CAE - NOV/DEC 2016

1.what is meant by chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant?

Chemical equilibriumrefers to the state wherein both the reactants and the products present in the concentration
have no tendency to change with the period of time during a chemical reaction.

Chemical equilibrium refers to the state wherein both the reactants and the products
present in the concentration have no tendency to change with the period of time during
a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction achieves chemical equilibrium when the rate
of forward reaction and that of the reverse reaction is same. Also, since the rates are
equal and there is no net change in the concentrations of the reactants and the
products – the state is referred to as a dynamic equilibrium and the rate constant is
known as equilibrium constant

The equilibrium constant is defined as the product of the molar concentration of the
products which is each raised to the power equal to its stoichiometric coefficients
divided by the product of the molar concentrations of the reactants, each raised to the
power equal to its stoichiometric coefficients is constant at constant temperature. T

2. What do you undersand by laminar flame propagation. Give the laminar speed of any two fuel
mixtures.

i. Laminar flame: A flame in which the flow streamlines are smooth and fluctuations in the
velocity components are negligible

ii. Turbulent flame: A flame in which the fluid movement and the temperature are characterized
by irregular fluctuations

1. Laminar flames have smooth flow streamlines and negligible velocity component
fluctuations.
a. Straight or gentle curving line (candle)

b. Low Reynolds number value

c. Diffusion flame shorter than 0.1 m (4 in.) will be laminar.

d. Lower rates of combustion and convective heat loss

2. Turbulent flames have significant fluctuations in velocity and temperature

profiles.
a. Erratic particle paths (Campfire or burning pool gasoline
b. High Reynolds number values
c. Diffusion flame taller than 0.3 m (1 ft) will be turbulent.
d. Higher rates of combustion and convective heat loss.
maximal laminar speed for H2 is 7.7 m/s,

for CH4 it is 0.55 m/s,

and for CO it is 0.03 m/s.

3. show the flame propagation in the cylinder with neat sketch for the following and
indicate which one is preferred.
a centrally located spark plug in the combuction chamber
spark plug located in one end of the combuction chamber
4. discuss the feature of T head combustion chamber used in s.i engine.
 5. list down the various factors that influence the delay period.
 Compression ratio.
 Inlet air temperature.
 Coolant temperature.
 Jacket water temperature.
 Fuel temperature.
 Intake pressure.
 Air-fuel ratio and.
 Engine size.

6.what do you understand byDI and IDI diesel engines.

In a petrol engine, indirect fuel injection means the fuel is injected outside of the cylinders. Essentially, the fuel
injection equipment takes the place of the carburettor(s). Atomised fuel mixes with the incoming intake air, and the
fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinders through the induction system. Sensors in the exhaust provide a feedback
loop to allow the fuel quantity to be accurately metered.

Direct injection operates slightly differently in that the air intake system is completely dry. Fuel is instead injected
directly into the top of the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the incoming air prior to ignition. This system
allows greater flexibility in that fuel can be introduced at several points in the cycle, and the fuel injection can be split
into two or three events to improve mixing. It also allows very lean fuel-air mixtures, which allows the throttle plate to
be opened further, thus reducing pumping losses and improving efficiency. However, the system itself is complex,
both from the perspective of the hardware and the development costs.

------

Diesel engines are all fuel injected, and going by the above definitions, would all use direct injection. It's a
fundamental part of the Diesel cycle that only air is drawn into the cylinder, and when the fuel is injected into the
compressed air, it ignites on its own.

However, some distinction can be made between the two. Indirect engines use a 'swirl chamber' machined into the
cylinder head. The top of the piston is almost flat, and most of the air is compressed into the swirl chamber. This is
where the fuel is injected, and the initial combustion takes place in this chamber. This small volume allows better
mixing of the fuel and air- the air velocity is high at the time of injection. As the piston moves down, the burning
fuel/air mixture leaves the swirl chamber and combustion continues in the cylinder itself.

Direct injection, on the other hand, uses a combustion chamber machined into the top of the piston itself. Fuel at
much higher pressure is sprayed directly into this combustion chamber, and combustion takes place entirely within
the cylinder. This system allows potentially higher efficiency, as there is no longer the narrow 'throat' of the swirl
chamber, and lower surface area which reduces heat losses. Direct diesel injection also lends itself well to
turbocharging for improved performance and efficiency. While turbochargers can be fitted to indirect injection
engines (I have on on my Land Rover) the gains are less than with direct injection.
However, the injectors must be more complex in order to allow good mixing of the slower-moving air. So direct
injection only became common during the 1990s as computer-aided design became more viable.

The main difference between Direct and Indirect Injection is the layout of the injection system, the Indirect Injection
System actually has a small swirl chamber above the cylinder, where the fuel is injected, this chamber also contains
the glow plug, which is much needed to start the engine, the Direct Injection system has the injection nozzle actually
fixed to the top of the combustion chamber, usually the piston on the engine with this type of injection system has a
crown shape in the top to create the needed swirl.

