1 Fuels and Combustion

FUELS AND 1
COMBUSTION

1.1 Fuel

Fuel is any material that is burnt or altered in order to obtain energy.

Fuel releases its energy either through chemical means, such as
combustion, or nuclear means, such as nuclear fission or nuclear
fusion. Wood was one of the first fuels used by humans and is still the
primary energy source in much of the world.
Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid
petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead
plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust over hundreds of millions of years.
The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of
emissions of carbon dioxide, which is one of the greenhouse gases
(GHG) that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global
warming. The atmospheric concentration of CO2, a greenhouse gas, is
increasing, raising concerns that solar heat will be trapped and the
average surface temperature of the Earth will rise in response. A
A Course in Energy Conversion 2
global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is
therefore under way to help meet the increased global energy needs.
Types of Fuels 1.2
The various types of fuels (like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels) that
are available depend on various factors such as costs, availability,
storage, handling, pollution and landed boilers, furnaces and other
combustion equipments. The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in
selecting the right fuel for the right purpose and for the efficient use of
the fuel.

(i) Solid Fuel (Coal)

Coal is a hard, black colored rock-like substance. It is made up of

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of sulphur.
There are three main types of coal - anthracite, bituminous and
lignite. Anthracite coal is the hardest and has more carbon, which
gives it higher energy content. Lignite is the softest and is low in
carbon but high in hydrogen and oxygen content. Bituminous is in
between. Today, the precursor to coal - peat - is still found in many
countries and is also used as an energy source.

Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China. With the
development of the steam engine in 1769, coal came into more
common use as a power source. Coal was later used to drive ships and
locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being
used for street lighting in London. In the 20th century, the primary use
of coal is for the generation of electricity, providing 40% of the
world's electrical power supply in 2005.

Emissions : Coal contains an average of 1.5% sulphur (S) by weight,

but this level may be as high as 3% depending upon where the coal
was mined. During the combustion process: Sulphur will combine
with oxygen (O2) from the air to form SO2 or SO3. Hydrogen (H) from
the fuel will combine with oxygen (O2) from the air to form water
(H2O). After the combustion process is completed, the SO3 will
3 Fuels and Combustion

combine with the water (H2O) to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4),

which can condense in the flue causing corrosion if the correct flue
temperatures are not maintained. Alternatively, it is carried over into
the atmosphere with the flue gases. This sulphuric acid is brought
back to earth with rain, causing damage to the fabric of buildings,
distress and damage to plants and vegetation. The ash produced by
coal is light, and a proportion will inevitably be carried over with the
exhaust gases, into the stack and expelled as particulate matter to the
environment. Coal, however, is still used to fire many of the very
large water-tube boilers found in power stations. The coal used in
power stations is milled to a very fine powder, generally referred to as
"pulverised fuel".
With regard to the quality of the gases released into the atmosphere.
The boiler gases will be directed through an electrostatic precipitator
where electrically charged plates attract ash and other particles,
removing them from the gas stream. The sulphurous material will be
removed in a gas scrubber. The final emission to the environment is of
a high quality. Approximately 8 kg of steam can be produced from
burning 1 kg of coal.

(ii) Liquid Fuel (Oil )

Oil is another fossil fuel. It was also formed more than 300 million
years ago. Oil fuel is created from the residue produced from crude
petroleum after it has been distilled to produce lighter oils like
gasoline, paraffin, kerosene, diesel or gas oil. Various grades are
available, each being suitable for different boiler ratings; the grades
are as follows:
.Class D - Diesel or gas oil
 Class E - Light fuel oil.
 Class F - Medium fuel oil.
 Class G - Heavy fuel oil.

:The advantages of oil over coal

A Course in Energy Conversion 4
a) A shorter response time between demand and the required
amount of steam being generated.
b) Less energy had to be stored in the boiler water. The boiler
could therefore be smaller, radiating less heat to the environment,
with a consequent improvement in efficiency and less production
space.
c) Mechanical stokers were eliminated, reducing maintenance
workload.
d) Eliminating the problem of ash handling and disposal of the
coal.
Approximately 15 kg of steam can be produced from 1 kg of oil, or 14
kg of steam from 1 litre of oil.

