Fundamentals of Mechanics

BITS Pilani
Dubai Campus
Chapter-1
Fundamental Principles of
Mechanics
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Concept of Force
3. Moment of a Force (torque)
4. Equilibrium conditions
5. Friction
6. Engineering applications
7. Problems
Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Introduction
Mechanics deals with
1. Forces (push or pull) To

2. Change in position 1. Understand the system behavior
(displacement) 2. Develop rational rules for design
3. Local distortion (deformation)
The hypothesis used for connecting force and motion are those of Newtonian
mechanics (three laws)
First law: Acceleration 𝑎 = 0 if the applied force 𝐹 = 0

Second law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Third law: Equal and opposite force.

Steps to follow for design
1
Repeat till satisfactory Select the

system Geometry Level
2
Idealize • Rods, beams, shafts
and

design
Economy simplify Material Level

weight System • Rigid, elastic, plastic
fabrication
design
3
Apply

mechanics
4
Compare
with tests

Fundamental principle of
mechanics
Mechanics
Steps for mechanical analysis
1. Study of forces.
2. Study of motion/deformation.
3. Relating forces with motion/deformation
Forces Motion
Local We will learn to make

Gross change
distortion in
in position safe designs by solving
shape
static problems
Displacement Deformation
(Kinetics, Dynamics) (Statics)

Units and conversions
Measured quantity Unit Symbol 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2
Mass kilogram 𝑘𝑔
1𝑁 force is defined as the force
Length meter 𝑚 required to move unit mass of
Time second 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔 by an acceleration of 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
Force newton 𝑁
Multiplying factor Name Symbol

10−9 nano 𝑛
10−6 micro 𝜇
10−3 milli 𝑚
103 kilo 𝑘
106 mega 𝑀
109 giga 𝐺

Concept of force
When a force acts on a body it may:
1. Bring a change in the motion of the body – not in this course.
2. Balance the forces already acting on the body and bring it to a state
of equilibrium
3. Change the size and shape of the body i.e. the body may be twisted
bent, stretched, compressed, distorted
Classification 1
a) Physically separated
b) Direct contact
Classification 2
a) Alter motion
b) Alter shape
Types: Electric, Magnetic, Gravitational
Characteristics of force
𝜃 is measured from positive 𝑥 axis.
1. Magnitude
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃
2. Direction or line of action 𝐹 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃
3. Sense of nature (Pull/ push)
4. Point of application
𝜃 𝐹 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝐹 sin 𝜃 𝑗
• Force is a vector interaction characterized by a pair of equal and

opposite vectors.
• Magnitude is measurable through standard experiments.
• When multiple forces act at one point, the effect is same as if a single
force equal to their vector sum is acting.

How to resolve a force
Two different coordinate ways to measure the angle
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙 ′ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙 ′
𝐹 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙′ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙′ 𝐹
𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹 cos 𝜙 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙
𝜙′ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙 𝜙′ = 𝜙
𝜙
If the angle 𝜙 ′ is drawn from +𝑥 axis

then the components are always
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙′ and 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙′
𝜙′ 𝜙′
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙 ′ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙′ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙′
𝐹 𝜙
𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹 sin 𝜙 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 sin 𝜙 𝜙 𝐹
𝐹𝑦 = −𝐹 cos 𝜙 𝐹𝑦 = −𝐹 cos 𝜙

Forces on inclined plane
1) Conventional 𝑥𝑦 system
𝜃
90°
90 − 𝜃
90°
2) Inclined plane coordinates
• Two different coordinate systems

1) Conventional 𝑥𝑦 system 𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = −𝐹 𝑗 = −𝑚𝑔𝑗
𝜃
𝐹 cos 𝜃
2) Along and normal to the inclined plane
𝐹 = −𝐹 sin 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑗
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 𝑗 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
Superposition of forces
Concurrent coplanar
Resultant 𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛
Where 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 +𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = Σ𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + Σ𝐹𝑦 𝑗
𝐹1 = 𝐹1 𝑥 𝑖 +𝐹1 𝑦 𝑗 = 𝐹1 cos 𝜃1 𝑖 + 𝐹1 sin 𝜃1 𝑗

