CAVITY WALL

A cavity wall or hollow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls called leader or skins with
a cavity or gap in between them. The two leaves of a cavity wall may be of equal thickness if it is a
non load bearing. The internal leaf may be thicker than the external leaf to meet the structural
requirements. Cavity walls are often constructed forgiving better thermal insulation to the building. It
also prevents the dampness to enter and act as sound insulation. The inner and outer skins should
not be less than 10cm each(half brick).

ADVANTAGES: - There is no direct contact between the inner and outer leaves of the wall (except at
wall ties). Hence moister (dampness) cannot travel inside the building. The cavity between the two
leaves is full of air which is bad conductor of heat. Hence transmission of heat from external face to
the inside the room is very much reduced. Cavity wall has about 25% greater insulating value than the
solid walls. Cavity walls also offer good insulation against sound. The nuisanceof efflorescence is also
very much reduced. They are cheap and economical. Loads and foundation are reduced because of
fission solid.

Brick Masonry

Stretcher : A stretcher is the longer face of the brick (i.e. 19 cm x 9 cm) as seen in the elevation of the
wall. A course of brick in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers on facing is known as a stretcher
course or stretching course
Header : A header is the shorter face of the brick (i.e. 9 cm x 9 cm) . A course of bricks in which all
the bricks are laid as header on the facing is known as header course or heading course.
Lap : Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick courses.
Perpend: A perpend is an imaginary vertical line which includes the vertical joint separating two
adjoining bricks.
Bed: Bed is the lower surface (19cm x 9cm) of the brick when laid flat.
 Closer : It is a portion of a brick with the cut made longitudinally, and is used to close up bond at the
end of the course. A closer helps in preventing the joints of successive sources (higher or lower) to
come in vertical line. Closer may be of various types, defined below.
Queen Closer: it is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick lengthwise into two portions. Thus
a queen closer is a brick which is half as wide as full brick. This is also known as queen closer half.
When a queen closer is broken into two pieces, it is known as queen closer quarter. Such as closer is
thus a brick piece which is one quarter of the brick size.
King Closer: It is the portion of a brick which is so cut that the width of one its end is half that of a full
brick, while the width at the other end is equal to the full width. It is thus obtained by cutting the
triangular piece between the center of one end and the centre of the other side. It is half header and
half stretcher face.
Beveled Closer: It is a special form of a king closer in which the whole length of brick (i . e . stretcher
face) is beveled in such a way that half width is maintained at one end and full width is maintained at
the other end.
Mitred Closer: It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width . The
angle of splay may vary from 45 ° to 60 °.
 Bat : it is the portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus, a bat smaller in length than the full
brick. If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the original brick, it is known as half bat. A
three quarter bat is the one having its length equal to three quarter of the length of a full brick. If a
bat has its width beveled, it is known as beveled bat.
Arris: it is the edge of the brick.
Splays: these are special molded bricks which are often used to form plinth. Splay stretcher (plinth
stretcher) and splay header (plinth header)
Bull Nose: it is a special molded brick with one edge rounded (single bull nose) or with two edge
round (double bull nose). These are use in copings or in such positions were rounded corners are
preferred to sharp arises.
Quoin: it is a corner on the external angle on the face side of a wall. Generally, quoin are at right
angles. But, in some cases, they may be at angle greater than 90°also.
Racking Back: It is the termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.
Toothing: it is the termination of the wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the end
projects in order to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a later stage.

Types of Bonds

Stretcher Bond In this bond all the bricks are laid as stretchers on the faces of walls. The length of the
bricks are thus along the direction of the wall. This pattern is used only for those walls which have
thickness of half brick, such as those used in partition walls, sleeper walls, division walls or chimney
stacks. The bond is not possible if the thickness of the wall is more.

Header bond is the one in which all the bricks are laid as headers on the face of walls. The width of
the brick are thus along the direction of the walls. The pattern is used only when the thickness of the
wall is equal to one brick. The overlap is kept equal to half the width of the brick. This is achieved by
using three-quarter brick bats in each alternate courses as quoins. This bond does not have strength
to transmit pressure in the direction of the length of the wall. As such it unsuitable for load bearing
walls.

English Bond : This is the most common used bond, for all wall thickness. This bond is considered to
be the strongest. The bond consist of alternate courses of header and stretchers. In this bond, the
vertical joints of the header courses come over each other. Similarly, the vertical joints of the
stretcher courses also come over each other. In order to break the vertical joints in the successive
courses, it is essential to place queen closer after the first header (quoin header) in each heading
course. Also, only header are used for hearting of thicker wall.