(iii) Gaseous Fuel

Gas fuels are the most convenient because they require the least
amount of handling and are used in the simplest and most
maintenance-free burner systems. Gas is delivered "on tap" via a
distribution network and so is suited for areas with a high population
or industrial density. However, large individual consumers do have
gasholders and some produce their own gas.
Types of gaseous fuel
The following is a list of the types of gaseous fuel:
(A)Fuels naturally found in nature:
− Natural gas
− Methane from coal mines
(B)Fuel gases made from solid fuel:
− Gases derived from coal
− Gases derived from waste and biomass
− From other industrial processes (blast furnace gas)
(C)Gases made from petroleum:
− Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
− Refinery gases
− Gases from oil gasification
5 Fuels and Combustion

(D)Gases from some fermentation process

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG),
Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc.
Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels are
given in the Table. 1.1.
Table 1.1 Typical physical and chemical properties of various
gaseous fuels
Air/Fuel ratio Flame Flame
Relative
Fuel Gas m3 of air to m3 Temp. Speed
Density o
of Fuel C m/s
Natural Gas 0.6 10 1954 0.290
Propane 1.52 25 1967 0.460
Butane 1.96 32 1973 0.870

 Natural gas

Natural gas is lighter than air. Natural gas is mostly made up of a gas
called methane. Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made
up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. It's chemical formula is CH4 - one
atom of carbon along with four atoms hydrogen. This gas is highly
flammable. Natural gas is usually found near petroleum underground.
It is pumped from below ground and travels in pipelines to storage
areas.
Natural gas usually has no odor and you can't see it. Before it is sent
to the pipelines and storage tanks, it is mixed with a chemical that
gives a strong odor. The odor smells almost like rotten eggs. The odor
makes it easy to smell if there is a leak.
Only a hint of sulphur is present in natural gas, meaning that the
amount of sulphuric acid in the flue gas is virtually zero.
 Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)

 These are gases that are produced from petroleum refining and
are then stored under pressure in a liquid state until used. The
most common forms of LPG are propane and butane.
LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at
normal atmospheric pressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state
A Course in Energy Conversion 6
at normal temperature, by the application of moderate pressures.
Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored and
transported as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of
handling. Liquid LPG evaporates to produce about 250 times volume
of gas.
LPG vapour is denser than air: butane is about twice as heavy as air
and propane about one and a half time as heavy as air. Consequently,
the vapour may flow along the ground and into drains sinking to the
lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a considerable
distance from the source of leakage. In still air vapour will disperse
slowly. Escape of even small quantities of the liquefied gas can give
rise to large volumes of vapour / air mixture and thus cause
considerable hazard. To aid in the detection of atmospheric leaks, all
LPG’s are required to be odorized. There should be adequate ground
level ventilation where LPG is stored. For this very reason LPG
cylinders should not be stored in cellars or basements, which have no
ventilation at ground level.
Approximately 42 kg of steam can be produced from 1 Therm of gas
(equivalent to 105.5 MJ) for a 10 bar g boiler, with an overall
operating efficiency of 80%.

(iv) Nuclear Fuel

The most common type of nuclear fuel used by humans is heavy
fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain
reactions in a nuclear fission reactor; nuclear fuel can refer to the
material or to physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of
fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, perhaps mixed with
structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. The
most common fissile nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu, and the actions
of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of these
elements together make up the nuclear fuel cycle, which is important
for its relevance to nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons.

Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are
currently not utilized by man but are the main source of fuel for stars,
7 Fuels and Combustion

the most powerful energy sources in nature. Fusion fuels tend to be

light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily.

1.3 Properties of fuels

Calorific Value

The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced.

This value may be expressed in two ways 'Gross or High ' and ‘Net or
Low' calorific value. The difference is determined by the latent heat of
condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion
process.
Gross calorific value (GCV): assumes all vapour produced during the
combustion process is fully condensed. The gross calorific value of
the fuel includes the energy used in evaporating this water.
Net calorific value (NCV): assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed. The net calorific
value of the fuel excludes the energy in the steam discharged to the
stack, and is the figure generally used to calculate boiler efficiencies.
Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.
Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utilize the heat content
of the water vapour, gross calorific value is of little interest. Fuel
should be compared based on the net calorific value. This is especially
true for natural gas, since increased hydrogen content results in high
water formation during combustion.
The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash,
moisture content and the type of coal while calorific values of fuel oils
are much more consistent. Table 1.2 shows the Gross calorific values
of fuel oil and some gases.

Density
A Course in Energy Conversion 8

Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of
the fuel at a reference temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an
instrument called a hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful
for quantitative calculations and assessing ignition qualities. The unit
of density is kg/m3.

Table 1.2 Gross Calorific Values for some fuel oil and gases

Gross Calorific
Oil Fuel
Value (MJ/lit.)
Class D - Diesel or gas oil. 40.1
Class E - Light fuel 
40.6
.oil
Class F - Medium 
41.1
fuel oil
Class G - Heavy 
41.8
.fuel oil
Gross Calorific
Gas Fuel Value (MJ/m3) at
NTP
Natural 38.0
Propane 93.0
Butane 122.0

Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to
the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The
density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The
specific gravity of water is defined as 1. The measurement of specific
gravity is generally made by a hydrometer. Specific gravity is used in
calculations involving weights and volumes.
Viscosity
9 Fuels and Combustion

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.