Concurrent non-coplanar

Resultant Vector
𝑅 = Σ𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛 𝑖 + 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛 𝑗
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑅 = Σ𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + Σ𝐹𝑦 𝑗
2 2
Magnitude of 𝑅: 𝑅 = Σ𝐹𝑥 + Σ𝐹𝑦
𝑅𝑦 Σ𝐹𝑦
Angle of resultant : tan 𝜙 = 𝑅 = Σ𝐹
𝑥 𝑥

Example problems: 1
Find the resultant force of five concurrent forces shown below.
All angles measured from the +𝑥 axis. It will

𝐹2 = 105 𝑘𝑁
automatically give you the proper sign.
𝐹1 = 15 𝑘𝑁
|𝐹| 𝜃 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹cos𝜃 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹sin𝜃
𝐹3 = 75 𝑘𝑁 15° 𝐹1 15 15° 14.49 3.88
𝐹2 105 90° 0 105

40°
𝐹3 75 180° −75 0
35° 𝐹5 = 60 𝑘𝑁
𝐹4 45 235° −25.81 −36.86
𝐹4 = 45 𝑘𝑁
𝐹5 60 310° 38.57 −45.96
Total −47.75 26.06

Example problems
Two ways to measure the angle
Resultant Force Vector
Measured from the positive 𝑥 axis
Keep the signs for Σ𝐹𝑥 & Σ𝐹𝑦 while
calculating the angle using tan 𝜙′. Σ𝐹𝑦 = 26.06 𝑘𝑁
26.06
tan 𝜙′ = ⇒ 𝜙′ = 151.38° 𝜙′
−47.75 𝜙
Acute angle (< 90°) measured from 𝑥 or 𝑦
Σ𝐹𝑥 = −47.75 𝑘𝑁
Do not consider the sign for Σ𝐹𝑥 &
Σ𝐹𝑦 but draw appropriate acute 𝜙.
26.06
tan 𝜙 = ⇒ 𝜙 = 28.62°
47.75
Σ𝐹𝑥 = −47.75 𝑘𝑁 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 26.06 𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 54.40 𝑘𝑁 𝜙 = 28.62°

Concept of moment

Moment
• The tendency of a force is not only to move the body but also to rotate
the body.
• The rotational tendency of a force is called moment

M = Force × perpendicular distance from the point to the line
of action of force.
• Length 𝑑 is measured perpendicular to line of action of 𝐹.
• Thus magnitude of moment about point O is
𝑀 =𝐹×𝑑

Direction of a Moment
Clockwise moment: +ve
 Right hand thumb rule
 Right hand screw rule
Anticlockwise moment: -ve

Moment vector
• Moment = Cross product of position vector and force.
𝑀 = 𝑟× 𝐹
• Length ℎ is measured perpendicular to line of action of 𝐹.

• Moment about point O
𝑀 = |𝐹|𝑟 sin 𝜙 = |𝐹|ℎ

Moment vector
Cross Product:
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝑦
𝑀 = 𝑟× 𝐹
𝑥
𝑀 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 × 𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗
= 𝑥𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐹𝑥 𝑘

Moment about an axis
• About point O , moment 𝑀 =𝑟×𝐹 = 𝐹 ℎ𝑘
• Moment of 𝐹 along axis OQ = Component of (𝑀 = 𝑟 × 𝐹) along axis OQ
= Dot product of 𝑀 with unit vector along OQ
= 𝑂𝑄 ⋅ 𝑀
𝑀𝑂𝑄 = |𝐹|𝑟 sin 𝜙 cos 𝛼 = |𝐹|ℎ cos 𝛼

