale245, Callanecc, Hynixx, Qazmlp1029, NHPak, Tb-
hotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, Generalboss3, Ripchip Bot, Regancy42, Peaceworld111, NDKilla, EmausBot, John
of Reading, Acather96, Dewritech, Richcheney, GoingBatty, Gimmetoo, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Werieth, Adil rb44, Trance325, Fæ, Akerans,
Atulburnwal, Mar4d, Mail2venkateshan, H3llBot, Vnomad, SporkBot, Mdmday, RaptureBot, JCAla, Δ, Jcaneen, Papersblog, Lesto101, Drus-
taz, Chewings72, Captain Assassin!, Kamil.diggy, GermanJoe, HandsomeFella, Justice007, Abhay4u3, Imon1794, Hamid Hasan, A*7*3*R,
ClueBot NG, EnglEkab, ClaretAsh, Izmat, Vikram singh06, , Akedia1, Winston786, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Frietjes, Muhammad Ali
Khalid, Kevin Gorman, 149AFK, Farhamalik, Fasi100, Runehelmet, Widr, Wllmevans, HotWinters, ‫ساجد امجد ساجد‬, North Atlanticist Uso-
nian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zibart, Addihockey10 (automated), AnsarParacha, Electriccatfish2, Andrew Gwilliam, DBigXray, BG19bot, Umais Bin
Sajjad, KnockingHard, PhnomPencil, Custitui, Darkness Shines, Palnatinanda, Akhipill, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, Gorthian,
NicatorSeleucus, Jozoisis, NearThatTown, Love4pakistan, BattyBot, David.moreno72, W.D., Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Sardar957, Khazar2,
Extratall, JYBot, Cpt.a.haddock, Manuspanicker, ABDEVILLIERS0007, RayKalm, Webclient101, Mogism, Warriach1, Jackninja5, Straw-
cluthez, Delljvc, Poetic78, ‫اردیبهشت‬, Lugia2453, Minar-e-pakistan, Nilpakhi, Jamesx12345, Sriharsh1234, Ashish57, WilliamKliew, Ovsek,
Rafeh96, Faizan, Ahmed 313-326, Waleedahmadnabeel, Moony22, Taiwaz3, I am One of Many, Fc2013, Wanishahrukh, Suhayb.Manzer, Iloilo
Wanderer, LouisAragon, Zeerakabbasi, Saladin1987, Yurichev, GulbergII, Mr Mobile Man, Kahtar, Bladesmulti, Maan Tujay Salam, Ashfaque
Marfani, Aiwen Zhang, Lommes, Monkbot, AKS.9955, Nestwiki, Scarlettail, Gunduu, Magmar3, Andreagal, Sparta3, Pissoff55, Ujjwalku-
mar 47, Ryanburgess432628336, Shiggy1, Nimrainayat6290, Nawab khan baloch, Ashokachola, Photoncharger, The Pakistan, Mirzashahzad1,
Bgbdkid, Uniquark9, Bongan, Cartakes, Nishtiaqrana, HistoryPK14, Human3015, Kopusk15, WikiBulova, Ankush 89, Jawwad Ahmad, Box-
man88, Tim dola, Neve-selbert, Goose121, Sarimahmed2002, Wasiq 9320, Tribe of Tiger, GreenC bot, Alee Hayder, Readyus, Emilysarah079,
Damon2747, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 531
• History of South Asia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India?oldid=749524772 Contributors: Mav, Jeronimo, Malcolm
Farmer, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Josh Grosse, Danny, Arvindn, SimonP, Olivier, Leandrod, HollyAm, Michael Hardy,
TimShell, Llywrch, Dan Koehl, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Gaurav, Yann, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Dpol, Jiang, John K, Smack, Raven in
Orbit, Pizza Puzzle, Spectator~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Viz, Donkeyballs, Mjklin, Wik, Selket, KRS, Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Joshers, Imc,
Saltine, Kaal, Nv8200pa, VeryVerily, SEWilco, Mowgli~enwiki, Shizhao, Topbanana, Warofdreams, Pakaran, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Senthil,
Moriori, RedWolf, Goethean, Uma Mohan Reemala, Chancemill, Masao, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Ambarish, DigiBul-
let, Anthony, Lzur, GreatWhiteNortherner, Centrx, Dbenbenn, MaGioZal, Jacoplane, Andries, Nat Krause, Nichalp, Akella, Lethe, Wighson,
Yak, Tom Radulovich, Everyking, Bkonrad, Duncharris, Per Honor et Gloria, Sundar, Mboverload, Samhan, Macrakis, Brockert, Alvestrand,
Bobblewik, Ragib, Sesel, Wmahan, PenguiN42, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Pamri, Chris Edgemon, Quadell, Spatch, Dscos, Antandrus,
Madmagic, Ravikiran r, Piotrus, PDH, Sohanley, SimonArlott, MacGyverMagic, Heman, SimonLyall, Herrick~enwiki, Asbestos, Tsemii, Mike
Rosoft, Shahab, Jayjg, Venu62, CALR, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Ashwatham, Paul August, Cromis, Ben-
der235, ESkog, LordGulliverofGalben, JoeSmack, Eric Forste, Brian0918, Alren, Livajo, IndianCow, El C, Lycurgus, Chalst, Kwamikagami,
QuartierLatin1968, Aude, Dalf, RobNS, Bobo192, Vervin, Janna Isabot, NetBot, Longhair, Smalljim, Enric Naval, HPN, Duk, Cmdrjameson,
Sabretooth, Chirag, Darwinek, Rje, PWilkinson, Kbir1, Hintha, Idleguy, Caeruleancentaur, Fox1, Pearle, Perceval, Ogress, Etrigan, Alansohn,
Anthony Appleyard, Skud, LtNOWIS, Mo0, 119, Wiki-uk, Mr Adequate, Omerlives, Riana, LRBurdak, Axl, SlimVirgin, Hu, Malo, Velella,
Docboat, Viyyer, Sciurinæ, SteinbDJ, Alai, IMpbt, Instantnood, Netkinetic, Oleg Alexandrov, ReelExterminator, Bastin, Zntrip, Dejvid, Nuno
Tavares, Velho, Kelly Martin, Jasonm, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Shreevatsa, Camw, Brunnock, Ganeshk, Scjessey, JeremyA, AshishG, John
Hill, Gimboid13, A3r0, Mandarax, Raguks, Graham87, Shaker, David Levy, , Zzedar, Bikeable, Dwaipayanc, Dpv, Mana Excalibur,
Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, SpikedZebra, Hiberniantears, Davelong, SpNeo, Bhadani, MarnetteD, DuKot, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Algebra,
Harda, FlaBot, Osprey39, Ageo020, Mkamat, SchuminWeb, Nihiltres, GünniX, Gurch, Codex Sinaiticus, Le Anh-Huy, DaGizza, Krishnavedala,
Bgwhite, UkPaolo, Guptadeepak, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sortan, Sudarshanhs, Avecit, Deeptrivia, RussBot, John Smith’s, Aznph8playa, John
224 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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jit, Arulns, Raven4x4x, Vastu, Emersoni, Samir, Priyanath, Duncan Delp, DeadEyeArrow, Wujastyk, Despentes, Scope creep, Deepak~enwiki,