Flemish Bond In this type of bond, each course is comprised of alternate headers and stretchers.
Every alternate course starts with a header at the corner (i.e. quoin header). Quoin closer are placed
next to the quoin header in alternate courses to develop the face lap. Every header is centrally
supported over the stretcher below it.

Flemish bond are of two type: Single Flemish Bond & Double Flemish Bond
In the double Flemish bond, each course presents the same appearance both in the front face as well
as in the back face. Alternate headers and stretcher are laid in each course. Because of this, double
Flemish bond present better appearance than English bond.

Dutch Bond: This is another modified form of English Bond. In this bond the corners of the wall are
strengthened.
Special features of this type of bond are as follows.
1. Alternative courses of headers and stretchers are provided as in English bond.
2. Every stretcher course start at the quoin with a three quarter bat.
3. In every alternate stretcher course, a header is placed next to the three-quarter brick bat provided
at the quoin.

Raking Bond : This bond is used in thick wall. In this type of bond, the bonding bricks are kept at an
inclination to the direction of the wall. Due to this, the longitudinal stability of thick wall built in
English bond is very much increased. This bond is introduced at certain intervals along the height of
the wall.

Zig Zag Bond : This bond is similar to herring-bone bond, except that the bricks are laid in zig-zag
fashion. This bond is commonly used for making ornamental panels in the brick flooring.
Stair - A stair is a system of steps by which people and objects may pass from one level of a building
to another. A stair is to be designed to span large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical
distances, called steps.

Location of stairs-

It should be so located as to provide ease access to the occupants of the building.

It should be so located that it should be well lighted and ventilated directly from the exterior.
It should be so located as to have approaches convenient and spacious.
If public building, it should be located near main entrance and in residential building it should be
placed centrally.

Technical Terms-

Baluster :- It is vertical member of wood or metal supporting the hand rail.

Handrail :- The inclined rail over the string is called hand rail.
Newel Post :- This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect handrail.
Soffit :- It is underside of a stair.
Waist :- The thickness of structural slab in case of an R.C.C stair is known as waist.
Nosing :- It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. It is rounded to give good
architectural effect.
Scotia :- It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the step.
Step :- It is a portion of stair which provide ascent and descent. It is comprised of tread and riser.
Tread :- It is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the feet is placed while ascending or
descending.
Rise :- It is a vertical distance between two successive tread faces.
Going :- It is the horizontal distances between two successive riser faces.
Riser :- It is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.
Flight :- A series of step s without any platform, break or landing in their direction.
Landing :- It is the level platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors.
Pitch or Slope :- It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal.
Line of nosing :- It is an imaginary line touching of each tread and is parallel to the slope of the stair.
Run :- It is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including planes.
Headroom :- It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and ceiling. The minimum
headroom in all parts of the stairway shall not be less than 6 feet 8 inches (2032 mm) .
Winders :- These are tapering steps which are provided for changing the direction of stair.
Strings or Stringers :- These are the sloping wooden members which support the steps in a stair. They
run along the slope of the stair.
Balustrade or Barrister :- The combined framework of handrail and balusters is known as balustrade
or barrister.
Walking Line :- The approximate line of movement of people on a stair during ascending or
descending is known as walking line and it is situated at a distance of 450mm from the centre of the
handrail.

• The length of the landing should be equal to or greater than the width of the steps.
• T + 2R ≤ 600.

Types of Stairs -

•Straight Flight • Quarter turn • Half turn (Doglegged) • Open Well half turn • Open Well quarter turn
• Circular Stairs • Geometrical Stairs • Bifurcated Stairs
Wall plate: Usually 100 x 50 mm softwood timbers are fixed to the top of load bearing walls to
distribute loads and provide fixings for roof timbers.
Ceiling joist: These are timbers which provide a support for fixing ceiling finishes and act as a collar to
prevent rafters spreading.
Common rafters: These are inclined timbers fixed between wall plate and ridge which transmit live
and dead loads to wall plate.
Ridge: The ridge is a horizontal board set on edge to which the rafters are attached (not required on
trussed rafters).
Hip Rafter: A hip rafter is a rafter running from the wall plate to the ridge which forms the external
angle of the sloping side of a roof.
Purlin: This is a horizontal roof member supporting the rafters and usually at right angles to these.
This enables small section timbers to be used for the rafters.
Hangers : These are timbers hanging from the purlins to the ceiling joist to give additional support to
binders
Fascia : A board fixed vertically to rafter ends, which provide an additional fixing for gutters.
Soffit: A horizontal board fixed to the underside of rafter outside the building.
Bargeboard: Verge or gable board.
Eaves: The lower part of the roof, which usually includes the end of the rafter, ceiling joist, soffit,
fascia and gutter.
Dormer: A vertical window coming through a sloping roof.
Valley: This is the name for the intersection between two sloping surfaces, forming an internal angle
(the opposite to a hip).