Example problems
Determine moment of force 𝑃 about OO’ axis. 𝑂 𝑧
Moment about point O
𝑦
Resolving the force components
𝐴
𝐹 = 𝑃 cos 50° cos 45° 𝑖 + 𝑃 cos 50° sin 45° 𝑗 + 𝑃 sin 50° 𝑘 𝑂′
Position vector for the force application point with respect to O 𝑥

𝑟 = 50𝑖 − 200𝑘 𝑃
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑀𝑂 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝑃 50 0 −200
0.4545 0.4545 0.766
= 𝑃(90.9𝑖 − 129.2𝑗 + 22.73𝑘)
Moment about axis OO’
Component of 𝑀𝑂 along 𝑂𝑂’ = 𝑂𝑂′ . 𝑀𝑂 Example 1.1, page 10

= 𝑖 ∙ 𝑃 90.9𝑖 − 129.2𝑗 + 22.73𝑘
= 90.9𝑃
Static Equilibrium: Rigid body
• A body is in the state of equilibrium if it is at rest or is moving at constant

velocity.
• As there is no translational or rotational acceleration, the condition of
equilibrium for a general three-dimensional system can be expressed as
Σ𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛 = 0 Σ𝐹𝑥 = Σ𝐹𝑦 = Σ𝐹𝑧 = 0

Σ𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + ⋯ + 𝑀𝑛 = 0 Σ𝑀𝑥 = Σ𝑀𝑦 = Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0
Here 𝑀1 = 𝑟1 × 𝐹1 … 𝑀𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 × 𝐹𝑛
Coplanar forces in 2D:

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0
Two-force member
𝐹𝐴
• A particular case is when a member is in equilibrium
and has only two forces acting on it. A
(a)
• Lets take the scenario in figure (a): For the body to be B 𝐹𝐵
equilibrium, the sum of forces and moments should
vanish.
• Moment balance: about point A, The moment of 𝐹𝐴 is 𝐹𝐴
zero because it passes through A. The moment of force
𝐹𝐵 can be zero only if 𝐹𝐵 passes through point A. With A
(b)
this requirement the forces will be as shown in Fig. (b). B
𝐹𝐵
• Force balance: 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐵 should be equal in
magnitude and opposite is direction, which is the case 𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵
in Fig. (c).
A
If a two-force member is in equilibrium then the two (c) B
forces must have the same magnitude, the same
line of action and opposite sense
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐴

Two-force member
• Concurrent coplanar
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐹2
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 𝐹1
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0
•Coplanar parallel 𝐹1
𝐹2
𝑥
𝐴 𝐵
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐹1 = 𝐹2
Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0
𝑥=0

Two-force member: example
• A L-shaped body ACB is hinged at A with a force F acting at its end B.

Determine the angle θ which this force should make with the horizontal to keep
the edge BC of the body vertical.
Solution:
• When you draw the FBD of L-shape, there will be

only two forces on this body: the reaction force at A
and the applied force F at B. Therefore it is a two-
force member.
• The reaction at the hinge has to pass through point B C

and the magnitude will be equal to F but the direction
will be opposite to F. Therefore F can act only along
the red line which gives tan 𝜃 = 𝑏/𝑎 .

Couple
• A couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces 𝐹1

acting on body in such a way that the lines of action of
the two forces are not in the same straight line.
• The effect of a couple acting on a rigid body is to rotate
it without moving it as a whole , since the resultant 𝑥 𝐵
force is zero. 𝐴
• Moment of a couple = 𝐹𝑥
𝐹2
• The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces forming a couple about any
point in their plane is constant and is equal to the moment of the couple.
𝑥 = arm of the couple = perpendicular distance between 𝐹1 and 𝐹2
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 and 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥

Couple: moment about any point
𝐹
Moment about point 𝑶, when 𝑶 is in between 𝑨𝑩
𝑂
𝑀 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 𝐵
= 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵 𝐴
𝐹
Moment about point 𝑶, when 𝑶 is 𝐹
outside AB on left
𝑂 𝐵
𝑀 = −𝐹 × 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
𝐴
= 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵
𝐹
𝐹
Moment about point 𝑶, when 𝑶 is
outside AB on right
𝐵 𝑂
𝑀 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐴 − 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐵 𝐴
= 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵 𝐹
Moment of couple is constant about any point⇒ 𝑀 = 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝑥
Three-force member
• Another particular case is when a member is in equilibrium 𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐶

and has only three forces acting on it. C
A
(a)
B
• Assume that the line of action of forces 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐵 intersect
at point 𝐷. For equilibrium, the moment about point 𝐷 must 𝐹𝐵
be zero. 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐷 have zero moment about point 𝐷
because 𝐹𝐴 and 𝐹𝐷 pass through 𝐷. Therefore the moment 𝐹𝐴 C 𝐹𝐶
of 𝐹𝐶 must be zero about 𝐷 for moment balance. Which can
be true only if 𝐹𝐶 passes through 𝐷. A
(b)
B
D
• The only exception is when these forces are parallel and we 𝐹𝐵
can satisfy the force and moment balance within the plane.
𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐶
C
If a three-force member is in equilibrium then the A
(c)
line of action of these forces must be concurrent or B
parallel. D
𝐹𝐵
Three-force member
Concurrent coplanar 𝑅
𝐹2
For three concurrent forces to be in
𝐹2
equilibrium acting on a body, the resultant of
the two forces should be equal and opposite
to the third force. 𝐹3 𝐹1
𝑅 = 𝐹3
Coplanar parallel 𝐹1
𝐹3
𝐹1 + 𝐹3 = 𝐹2
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶
𝐹2 × 𝐴𝐶 − 𝐹3 × 𝐴𝐵 = 0 𝐹2

Free Body Diagram
The equilibrium of the bodies which are placed on the supports can be considered if
the supports are removed and replaced by the reactions which they exert on the
body.
When a body is completely isolated from

its supports and the forces acting ON the
body are shown by vectors, it is called free
body diagram (FBD).
Equilibrium gives
𝑁 − 𝑊 = 0 or 𝑁 = 𝑊
𝑊
𝑁 Equal and opposite reaction

𝑊
Removal of support 𝑁 Action force

Supports
• A structure is subjected to external forces and transfers these forces through the
supports on to the foundation. Therefore the support reactions and the external
forces together keep the structure in equilibrium.
• Roller supports have only translational motion so only one vertical reaction force
is present. There is no rotation possible. This kind of support is commonly located
at the end of a long bridge.
• In a pinned support only rotational motion is possible and there is no translational

motion as such. Ex: Pin joints join two ends of the bar at the corners which
prevents it from moving horizontally or vertically hence two reaction forces are
present whose resultant can be at any angle pointing towards the pin. Ex: A door
resting or supported by hinges.
• In a fixed support there is no translational or rotational motion possible hence two

reaction forces are present with a moment.

Type of supports/contacts
• Frictional Surface: exerts only a normal contact

force 𝑁
• Frictional Surface: tangential as well as normal
contact force 𝑁. Tangential force is frictional force
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁.
• Frictionless Pin: transmits a force 𝐹 that passes
through the pin. No torque/moment transmitted. 𝑅
𝑅
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
Frictionless Surface Frictional Surface Frictionless Pin Joint

Roller Support
Roller : exerts only a normal reaction force 𝑅.
If the roller support is at

an angle draw the
reaction normal to the
𝑅 bottom line of support
Roller Support shown.
Constrained to move in 𝑦: Reaction force 𝑅𝑦

Free to move in 𝑥 : No reaction force in 𝑥
Free to rotate: No moment
𝑅

Pinned and Clamped Support
Pin/Hinge : exerts two reactions 𝑅𝑥 and 𝑅𝑦 .