Slaggart, Pawyilee, FF2010, Callmetarantula, Doldrums, Laszlo Panaflex, Siya~enwiki, Deville, Rudrasharman, Reyk, Gppande, JoanneB,
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lowMonkey, Saravask, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jagged 85, Davewild, Thunderboltz, Clpo13, Matveims, Bradtcordeiro, Aivazovsky, Devilbemyguide,
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tok, Kazkaskazkasako, Izehar, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, NCurse, Master of Puppets, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Freedom skies, Deli
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Bongwarrior, VoABot II, CiteCop, Elioseff, Shruth, Yandman, Jpmaurya, Sodabottle, Tinucherian, Sindhutvavadin, Yashtulsyan, TinaSparkle,
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sain, HamzaOmar, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, BuickCenturyDriver, Kww, Paulsurajit, Ocolon, DennyColt, MackSalmon, Mandot, Martin451,
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Struway2, Denisarona, Sitush, ImageRemovalBot, Mr. Granger, RegentsPark, Revirvlkodlaku, Doergood, Apuldram, ClueBot, Truthalwayspre-
vails, Truthfulnesswins, Green132, 6589743new, 86597one, Rustic, The Thing That Should Not Be, Akhil Bakshi, Aditya0908, Plastikspork,
Tjenssen, Abhinav, Podzemnik, Parkjunwung, Senzangakhona, Drmies, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Rambo4u, Shovon76, Komala412,
Puchiko, Excirial, Jusdafax, TonyBallioni, SBC-YPR, Andy pyro, Resoru, Skeerti, Tiniti, Joa po, Wiki dr mahmad, Jayantanth, NuclearWarfare,
Jotterbot, TheRedPenOfDoom, Incognitus scriptor, Dekisugi, Audaciter, ChrisHodgesUK, Pyule, Bobbytheonlyone, Thingg, Lord Cornwallis,
SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, AgnosticPreachersKid, Nathan Johnson, Vayalir, BodhisattvaBot, Feinoha, Amit20081980, Bhuvann, Airplaneman,
Amul.saha, Addbot, ERK, Altetendekrabbe, DOI bot, Manjunath Doddamani Gajendragad, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, Ka Faraq Gatri, Download,
Lihaas, AnnaFrance, LemmeyBOT, SamatBot, AtheWeatherman, LinkFA-Bot, Vyom25, Kahasabha, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Ias2008,
Jarble, Odder, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, Babban12, WellsSouth, QueenCake, AjitDongre, James-
bose4u, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, AmritasyaPutra, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Keithbob, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Materialscientist,
Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Samar60, Davidgutierrezalvarez, Dewan357, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Capricorn42, Jubileeclipman, Nasnema,
Tazz41, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, ManasShaikh, Balapur444, Myxp009, J04n, Jezhotwells, RibotBOT, Vij singh121, Creez34, Lobyk, For4me,
Persontgssbdx, Rajvaddhan, Shadowjams, Rtlevel, Rajender Sethi, Mughalnz, A.amitkumar, Undsoweiter, Fruchogurt, FrescoBot, Skylark2008,
Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Cracker.online.wizard, Sneha.desai, Deepak.pathak, Swapnil.bose, Mightymrt away, D'ohBot, Jgw71, Rhyme3,
Manohar.gupta, Inderkk, Lordharrypotter, Ladril, Apoorva.sen, Citation bot 1, Prakash2009, Taeyebar, SpacemanSpiff, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, Elockid, Jonesey95, Mathew.danel, Calmer Waters, Hamtechperson, Moonraker, RedBot, MondalorBot, Serols, Srath12345, Deshab-
hakta, Full-date unlinking bot, Dewan753, Trappist the monk, Vinay84, Chhora, Callanecc, Dinamik-bot, Clarkcj12, Extra999, Swift&silent,
Περίεργος, Cowlibob, Aurorion, Diannaa, Pankajbgarh, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, World8115, Keegscee, Onel5969, Shardaprasad001,
Chipmunkdavis, Generalboss3, Moondras, Topkiller161, LcawteHuggle, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Wikisurf1, Tommy2010,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Skylark2007, Piggy1956, Hashemi1971, Josve05a, Traxs7, Krishnagopi06, Razdev2003, Mar4d, Drupada, H3llBot, Alveerana,
SporkBot, Makecat, Mdmday, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, 8ankitj, Common Senser, Philafrenzy, Donner60, LibertyOrDeath,
Lacobrigo, Bhurshut, Chewings72, GermanJoe, Nayansatya, Mittgaurav, PiMaur, Helpsome, Locomotive999, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-
Jones, MelbourneStar, LogX, , Winston786, Frietjes, Ntrikha, Dru of Id, Asukite, Rurik the Varangian, Wllmevans, Secret of success, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Thisthat2011, AnsarParacha, Gob Lofa, Harpi711, Bibcode Bot, Amitexo, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Soubhagya18198,
Hz.tiang, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, HIDECCHI001, MusikAnimal, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, Joshua Jonathan, Difiicult, Ar-
injatt, TejasDiscipulus2, Amitrochates, Gyrodoor33, Haryana-shakti, David.moreno72, The Dawn of Husk, Mdann52, SaibAbaVenkatesh,
Ashish-Sharma-Dilli, Cyberbot II, EuroCarGT, Stumink, Kumaonkings, Cpt.a.haddock, Dexbot, Mogism, Mitra2412, Abitoby, RaniPatel,
Copperchloride, Frosty, SFK2, Kmj764, Ashish57, Stewwie, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Bhonsale, Reynold Franco, Hillbillyholiday, Jodosma, Urnan-
abha, Tentinator, Hendrick 99, Soham, DavidLeighEllis, LouisAragon, Haminoon, Bvpanek, Wikiuser13, Ugog Nizdast, Interpréteur, Zaketo,
NottNott, Pops7003, Hitdarbway, Asha2jagdish, Logical1004, Ramsingh12, Radharani11, Bladesmulti, Bananaw, Mansinghj, Robevans123,
Adba123, Manish.chandel, Stinson20001, Arjunkrishna90, JaconaFrere, Lakun.patra, Skr15081997, Mathnerd89, Acharyanamaste, Rajive14,