7.what are the functions of primary air and secondary air in a gas turbine combustion chamber?
 8. list down any four advantages of gas turbine.
 #1. Lower operational cost.
 #2. Efficient and durable.
 #3. Facilitates distributed power generation.
 #4. Environmentally-friendly.
 #5. High operational speed and low lubrication cost.

9. what is the effect of pollutants on human beings.

Long and short term exposure to air suspended toxicants has a different toxicological impact on human including
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, neuropsychiatric complications, the eyes irritation, skin diseases, and long-
term chronic diseases such as cancer.

10 . indicate the principle of a particulate trap. what are the disadvantage of using such traps.
A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a filter that captures and stores exhaust soot (some refer to them as soot traps)
in order to reduce emissions from diesel cars. But because they only have a finite capacity, this trapped soot
periodically has to be emptied or 'burned off' to regenerate the DPF.

cae CAE JANUARY 2015.

1.what is heat of combustion.

Heat of combustion (ΔH°c) is the measure of the amount of energy released in the form of heat (q) when one mole of a
substance is burned (combustion). The production of heat means the reaction is an exothermic process and gives off
energy. Heat of combustion is a specialized form of reaction enthalpy because it is measured at standard
conditions and is limited to one mole starting material. The (°) symbol shows that the heat of combustion value is obtained at
standard conditions: 25 degrees Celsius (298.15 Kelvin) and at a constant pressure. The pressure is reported both at either
one bar or at one atmosphere depending on the source. , [1] [2]

Heat of combustion is also called the enthalpy of combustion because the energy evolved from the combustion reaction results from
the change in the overall enthalpy of the starting substance as it reacts completely with oxygen. The terms heat of combustion and
enthalpy of combustion are used interchangeably due to the First law of thermodynamics and the relationships
between heat at constant pressure (qP), the change in internal energy (ΔU), and the change in enthalpy (ΔH). , [3] [4]

heat of combustion, heat released during combustion . In particular, it is the amount of heat released when a given amount (usually
1 mole ) of a combustible pure substance is burned to form incombustible products (e.g., water and carbon dioxide) this amount of heat is a
characteristic of the substance. Heats of combustion are used as a basis for comparing the heating value of fuels, since the fuel that
produces the greater amount of heat for a given cost is the more economic. Heats of combustion are also used in comparing the stabilities of
chemical compounds. For example, if equal quantities of two isomeric hydrocarbons burn to produce equal amounts of carbon dioxide and
water, the one releasing more energy (i.e., with the higher heat of combustion) is the less stable, since it was the more energetic in its
compounded form.

2.what are the factor that affect the flame speed.

The combustion characteristics of an I.C engine(petrol and diesel) significantly depends on the ignition delay. In the
petrol engine ignition delay or lag is the time between initiation of spark and the time of ignition. Whereas in the
diesel engine, it is the time between start of fuel injection and the time of ignition. Since the combustion is
heterogeneous in the diesel engine, the delay period is long as compared to the petrol engine.The delay period is the
main factor influences the flame speed in the I.C. engine. some of the factors determine the flame speed are:

1. compression ratio 2. Engine speed 3. Engine load 4. Spark timing in petrol engine and Fuel injection
timing in diesel engine. 5. Fuel injection pressure in diesel engine 6. properties of fuel like viscosity,
volatility, octane number for petrol ,cetane number for diesel and surface tension 7. type of combustion
chamber in the engine. 8. properties of coolant. The engine knocking mainly occurs due the presence of
higher flame speed. The delay period should be as long as possible for petrol engine for smooth engine
operation and for diesel engine the delay period should be as short as possible.
3.list the various types of combustion chambers used in SI engine

Various shapes of combustion chamber have been used, such as: L-head (or flathead) for side-valve engines;
"bathtub", "hemispherical", and "wedge" for overhead valve engines; and "pent-roof" for engines having 3, 4 or 5
valves per cylinder.

4.list the various engine variables that effect the engine knock.

Temperature factor includes inlet temperature of the mixture and temperature of the combustion chamber
walls. Increase in inlet temperature of the mixture makes the charge more vaporized than the required at
the end of compression. This increases the tendency of knocking. Temperature of the combustion chamber
walls plays a predominant role in knocking. In order to prevent knocking the hot spot in the combustion
chamber should be avoided. Since, the spark plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the
combustion chamber , they mostly converted into sources of

autoignition after a long run. Furthermore, most of the two wheelers use air cooling which is not at all
efficient to cool these two hottest parts. This is the main reason because of which a single cylinder engine
could also have knocking problem.

Pressure factor includes the final pressure of fresh charge that it can reach after completion of
compression stroke. Obviously, high pressure again converted in to high temperature factor and boosts the
knocking process. No doubt, pressure factor is not at possible to control externally. It depends only on
design parameters of engine.