Constrained to move in 𝑦
𝑅𝑥 Reaction force 𝑅𝑦
Constrained to move in 𝑥
Frictionless Pin Reaction force in 𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑦 Free to rotate
No moment
Clamped : exerts two reactions 𝑅𝑥 and 𝑅𝑦 and a moment 𝑀.
Constrained to move in 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑅𝑥 𝑀 and constrained to rotate
Reaction force 𝑅𝑥 and 𝑅𝑦
Moment 𝑀
Clamped/fixed 𝑅𝑦
Examples: Equilibrium
1. Find the force and moment which must be

applied at point O to keep the light bar
shown in equilibrium.
𝐹 = −50 𝑁 𝑖
𝑀 = 75 𝑁𝑚 (anticlockwise)
2. Determine the reaction forces at point A

and point C in the hinged equilateral triangle
shown here.
𝑅𝐴𝑥 = 450 𝑁
𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 𝑅𝐶𝑦 = 225 𝑁

3. A 100N force is required to operate the foot pedal shown. Determine the
force in the connecting link and the force exerted by the lever on the
bearing at O. Neglect the weight of the lever.
𝑅𝑂𝑥 = 53. 6 𝑁
𝑅𝑂𝑦 = 247.2 𝑁
𝐹 = 156.6 𝑁

5. The top of a tin can is removed, and the empty can is

inverted over a pair of billiards balls on a table as shown in
the sketch. For certain combinations of sizes and weights the
configuration shown is stable. For the other combinations the
can tips over when released. It is proposed to set up a
demonstration for a temperance lecture by using in sequence
a frozen-orange juice can and a beer can with the same pair
of billiards balls. Investigate whether tipping will occur for the
following sizes and weights.
Orange Juice Beer

Diameter of ball (𝑑) 45 mm 45 mm Answer: Orange juice
Weight of ball (𝑊𝑏 ) 2.0 N 2.0 N can will not topple
because normal reaction
Diameter of can (𝐷) 50 mm 70 mm will be positive here.
Weight of can (𝑊𝑐 ) 0.57 N 1.0 N

4. During a hurricane, some of the wires

attached to a power pole are broken so that
the loading of the pole is as shown in the
sketch. There are two wires still attached
to the cross arm, exerting loads of 400lb
and 500lb parallel to the 𝑥 axis. There is a
transformer weighing 1000lb whose center
of gravity lies in the 𝑦𝑧 plane a distance of
20ft above the ground and 2ft from the
center of the pole. Neglect the weight of the
pole. The pole is buried in the ground for a
depth of 8ft. Find the forces and moments
which act on the buried section GA at the
ground level G.
𝐹𝐺 = 100 𝑖 − 100 𝑘 lb
𝑀𝐺 = −2000 𝑖 + 2500 𝑗 + 2700 𝑘 lb-ft
Friction
• Suppose, you roll a cricket ball on the round. According to Newton’s third
law of motion, if no other force is acting on the ball, it will keep rolling
forever. But in reality it stops after a while. Why?
• The ball slows down because of the friction between the ball’s surface
and the grass on the ground.
• What is the direction of this force? Opposite to the motion.
• What’s the magnitude? Depends on two things 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

1. Kind of surfaces (coefficient of friction 𝜇)
2. The amount of force pressing the surfaces together (Normal reaction 𝑁)
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

Static Friction
𝐹
𝑚
• Lets take the example, when a mass 𝑚 is being pulled with a force 𝐹.
• If you start with a very small force and try to pull the mass you cannot move it.
That means it is in static equilibrium or all the forces acting on the mass cancel
each other.
• This implies that the friction force which is acting opposite to the applied force is
equal in magnitude with the applied force 𝐹.
• If you keep increasing your pull force gradually, at one point suddenly the mass
will move. At this point your friction force has reached its maximum value and it
can no longer cancel the applied force 𝐹 and keep the mass in static equilibrium.
• This maximum value of frictional force between two surfaces defines the
coefficient of static friction 𝜇𝑠 .