Viscosity depends on the temperature and decreases as the
temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has no
meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is
measured in Stokes / Centistokes. Each type of oil has its own
temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is
made with an instrument called a Viscometer. Viscosity is the most
important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences
the degree of pre- heating required for handling, storage and
satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become
difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and difficult to handle.

Flash Point

The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel
can be heated so that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when
an open flame is passed over it. The flash point for furnace oil is 66
o
C.
Pour Point

The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour
or flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is ready to be
pumped.

Specific Heat

Specific heat is the amount of heat in(kJ or kCal) needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1 oC. The unit of specific heat is kJ/kg oC
or kcal/kg oC. It varies from 0.92 to 1.17 kJ/kg oC depending on the oil
specific gravity. The specific heat determines how much steam or
electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils
have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a higher specific
heat.
A Course in Energy Conversion 10
Sulphur

The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of
the crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining process. The main
disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid
formed during and after combustion, and condensation in cool parts of
the chimney or stack, air pre-heater and economizer.
The normal sulfur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in
the order of 2 - 4 % and for diesel oil is in order of 0.05 - 0.25 % ,
while for Kerosene is between 0.05 – 0.2 %.

Ash Content

The ash value is related to the inorganic material or salts in the fuel
oil. The ash levels in distillate fuels are negligible. Residual fuels have
higher ash levels. These salts may be compounds of sodium,
vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03 - 0.07 %. Excessive ash in
liquid fuels can cause fouling deposits in the combustion equipment.
Ash has an erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the
refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature
corrosion and fouling of equipments.
Carbon Residue

Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous

solid residue on a hot surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle,
when its vaporizable constituents evaporate. Residual oil contains
carbon residue of 1 percent or more.
Water Content
The water content of furnace oil when it is supplied is normally very
low because the product at refinery site is handled hot. An upper limit
of 1% is specified as a standard.
11 Fuels and Combustion

Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause

damage to the inside surfaces of the furnace during combustion
especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause spluttering of
the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame, reducing
the flame temperature or lengthening the flame.

1.4 Combustion

Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic

chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow
or flames.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up
20.9% of air. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat.
Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will burn.
Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel
gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present. Most of
the 79% of air is nitrogen. Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by
absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and diluting the flue
gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat
exchange surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-
products, which then have to travel through the heat exchanger and up
the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel-air mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high
flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are
toxic pollutants. Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine
with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and
sulphur dioxide, releasing 8,084 kcals, 28,922 kcals and 2,224 kcals of
heat respectively.
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the
fuel. This is accomplished by controlling: (1) Temperature high
enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or
intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) Time, sufficient for
complete combustion.
A Course in Energy Conversion 12

1.5 Complete combustion

In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an

oxidizing element, such as oxygen , and the products are compounds
of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element. Complete
combustion can be defined as stiochiometric combustion of the fuel.
A simpler example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and
oxygen, which is a commonly used reaction in rocket engines:

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + heat. The result is simply water vapor.

In the large majority of the real world uses of combustion, the oxygen
(O2) oxidant is obtained from the ambient air and the resultant flue gas
from the combustion will contain nitrogen.
For Methane:
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
CH4 + 2O2 + 7.52 N2 = CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2 + heat
As can be seen, when air is the source of the oxygen, nitrogen is by far
the largest part of the resultant flue gas.

For example, the burning of propane is

C3H8 + 5 O2 = 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + heat

When not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion, propane

burns to form water and carbon monoxide.

2 C3H8 + 7 O2 = 6CO + 8 H2O + heat

In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing
a limited number of products. It should be noted that complete
combustion is almost impossible to achieve. In reality, as actual
combustion reactions come to equilibrium, a wide variety of major
and minor species will be present. For example, the combustion of
methane in air will yield, in addition to the major products of carbon
13 Fuels and Combustion

dioxide and water, the minor product carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxides, which are products of side reaction (oxidation of nitrogen).
Forms of combustions
(i) Rapid: Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large
amounts of heat and light energy are released, which often results in a
fire. This is used in a form of machinery such as internal combustion
engines and in thermobaric weapons.
(ii) Slow: Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes
place at low temperatures. Respiration is an example of slow
combustion.
(iii) Turbulent: Turbulent combustion is a combustion characterized
by turbulent flows. It is the most used for industrial application (e.g.
gas turbines, diesel engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the
mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.