Density factor comprises mass of inducted charge and fuel-air ratio. A reduction in the mass of the
inducted charge into the cylinder of an engine by throttling reduces both temperature and density of the
charge at the time of ignition. This decreases the tendency of knocking.

The flame speeds are affected by fuel-air ratio. Also the flame temperature and reaction time are different
for different fuel-air ratios. So tendency of fresh charge to reach up to its self ignition temperature directly
depends on the composition of that charge. As the carburettor or injection systems are the only responsible
components for fuel-air ratios, it is advisable to keep them cleaned and tuned to avoid knocking.

Time factors consist of engine speed and spark timing. An increase in engine speed increases the
turbulence of the mixture considerably resulting in increased flame speed, and reduces the time available for
preflame reactions. Hence knocking tendency is reduced at higher speed. Adversely, prolonged high speed
increases working temperature of engine and increases amount of hot spots, so prolonged and constant high
speed should be avoided to minimize the knocking. Wrong spark timing always leads to incomplete
combustion. This incomplete combustion can be possible either as pre-ignition or post-ignition. Both these
incomplete combustion increases knocking tendency.

Miscellaneous factors include location of spark plug and octane value of the fuel. In order to have a
minimum flame travel, the spark plug is located at proper place in the combustion chamber. DTSI, DTS-SI
and now three spark plugs (Pulsar 200) are few of the examples where efforts have been made to reduce
flame travel by igniting the fresh charge from different locations, of course in proper manner. High octane
fuel has the higher self ignition temperature and low preflame reactivity which reduces the tendency of
knocking.

5.what are the different stages of combustion in a CI engine.

here are four stages of combustion in CI engine as follows:

1. Ignition delay- During this stage there is a physical delay period which is the time from beginning of
injection to the attainment of chemical reaction conditions. The fuel is atomized and mixed with air and its
 temperature is raised. This period is followed by a chemical delay period in which preflame reactions start
and accelerate until local ignition takes place.
2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion- This is second stage in which pressure rise is rapid since during delay
period the fuel droplets have had time to spread themselves over a wide area and have fresh air around
them. This phase extends from end of delay period to point of maximum pressure.
3. Controlled combustion- The very high temperature and pressure at end of second stage cause the fuel
droplets injected during last stage to burn instantly and any further pressure rise can be controlled by purely
mechanical means that is injection rate. This period ends at maximum cycle temperature. The heat evolved
by end of this phase is 70 to 80 percent of total heat of fuel supplied.
4. After burning- This fourth stage may not be present in all cases but due to poor distribution of fuel particles
combustion may continue in the expansion stroke. Its duration may be 70 to 80 degrees of crank travel from
TDC.

6. explain briefly the delay period.

Time interval between the start of injection and the start of combustion is the ignition delay time. Theoretically
combustion should start as soon as Injection of fuel starts. There are two major factors which delays combustion in CI
engine.

1) physical delay , wherein atomisation, vaporization and mixing of air fuel occurs.

2) chemical delay , attributed to pre-combustion reactions.

If there is more ignition delay then engine is more prone to knocking.

7. what are the heat transfer correlations used in a IC engine.

 8. what are the materials used for gas turbines.

 Fan: Aluminum, titanium, or stainless steel.

 Compressor: Nickel-, cobalt-, or iron-based alloys. ...
 Combustion chamber: Superalloys with refractory metals such as tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum. ...
 Turbine: Nickel-based superalloy, outside air is circulated through channels inside of the turbine blades.

9.what are the sources of hydrocarbon emission.

Sources of VOC and NOx emissions include: large industry such as chemical manufacturers, and combustion
sources such as power plants burningfossil fuels; small industry such as gasoline-dispensing facilities, autobody
paint shops, and print shops; automobiles, trucks and buses; and.

10. what are the effects of engine emissions on human beings.

The human health effects of air pollution vary in the degree of severity, covering a range of minor effects to serious
illness, as well as premature death in certain cases. Most of the conventional air pollutants are believed to directly
affect the respiratoryand cardio- vascular systems.
MAY JUNE 2015:
.
1.define normal combustion.

Combustion is what happens when the three factors of fire, fuel oxygen and a spark, meet suddenly.

Normal combustion occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites in the cylinder and
burns progressively with a normal pressure increase, producing maximum pressure
immediately after the piston passes top dead center of the compression strok

Normal combustion:
spark-ignited flame moves steadily across the combustion chamber until the charge is fully consumed.
Abnormal combustion:
fuel composition, engine design and operating parameters, combustion chamber deposits may prevent
occuring of the normal combustion process. There are two types of abnormal combustion :
Knock
Surface ignition

2.what are the various factors that affect the flame speed.

