Leadership Practices and Tasks Kouzes and Posner (1995) asserted that leaders should follow five

practices of leadership to assist in transforming followers to realize their own visions and become more
self-directed: challenging the status quo, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act rather than to
react, being a role model, and encouraging the heart. These practices were identified from an analysis of
the memoirs of hundreds of managers, who were asked to reflect on what they perceived as their own
best leadership experience. The findings from this research were similar to Bennis and Nanus’ (1985)
notions of what constituted leadership strategies: the management of risk; the management of
attention; the management of communication; the management of trust, or credibility; and the
management of respect. In addition, the work of Kouzes and Posner and Bennis and Nanus is consistent
with that of Sashkin and Sashkin (2003) who, after 20 years of research, designed a four-dimensional
model of transformational leadership that addresses communication leadership, credible leadership,
caring leadership, and risk leadership (a concept they later renamed: creating opportunities).