1.6 Incomplete combustion

Incomplete combustion occurs when there isn't enough oxygen to

allow the fuel (usually a hydrocarbon) to react completely with the
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
The quality of combustion can be improved by design of combustion
devices, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further
improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such
as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust
gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by
environmental legislation for cars in most countries, and may be
necessary in large combustion devices, such as thermal power plants,
to reach legal emission standards.
Adiabatic Temperature
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete
combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the
adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula
that yields this temperature is based on the first law of
A Course in Energy Conversion 14
thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion
is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and
the combustion product gases (flue gas). In the case of fossil fuels
burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on the heating value,
the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, the specific heat capacity of fuel
and air and the air and fuel inlet temperatures.
The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the adiabatic
flame temperature) increases for higher heating values and inlet air
and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching
one.
Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are
around 2200 °C (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for
the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio λ = 1.0), around 2150 °C for oil and
2000 °C for natural gas.
Air – Fuel Ratio
Air-fuel ratio (AFR): It is the ratio between the mass of air and the
mass of fuel in the fuel-air mix at any given moment. When all the
fuel is combined with all the free oxygen, typically within a vehicle's
combustion chamber, the mixture is chemically balanced and this
AFR is called the stoichiometric mixture (often abbreviated to stoich).
AFR is an important measure for anti-pollution and performance
tuning reasons.

1.7 Combustion analysis by mass and volume

(a) Gravimetric analysis – mass analysis:

For example to analysis by mass of combustion of H2 follow these

steps:

2H2 +O2 = 2H2O this is complete combustion equation

Molecular weight of H2 is 2
Molecular weight of O2 is 36
So that,
15 Fuels and Combustion

The relative mass of H2 is 2 × 2 = 4

The relative mass of O2 = 2 × 16 = 32
Then, for H2O, the relative mass = 2 (2+ 16) = 36
Therefore, we can write the combustion equation as following:
4 masses H2 combined with 32 masses O2 = 36 masses H2O
Dividing by 4:
1mass H2 + 8 masses O2 = 9 masses H2O
Take the mass in kilogrammes, then
1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2 = 9 kg H2O
Air contains 0.23 % of oxygen and 0.77 % of nitrogen by mass.
Hence,
8
Mass of air required to give 8 kg of O2 is = 34 .5 kg of air.
0.23
The N2 which presented in 34.5 kg of air is 34.5 – 8 = 26.5 kg
So,
1 kg H2 is burnt in 34.5 kg of air the products of combustion is 9
kg H2O with 26.5 kg N2.
Similarly, we can find the combustion analysis by mass for any fuel
composition such as : C , Co , S , Ch4 , etc.
(b) Volumetric analysis – volume analysis:

Again take the case of the complete combustion of H2. The

combustion equation is
2H2 +O2 = 2H2O
Thus,
2 molecules of H2 + 1 molecule of O2 = 2 molecules of H2O
By Avogadro’s Hypothesis: Proportions by molecules are also
proportions by volume.
Hence,
2 volumes H2 + 1 volume O2 = 1 volume H2O
Dividing by 2.
1 vol. H2 + 0.5 vol. O2 = 1 vol. H2O
A Course in Energy Conversion 16
Assume that volume is in m3, then,
1 m3 H2 + 0.5 m3 O2 = 1 m3 H2O
Air contains 0.21% of oxygen and 0.79% of Nitrogen by volume.
8
Hence volume of air required to give 0.5 of O 2 is = 2.38 m3 of
0.21
air. The N2 which presented in 2.38 m3 of air is 2.38 – 0.5 = 1.88 m3.
So,

1 m3 H2 + 2.38 m3 of air = 1 m3 H2O + 1.88 m3 of air

The combustion analysis of fuel constituents by volume can

determine by same method. Table 1.3 shows the oxygen, air required
and the product of combustions for complete combustion of important
constituents of fuels by mass. While Table 1.4 shows the complete
combustion analysis of the constituents by volume.

Table 1.3 complete combustion analysis of some constituents by

mass
One Complete Combustion analysis by mass (kg)
kg O2 Air H2O CO2 CO SO2 N2
H2 8 34.5 9 - - - 26.5
C 2.67 11.61 - 3.67 - - 8.94
CO 0.57 2.49 - 1.57 - - 1.92
CH4 4 17.39 2.25 2.75 - - 13.39
S 1 4.35 - - - 2 3.35

Table 1.4 complete combustion analysis of some constituents by

volume
One Complete Combustion analysis by Volume (m3)
m3 O2 Air H2O CO2 CO SO2 N2
H2 0.5 2.38 1 - - - 1.88
C 1 4.76 - 1 - - 3.76
CO 0.5 2.38 - 1 - - 1.88
17 Fuels and Combustion