The combustion characteristics of an I.C engine(petrol and diesel) significantly depends on the ignition delay. In the
petrol engine ignition delay or lag is the time between initiation of spark and the time of ignition. Whereas in the
diesel engine, it is the time between start of fuel injection and the time of ignition. Since the combustion is
heterogeneous in the diesel engine, the delay period is long as compared to the petrol engine.The delay period is the
main factor influences the flame speed in the I.C. engine. some of the factors determine the flame speed are:

1. compression ratio 2. Engine speed 3. Engine load 4. Spark timing in petrol engine and Fuel injection
timing in diesel engine. 5. Fuel injection pressure in diesel engine 6. properties of fuel like viscosity,
volatility, octane number for petrol ,cetane number for diesel and surface tension 7. type of combustion
chamber in the engine. 8. properties of coolant. The engine knocking mainly occurs due the presence of
higher flame speed. The delay period should be as long as possible for petrol engine for smooth engine
operation and for diesel engine the delay period should be as short as possible.

3.define knocking.

Knocking, in an internal-combustion engine, sharp sounds caused by premature combustion of part

of the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. In a properly functioning engine, the charge burns
with the flame front progressing smoothly from the point of ignition across the combustion chamber.
However, at high compression ratios, depending on the composition of the fuel, some of the charge
may spontaneously ignite ahead of the flame front and burn in an uncontrolled manner, producing
intense high-frequency pressure waves. These pressure waves force parts of the engine to vibrate,
which produces an audible knock.
Knocking can cause overheating of the spark-plug points, erosion of the combustion chamber
surface, and rough, inefficient operation. It can be avoided by adjusting certain variables of engine
design and operation, such as compression ratio and burning time; but the most common method is
to burn gasoline of higher octane number.

4.write about cyclic variations.

5.define swirl measurement

6. what is direct injection

Firstly, Diesel Direct Injection (DI) is a basic type of fuel injection system which many earlier generation diesel engines used.
Simple DI diesel engines inject the fuel into the combustion chamber above the piston directly. The compression of air inside the
combustion chamber raises its temperature above 400oC. Then, it ignites the diesel-fuel injected into the combustion chamber.
Hence, the diesel engines are also known as ‘Compression Ignition’ engines.

7. what is chemical looping combustion.

Chemical looping combustion (CLC) is a two-step combustion technology for power and heat generation with inherent
CO2capture, using either gaseous fuels or solid and liquid fuels

8. define externally fired cycle.

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is
heated by combustion in anexternal source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. ... The fluid is then cooled,
compressed and reused (closed cycle), or dumped (open cycle).

9. what is emission.
the production and discharge of something, especially gas or radiation.
"the effects of lead emission on health"
10.write about particulate matter.

Particulate matter is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air many of which are hazardous. This
complex mixture includes both organic and inorganicparticles, such as dust, pollen, soot, smoke,
and liquid droplets.
EMS – MAY/JUNE 2017

1.what is a semiconductor? name the most important type of semiconductor material.

a solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an insulator and that of most metals,
either due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects. Devices made of
semiconductors, notably silicon, are essential components of most electronic circuits.

Although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductorproperties, silicon, germanium, and
compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices

2. what are the advantage of a transistor?mention its uses

Lower cost and smaller in size, especially in small-signal circuits. Low operating voltages for greater
safety, lower costs and tighter clearances. Extremely long life. No power consumption by a cathode heater.

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. ... A voltage
or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals.

3.enumerate the sensors for temperature measurement.

Electrical temperature sensors. Thermistor- Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors whose prime function is to
exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when subjected to a corresponding change in
bodytemperature.