PITCHED ROOF - If the roof space is or may be intended to be used in the future, the structure should
be designed accordingly.

A flat roof is not truly flat but angled slightly to allow for water runoff. It is the cheapest to build
initially but will cost you much more than other roof types in maintenance costs.

A shed roof is basically a flat roof with a slightly greater angle allowing for greater runoff. They are
relatively easy to build and inexpensive as compared to most other roof types. They are usually used
on home extension rooms and porches.

A gable roof consists of two shed roof structures joined at the peak forming a ridge line.

A hip roof is a gable roof with angled ends taking the place of the gable end of the structure.

A Dutch roof design is a hip roof with small gable ends at the ridge allowing for attic ventilation.

Gambrel roof design is similar to gable construction With two angles on each side. Steep lower
surfaces and shallow angle top surfaces allow greater floor space in 1 ½ story construction.

Mansard roof construction consists of a compound hip roof design with a lower and upper hip format.
The butterfly roof is an inverted gable roof design creating a central valley for runoff. The design is
visually stunning but impractical for water tightness.

Principles of Planning of Building : -

1. Aspect - The peculiarity of the arrangement of doors and windows in the external wall of
building in order to allow occupants to sunshine, breeze, scenery, etc. Aspect provides
comfort and is also important from hygienic point of view.

2. Prospect - Prospect is determined by views desired from certain rooms of the house and is
dictated by surrounding peculiarities of selected site. However a good layout should not be
distorted nor be disturbed for the sake of good prospect.

3. Furniture Requirement - It is the functional requirement of a room or an apartment that

decides the required furniture. Generally when buildings are being planned, they are to be
designed with due thought to the furniture, equipment and other fixtures.

4. Roominess - Roominess refer to the effect produced by deriving the maximum benefit from
the minimum dimensions of a room. Better proportion of Length to Breadth for good rooms is
considered as L:B = 1.2 to 1.5:1

5. Grouping - It means arranging the layout in typical fashion so that all rooms are placed in
proper correlation of their functions and in due proximity with each other. It is the disposition
of various rooms in view of their relative functions and co-ordination between them.

6. Circulation - Horizontal Circulation is on the same floor, either between rooms or in the same
room. Eg: Passages, Corridors, halls, etc. Vertical Circulation is between the floors. Eg:
Staircase.

7. Privacy - Privacy of one part from another. This can be achieved by providing independent
access from each other. Privacy of all parts together as a whole from neighbouring buildings,
public streets, etc. This can be achieved by carefully planning the entrance, pathways and
drives.

8. Sanitation - Sanitation has not got the only meaning limited to the sense of provision of
sanitary conveniences but it also stands for architectural hygiene. Sanitation embodies
provision for ample light and ventilation, facilities for general cleaning and sanitation.

9. Elegance - Elegance is the effect produced by elevation and general layout of the plan.
Ornaments satisfying fanciful demands of a fashionable archaeological mode are
objectionable from health point of view as they allow dust to accumulate and are difficult to
clean.
 10. Economy - Economy may shape the plan as a well knit unit, at the same time it should not
have any bad effect on grouping or aspect. Some alterations and omissions may be made in
the structure to achieve economy of the structure.

Each plot shall have a minimum size/frontage corresponding to the type of development as given
below

Side open space

• For detached buildings there shall be a minimum side open space of 3 m on both the sides.

• For semi-detached buildings, there shall be a minimum side open space of 3 m on one side.

• For row-type buildings, no side open is required.

Plinth

• The height of the plinth shall be not less than 450 mm from the surrounding ground level.

• Every interior courtyard shall be raised at least 150 mm above the determining ground level
and shall be satisfactorily drained.

Habitable Rooms

• The height of all rooms for human habitation shall not be less than 2.75 m measured from the
surface of the floor to the lowest point of the ceiling (bottom of slab).

• The area of habitable room shall not be less than 9.5 sq m, where there is only one room with
a minimum width of 2.4 m.
Kitchen

• The height of a kitchen measured from the surface of the floor to the lowest point in the
ceiling (bottom slab) shall not be less than 2.75 m.

• The area of a kitchen where separate dining area is provided, shall be not less than 5.0 sq. m,
with a minimum width of 1.8 m.

Bathrooms and Water-Closets

• The height of a bathroom or water-closet measured from the surface of the floor to the
lowest point in the ceiling (bottom of slab) shall not be less than 2.1 m.