Realfacts123, Arunvrparavur, Sandesh N, Tanu sachhar, Monkbot, VictoriaGrayson, Ajaythomas0007, Yakirf, StratMan001, Madhanmohan-
coimbatore, Magmar3, Adinpap, Boby1187, Sparta3, JijL2341, Khannishat29, Rupertgrint1, Ghatus, Shiggy1, Avantiputra7, Jonathanarpith,
Dileepqwerty, TranquilHope, Jonesmith4, Dot.porter, Santhapriya, Buddyonline77, Kautilya3, Takafumi1, Vreswiki, Julesbiggie, FourViolas,
Bongan, Lakhan jain, BudChrSch, NZ 2014, Ahmedwaheed1234, A.v.vyas, Cartakes, Rubbish computer, ScrapIronIV, Cjflanker7, Weighty,
Isambard Kingdom, Farhankahout, N schav 88, Luckysydney77, Jyotheeswar kichili, Bharat-bhoomi, Nidafatimashahi, , SaNj1234,
Lorstaking, Knight91B, Fcukindia, Pusancaito, 3 of Diamonds, Capankajsmilyo, AusLondonder, Rakeshsngh060, Sandy Shet, Anentai, Chintu-
5.1. TEXT 225

magnet, Amal Kuruvilla Babu, Vanished user ija0qfr2o3ijfi 4i4tijwci823irnf, Parvezans88, Raj Bag, MD SHAZID MOZIB, Someone from us,
Eniskates, RefCafe, Hinono134, Filpro, AJUDIA DARSHAN P, Bishina, Sanket Edits Wiki, Kanavkamal, Saurabh Umar, Rohit Chaser, Wasiq
9320, Varunvenu1000, TurkicDelight, Boomer Vial, Vijaykumarmadanu, IndigoTiger, Anadimishra2, GreenC bot, Raheem-ejaz, MPVK, Panda
Man.3, Gurbar Akaal, Rameshchandrasrivatsa, FirstKabir, Bender the Bot, Dheeraj2291, Acopyeditor, IndrajithNaik, Charit0222, Darth Maul
with a black lightsaber, Ashish.singh8912 and Anonymous: 1190
• Pakistan Movement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Movement?oldid=748781476 Contributors: Menchi, Raven in Orbit,
Dsmdgold, Bobblewik, Sohailstyle, Pasquale, Bender235, Neko-chan, El C, VishalB, Art LaPella, Awais141, Varungarde, Bastin, Woohookitty,
RHaworth, Dwaipayanc, Koavf, The wub, Ground Zero, Crazycomputers, Gareth E. Kegg, Bgwhite, Deeptrivia, PaulGarner, Ozzykhan,
Siddiqui, Srinivasasha, Stallions2010, Emersoni, Tachs, Szhaider, Zakksez, Caballero1967, Eenu, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Bolasanibk,
AnonUser, Spasage, Hmains, Bluebot, Hibernian, Rama’s Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Pepsidrinka, Muhammad Hamza, Ronaz,
Ohconfucius, Jidanni, Johanna-Hypatia, Fast track, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, JorisvS, Green Giant, Prof786, Makyen, Deepak
D'Souza, Dl2000, Falcon007, Heer Sayyal, CmdrObot, Amalas, JohnCD, ShelfSkewed, Chicheley, Farrukh Hashmi, Thijs!bot, Islescape,
Davidelit, THEunique, Random user 8384993, Salizaf, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, DrKay, Fowler&fowler, KylieTastic, TopGun,
Neobaba, Al-minar, Haroon.tauqir, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Suprah, Noor Aalam, SieBot, Eshfaq, Aguenther, Caltas, Atmamatma,
Gr8opinionater, Deavenger, MenoBot, ArdClose, EoGuy, Sherazkamran, Mild Bill Hiccup, Shovon76, Abrahamlast, Excirial, Muhandes, Io-
hannes Animosus, DumZiBoT, Kuddyc, Kurdo777, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Granpuff, Amirobot, AnomieBOT,
LilHelpa, The Banner, A Fantasy, Raja1020, Bellerophon, Yodaspirine, Jaagpkpk, Suneet87, Shadowjams, Skcpublic, FrescoBot, S.K.Q,
D'ohBot, Inlandmamba, Nazariapakistantrust, Talhamian, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, TheoloJ, Jethwarp, Dabamizan48, WikiTome,
Onel5969, Generalboss3, John of Reading, Look2See1, Qasimcheema42, Dcirovic, Mar4d, SporkBot, Foresomenteneikona, Murtazawi82, Jca-
neen, Meh.ahd, Justice007, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Naved77, MelbourneStar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Andrew Gwilliam, BG19bot, Umais
Bin Sajjad, Sahara4u, PhnomPencil, Darkness Shines, MMKhan22, IluvatarBot, Asadcheema 2020, Dharampanthi, BattyBot, TheJJJunk, Sub-
altern Historian, Stumink, Futurist110, Br'er Rabbit, Delljvc, PeerBaba, 93, Rafeh96, Ngrewal1, Jodosma, Tentinator, Wamiq, Nikhilmn2002,
Monkbot, Miniman77, Tigercompanion25, Andymii, UsmanKhan, Nimrainayat6290, Kashifsaeed79, Crystallizedcarbon, Mvkaushik, Rubbish
computer, Arvansages, Human3015, Ahmerawan, Maxmalerights, Filpro, Laksh Talreja123, Hassan hussain vic, Towns Hill, Robert Brukner
and Anonymous: 154
• Government of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan?oldid=747300135 Contributors: William Avery, Ed-
ward, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Moriori, Graeme Bartlett, Ragib, SoWhy, Sohailstyle, Antandrus, Ukexpat, Mike Rosoft, D6, Bishonen,
MarkS, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Pokereth, Laurascudder, Giraffedata, Alansohn, Arthena, Neonumbers, Skyring, Natcase, Camw, Rjwilmsi,
Chipuni, Lockley, Bhadani, FayssalF, CStyle, Bgwhite, Guptadeepak, Joshdboz, Siddiqui, Stallions2010, Szhaider, Zakksez, Schajee, NeilN,
Sardanaphalus, YellowMonkey, Slarre, Haymaker, Rrius, Spasage, Bluebot, Jahiegel, Aacool, Pepsidrinka, Evlekis, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Fast
track, Kashmiri, Green Giant, Acetylcholine, Drfighar, Kikiam, DangerousPanda, Kylu, Neelix, AndrewHowse, KevinPuj, Jvandy 2610, Vi-
noo202, HokieRNB, Muhammadhani, Badark, Anandhanju, Dynaflow, DumbBOT, H ahsan, Gimmetrow, Islescape, Rzafar, Mereda, Marek69,
John254, Sulaimandaud, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Obiwankenobi, Prolog, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Samar, MER-C, VoABot II, Jyothis, River-
torch, Avicennasis, Truthspreader, Philg88, Pauly04, Jim.henderson, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, Jahanas, Ryan Postlethwaite, DadaNeem,
Flatterworld, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Dzenanz, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rollo44, Pahari Sahib, LeaveSleaves, Shareyar khan, Razzsic,
ARUNKUMAR P.R, Mrs87, Aec is away, Logan, Irtiqaa, Calliopejen1, Smsarmad, Bentogoa, Tiptoety, Florentino floro, Denisarona, Mr.