CH4 2 9.52 2 1 - - 7.52

S 1 4.76 - - - 1 3.76

1.8 Combustion analysis by the mole method

The Mole:
The mole is that quantity of a substance which is equal in mass to the
molecular weight of the substance. For example one kilogram mole of
hydrogen has a mass of 2 kilograms, and 1 kg mole of Nitrogen has a
mass of 28 kg, etc. The mole may also consider as a unit of volume.
At standard temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by 1 mole
of any ideal gas is the same and is given by:

nR oT (1)(8314.3 )(273)
V= = = 22.48 m3/ kg mol.
P 10.16 ×10 4

The Solution of combustion equation by mole method:

Oxygen needed for oxidation processes can be calculated as follows:
C + O2→ Co2
1 mole C + 1 mole O2= 1 mole Co2
1 volume C + 1 Volume O2 =1 volume Co2
Same thing;
2 H2 + O2 = 2 H2O
1 mole H2 + 0.5 mole O2 = 1 mole H2O
1 mole Co + 0.5 mole O2 = 1 mole Co2
1 mole S + 1 mole O2 = 1 mole So2
In general,
1 mole Cm Hn + (m + n/4) mole O2 = m mole Co2 + n/2 mole H2O.

Example1.1
A fuel oil consists of the following analysis:
Constt C H2 O2 N2 S H2O Ash
% by
85.9 12 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.05
mass
A Course in Energy Conversion 18
Determine the stoichiometric mass of air required to completely burn
1 kg of this fuel and also determine the percentage products of the
combustion by mass.

Solution
It is better to solve such example by making a table. The calculations
are shown in Table 1.5 for 1 kg of the fuel.
From the table:
Total oxygen required =2.29+0.96+0.005 = 3.25 kg
But, oxygen already present in 1 kg fuel I = 0.007
Therefore,
Supplied oxygen required = 3.255-0.007=3.248 kg/kg of fuel
Therefore,
3.24
The theoretical air needed = = 14.12 kg of air / kg of fuel
0.23
19 Fuels and Combustion
A Course in Energy Conversion 20
The products of combustion
=3.15+1.0835+.01+10.875 = 15.12 kg /kg of fuel
Hence, percentage of products by mass:
CO2 = (3.15/15.12) ×100 =20.83%
H2O = (1.0835/15.12) ×100 = 7.1%
SO2 = (0.01/15.12) ×100 = 0.07 %
N2 = (10.875/15.12) ×100 = 72%

1.9 Combustion analysis of some typical fuels

For solid and liquid type fuels, the fuel composition is given on
weight fraction basis. In this analysis, CH4 is the only gas fuel
considered. In order to keep the combustion analysis simple and
straightforward, the CH4 composition is also provided on the weight
fraction basis. Oxidant composition is usually given on the mole or
volume basis. Table 1.6 provides some fuel compositions on a weight
fraction basis. Again, in this combustion analysis, only the
stoichiometric combustion is analyzed. Results of such analysis are
provided, including the composition of the combustion gas products
on a weight and mole/volume basis, the adiabatic flame temperature,
the stoichiometric ratio and the fuel's higher heating value (HHV).

Table 1.6 Fuel Composition (weight fraction basis)

Fuel C H S N O H2O CH4
Coal 0.78 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.08 0.02 -
0 0 0 0 0 0
Oil 0.86 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -
0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel - - - - - - 1.00
Gas
21 Fuels and Combustion

Table 1.7 provides the combustion adiabatic flame temperature,

stoichiometric ratio and the fuel's higher heating value. Note that,
Stoichiometric ratio is the weight of air required for complete
combustion of a unit weight of fuel. Thus, 1 kg of carbon fuel requires
11.444 kg of air for complete, ideal combustion. Table 1.8 provides
stiochiometric air-fuel ratios of common fuels by weight and volume.

Table 1.7 Fuel Characteristics

Adiab.Flame Stoichiometric HHV
Fuel
Temp. (K) Ratio (by wt.) (kJ/kg)
Carbon 2,460 11.444 32,779.8
Hydrogen 2,525 34.333 141,866.8
Sulfur (solid) 1,972 4.292 9,261.3
Coal 2,484 10.487 32,937.9
Oil 2,484 14.580 47,630.0
Fuel Gas 2,327 17.167 50,151.2

Table 1.8 Stoichiometric air-fuel ratios of common fuels

By
Fuel By volume
weight
Gasoline 14.7 : 1 -
Natural Gas 17.2 : 1 9.7 : 1
Propane (LP) 15.5 : 1 23.9 : 1
Ethanol 9:1 -
Methanol 6.4 : 1 -
Hydrogen 34 : 1 2.39 : 1
Diesel 14.6 : 1 -

1.10 Excess air

Excess air is the quantity of the air which supplied to burn the fuel
over that required for complete combustion. In industrial fired heaters,
A Course in Energy Conversion 22
power plant steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more
common term is percent excess combustion air. For example, excess
combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the
required stoichiometric air is being used.
Some instruments meter air and gas flow directly to aid control of air
supply. The excess air percentages of oil fuel (in oil burners) and
natural gas (in gas burners) can be taken in the ranges 5 – 20 and 5 –
12 respectively.