Static Friction: Force analysis
FBD when no motion
𝐹
𝑚 𝑓=𝐹 𝐹
𝑚𝑔
𝑁
• Force balance in 𝑦 on the mass 𝑚 when FBD just before motion

it is about to move
𝐹−𝑓 =0 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 0
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑁
Minimum force required to move the mass is 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔

Static Friction: Force analysis
A box of bananas weighing 40N rests on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static
friction between the box and the surface is 0.4 and the box is initially at rest. Two
minions see the box of banana and they want to steel it before anyone notices.
a) If minions do not apply any horizontal force to the box and the box is at rest, how
much is the friction force exerted on the box?
b) What is the magnitude of the friction force if they apply a horizontal force of 6N to
the box?
c) What minimum horizontal force must the minions apply to start the box in motion?

Static Friction: Inclined Plane
Being pulled up Being pushed down
𝑁 𝑁 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝐹
𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝐹
𝜃 𝜃
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
Force balance normal to plane Force balance normal to plane
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Force balance parallel to plane Force balance parallel to plane
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
= 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔(𝜇𝑠 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔(𝜇𝑠 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃)

Examples: Friction
A longshoreman can barely start pushing a trunk up a 30° concrete ramp. He

can barely hold it from sliding back when the slope is 60°. What is the
coefficient of static friction between the trunk and the concrete?
Hint: Assume that the pushing force F at both inclinations is the same and
the weight of the trunk is W.
Answer: 𝜇 = 0.268

Truss Structure
• Truss is a triangular shaped structure constructed with straight

members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as Nodes. All
forces (external or reaction forces ) act only at the node and give rise to
compressive and tensile forces in the members.
• A frame may be defined as a structure made up of several bars,
riveted or welded together.
• These are made up of iron angled or channel sections and are called
members of the frame or framed structure.
Example: Triangular bridge on either side

of a railway track.

Types of truss/frames
• Perfect frame: Perfect frames are the frames 𝑚=3

𝑗=3
which can be analysed to get the internal
member forces and external support reactions by
using the three conditions of static equilibrium.
• The number of members 𝑚, in a perfect frame
may be expressed in terms of 𝑗 the no. of joints. 𝑚=4
deficient frame 𝑗=4
𝑚 = (2𝑗 – 3)
• Imperfect frame: An imperfect frame is that

which does not satisfy the above equation 𝑚 =
2𝑗 – 3. In other words, it is a frame in which the
𝑚=6
no. of members are more or less than 2𝑗 – 3. 𝑗=4
redundant
𝑚 ≠ (2𝑗 – 3)

Method of joints
The force in the member will be compressive if the member pushes the joint to
which it is connected whereas it will be tensile if the member pulls the joint to
which it is connected.
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵𝐴
In other words, if the arrow is 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶𝐵
towards the joint then it is 𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝐵𝐶
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶𝐴
compressive and if arrow is away
from the joint its tensile.
𝐹𝐵𝐶
𝐹𝐴𝐶 FBD of each pin and member
𝐵
𝐴
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐴𝐵
𝑅𝐴𝑦 𝑅𝐵𝑦

Steps to follow
1. Apply appropriate reaction forces from each support.
2. Make a table of all the unknowns.
3. Make FBD of the truss assembly.
4. Consider the force and moment equilibrium for the assembly and find out the
reactions.
5. Check for unknown member forces at each joint.
6. Start with the joint with least number of unknowns.
7. Always assume all member forces to be positive and apply them away from
the joint.
8. Make FBD for each joint in the order of least unknowns till you find all the
member forces.
9. Do force balance in 𝑥 and 𝑦 direction to find member forces at each joint.
10. Update your table of unknowns at each step when you determine any
unknown reaction or member force.
11. If the magnitude of the calculated forces in the members come out to be
positive then our chosen direction is correct but if any of them is negative then
the assumed direction will be reverse.