• The area of a bathroom shall not be less than 1.8 sq. m, with a minimum width of 1.2 m.

• If bath and water-closet are combined, its floor area shall not be less than 2.8 sq. m, with a
minimum width of 1.2 m.

Store Room

• The height of a store room shall be not less than 2.2 m.

• The size of a store room, where provided in a residential building, shall be not less than 3 sq.
m.

Garage

• The height of a garage shall be not less than 2.4 m.

• The size of garages shall be minimum 3.0 m × 6.0 m.

Chimneys

• The chimneys shall be built at least 0.9 m above flat roofs, provided the top of the chimneys is
not below the top of the adjacent parapet wall.

Parapet

• Parapet wall shall not be less than 1.0 m and not more than 1.2 m in height from the finished
floor level.

Staircase

• The minimum width of staircase shall be 1 m.

• The minimum width of tread without nosing shall be 250 mm for residential buildings.

• The maximum height of riser shall be 190 mm for residential buildings.

Cofferdam

A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the excavation in
which a bridge pier or other structure is built. When construction must take place below the
water level, a cofferdam is built to give workers a dry work environment. Sheet piling is driven
around the work site, seal concrete is placed into the bottom to prevent water from seeping in
from underneath the sheet piling, and the water is pumped out The word "cofferdam" comes
from "coffer" meaning box, in other words a dam in the shape of a box.

Types of coffer dam

• Braced • Earth-Type • Timber Crib • Double-Walled Sheet Pile • Cellular

Braced cofferdam
• Formed from a single wall of sheet piling
• Driven into the ground to form a box
• around the excavation site
• The "box" is then braced on the inside
• Interior is dewatered
• Primarily used for bridge piers in
• shallow water (30 - 35 ft depth)

Earth-Type
• It is the simplest type of cofferdam.
• It consists of an earth bank with a clay core or vertical sheet piling enclosing the excavation.
• It is used for low-level waters with low velocity and easily scoured by water rising over the top.

Timber Crib
•Constructed on land and floated into place.
• Lower portion of each cell is matched with contour of river bed.
• It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and sink into place, also known as “Gravity Dam”.
• It usually consists of 12’x12’ cells and is used in rapid currents or on rocky river beds.
• It must be properly designed to resist lateral forces such as tipping / overturning and sliding.

Double-Walled Sheet Pile

• They are double wall cofferdams comprising two parallel rows of sheet piles driven into the ground and
connected together by a system of tie rods at one or more levels.
• The space between the walls is generally filled with granular material such as sand, gravel or broken rock.

Cellular
• Cellular cofferdams are used only in those circumstances where the excavation size precludes the use of
cross-excavation bracing.
• In this case, the cofferdam must be stable by virtue of its own resistance to lateral forces.
Groundwater control describes the range of engineering techniques used to allow engineering
excavations and mines to the constructed below groundwater level in workably dry, stable and safe
conditions.
There are two main types of groundwater control techniques:
• Methods that use cut-off walls and other barriers to exclude water from the excavation
(known as exclusion techniques).
• Methods that deal with groundwater by pumping (known as construction dewatering
techniques).

Different methods of Groundwater control and dewatering

1. Sump pumping – The most basic form of groundwater control is sump pumping, which is simply a
method where groundwater is collected using a sump and pumped away from the construction site.
This type of groundwater control can be inexpensive, but ground loss as well as excessive seepage
can be time consuming and expensive to deal with. Pre-drainage methods may be used for situations
where sump pumping may pose a threat to the instability of the ground or adjacent structures.

2. Wellpoint systems – These are used to lower groundwater levels and help provide safe working
conditions during excavation. Wellpoint systems consist of a number of small diameter wells, which
are connected with a header pipe to a wellpoint pump. The wellpoint pump then creates a vacuum
that draws water up from the ground.

3. Siphon draining – works by pumping water by gravity along siphon pipes. Siphon draining is most
often used where there are unstable slopes. Wells are typically installed in or above the unstable
zone of a slope and are then pumped using siphons that utilize the natural slope of the area.

4. Deep well systems – consist of a number of bored wells, each using a submersible borehole pump.
As water is pumped from each well, the groundwater is lowered creating a cone of depression.

5. Ejector systems – Similar to deep well systems, ejector systems are based on wells which lower the
groundwater level to provide safe working conditions. Ejectors utilize air in the wells to create a
vacuum that draws water out of the soil.

EXCLUSION TECHNIQUES

• Displacement barriers ( Steel sheet-piles)

• Excavated barriers

• Concrete diaphragm walls

• Bored pile walls (secant pile walls and contiguous pile walls)
• Bentonite slurry walls and trenches