Temperature Sensor Types

Temperature detection is the foundation for all advanced forms of temperature control and compensation.
The temperature detection circuit itself monitors ambient temperature. It can then notify the system either
of the actual temperature or, if the detection circuit is more intelligent, when a temperature control event
occurs. When a specific high temperature threshold is exceeded, preventative action can be taken by the
system to lower the temperature. An example of this is turning on a fan.
Similarly, a temperature detection circuit can serve as the core of a temperature compensation function.
Consider a system such as liquid measuring equipment. Temperature, in this case, directly affects the
volume measured. By taking temperature into account, the system can compensate for changing
environment factors, enabling it to operate reliably and consistently. There are four commonly used
temperature sensor types:
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a large, predictable, and precise change in
resistance correlated to variations in temperature. An NTC thermistor provides a very high resistance at
low temperatures. As temperature increases, the resistance drops quickly. Because an NTC thermistor
experiences such a large change in resistance per °C, small changes in temperature are reflected very fast
and with high accuracy (0.05 to 1.5 °C). Because of its exponential nature, the output of an NTC thermistor
requires linearization. The effective operating range is -50 to 250 °C for glass encapsulated
thermistors or 150°C for standard.
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
An RTD, also known as a resistance thermometer, measures temperature by correlating the resistance
of the RTD element with temperature. An RTD consists of a film or, for greater accuracy, a wire wrapped
around a ceramic or glass core. The most accurate RTDs are made using platinum but lower-cost RTDs can
be made from nickel or copper. However, nickle and copper are not as stable or repeatable. Platinum RTDs
offer a fairly linear output that is highly accurate (0.1 to 1 °C) across -200 to 600 °C. While providing the
greatest accuracy, RTDs also tend to be the most expensive of temperature sensors.
3. Thermocouple
This temperature sensor type consists of two wires of different metals connected at two points. The
varying voltage between these two points reflects proportional changes in
temperature. Thermocouples are nonlinear, requiring conversion when used for temperature control and
compensation, typically accomplished using a lookup table. Accuracy is low, from 0.5 °C to 5 °C.
However, they operate across the widest temperature range, from -200 °C to 1750 °C.
4. Semiconductor-based sensors
A semiconductor-based temperature sensor is placed on integrated circuits (ICs). These sensors are
effectively two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive voltage vs current characteristics that can be
used to monitor changes in temperature. They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy of the
basic sensor types at 1 °C to 5 °C. They also have the slowest responsiveness (5 s to 60 s) across the
narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).

4.explain the throttle position sensor.

A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the throttle position of a vehicle. The sensor is
usually located on the butterfly spindle/shaft so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle.

5.what is a dwell angel and how it is controlled.

Dwell angle is the amount of time, measured as degrees of rotation, that contact breakers close in a distributor.
Unless dwell angle is accurate, ignition timing won't be accurate. The period, measured in degree of cam rotation,
during which the contact points remain closed is called the dwell angle.

This was originally a reference to the Kettering ignition system, and the angle of rotation that the contact breaker
points moved through whilst they were closed.

Because the points were closed, current could flow in the primary circuit of the system. This was the period of time
where coil was 'charged' with electricity, and the magnetic field around the primary windings had time to propogate (to
grow).

Setting the gap in the points was crucial, because if the gap was set too large, the ignition timing was advanced, and
the dwell angle was too small.

On 4 cylinder systems, the dwell angle was usually somewhere in the region of 50 o.

6. what are the advantage of high energy ignition system

Coil on plug has several advantages over conventional distributor type systems: 1) Less voltage loss from
the coil to the plug. With fewer connections and the elimination of the distributor rotor to cap air gap

1) Less voltage loss from the coil to the plug. With fewer connections and the elimination of the distributor rotor to cap air
gap.

2) Can be used in conjunction with injector control to have the ECM perform misfire diagnosis.

3) The ability to control spark timing to individual cylinders, usually based on fuel mixture variation. Leaner cylinders need
earlier spark timing.
4) The ability to turn off spark to a failed cylinder to limit damage to the catalyst in certain misfire conditions. It can be used in
conjunction with individual control of fuel injectors to save a the catalyst and decrease tailpipe emissions.

5) Fewer maintenance related misfire issues. No crossed wires or poor connections resulting in lower fleetwide tailpipe
emissions.

7. what are the advantage of electronic fuel injection system

A major benefit of EFI systems is the greatly improved cold and hot startingperformance. This follows from the ability
of the system to calculate the optimum air/fuel mixture for starting as well as from the superior atomization that results
from injection of the fuel as compared to fuel delivery from a carburetor

8.what are the difference between open loop and closed loop control system.

An open loop control system acts completely on the basis of input and the output has no effect on
thecontrol action. – A closed loop control systemconsiders the current output and alters it to the desired condition.
... – In closed loop control systems stability is a major issue

Control systems are used to arrange and manage components in a way that the required condition or output is obtained. The word ‘control’ itself shows

the command over any system. It is controlled when the systems is stable.

There are two attributes of control system:

1. Stability

2. Desired output

A control system can be functioned electrically, mechanically, pressure by fluid (gas or liquid), or it can be combination of these ways. In the preceding

tutorial we introduced control systems, their principle of working, the variables involved in the functioning of control systems and the basic types.

In this tutorial we will be conferring over the major types of control systems namely: Open loop systems and closed loop systems. The tutorial will deal

with the chief differences between the two types. Let’s have a look on the basic working of the two systems:
9.what are the merits and demerits of pintle and orifice type injectors.

PJGD (Automotive)30 Sep 02 21:11

The disc type EFI injector has several advantages over the pintle style, and some disadvantages:

- The disc is significantly lighter than a pintle valve. This results in less audible noise (Yes, I know, it is a small effect, but noticeable at idle
if you have a refined engine).

- The lighter disc valve typically allows a wider turndown ratio, or dynamic range than pintle injectors.

- The disc valve, being a lot shorter than an equivalent pintle means that the discharge orifice is back up in a long tunnel and is
demonstrably less susceptible to tip deposits. This may provide a longer service life.

