1

1
Applications of Natural Fiber
Composites for Constructive
Parts in Aerospace,
Automobiles, and Other
Areas

Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Chem. Ulrich Riedel1, Dipl.-Ing. Jˆrg Nickel2

1
Institut f¸r Strukturmechanik, Deutsches Zentrum f¸r Luft- und Raumfahrt,
Lilienthalplatz 7, D-38108 Braunschweig, Germany; Tel.: ‡ 49-531-2952865;
Fax: ‡ 49-531-2952838; E-mail: ulrich.riedel@dlr.de
2
Institut f¸r Strukturmechanik, Deutsches Zentrum f¸r Luft- und Raumfahrt,
Lilienthalplatz 7, D-38108 Braunschweig, Germany; Tel.: ‡ 49-531-2952859;
Fax: ‡ 49-531-2952838; E-mail: joerg.nickel@dlr.de

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Historical Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.1 Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.1 Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Thermosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Manufacturing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1 Impregnation of Nonwovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Wet Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.2 Commingled Procedures, Hybrid or Mixed Nonwovens . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.3 Film Stacking Procedure for Manufacture of Semiproducts . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.4 Powder Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Manufacture of Structural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Properties of Quasiisotropic Biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6 Application Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.1 Designer Office Chairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.2 Door Paneling Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.3 Pultruded Support Slats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.4 New Thermosets based on Vegetable Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

6.5 Safety Helmets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6.6 Interior Paneling for Track Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.7 h.I.p.: Hand-friendly Image Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8 Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.1 Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.2 Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.3 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

9 Outlook and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

DP-RTM differential pressure resin transfer molding

FRP fiber-reinforced polymers
GFRP glass-fiber-reinforced plastic
GMT glass mat-reinforced thermoplastics
h.I.p. hand-friendly Image product
PHB polyhydroxybutyric acid
PTP polymer from triglycerides and poly-carboxylic anhydrides
SLI single line injection molding
UD unidirectional

1 parts can be tailor-made during production

Introduction specifically by orientating the reinforcing
fibers in the directions of the applied load. In
Although fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP ) this way, the compound material is itself a
have until now been largely applied to the direct result of structural manufacture and
area of aerospace technology, these con- many different technologies have been
struction materials have also been used in developed in order to achieve this.
many technical applications, especially Unfortunately, classic fiber-reinforced
where high strength and stiffness are polymers often pose considerable problems
required, but with low component weight. with respect to their re-use or recycling at the
The good specific (i.e., weight-related) prop- end of their usable lifetime, mainly because
erties are due to the low density of the of the compounding of miscellaneous and
applied matrix systems (unsaturated polyes- usually very stable fibers and matrices.
ters, polyurethanes, phenolic or epoxy res- Simple landfill disposal of these materials
ins) and to the embedded fibers that provide is becoming increasingly impossible due to
the high strength and stiffness (glass, problems of environmental sensitivity. Con-
aramid, and carbon fibers). Furthermore, sequently, environmentally compatible alter-
great use is made of the fact that composite natives are now being investigated and