Truss Example
1. Apply appropriate reaction forces from each support and make the table for
unknowns to find.
50 kN 50 kN 50 kN 50 kN
12 kN 12 kN
C Truss Assembly FBD
B
tan 𝜃 = 3/4
3.0 m
A
D 𝜃 𝜃
4.0 m E 4.0 m 100 kN 𝑅𝐴𝑥 100 kN
𝑅𝐴𝑦 𝑅𝐸𝑦
𝑅𝐴𝑥 𝑅𝐴𝑦 𝑅𝐸𝑦 𝐹𝐴𝐸 𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐶𝐸 𝐹𝐷𝐸 𝐹𝐶𝐷

Truss Example
4. Force and moment balance for the assembly
50 kN 50 kN Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑅𝐴𝑥 + 12 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐴𝑥 = −12 𝑘𝑁

12 kN 𝐶
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑅𝐴𝑦 + 𝑅𝐸𝑦 = 50 + 50 + 100 = 200
𝐵
3.0 m Σ𝑀𝑧 = 0 12 × 3 + 50 × 4 + 100 × 8 = 𝑅𝐸𝑦 × 4

𝐴
𝑅𝐴𝑥 4.0 m 𝐸 4.0 m
𝐷 100 kN 𝑅𝐸𝑦 = 259 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐴𝑦 𝑅𝐸𝑦
𝑅𝐴𝑦 = −59 𝑘𝑁
−12 −59 259

Truss Example
6. FBD at joints the order will be chosen by the number of unknowns. Joint B and
D has least (2) unknowns. So we can either start with B then D, or first D then B.
Joint B
50 𝑘𝑁 Force balance on joint B
𝐹𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = −12 𝑘𝑁
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐹𝐵𝐶 + 12 = 0
12 𝑘𝑁 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 50 = 0 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −50 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐴𝐵
sin 𝜃 = 3/5 cos 𝜃 = 4/5

Joint D
𝐹𝐶𝐷 Force balance on joint D
𝜃 Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 −𝐹𝐷𝐸 − 𝐹𝐶𝐷 cos 𝜃 = 0 𝐹𝐷𝐸 = −133.33 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐷𝐸 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐹𝐶𝐷 sin 𝜃 − 100 = 0 𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 166.67 𝑘𝑁

100 𝑘𝑁
−12 −59 259 −50 −12 −133.33 166.67

Truss Example
6. Joint A and E both have 3 unknowns so we will continue with either A or E.
Joint A
𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝐹𝐴𝐵 Force balance on joint A
𝜃
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑅𝐴𝑥 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐸 4 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = −133.33 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐴𝑥 −12 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 5 + 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 0
𝑅𝐴𝑦 4𝐹𝐴𝐶 + 5𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 60 Plug 𝐹𝐴𝐶 and get 𝐹𝐴𝐸
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 0

sin 𝜃 = 3/5 −50 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 3/5 − 59 = 0
cos 𝜃 = 4/5 𝐹𝐴𝐶 3/5 = 109
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 181.67 𝑘𝑁
−12 −59 259 −133.33 181.67 −50 −12 194.37 166.67

Truss Example
6. Joint A is done so lets move to joint E, keep in mind that we have only one
unknown left i.e. 𝐹𝐷𝐸 .
Joint E
𝐹𝐶𝐸 Force balance on joint E
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐹𝐷𝐸 − 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 0 𝐹𝐷𝐸 = −133.33 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐴𝐸 𝐹𝐷𝐸 𝐹𝐷𝐸 + 133.33 = 0
𝑅𝐸𝑦
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐹𝐶𝐸 + 𝑅𝐸𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝐶𝐸 = −259 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐶𝐸 +259 = 0
We solved the complete system without considering the FBD of joint C which had
the highest number of unknowns i.e. 4.
−12 −59 259 −133.33 181.67 −50 −12 −259 −133.33 166.67