Granger, Elassint, ClueBot, Faran86, Myopia123, Karrar-commando, Raawais, Brewcrewer, Jusdafax, Zdravljica, Rehanafzal, Lablinks, Razor-
flame, SchreiberBike, Kakofonous, Acabashi, Kslall8765, Anoopan, XLinkBot, Amaan akter, NellieBly, UnknownForEver, MatthewVanitas,
Addbot, Mihirbhojani, Misaq Rabab, Fahadsobani, Fahadmubarak, Nabil rais2008, Glane23, Lihaas, Mnaumanm, Favonian, Yobot, Ata Fida
Aziz, Thelonerex, AnomieBOT, InfantGorilla, Jim1138, 9258fahsflkh917fas, 90, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, TinucherianBot II, Sehrish143,
Nasirkhan, Aashaa, Maven 007, FrescoBot, Worky worky, Bad employee, Bloody0079, Coolprosu, Sayyam4u, TimonyCrickets, StaticVision,
AhmadJawad, Pekayer11, I dream of horses, MJ94, A8UDI, Akkida, Fawadlauhany, Pedir, Hrs87, DC, Vrenator, Robertiki, IRISZOOM,
Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Bane310, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Rameezraja001, The Pakistani Falcon, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki,
Mfano, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Gimmetoo, Danyr1099, Mar4d, Drustaz, Imtiazarain, Jayngz34, TheDramatist, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar,
AStannard, Frietjes, Trunks ishida, BG19bot, Sahara4u, Compfreak7, Hostager, RGloucester, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, JurgenNL, Lugia2453,
Faizan, I am One of Many, Stylistica, Comp.arch, Maan Tujay Salam, Tusdec, Keshetsven, Arif Mehmood Qureshi, Monkbot, Sacred Falcon,
Ameertamoor90, ChopSticksChan, None-of-your-beeswax-bro-so-quit-looking, User37374, User267, User373738 and Anonymous: 399
• Pakistan Air Force Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Air_Force?oldid=749524647 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Gsl, Rmher-
men, William Avery, Hephaestos, Rbrwr, Edward, Varunrebel, Snoyes, Rlandmann, Stefan-S, Jiang, Smack, Dysprosia, Astrotrain, Nv8200pa,
Topbanana, Ironman419, Fvw, RedWolf, Altenmann, Dukeofomnium, ThaGrind, DigiBullet, Cyrius, Greyengine5, Cobaltbluetony, Grant65,
Gzornenplatz, Ragib, Sohailstyle, Gdr, Sam Hocevar, Faraz, Gscshoyru, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Chem1, Mennonot, Moverton, Rich
Farmbrough, Loganberry, Stereotek, Bender235, Loren36, Zscout370, El C, Zegoma beach, Adambro, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson,
Idleguy, Nsaa, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Csabo, Mr Adequate, Andrew Gray, Denniss, Hohum, Harisnajam, Awais141, Rentastrawberry, Mm-
sarfraz, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, Yousaf465, Lkinkade, Angr, Woohookitty, Blackeagle, Urnonav, Ardfern, Tabletop, Blacksun, Zzyzx11,
Kralizec!, Salmansignals, GraemeLeggett, Paxsimius, Graham87, BD2412, JamesBurns, Melesse, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tan-
gotango, Gd, Ian Dunster, Sumanch, Titoxd, Usmanreddy, RexNL, Gurch, Intgr, Alphachimp, OpenToppedBus, Russavia, Cpcheung, Ahunt,
Perm, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, Noclador, TexasAndroid, Eraserhead1, John Smith’s, SluggoOne, Napoleon12, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Cam-
bridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, (Clone)Stephen P. Cohen, Siddiqui, Welsh, Megapixie, Wisesabre, Brian Crawford,
Misza13, MySchizoBuddy, Cerejota, DeadEyeArrow, Szhaider, Salman4paf, Melanchthon, Jkelly, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k,
JoanneB, Tierce, Nick-D, Street Scholar, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Prodego, Waqas.usman, Spasage, Sam8, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Beta-
command, Chris the speller, Quinsareth, Saira khalid, Freedom skies, Colonies Chris, Tarikash, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Greenshed, Iqy007,
Cheenamalai, Pepsidrinka, Emre D., Evil Merlin, Nakon, Legaleagle86, Dreadstar, Lcarscad, Godanov, DMacks, Panchitaville, Antheii, John,
Scientizzle, SilkTork, Fast track, MilborneOne, Shadowlynk, Green Giant, Umair101, JohnWittle, Yasirniazkhan, MarkSutton, Andrwsc,
Dl2000, Iridescent, Spartian, Skapur, SohanDsouza, Woodshed, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Aliyusuf, Mmab111, J Milburn, Zaku Two, JFor-
get, Tere naam, CmdrObot, Alizia~enwiki, Mark Sien, Stefan Jansen, Fnlayson, Warhorus, SyntaxError55, Gogo Dodo, Muhammadhani,
Chasingsol, Bhalli619, Jaiiaf, Prateik, Omicronpersei8, Aldis90, PKT, Aditya Kabir, Qwyrxian, Rzafar, Sanjaysaigal, SGGH, Esemono, Su-
laimandaud, Dsouzaron, Hcobb, Nick Number, Mm11, Escarbot, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Dr. Blofeld, Uppal340, MECU, Ksquareku-