- It may offer a different set of orifice and spray pattern options relative to pintle injectors.

-On the down side, because the valve has to lift against the fuel pressure, the combination of geometry and magnetics associated with the
disc mean that it is probably less able to work at elevated system pressures than a pintle; ie, it will quit working before the equivalent pintle
does.

- Extra manufacturing effort is required on valve and seat flatness to achieve the same standards of seat leakage as pintles

The types of diesel fuel nozzles used with different types of combustion chambers are:
With neat sketch explain various types of fuel nozzles used in CI engine injection system

1. Single hole nozzle:

 These are used in open combustion chambers. In these a single injection hole whose size is greater than
0.2 mm is drilled through the nozzle body.
 The hole may be drilled centrally or at an angle. Its main disadvantages include:
o need for very high injection pressure
o dribbling tendency of single hole nozzle
o narrow spray angle leading to unsatisfactory mixing.

1. Multi-hole nozzles:

 This type of nozzle mixes fuel properly even with low air velocities available with many open combustion
chambers.
 The number of holes ranges from 4 to 18 and size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm. The holes may be drilled
symmetrically or asymmetrically depending on the application.
 However the injection rate characteristics of this nozzle are not very good compared to other types of
nozzles.

1. Pintle nozzles:

 This type of nozzle is provided with a projection called pintle which sticks out of the mouth of the nozzle
body. The projection is cylindrical or conical in shape.
 The projection aids in avoiding weak injection and dribbling. The pintle does not allow pressure drop to be
high by partially blocking the orifice when the valve lifts. The orifice is uncovered as the lift increases and
area of flow opens.
 The fuel pressures are lower than single or multihole nozzles.
 Pintle nozzle are used in pre-combustion chambers or high swirl chambers due to good atomization and
reduced penetration.
 1. Pintaux nozzles:

 This nozzle is used to improve cold starting performance without ant detrimental effect on efficiency.
 It is an advanced design of the pintle type and has an auxiliary hole drilled in nozzle body which allows a
small amount of fuel injection in upstream direction of air flow in advance of the main downstream injection.
 The needle valve does not lift at low speeds leading to very good cold starting performance.
 Its main disadvantage is the tendency of side hole to choke due to which a filtering unit is needed.

10. what are the advantage of unit injectors

A smooth system that decreases emissions. The Unit injector has a triangle-shaped injection rate, which enables a
small amount of fuel to be injected before the combustion starts, which contributes to lower emissions. Early in the
process, the Unit injectorinjects a smaller amount of fuel, compared to the Common rail.

nov dec 2014

1. how do micro controller differ from a microprocessor.

A system designer has to add them externally to make them functional. Application of microprocessor includes
Desktop PC's, Laptops, notepads etc. But this is not the case with Microcontrollers. Microcontroller has a CPU, in
addition with a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip.
Microcontroller
It’s like a small computer on a single IC. It contains a processor core, ROM, RAM and I/O pins dedicated to perform various tasks.
Microcontrollers are generally used in projects and applications that require direct control of user. As it has all the components
needed in its single chip, it does not need any external circuits to do its task so microcontrollers are heavily used in embedded
systems and major microcontroller manufacturing companies are making them to be used in embedded market. A microcontroller
can be called the heart of embedded system. Some examples of popular microcontrollers are 8051, AVR, PIC series of
microcontrollers,.

Above is architecture
of 8051 microcontroller. And you can see all the required components for a small project is present in a single chip.

Microprocessor
Microprocessor has only a CPU inside them in one or few Integrated Circuits. Like microcontrollers it does not have RAM, ROM and
other peripherals. They are dependent on external circuits of peripherals to work. But microprocessors are not made for specific task
but they are required where tasks are complex and tricky like development of software’s, games and other applications that require
high memory and where input and output are not defined. It may be called heart of a computer system. Some examples of
microprocessor are Pentium, I3, and I5 etc.
From this image of architecture of microprocessor it can be easily seen that it have registers and ALU as processing unit and it
does not have RAM, ROM in it.
1. Key difference in both of them is presence of external peripheral, where microcontrollers have RAM, ROM, EEPROM embedded
in it while we have to use external circuits in case of microprocessors.

2. As all the peripheral of microcontroller are on single chip it is compact while microprocessor is bulky.

3. Microcontrollers are made by using complementary metal oxide semiconductor technology so they are far cheaper than
microprocessors. In addition the applications made with microcontrollers are cheaper because they need lesser external
components, while the overall cost of systems made with microprocessors are high because of the high number of external
components required for such systems.

4. Processing speed of microcontrollers is about 8 MHz to 50 MHz, but in contrary processing speed of general microprocessors is
above 1 GHz so it works much faster than microcontrollers.