Assignment problem
Find 𝐹 and 𝑅 if Σ𝐹𝑥 = −324.9 𝑘𝑁 for a particle shown.
282.843 𝑘𝑁
165 𝑘𝑁 5
𝐹 3
𝜃
100 𝑘𝑁
45° 4
75 𝑘𝑁 30° 𝜃
|𝐹| 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦
𝐹1 100 100 cos 𝜃 = 80 100 sin 𝜃 = 60
𝐹2 282.84 −282.84 cos 45° = − 200 −282.84 sin 45° = −200
𝐹3 165 0 165
𝐹4 𝐹 3 𝐹
−𝐹 cos 30° = − 𝐹 𝐹 sin 30° =
2 2
𝐹5 60 −75 0
Assignment problem
3
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 80 − 200 − 𝐹 − 75 = −324.9 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 100 𝑘𝑁
2
⇒ 𝐹 = 150
𝐹 𝜙′
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 60 − 200 + 165 + = 100 𝜙
2
Σ𝐹𝑥 = −324.9 𝑘𝑁
𝐹 = −129.9𝑖 + 75 𝑗
100 100
Resultant 𝑅 = Σ𝐹𝑥2 + Σ𝐹𝑦2 tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙′ =
324.9 −324.9
= (−324.9)2 + 1002 𝜙 = 17.11° 𝜙′ = 162.89°
𝑅 = 339.94

Fundamentals of Mechanics

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BITS Pilani

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

1. Forces (push or pull) To

First law: Acceleration 𝑎 = 0 if the applied force 𝐹 = 0

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Economy simplify Material Level

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Local We will learn to make

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Multiplying factor Name Symbol

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• Force is a vector interaction characterized by a pair of equal and

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

If the angle 𝜙 ′ is drawn from +𝑥 axis

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• Two different coordinate systems

Where 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 +𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = Σ𝐹𝑥 𝑖 + Σ𝐹𝑦 𝑗

𝐹1 = 𝐹1 𝑥 𝑖 +𝐹1 𝑦 𝑗 = 𝐹1 cos 𝜃1 𝑖 + 𝐹1 sin 𝜃1 𝑗

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Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

All angles measured from the +𝑥 axis. It will

𝐹2 105 90° 0 105

Total −47.75 26.06

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Σ𝐹𝑥 = −47.75 𝑘𝑁 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 26.06 𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 54.40 𝑘𝑁 𝜙 = 28.62°

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• The rotational tendency of a force is called moment

• Length 𝑑 is measured perpendicular to line of action of 𝐹.

• Thus magnitude of moment about point O is

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

 Right hand thumb rule

 Right hand screw rule

Anticlockwise moment: -ve

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• Moment = Cross product of position vector and force.

• Length ℎ is measured perpendicular to line of action of 𝐹.

𝑀 = |𝐹|𝑟 sin 𝜙 = |𝐹|ℎ

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Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

𝑀𝑂𝑄 = |𝐹|𝑟 sin 𝜙 cos 𝛼 = |𝐹|ℎ cos 𝛼

Position vector for the force application point with respect to O 𝑥

= 𝑃(90.9𝑖 − 129.2𝑗 + 22.73𝑘)

Moment about axis OO’

Component of 𝑀𝑂 along 𝑂𝑂’ = 𝑂𝑂′ . 𝑀𝑂 Example 1.1, page 10

• A body is in the state of equilibrium if it is at rest or is moving at constant

Σ𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛 = 0 Σ𝐹𝑥 = Σ𝐹𝑦 = Σ𝐹𝑧 = 0

Coplanar forces in 2D:

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Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• A L-shaped body ACB is hinged at A with a force F acting at its end B.

• When you draw the FBD of L-shape, there will be

• The reaction at the hinge has to pass through point B C

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• A couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces 𝐹1

𝑥 = arm of the couple = perpendicular distance between 𝐹1 and 𝐹2

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• Another particular case is when a member is in equilibrium 𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐶

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When a body is completely isolated from

𝑁 Equal and opposite reaction

Dr. Priyank Upadhyaya, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus

• In a pinned support only rotational motion is possible and there is no translational

• In a fixed support there is no translational or rotational motion possible hence two