226 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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BG19bot, Wasbeer, Nikhil199029, Jigben, Hassaanch, Pak soldier007, Darkness Shines, Kazimali101, Sainath19, Syoneiros, Iamtrhino, Safe-
haven86, Katangais, Deepsikha, Udeekan, Earlyriser10, Pervezbilgrami, Rajaomair, Karan Kamath, Muffin Wizard, BattyBot, Kool777456,
Najamkhan16, Fajjuify, Donsomani, Cyberbot II, Aliwal2012, Adnan bogi, Khazar2, Farhan Khurram, Faheem siddiq, Irfioo7, Uzidon92,
AllamShaikSarwar, Cerabot~enwiki, PeerBaba, Kwisha, Verecund8, Rao Asghar, Faizan, Maxx786, Zarghun11, Wamiq, Pvpoodle, Achmad
Fahri, Asadwarraich, Irfanbodla, Haseeb Ahmed Malik 786, Filedelinkerbot, Malik Haseeb Ahmed, Zeshan Mahmood, Ghatus, SheriffIsIn-
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• Pakistan Army Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Army?oldid=749265560 Contributors: Zundark, Ed Poor, Michael Hardy, Dan
Koehl, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, AWhiteC, WhisperToMe, Nv8200pa, Ironman419, Fvw, Modulatum, Pingveno, Academic Challenger, Ujmi,
HaeB, Carnildo, DocWatson42, Gardenmaster, MSGJ, Everyking, Varlaam, Mboverload, Falcon Kirtaran, Bobblewik, Ragib, Utcursch, Sohail-
style, Subsailor, Billposer, Mzajac, Martin Wisse, Necrothesp, Faraz, Neutrality, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Acsenray, Rich Farmbrough,
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equate, Ricky81682, Andrew Gray, Hohum, Harisnajam, Dalillama, Sciurinæ, Awais141, GabrielF, Pauli133, Mmsarfraz, Yousaf465, Bo-
brayner, Firsfron, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, TomTheHand, Tabletop, I64s, Kralizec!, Siqbal, Graham87, Dpv, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
Tim!, Coemgenus, Sparten, Valentinejoesmith, MarnetteD, Leithp, Titoxd, Usmanreddy, Dan Guan, Mark83, RexNL, Intgr, Cpcheung, DVdm,
JesseGarrett, Bgwhite, Ankmin, Noclador, Wavelength, Borgx, Shemrez, RussBot, SpuriousQ, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas,
Wimt, NawlinWiki, Siddiqui, Rjensen, Thiseye, Retired username, StarChaser, T, M2k41, Kewp, Haemo, Deepak~enwiki, Thegreyanomaly,
Szhaider, Johndrinkwater, Wpollard, Alkubaiba, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k, Taptee, Nirav.maurya, Caballero1967, Tierce,
FriendOfPanda, RG2, NeilN, Nick-D, Street Scholar, Sardanaphalus, RaiderAspect, SmackBot, WilliamThweatt, YellowMonkey, Derek An-
drews, Reedy, Somizulfi, Vald, Fvguy72, Jagged 85, Spasage, Taz Manchester, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, Ittaskforce, Hi-
bernian, Kungming2, Colonies Chris, MyNameIsVlad, Ammar shaker, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Jaida, Huon, Cheenamalai, Khoikhoi, Shadika-
murgha, Salamurai, Ohconfucius, Ali 786, Chymicus, Sambot, Fast track, MilborneOne, Green Giant, Drumzandspace2000, Mr. Lefty,
Bostonbrahmin20, Bluewind, Osyed, Zain Sadullah Khan, Publicus, Meco, Bharadsm, Iridescent, Haus, Woodshed, FairuseBot, Mmab111,
Omarshehab, JForget, SuperTank17, Tere naam, Wikist, CmdrObot, Zero.Unit, Ahmad R Shahid, Imdabs, Funnyfarmofdoom, Fnlayson,
Samuell, Marwatt, Huma1509, Bhalli619, Pascal.Tesson, SAWGunner89, Christian75, DumbBOT, Teratornis, IComputerSaysNo, Biblbroks,
Gimmetrow, Aldis90, Epbr123, Barticus88, Marek69, Sulaimandaud, Nathraq, Dsouzaron, Hcobb, Mm11, Natalie Erin, Hamzakahn, Kraka-
toaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Muhammad Shemyal Nisar, Lyricmac, Trueblood786, THEunique, MECU, MikeLynch, Samar, Has-
sanpak30, MER-C, Chanakyathegreat, Fetchcomms, Zaindy, PhilKnight, Doctorhawkes, Acroterion, Haseebuddin, Magioladitis, Advil, Vick-
ydevil000, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Buckshot06, Jbalocki, Avicennasis, Gabriel Kielland, BilCat, Shammi123, JTGILLICK, TelusFielder,
Jedi-gman, Stephenchou0722, Raza0007, MartinBot, Kiore, Shahroze, Fahadumer, Rettetast, Bissinger, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64,
Rko 0907, EdBever, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, OohBunnies!, McSly, Ayubm, Jeepday, Skier Dude, Ahsaniqbal 93, Warrior
on Terrorism, ElinneaG, Hariswaheed, Juliancolton, Bogdan~enwiki, Vanished user 39948282, TopGun, Bonadea, Squids and Chips, MI245,
Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Nameerb, Indubitably, Umar420e, W. B. Wilson, Philip Trueman, Jomasecu, Anticorruption, NPrice,
Guillaume2303, Abhishekgoel80, Qxz, Someguy1221, Monaimpk90, Blunta, Steven J. Anderson, Nazgul02, Mannafredo, Razzsic, Wpktsfs,
Carinemily, Rnbhatti, AjitPD, Eurocopter, Kermanshahi, Adeelkhan87, Aliimran900, Fawazrob, Talooman, Waseem.Azhar, Julekmen, Pdf-
pdf, SieBot, Sarata~enwiki, Ødipus sic, WereSpielChequers, Tbo 157, Anklefear, Skybolt101, Kerk999, Hbtila, Smsarmad, Yasir Yousaf, Dr.