Rich and Lean Mixture

For gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric air/fuel mixture is

approximately 14.7 times the mass of air to fuel. Any mixture less
than 14.7 to 1 is considered to be a rich mixture, any more than 14.7 to
1 is a lean mixture.
If a percentage analysis of dry flue gas is made from very weak to
very rich mixtures of fuel and air then, Figure 1.1 shows the general
shape of a graph of the results obtained. This shows that from a weak
mixture the percentage CO2 increases while the O2 decreases. The CO2
is at a maximum at the stiochiometric fuel-air ratio and at this ratio,
the O2 has theoretically reduced to zero. Over to the rich side shows
the CO2 percentage decreasing while there is now an appearance of
CO which increases as the richness increase. The O2 and CO lines
generally overlap slightly practice.
Lean or weak mixtures produce cooler combustion gases than does a
stoichiometric mixture, primarily due to the excessive dilution by
unconsumed oxygen and its associated nitrogen. Rich mixtures also
produce cooler combustion gases than does a stoichiometric mixture,
primarily due to the excessive amount of carbon which oxidises to
form carbon monoxide, rather than carbon dioxide. The chemical
reaction oxidizing carbon to form carbon monoxide releases
significantly less heat than the similar reaction to form carbon dioxide.
Lean mixtures, when consumed in an internal combustion engine,
produce less power than does the stoichiometric mixture. Similarly,
23 Fuels and Combustion

rich mixtures return poorer fuel efficiency than the stoichiometric

mixture.

Stochiometric Fuel-Air ratio

%

Oxygen Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Dioxide
Weak Rich

Fuel-Air ratio
Figure
1.1 Weak and Rich mixtures of fuel and air

Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3 show a faster way to calculate the
percentage of excess air, provided the percentage of CO2 or O2 in the
flue gases.
For optimum combustion of fuel oil the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should
be maintained as follows:
CO2 = 14.5–15 %
O2 = 2–3 %
90
80
% of excess air

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
% of CO 2
A Course in Energy Conversion 24

Figure 1.2 Relations between CO2 and Excess Air

25 Fuels and Combustion

250

200
% of excess air

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
% of O 2

Figure 1.3 Relations between residual oxygen and excess air

1.11 Flue gas

Exhaust gas is flue gas which occurs as a result of the combustion of

fuels such as natural gas, gasoline/petrol, diesel, fuel oil or coal. It is
discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe or flue gas
stack. Its composition depends on what is being burned, but it will
usually consist of mostly nitrogen (typically more than two-thirds)
derived from the combustion air, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
vapor as well as excess oxygen (also derived from the combustion
air). It further contains a small percentage of pollutants such as
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur
oxides. The analysis of combustion products is necessary to
determine, if the fuel burnt efficiently or not. It depends upon the
amount of air and type of fuel.
The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in
large refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants burn very
A Course in Energy Conversion 26
considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts
of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere.

Table 1.9 presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by
the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas, fuel oil and coal. The
data in the table were obtained by stoichiometric calculations.
It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by
coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated
by natural gas combustion.

Table 1.9 Exhaust flue gas generated by combustion of fossil fuels.

(In SI metric units and Nm³ at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa,)

Combustion Data Fuel Fuel Oil Coal

Gas
Gross caloric value 43.01 43.50 25.92
MJ/m³ MJ/kg MJ/kg
Excess combustion air, % 12 15 20
CO2 in wet exhaust gas, 8.8 12.4 13.7
volume %
O2 in wet exhaust gas, 2.0 2.6 3.4
volume %
Molecular weight of wet 27.7 29.0 29.5
exhaust gas
CO2 in dry exhaust gas, 10.8 14.0 15.0
volume %
O2 in dry exhaust gas, 2.5 2.9 3.7
volume %
Molecular weight of dry 29.9 30.4 30.7
exhaust gas
27 Fuels and Combustion