examined, including recovery of the raw
materials (e.g., gasification to methanol),
CO2-neutral thermal utilization, or biodegra-
dation under certain circumstances. An
interesting option might be where construc-
tion materials made of renewable resources
that consist of natural fibers are embedded
in so-called biopolymers, as these also
involve economically and ecologically accept-
able manufacturing technologies. At pres-
ent, these topics are all undergoing extensive
research at the DLR Institute of Structural
Mechanics.
2 use of fiber composite construction materi-
Historical Outline
The consumption of raw materials such as
coal, petroleum and natural gas fossil
resources have increased steadily since the
early days of industrialization. In addition to
energy and heat production, fossil resources
have been±and still are±used as basic
materials for the chemical industry, the
products of which have replaced many of
the renewable (generally agricultural) raw
materials that have been used since antiquity
(e.g., natural fibers and lamp and lubricating
oils). As a result, the focus on agriculture has
shifted increasingly to a highly efficient food
production in order to be able to keep up
with international costs and competitive
pressures. One urgent problem, not only
for the German agricultural economy, is the
considerable surplus production that must
be compensated with subsidized land set-
aside measures which, in turn, leads to
considerable additional costs.
It was not until the second half of the
twentieth century that a new public aware-
ness of renewable resources first arose, and a
variety of reasons have been suggested for
this, including:
2 Historical Outline 3
. the two major oil crises and, as a result, a
sharpened awareness for the finite nature
of fossil resources;
. a critical increase in the release of CO2
`greenhouse' gases into the atmosphere as
a result of burning fossil resources; and
. a drastic increase in the volume of waste.
Although it is unlikely that the use of
products made from renewable resources
will provide a complete solution to the
pressing problems of industrial society, a
number of new approaches have begun to
emerge which might lead to the agricultural
production of alternative materials.
One example in the material sector is the
als made from renewable resources. These
include not only reinforcement fibers (e.g.,
flax, ramie and hemp) but also the matrices
(e.g., starch, cellulose, or vegetable oil
derivatives), and can be produced from
agricultural products in the nonfood sector.
Natural fibers such as flax, ramie and
hemp possess excellent mechanical proper-
ties of breaking length, as well as elastic
moduli characteristics such as E-glass.
Deviations from values reported in the
literature are the result of different testing
conditions (clamping length, bundling re-
search or single fiber research, tested in
composites or as dry fibers, etc.) ( Wagner,
1961; Flemming et al., 1995; Haudek and
Viti, 1980; Satlow et al., 1994; Herrmann
et al., 1998).
Although ramie and flax are suitable as
reinforcement materials and are also amply
available in good quality, this is not the case
for qualitatively comparable semi-finished
products made from hemp. Reports indicate
that natural fiber-reinforced polymers are
being developed, but that a consistent
ecological approach of polymers with a
biogenetic basis is rare (Scherzer, 1997).
This is especially the case for thermoplastic
4 1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas
matrices, though thermosets made from
renewable resources have recently become
available.
In August 1998, with the introduction of
laws in Germany regarding the ™Regulation
for the Prevention of Packaging Waste∫ as
well as ™Recycling and Waste Management
Law∫, a legal basis was created to support the
development of biodegradable polymers.
The above-mentioned regulations and laws
for ™waste∫ (i.e., for materials whose techni-
cal and economical use has been exhausted)
stipulate the following:
. waste prevention;
. waste recycling (in preference to materials
recycling); and
. waste management by means of low-
emission inertization and concentration
as well as ecologically harmless disposal.
In where alternative disposal or recycling
methods are problematic (e.g., extremely
soiled films), biodegradable polymers may
make a valuable contribution as they can be
disposed of in an ecologically sound manner
either by aerobic (composting) or anaerobic
(methanization) decomposition. In addi-
tion, they can also be used to create useful
products such as compost or methane.
Although biodegradable polymer systems
of low mechanical strength are used widely
as packaging materials, it is possible that
high-quality fiber composites made from
renewable resources might also be produced
in the development of ecologically consistent
materials (Aichholzer, 1997).
The development of biodegradable matri-
ces was accelerated by the above-mentioned
legislation, and for the most part these
systems are based on natural resources
(Eicher and Fischer, 1975; Utz, 1992; Fritz
et al., 1994; Franz Rauscher, 1997; Fritz,
1997; Rapthel and Kakuschke, 1997; Witt
et al., 1997). However, the industry has also
paved the way for creating biodegradable
petrochemical-based polymers (e.g., polyes-
teramides, copolyesters), and as a result the
prerequisites to develop a fiber composite
from renewable resources have been met.
Unfortunately, the thermoplastic material
polymers available at the time had been
developed primarily for the packaging in-
dustry, and consequently their material
properties did not meet matrix system
requirements for fiber composite. In partic-
ular, the overly high breaking elongation and
the high processing viscosity proved to
disadvantageous for the intended use.
These first-generation systems were pre-
pared from cellulose or starch derivatives,
and were sold under the tradenames of
Bioceta, Sconacell A, and Mater Bi.
At a later date, when technical polylactic
acid was developed, initial investigations
showed this material to be easily processed
using pressing techniques (very low proc-
essing viscosity), whilst its mechanical
features (high stiffness and strength) were
above average when compared with other
biopolymers. However, polylactic acid
proved to be easily hydrolyzed, with auto-
catalytic hydrolysis being initiated at temper-
atures of only 608C when the polymer
moisture content was a few ppm. More-
over, the end product of hydrolysis (lactic
acid) was readily biodegradable, and this led
to severe problems with the polymer's
mechanical properties.
As mentioned previously, there is a con-
siderable need for development in the area of
thermosets made from renewable resources.
Polyurethanes, which were the first such
materials available commercially, were com-
posed of petrochemical-based isocyanate
(55%) and natural polyolefines (45%); con-
sequently, current research is now seeking
the development of an isocyanate with a
biological background, while vegetable oil-
based epoxy acrylates and epoxy resins are
also under development.
 3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials 5