Daredevil, Hazel eyed khan, Keilana, PookeyMaster, Flyer22 Reborn, Chromaticity, Oda Mari, Sas311, JSpung, Indoles, Black1928, Miami
5.1. TEXT 227

bingo, KPH2293, Lightmouse, Mesoso2, PakSniper786, Mr. Stradivarius, Ibericus Lusitanus, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Jons63, ImageRe-
movalBot, YSSYguy, ClueBot, Asifask, Noorkhanuk85, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Think2big, EoGuy, Gaia Octavia Agrippa,
Mild Bill Hiccup, Kaiser22312, Boing! said Zebedee, Mezigue, Veshi, Cpq29gpl, Niceguyedc, RafaAzevedo, Karrar-commando, Otolemur
crassicaudatus, Cirt, Auntof6, SamuelTheGhost, Pk-user, Ktr101, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Panyd, Wonder scorpio2005, Keysersoze25, Iohannes
Animosus, SoxBot, Razorflame, Banime, Staygyro, SyedNaqvi90, DavidDCM, Uzairsagitarian, Thehelpfulone, Nem1yan, One last pharaoh,
Versus22, Kashifmania 7, Antalope, Rhp1462, M2ask, Berean Hunter, Habibfriend, Heretheycometosnufftherooster, DumZiBoT, AjitParkash,
XubayrMA, XLinkBot, Gnowor, DaL33T, Dr.faizanali, WikHead, ErkinBatu, UnknownForEver, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The,
Milstuffxyz, Dave1185, Addbot, 88877762u4hfm, Jownawan, Misaq Rabab, DougsTech, Alimetalfalcon, TutterMouse, Omrwyn, Shirtwaist,
CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, Faizantcs, Talha, Debresser, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Numbo3-bot, Bwrs, Tide rolls, Jan eissfeldt, Emperor Genius,
Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, I m da pimp, Sherbazjan, Umairtunio, QueenCake, Lime123456789, Magog the Ogre,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, MianJiFromPakistan, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Circuitbaba, Kingpin13, Julnap,
Skkamath, Materialscientist, Deviljin60, Kapitop, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Gsmgm, Xqbot, A Fantasy, Tashkeel, Date delinker, AbigailAber-
nathy, Alyhasnain, Sehrish143, Coretheapple, Zenoxas, GrouchoBot, Thelonesomerex, Ute in DC, Ahmed4995, Signalian, Bezerk86, Hj108,
Shayanshaukat, Circuitboy09, Nsgcommando, Lunar Dragoon, Brutaldeluxe, Doulos Christos, Man han2006, AzanGun, AustralianRupert, In-
cidious, Shadowjams, Žiedas, Mughalnz, Spongefrog, Farhan 9909, Adirai666, Rashtra, Skcpublic, Manju.Sidgour, FrescoBot, Smirkykey-
board, 12jh900, Ironboy11, StaticVision, Sakartvelos, Cowboy forth worth, Mikehunthatesu, Politicalpandit, Sweetgirl1965, Ahmer Jamil Khan,
Xaveq, Hussainhssn, Mikhan81, I dream of horses, Pink Bull, Elockid, Degen Earthfast, Nuclearram, Hoo man, Saadsaleemmalik, Ammarshk,
Partha ceg, NarSakSasLee, SaadMuhammad, Sarmadhassan, Barras, Ahsaninam, Elitedrago, Declan Clam, D climacus, Dodi1234, LogAntiLog,
Lam Kin Keung, Samr19, Muhsaeed, EMP, Vineethvaishukondamareddy, Lammidhania, Tumna, Wildds, Jacksbikes, TheMesquito, Sidd555,
DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Stephreef, Pakistan897, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Muhammad asad raza khan, Armyoptimist, Mid-
nighthawk, Kiernander, Raheel134, Bagh71, EmausBot, John of Reading, Rc3003, AEC Tripp, AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, Sc303, Going-
Batty, Sentinel R, RenamedUser01302013, Wikipelli, K6ka, Sanabil Mirza, Yaya2, Sundostund, Josve05a, ObscureReality, Mar4d, Alpha Quad-
rant (alt), Jenni.anti, Seattle, Δ, Superashahzad, Lestephenois1, KazekageTR, Zuggernaut, Donner60, Shahid Durez, Mantisnpb, Carmichael,
Zakeria9494, Abbaszeb, Nabil 05, Pakistanghul, Jayngz34, Umair1808, 28bot, Ahmad Nauman, Mfaisal1973, ClueBot NG, Muzammil.butt,
Borninusa100, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Om996jo, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Code16, Paybc01, Hassan Riaz Chaudhry, Raam Das, Teepusultan,
Doh5678, Ijaz-qaiser, Gr8alee, Cntras, Netasif2009, Taqi1286, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Xtreme.stars, Upite, Widr, Gabriel431, MMUs-
manNazakatAli, Nalsra, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, Electriccatfish2, Creativeshahzad, DBigXray, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Pakarmyfanpage,
AxeEffect (usurped), Jigben, Musab.raja, MusikAnimal, Darkness Shines, Jogi don, Compfreak7, Johndawn69, Jhfjdhfjhsdfkd, Aminarab,
Tigerinthewoods, Josema20, 220 of Borg, Paksoldier, Loser0302, Blueridgeline, Juliya julie, Sarvesh9090, EricEnfermero, Kool777456, Amer-
ica789, Arr4, Adnan bogi, AIRFORCE-FB, Arcandam, Khazar2, Bandit313, Sumervirk, Faheem siddiq, Changineverything, PancakeArson,
Dexbot, Theonepak01, Tiger2222, Mogism, AllamShaikSarwar, Clusterstone, Mahirdyan, Lugia2453, Sence45, FarhanBatkhela, TripWire,
FOX 52, Rohit147258, Pinfix, Faizan, Maxx786, Saffi ullah, Ccjeditor, AliRazaS123, Defenceline, Gullshaer, Wanishahrukh, Tentinator, Pak-
istan97, Antiochus the Great, Bishal Khan, Bivamoon, Fevertopes faiz, Askarahmed, Hankspanks, Kamrul512, Uhuhhello, Zenibus, Shaheer16,
Ginsuloft, George8211, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, Achmad Fahri, Jianhui67, Asadwarraich, Fahri Ahmad, Misbaali, Rajkumararslan, Maan Tujay
Salam, Thedudeyouknow, Salman.naveed10, Newiphone, Rameshnta909, Lakun.patra, Thatsomebody123, Genehash, Pooxy10to, Ltaliawan,
Filedelinkerbot, As2552, Akahddlo, Славянский патриот, Roshu Bangal, Umar Chaudhry - 20, UsmanKhan, Raj33317, Naumanbahrain, NQ,
Justacitizenoftheworld, Ghatus, Nimrainayat6290, Faizan imtiaz ali khan, Shahzaibaliaz, Omerirfan, StanTheMan87, Waqasgh, Aghaimran, Cy-
borg.pk, Zarar younis, FreeatlastChitchat, Coolman075, Teja srinivas, Imrannawaz316, AminDada787, AlphaBetaGamma01, Ali awan malik,
Man from Nephew, Goverment of amerca, Hassan waziristani, Human3015, Pakknowledge1234, Hasanmustafa22, Kkk111jdjdj, Ayush Kr Su,
Supdiop, Sacred Falcon, RedPanda25, MusikBot, MAnoo Ali, Shaw Knowledge, Asimraza999, Kedar3089, Ckaudine500, Zadon19, MCIWS,
Arghya1999, Nihalium, Haseeb Malik99, CorrectionLab 3000, MBlaze Lightning, Commandernavy, Sssinha, Fahad (Sigge), GreenGermany55,
Dndhshsd, GSS-1987, Allthefoxes, Dingavinga, Towns Hill, Kashifpeter, Jilanimeal, MalikAttaRasool, MalikHamza024, Attaulhadiz, Vipul-
saini11, Kashif933, Asad.abdullah49, Andreabanks6 and Anonymous: 1405