5. Generally microcontrollers have power saving system, like idle mode or power saving mode so overall it uses less power and also
since external components are low overall consumption of power is less. While in microprocessors generally there is no power
saving system and also many external components are used with it, so its power consumption is high in comparison with
microcontrollers.

6. Microcontrollers are compact so it makes them favorable and efficient system for small products and applications while
microprocessors are bulky so they are preferred for larger applications.

7. Tasks performed by microcontrollers are limited and generally less complex. While task performed by microprocessors are
software development, Game development, website, documents making etc. which are generally more complex so require more
memory and speed so that’s why external ROM, RAM are used with it.

8. Microcontrollers are based on Harvard architecture where program memory and data memory are separate while
microprocessors are based on von Neumann model where program and data are stored in same memory module.

2.what are the characteristics used by the digital analog convertors.

A Digital to Analog Converter, or DAC, is an electronic device that converts a digital code to an analog signal such as
a voltage, current, or electric charge. Signals can easily be stored and transmitted in digital form; a DAC is used for
the signal to be recognized by human senses or non-digital systems.

3.how can the engine speed be monitored using a non contact type sensor.

Noncontact Sensors

In many industrial applications resistance temperature detectors

(RTDs) and thermocouples are common standardized contact
sensors. Unlike contact sensors, noncontact sensorsaren’t as
main-stream and many types are not standardized, making
widespread industrial use more problematic. Despite the
prevalence of instructive pamphlets and manuals the accompany devices,
there still remains a certain lack of understanding that surrounds how
noncontact sensors operate. Just like contact sensors, there are several
different types of noncontact sensors intended to service an array of
applications.

Radiation Thermometers

Radiation thermometers gauge temperature based on the radiation released

from an object. An object’s ability to release radiation is called its emissivity—
the more emissive an object is the more radiation a sensor has to work
 with. Sensors in this category include spot measuring devices which can
produce 1-D and 2-D temperature readings, as well as thermal imaging
thermometers which can display temperature data as a 2-D image. These
types of visual representations are useful in terms of industrial processes
because they can help identify potential problems or inconsistencies. In turn,
the resulting feedback can provide increased quality and productivity.
Radiation thermometers are seen in a vast number of fields, including playing
key role in the medical industry where they monitor human temperature.
Additionally, they can be used to help control and monitor building
temperature and to maintain certain types of power generation.

Thermal Imagers
Although thermal imagers are a type of radiation thermometer,
they possess several unique characteristics that set them apart.
Instead of measuring temperature based on the radiation at a
given point on an object, a thermal imager can measure a two
dimensional space, in essence providing an accurate picture of
both the source of radiation and the space around it. Thermal
imagers can be used to locate areas in a cord that are overheating, as well as by
firefighters to locate people amid smoke and fire. The devices can also be used
to locate heat leaks in buildings with weak insulation.

Optical Pyrometers
The name pyrometer comes from the Greek, literally meaning “to measure
fire.” Optical pyrometers receive such a meaningful name because they can
gauge temperatures that are too bright to see with the naked eye. A pyrometer
has two parts: an optical system and a detector. To conduct a proper
temperature reading, the optical system works to focus the chosen region of
thermal radiation onto the detector, which in turn translates data into a
readable temperature. This particular type of measuring device is especially
helpful for measuring temperature of moving objects, or objects that cannot be
touched—it is a useful tool in smelting, where the temperature of the metal is
an essential part of the operation.

Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors

Many fiber optic temperature sensors are merely variations of radiation
thermometers. Relatively simple in design, the fiber optic features an active
sensing device attached to a system that process the radiation data and
produces a temperature reading. They are extremely useful in automotive
applications because they can set a temperature limit signal for engines. There
are two categories of fiber optic temperatures: contact and noncontact
sensors.

4.list the various type of sensors used in the MPFI petrol engine.

 The Mass Air Flow Sensor (MAF)

 The Engine Speed Sensor
 Oxygen Sensor
 Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor
 Spark Knock Sensor
 Fuel Temperature Sensor
 Voltage Sensor

5.how can ignition delay be reduced.

Fuel temperature: Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and chemical delay period. 6. Intake
pressure (supercharging): Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the auto-ignition temperature and
hencereduces delay period.

6.define dwell angle how to its measure dwell angle

Dwell angle is the amount of time, measured as degrees of rotation, that contact breakers close in a distributor.
Unless dwell angle is accurate, ignition timing won't be accurate. The period, measured in degree of cam rotation,
during which thecontact points remain closed is called the dwell angle.

7.differentiate open and closed loop control system.

8.what is timed and continuous injection.

CONTINUOUS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS. ... Because the entrance of the fuel into the cylinder is controlled by
the intake valve, the continuous system will fulfill the requirements of a gasoline engine. Timed injection systems,
though a necessity on diesel engines, cost more than continuous systems.

Injector commonly refers to the nozzle holder and nozzle assembly. Start of injection (SOI) or injection timing is
the timeat which injection of fuel into the combustion chamber begins. It is usually expressed in crank angle degrees
(CAD) relative to TDC of the compression stroke.