When composite materials prepared only

from renewable resources are detailed in the
literature, they are shown to have clear
deficits in their material properties com-
pared with glass-fiber reinforced plastic
(GFRP ) and to the theoretically calculated
values of fiber properties.
It is suggested that biocomposite materi-
als might have interior applications such as
furniture and packaging for electrical appli-
ances. As fire-resistant properties are essen-
tial in certain application, for example in the
interior cladding of railway carriages and
aircraft bodies, flame-retardant measures for
biocomposites are undergoing stringent
evaluation. Mineral alternatives to flame-
retardant agents that contain halogens have
been described, and these seem especially
applicable when the ™biocomposite concept∫
is taken into account (Troitzsch, 1990).
Further investigations on the development Fig. 1 Components of biocomposite.
of fiber polymer composites made from
renewable resources for use as construction
materials and which have high fire safety ing. The materials behavior of matrices is
requirements are described in the next usually characterized by a functional rela-
section. tionship of time and temperature, a consid-
erably lower tensile strength, and a compa-
ratively higher elongation. Therefore, the
3 mechanical properties of fibers determine
Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction the stiffness and tensile strength of the
Materials composite. Very thin fibers with a large
surface-to-volume ratio generally provide
Biocomposites are construction materials good adhesion between the fibers and the
that consist of biopolymers as embedding matrix.
matrices for directed or undirected natural Depending on the fiber orientation, the
reinforcing fibers (Fig. 1). materials behavior of composites can be
either: quasi-isotropic (with all (short) fibers
3.1 randomly orientated, and no privileged
Fibers direction of mechanical properties); aniso-
tropic (with all fibers orientated in one or
In a fiber-reinforced polymer, the fibers serve more directions with corresponding me-
as a reinforcement and show high tensile chanical properties); or orthotropic (fibers
strength and stiffness, while the matrix orientated mainly in two directions rectan-
holds the fibers together, transmits the gular to each other and showing correspond-
shear forces, and also functions as a coat- ing materials behavior).
6 1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas
The selection of suitable fibers is deter-
mined by the required values of stiffness and
tensile strength of a composite (Michaeli
and Wegener, 1990; Carlsson and Byron
Pipes, 1989; Ehrenstein, 1992). Further
criteria for the choice of suitable reinforcing
fibers include:
. elongation at failure;
. thermal stability;
. adhesion of the fibers and matrix;
. dynamic behavior;
. long-term behavior; and
. price and processing costs.
Natural fibers can be further subdivided
into vegetable, animal, and mineral fibers
(see Fig. 2). Mineral fibers ± due to their
carcinogenic properties±are only used in
very small amounts (if at all) in any technical
developments.
Vegetable fibers (e.g., cotton, flax, hemp,
jute) are composed of cellulose, while fibers
of animal origin consist of proteins (e.g.,
hair, silk, wool). Vegetable fibers can be
generally classified as bast, leaf, or seed-hair
fibers, depending on their origin. In plants,
bast and leaf fibers provide mechanical
support to the stem or leaf, respectively, as
is the case in flax, hemp, jute, or ramie. In
contrast, seed-hair fibers such as cotton and
milkweed are attached to the plant's seeds
and aid in wind dispersal ( Wagner, 1961;
Flemming et al., 1995; Satlow et al., 1994;
Haudek and Viti, 1980).
Many natural fibers have a hollow space
(the lumen), as well as nodes at irregular
distances that divide the fiber into individual
cells. The surface of natural fibers is rough
and uneven and provides good adhesion to
the matrix in a composite structure. As
mentioned above, the specific mechanical
properties of natural fibers are important
when used in composites. When comparing
the tenacity and elongation at failure of both
natural and synthetic fibers, hemp, flax, and
ramie fibers can compete with E-glass fibers
(Al-B-silicate glass; Flemming et al., 1995)
that serve as a reference because of their
major importance in composite technology
( Wagner, 1961; Flemming et al., 1995).
3.2
Biopolymers
The above-mentioned natural fibers are
embedded in a biopolymer matrix system,
the task of which is to hold the fibers
together. This provides and stabilizes the
shape of the composite structure, transmits
the shear forces between the mechanically
high-quality fibers, and protects them
against radiation and other aggressive me-
dia. Polymers (except elastomers) are usually
subdivided into thermosets and thermoplas-
tics, both of which are suitable as matrix
systems for construction materials made
from biocomposites.
In the following section, polymers and
their basic components (which are con-
structed predominantly from renewable
resources) are termed biopolymers. In
addition, these basic parts can be formed
either by the main chain, by the side
chain(s), or even by monomers as basic
polymer elements. The consequence of this
form of construction is that numerous
variations exist for optional biopolymer
structures.
Polymers of natural origin (e.g., starch and
cellulose) must be modified either physically
or chemically in order to make them suitable
for processing as thermoplastic resins. For
example, the structure of starch can be made
thermoplastic by using adjuvants such as
glycerol and water (Aichholzer, 1997; Fritz,
1997). A frequently used option to improve
these properties is to add copolymers, and
these may be of petrochemical origin (Mater-
Bi is one such product) (Bastioli, 1998).
However, this effect can also be achieved by
 3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials
Fig. 2 Classification of natural fibers (DIN 60 001, 1990).