• Pakistan Navy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Navy?oldid=749555550 Contributors: Zundark, Jinian, Ahoerstemeier, Dark-
wind, Astrotrain, Ironman419, Indefatigable, Fvw, Dukeofomnium, Mboverload, Douglas Milnes, Ragib, Sohailstyle, Gdr, Quadell, Faraz,
Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Alistair1978, Bender235, El C, Cohesion, Giraffedata, Idleguy, Grutness, Andrew
Gray, Marathi mulgaa, Evil Monkey, Mmsarfraz, Yousaf465, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Kralizec!, JohnC, Behun, Mandarax, Toba1,
Rjwilmsi, Sparten, Astronaut, Durin, Bhadani, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, Tu160m, Cpcheung, Ahunt, DVdm, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot,
John Smith’s, Napoleon12, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen, Siddiqui, Welsh, MySchizoBuddy, Aaron Schulz, DeadEyeArrow, Szhaider,
Arthur Rubin, Mercenary2k, JoanneB, Garion96, Nick-D, That Guy, From That Show!, Luk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Somizulfi, Spasage,
Mauls, Yamaguchi , Hmains, Dyvroeth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dvermeirre, Hibernian, Letdorf, Tarikash, OrphanBot, Cheenamalai,
Ala.foum, Godanov, Wizardman, Springnuts, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Esw01407, John, Fast track, MilborneOne, Green Giant,
PRRfan, Mrnaveed, Iridescent, JoeBot, Courcelles, FairuseBot, Tere naam, CmdrObot, Vepr~enwiki, Azeemahmed, Mark Sien, Mattbuck,
Fnlayson, UD75, Khatru2, Chasingsol, Shirulashem, Wikid77, Islescape, Greeklunatic~enwiki, Rzafar, Headbomb, HammerHeadHuman, Su-
laimandaud, Hcobb, Nick Number, Javed Ali, MECU, WikipedianProlific, Chanakyathegreat, Zaindy, Wasell, Red aRRow, Geozapf, Buck-
shot06, Kal-El2006~enwiki, BilCat, Khalid Mahmood, Raza0007, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Terrek, Marcd30319, Zuhair siddiqui, Ayubm,
Hut 6.5, Hariswaheed, TopGun, VolkovBot, Whack786, Monaimpk90, Razzsic, Billinghurst, Barath s, Pdfpdf, Gbawden, Smsarmad, Puremind,
Hello71, Lightmouse, L Molari, Mansari 01, Maelgwnbot, Martin H., Altzinn, Canglesea, Segregator236, Masifnaz~enwiki, ImageRemovalBot,
YSSYguy, ClueBot, Zeerak88, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Specac, Mild Bill Hiccup, NiD.29, 718 Bot, Pk-user, Abrahamlast,
CrazyChemGuy, Sun Creator, Arjayay, SyedNaqvi90, MelonBot, Res Gestæ Divi Augusti, Worldofpakistan, DumZiBoT, Nayyar.saifi, Roxy
the dog, Avoided, UnknownForEver, Sirajmjan, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The, Dave1185, Pindanl, Addbot, Pigr8, Atethnekos,
Fieldday-sunday, Arslan muhammad khan, Tide rolls, Iune, Luckas-bot, Yobot, I m da pimp, Zohair.ahmad, Jalal0, Cheese1125, AnomieBOT,
Mjghani, Jim1138, MianJiFromPakistan, Circuitbaba, Materialscientist, Kapitop, Citation bot, Samar60, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Srich32977, Leo-
mann, Coretheapple, Anotherclown, Hj108, Shayanshaukat, Hamidsajjad, Panda 51, Brutaldeluxe, UplinkAnsh, AustralianRupert, Jonathon A H,
FrescoBot, Ironboy11, Seadart, Ahmer Jamil Khan, Elockid, Degen Earthfast, Loyalist Cannons, Mutinus, Just a guy from the KP, Sarmadhassan,
Bcs09, Xcoolanurag, Elitedrago, Wienerish, Jugni, TobeBot, Swift&silent, Sourcelat0r, Wildds, Fry1989, Saleh hassan, RjwilmsiBot, Emaus-
Bot, John of Reading, Soumabratabiswas, Navyfan, AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, RenamedUser01302013, Solarra, FunkyCanute, Prancho,
Navy12341234, ZéroBot, John Cline, Susfele, Lyk4, ObscureReality, Muhammad Mahin, Ironeaglemoiz, Mar4d, Anir1uph, M.A.R 1993,
228 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

H3llBot, SporkBot, Δ, Gauti-90, Bahriaintl, 28bot, Alamgirian260, ClueBot NG, VinculumMan, Zain.uas007, Catlemur, Lion44, Usmantk22,
Snotbot, Shimily, Tomseattle, Kool Soldier, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, DBigXray, Zlisha Khan, IridiumIs77, Taimur25, Soufle, BG19bot,
Navyguru123, Pak soldier007, AtomGuy, Titliestprov, Jogi don, DSkauai, Sageam1, Tigerinthewoods, Pritishroy, FALCON-786-, Udeekan,
BattyBot, Kool777456, Cyberbot II, Adnan bogi, Dar.ahsan, Hyperkrish, Khazar2, Versova, Faheem siddiq, Beibeilong, BrightStarSky, Dexbot,
Airdefenceisbest, Mogism, Makecat-bot, WngCdrHassan, Delljvc, PeerBaba, Kunaljune, BTRand1, BlueRoll18, Faizan, Smartguy9912, Jo-
dosma, Evano1van, Antiochus the Great, Ourtpina, Andre’s Possee, Justojuilm, Kistara, Achmad Fahri, 2fizzy, Arkhan21, Maan Tujay Salam,
Haseeb Ahmed Malik 786, Newiphone, Monkbot, Nestwiki, Filedelinkerbot, Rabab Qadeer, Malik Haseeb Ahmed, Vinoth Kumar Manick-
avasagam, Newsameword, Sridhar Kartheek12, Nicky mathew, WikiBulova, Sacred Falcon, Malaksalmanhilal, Mohsin Fawad, Shaw Knowledge,
Luis Santos24, MBlaze Lightning, Commandernavy, Qaisarazeem, Sssinha, Nvichare, InternetArchiveBot, Ahmadshahzad11, GreenC bot, The-
PlatypusofDoom, Arslan274, Sants Pavan, Yarferoz, Marvellous Spider-Man, Navalgazer, Bender the Bot, Muhammad Ajman khan, Ajman
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JeLuF, Yann, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Crissov, Warofdreams, Cncs wikipedia, RedWolf, Bkell, Alan Liefting, Dbenbenn,
Nichalp, Curps, Bobblewik, Domino theory, D6, Venu62, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke,
Egalitus, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Shanes, Bobo192, Darwinek, Ogress, OneGuy, Riana, Arunreginald, Woohookitty, Before My Ken, Tabletop,
Joygerhardt, Magister Mathematicae, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, RexNL, Bgwhite, RussBot, Siddiqui, Emersoni, Pawyilee, Dark Tichon-
drias, Katieh5584, Kierongreen, Roke, YubYub41, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Waqas.usman, Yuriy75, Commander Keane
bot, Gilliam, Jamie C, TimBentley, ~enwiki, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Rama’s Arrow, Zvar, Mr.Z-man, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Solara-
pex, Zen611, DMacks, Domentolen, DLinth, Guroadrunner, Fast track, Grocer, Benesch, Green Giant, SQGibbon, Peter Horn, Thricecube,
Tawkerbot2, Tere naam, Sadalmelik, CmdrObot, Karenjc, Equendil, Muhammadhani, Bhalli619, Asenine, Ebyabe, Mattisse, Barticus88, Bob-
blehead, Nick Number, HussainAbbas, Hmrox, Milton Stanley, Enduchus, Shahroze, J.delanoy, Buttons to Push Buttons, Wetbird, Richard D.