9.how is the fuel injection timming controlled in a distributter type pump.

A distributor-type fuel injection pump for internal combustion engines, comprising at least one electrical actuator
so moving together with the internal cam ring and socontrolled from a control circuit operating with input signals
derived from the rotating speed and accelerator position that the movement of said ...

10.name the different types of fuel injectors used in diesel engines.

The fuel injection types used in newer cars include four basic types:

 Single-point or throttle body injection.

 Port or multipoint fuel injection.
 Sequential fuel injection.
 Direct injection.
may / june 2015:

1.how does a NAND gate works.

NAND Gate. The output is high when either of inputs A or B is high, or if neither is high. ... The NAND gateand the
NOR gate can be said to be universal gatessince combinations of them can be used to accomplish any of the basic
operations and can thus produce an inverter, an OR gate or an AND gate.

2.brief on rectifier.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct
current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the
direction of current.
A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or more diodes that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC). A diode is like a one-way valve that allows an electrical current to flow in only one direction. This
process is called rectification.
A rectifier can take the shape of several different physical forms such as solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes,
mercury arc valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers and various other silicon-based semiconductor switches.
Rectifiers are used in various devices, including:

 DC power supplies
 Radio signals or detectors
 A source of power instead of generating current
 High-voltage direct current power transmission systems
  Several household appliances use power rectifiers to create power, like notebooks or laptops, video game
systems and televisions.

3.what is meant by lambda sensor.

An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor) is an electronic device that measures the proportion ofoxygen (O2) in the
gas or liquid being analysed. ... The most common application is to measure the exhaust gas concentration
of oxygen for internal combustion engines in automobiles and other vehicles

4.state the role of potentiometer.

The Potentiometer is an electric instrument that used to measure the EMF (electro motive force) of a given cell, the
internal resistance of a cell. And also it is used to compare EMFs of different cells. It can also use as a variable
resistor in most of the applications.

5.state the significance of dweel angle.

Dwell angle is the amount of time, measured as degrees of rotation, that contact breakers close in a distributor.
Unless dwell angle is accurate, ignition timing won't be accurate. The period, measured in degree of cam rotation,
during which the contact points remain closed is called the dwell angle.

6.what are the needs for spark advance.

"Timing advance" refers to the number of degrees before top dead center (BTDC) that the spark will ignite the air-
fuel mixture in the combustion chamber during the compression stroke. Retarded timing can be defined as changing
the timing so that fuel ignition happens later than the manufacturer's specified time.

7.brief on electromagnetic fuel injection valve.

8.list out the advantage of closed loop EFI feedback control.

9.what are the main requirement of an injection system.

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine.

Functional objectives for fuel injection systems vary but all of them share the central task of supplying fuel to the
combustion process. There are several competing objectives such as:

Power output, fuel emission, emissions performance, reliability, smooth operation, initial cost, maintenance cost.

Requirements of fuel injection system are:

i) Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle: The quantity of the fuel metered should vary to met changing
speed and load requirements of the engine

ii) Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle: to obtain maximum power ensuring fuel economy and clean
burning.

iii) Proper control of rate of injection: The desired heat - release pattern is achieved during combustion.

iv) Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets.

v) Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.

vi) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets throughout the combustion chamber.

vii) To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders case of multi cylinder engines

viii) No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of fuel droplets into the cylinder.

Air injection system: It was first developed by Rudolf Diesel. The arrangement of the system is shown in fig 10.5. In
this system, air and fuel both are injected into the cylinder during the supply of fuel. The required pressure of the air
for injecting the fuel is about 70 bar or higher.

A fuel pump is driven by the engine itself. (A cam shaft operates the fuel pump through a cam and power required to
rotate the cam shaft is taken from main shaft of the engine with the help of gears and discharge a definite quantity of
fuel into the injection valve as shown in fig. 3A.1 the injection valve is mechanically opened and high pressure air
drives the fuel charge and some air into the combustion chamber. The amount of fuel delivered is under the control of
oil pump suction valve, which is operated by a governor. The air pressure is raised to about 70 bar by a three stage
compressor (as shown in fig 3A.1) providing intercooling. The compressor is also operated by the engine. The high
pressure air projects the fuel into the combustion chamber and atomizes it.

This type of system rarely used now days in diesel engines.

The advantages and disadvantages of this system listed below:
Advantages:
1. It provides better atomization and distribution of fuel.
2. As the combustion is more complete, the BMEP is higher than with other types of injection systems.
3. It allows to use inferior fuels.
Disadvantages:
1. It requires complicated mechanism to run the compressor
2. The weight of the engine increases.
3. Part of the power is used to drive the compressor and so the B.H.P. of the engine is reduced.

10. brief on divided fuel feed system.