1.12 Determination of the mass of excess air supplied

from the dry flue gas

The Dry flue gas is exhaust gas when there is no water vapor (H2O).
The procedures of determining the excess mass of air from given dry
flue gas are as following:
1. convert the volumetric analysis of the dry flue gas to a mass
analysis (if its given volumetric analysis)
2. determine the mass of dry flue gas/kg of fuel
e.g. in one kg CO2 there is 12/44 carbon
in one kg CO there is 12 / 28 Carbon
Therefore,
Mass of carbon, C/kg dry flue gas= (12/44 CO2 +12/28 CO) kg
3. compare the mass of C / kg dry flue gas with mass of C/kg of
fuel
Let m = mass of C / kg fuel
Therefore,
m
The mass of dry flue gas / kg fuel = 12 12 kg
CO 2 + CO
44 28
Mass of excess O2 / kg of fuel
= mass of O2 / kg dry flue gas × mass of dry flue gas/ kg of fuel
excess O 2 / kg fuel
Mass of excess air =
0.23
4. determine the mass of stiochiometric air required for the fuel
using given composition of the fuel.
Then,
Total mass of air = stiochiometric air + excess mass of air

Alternatively, the excess air can be determined using the following

relation:

% excess air=(O2 – 0.5 CO2) / (0.264 N2 – (O2–0.5 CO)) × 100

A Course in Energy Conversion 28
Example 1.2

The dry exhaust gas from an oil engine and the fuel oil had the
following percentage composition by volume and mass respectively as
shown in table below. Determine the mass of air supplied / kg fuel
burnt.

CO2 CO O2 N2 C H2 O2
% Dry
exhaust gas
8.85 1.2 6.8 83.15 - - -
composition
by vol.
% Fuel oil
composition - - - - 84 14 2
by mass

Solution

1. Convert the volumetric analysis of flue gas into mass analysis:

Constt. % by % by % by mass
Volume Volume×Molecular
Weight
CO2 8.85 8.85×44=389.5 389 .5
=13.1
2970 .7
Co 1.2 1.2×28=33.6 33 .6
=1.13
2970 .7
O2 6.8 6.8×32=217.6 217 .6
=7.32
2970 .7
N2 83.15 83.15×28=2330 2330
=78.45
2970 .7
Total 100 2970.7 100
29 Fuels and Combustion

2. Calculate the stiochiometric mass of oxygen and air:

Constituents Mass/kg fuel Oxygen required

C 0.84 0.84×2.67=2.24
H2 0.14 0.14×8=1.12
O2 0.02 -0.02
Total 1.0 3.34

Therefore, theoretical oxygen required to burn 1 kg of this fuel= 3.34

kg/kg fuel
Theoretical air required= 3.34/0.23 = 14.52 kg/kg fuel

3. Determine the mass of dry flue gas/kg of fuel:

Mass of C/kg of dry flue gas
12 12
= 0.131 × + 0.0131 × = 0.04057 kg
44 28
4. Compare the mass of C / kg dry flue gas with mass of C /kg of
fuel
Mass of C/kg fuel 0.84 kg (given)
0.84
Therefore, mass of dry flue gas / kg fuel = = 20 .65 kg
0.04057
5. Determine the total mass of air required :
Hence, mass of excess O2 / kg fuel = 20.65 × 0.0732 = 1.513 kg
Mass of excess air = 1.513/0.23 = 6.58 kg/ kg fuel
Therefore,
mass of air supplied / kg fuel = theoretical air + excess air

= 14.54 + 6.58 = 21.08 kg/kg fuel

Alternatively:

Mass of N2 /kg fuel = 20.65 × 0.7845 = 16.2 kg/kg fuel

A Course in Energy Conversion 30
Therefore, Mass of air supplied / kg fuel =
16 .2
= 21 .08 kg / kg fuel
0.77

Example 1.3 ( Solve by Mole method)

A gas has the following composition by volume:

H2 CO2 CH4 N2 CO O2

% by volume 28 16 2 42 10 2

The gas burned with 50 % excess air. Determine:

1. Volume of air / m3 of gas.
2. Volumetric analysis of dry products.
3. Mass of products / kg fuel.
4. Mass of dry products / kg fuel.
5. Mass of air supplied / kg fuel.

Solution

The calculations are given in the Table 1.10 on the basis of 1 mole of
gas fuel.
(a) Moles of oxygen required to burn 1 mole fuel = 0.315
Moles of air/ mole of fuel gas = 0.315/0.21 =1.5
OR
Volume of air / m3 of fuel gas= 1.5 m3
(b) Moles of dry products per mole of fuel gas
= 0.28+1.604+0.105=1.989 moles
Hence, CO2 = 0.28/1.989 × 100 = 14.1%
N2 = 1.604/1.989 × 100 = 80.6 %
O2 = 0.105/1.989 × 100 = 5.3 %
(c) Mass of products per mole of fuel gas is given by:
= 0.28×44 + 0.32× 18 + 1.604 × 28 +0.105 × 32 = 66.34 kg
31 Fuels and Combustion

Mass of one mole of fuel gas is given by:

= 0.28 × 2 + 0.02×16 +0.1×28 +0.16×44 + 0.42×28 +0.02×32
= 23.12 kg
OR Mass of products per kg of fuel gas
= 66.34/23.12 = 2.87 kg
A Course in Energy Conversion 32
33 Fuels and Combustion

(d) Mass of dry products per kg fuel =

66 .34 − ( 0.32 × 18 )
= 2.62 kg
23 .12
(e) Mass of air per kg fuel = 2.87 – 1 =1.87 kg

The mass of air can be checked by considering the moles of air

supplied per mole of fuel:

Mass of air = moles of air × Molecular weight of air

= 1.5 × 29= 43.5 kg
Therefore,
Mass of air/ mass of fuel = 43.4/23.12 = 1.88 kg /kg fuel

QUESTIONS 1

(1) A fuel oil has the analysis as shown in table below. Determine
the mole formula, and write the complete reaction equation with
oxygen
C O2 S H2 N2
% by weight 83 3.0 1.0 11.0 2.0
(2) Propane gas is reacted with air in such a ratio that an analysis
of the dry products of combustion gives: CO2 = 11.5%, O2 =
2.75%, and CO = 0.7%. What is the percentage excess air used?.
Find the number of moles of the gas burnt.
(3) An unknown hydrocarbon fuel, Cx Hy, was allowed to react
with air. An Orsat analysis was made of a reprehensive sample of
the product gases with the following result: CO2 = 12.1%, O2 =
3.8%, and CO = 0.9%. Determine:
i) the composition of the fuel;
ii) the chemical equation for the actual reaction;
iii) the excess air used percentage;
iv) air- fuel ratio.
A Course in Energy Conversion 34
(4) Find the stoichiometric value of oxygen required to burn a
heptane C7 H16.
(5) A coal has the following analysis:
C O2 S H2 N2 Ash
% gravimetric 12
62 15 4 6 1
analysis

The coal is burned with 40% excess air. Calculate:

(a) Mass of air /kg fuel;

(b) Mass of products / kg fuel;
(c) Mass of H2O in products /kg fuel;
(d) Volumetric analysis of dry products;
(e) Specific volume of products at 1 atm. And 187 oC.
(6) The analysis, by mass of the coal fired to a boiler is
Carbon = 82%; Hydrogen = 8%; Oxygen = 3%; Ash = 7%
The boiler uses 0.19 kg/s and air is supplied to the furnace by a
fan, the air supply being 30% excess of that required for
theoretically correct combustion. Calculate:
(i) the volume of air taken in by the fan/s when the
conditions at the fan intake are 100 kN/m2 and 18 oC (R for
air = 0.287 kJ/kg K)
(ii) the percentage composition by mass of the dry flue
gases.
(7) A single – cylinder, four-stroke, compression-ignition oil
engine gives 15 kW at 5 r.p.s. and uses fuel having the
composition by mass: Carbon = 84%; Hydrogen=16% . The air
supply is 100% in excess of that required for perfect combustion.
The fuel has a calorific value of 45 000 kJ/kg and the brake
thermal efficiency of the engine is 30 %. Calculate:
(i) The mass of fuel used/cycle;
(ii) The actual mass of air taken in / cycle;
(iii) The volume of air taken in/cycle at 100 kN/m2 and 15
o
C.
35 Fuels and Combustion

Take R=0.29 kJ/kg K. Ans [(a) 0.445 g; (b) 30.7 kg/kg fuel;
(c) 0.011 m3]

(8) A fuel oil consists of 86 % Carbon and 14 % Hydrogen, by

mass. During a test on an engine using this fuel, the dry exhaust
gas analysis by volume was :
CO2 = 11.25 %, O2 =1,2 %, CO = 2.8 % and the
remainder N2.
Estimate the air-fuel ratio by mass being supplied to the
engine. Ans. [15.7:1].

(9) A gaseous fuel contains the following components on a

volumetric or mole basis:
Hydrogen = 2%; Methane=64%; and Ethane=34%. Calculate:
i) the air fuel ratio required, kg air/kg fuel,
ii) the volume of air required per kg and per kg-
mole of fuel, if 20% excess air is used and the air
contains are 27 0C and 0.98 bar.
Ans. [16.7, 17.6 m3/kg fuel, 360 m3/kgmol fuel].

(10) A natural gas delivered from Marib (Yemen) has the

following Mole fraction analysis:

Constituents % by Mole Constituents % by Mole

Methane 96.59 Iso Pentane 0.02
Ethane 2.49 Pentane 0.01
Propane 0.27 Hexane 0.01
Iso Butane 0.05 Nitrogen 0.04
Butane 0.06 Carbon Dioxide 0.46

Determine: the theoretical air required to burn 1m3 of the natural gas.
What is the Molecular Weight of the natural gas and the Molecular
Weight of the combustion products of this gas.