LeCour, Potatoswatter, KylieTastic, Jamesofur, Tbone762, Nomi887, Meiskam, Thomas.W, Mrh30, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Aymatth2, Jarke,
Billinghurst, SD Martin61, SieBot, Brenont, Tresiden, Lucasbfrbot, Merotoker1, Bentogoa, Hello71, Lightmouse, Akarkera, ClueBot, PipepBot,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Takeaway, Jusdafax, Mikaey, Phynicen, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, ZooFari, Addbot, Talha, AndersBot, Paknur,
Lightbot, MuZemike, Waltloc, Luckas-bot, Yobot, QueenCake, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Samar60,
LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ed8r, AhlinaS, Geopersona, Amaury, Dr rizkhan, Comet3345, FrescoBot, SpaceRocket, K.Khokhar, Full-date unlinking bot,
Elitedrago, Tim1357, FudgeFury, Crimsonsniper99, Vrenator, Onel5969, Bento00, John of Reading, Abikan, Look2See1, AlphaGamma1991,
Dewritech, Racerx11, Dcirovic, K6ka, Mar4d, Drustaz, Nawab186, ClueBot NG, Amadoni, Mannanan51, Widr, BG19bot, Krenair, TheJJJunk,
Isaiah Hoopstar, Vanamonde93, Wamiq, LouisAragon, Ali Zifan, JaconaFrere, Lovkal, Fawad Ramzan Saeed, Wwikix, Nestwiki, UsmanKhan,
Malik shahbaz awan, My Chemistry romantic, Saramthemalang, MBlaze Lightning, Hot Pork Pie, Syed Wasiq and Anonymous: 205
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Nomi887, Funandtrvl, Addbot, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Mar4d, Satellizer and Anonymous: 2
• Climate of Pakistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Pakistan?oldid=733631190 Contributors: Kwamikagami, Velella,
Woohookitty, RussBot, Gilliam, Gaddy1975, Thegreatdr, Peter Horn, Hemlock Martinis, Trusilver, Hanacy, Oshwah, Uch, ImageR-
emovalBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Excirial, Certes, SherAbdul8, Avoided, T.c.w7468, Coolsafe, IXavier, Nabil rais2008, Paknur, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Ali944rana, A Fantasy, Knowledgehouse, Mathonius, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Tahir mq, Cnwilliams, FudgeFury, RjwilmsiBot,
AlphaGamma1991, Dewritech, Racerx11, Mz7, Akerans, HunterZone, H3llBot, Donner60, Puffin, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Flirtini143,
Widr, Strike Eagle, Tayyabkhalil, Game-Guru999, Gorthian, Sardr8, Ices2Csharp, Prmcd16, Lugia2453, Eyesnore, Krazygunner18, Quenhitran,
Ali Zifan, Nestwiki, BethNaught, Wasiq ali attar and Anonymous: 63

5.2 Images
• File:"Attack_of_the_Mutineers_on_the_Redan_Battery_at_Lucknow,_July_30th,_1857,.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/%22Attack_of_the_Mutineers_on_the_Redan_Battery_at_Lucknow%2C_July_30th%2C_1857%2C.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Ball, Charles (c.1860) The History of the Indian Mutiny: Giving A Detailed Account of the
Sepoy Insurrection in India; and a Concise History of the Great Military Events Which Have Tended to Consolidate British Em-
pire in Hindostan. London: The London Printing and Publishing Company. Page not numbered, among the illustrations at the
beginning of Volume III. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:100721-N-8931W-031.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/100721-N-8931W-031.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.nellis.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/100721-N-8931W-031.jpg Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by
Stephen Wolff
• File:2_STAR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/2_STAR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Marivas695
• File:3_STAR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/3_STAR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Marivas695
• File:4_STAR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/4_STAR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Marivas695
• File:5_STAR_LINE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/5_STAR_LINE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Marivas695
5.2. IMAGES 229

• File:6armddiv_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/6armddiv_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:


Own work Original artist: Desert commando
• File:ACM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/ACM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inamshah
• File:AJK_Districts_Names.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/AJK_Districts_Names.svg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tahir mq
• File:AM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/AM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inamshah
• File:AVM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/AVM_Pakistan_Air_Force.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inamshah
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3.0 nl Contributors: [1] Dutch National Archives, The Hague, Fotocollectie Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau (ANeFo), 1945-1989, Nummer
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png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inamshah
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• File:Change_of_command_aboard_PNS_Tippu_Sultan_DVIDS78354.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
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• File:Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg License:
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• File:Clock_Tower_Faisalabad_by_Usman_Nadeem.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Clock_Tower_
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• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/State_emblem_of_Pakistan.svg Li-
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machine-readable author provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).
5.2. IMAGES 231

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• File:Commodore_Pakistan_Navy_Insignia.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Commodore_Pakistan_
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• File:Dasam.Granth.Frontispiece.BL.Manuscript.1825-1850.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Dasam.
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mons. Original artist: The original uploader was Sagredo at English Wikipedia
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SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Jayantanth using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Suniltg at English
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• File:Faisal_Masjid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Faisal_Masjid.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Muhammad zahid ansari
• File:Fatima_jinnah1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/da/Fatima_jinnah1.jpg License: ? Contributors:
image taken from [1] Original artist: ?
• File:Field_Marshal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Field_Marshal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: FSCEM45212
232 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:First_Session_of_All_India_Jamhur_Muslim_League_held_in_1940_at_Muzaffarpur,Bihar.jpg Source: https://upload.


wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/51/First_Session_of_All_India_Jamhur_Muslim_League_held_in_1940_at_Muzaffarpur%2CBihar.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
photocamera
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Original artist:
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• File:Flag_map_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_map_of_Pakistan.svg License: CC
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• File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0 Con-
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• User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
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lic domain Contributors: Original artist:Himasaram
• File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public do-
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• File:Flag_of_Balochistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Balochistan.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Baba66 assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public do-
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tributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion (original
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• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
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• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
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5.2. IMAGES 233

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Public domain Contributors: Original artist:Steiner, Egon
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commons/8/89/Muslim_League_leaders_after_a_dinner_party%2C_1940_%28Photo_429-6%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
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5.2. IMAGES 237

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