7
8 1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas
partial or complete esterification of the
hydroxyl groups in the side chains with
short-chained organic acids (e.g., acetic acid)
or perhaps by the addition of plasticizers
(e.g., the product Sconacell A ) (Rapthel and
Kakuschke, 1997). Other physical, chemical,
mechanical, and thermal properties of the
biopolymers are also influenced by these
modifications. The esterification of hydroxyl
groups at the side chain is preferred to
convert cellulose into a thermoplastic mate-
rial that retains its cellulose chain structure
(e.g., the product Bioceta) (Eicher and
Fischer, 1975; Franz Rauscher, 1997;
Kuhne, 1998).
In the biotechnological synthesis of bio-
polymers (often by fermentation), those
produced by microorganisms in particular
are often synthesized in vivo as an energy
storage systems (in plants, energy is stored
in the form of starch). Polyhydroxybutyric
acid (PHB) and its copolyesters are perhaps
the most important examples of fermented
biopolymers (e.g., BIOPOL ) (Schack, 1998).
Fig. 3 Classification of biopolymers.
In general, polymers are constructed from
so-called monomers, which in turn are
created from smaller components by chem-
ical synthesis (Fig. 3). Monomers are either
synthesized in a completely natural manner,
as with lactic acid, or are only slightly
modified in their chemical structure, as in
the case of various epoxidized sunflower,
rape, or soybean oils.
Until now, the above-mentioned basic
components have been cross-linked with
hardeners of petrochemical origin (e.g.,
Elastoflex) (Scherzer, 1997), but other natu-
ral raw materials such as cellulose, shellac,
and lignin (which have similar functions)
can also be cross-linked and additional raw
materials can also be added.
Various options exist by which the avail-
able matrices may be modified (Utz, 1992;
Fritz et al., 1994; Witt et al., 1997; Herrmann
et al., 1998; Riedel and Gensewich, 1999;
Riedel, 1999; Raschke et al., 2000), and so
the material selection must be adapted to the
given requirements. The criteria to select a

suitable matrix system for high-performance
construction materials include the temper-
ature used, the mechanical loading, and the
manufacturing technology. An important
requirement for the matrix is an adequately
low viscosity to ensure good impregnation of
the reinforcing fibers. Additional basic
qualities such as good adhesion to the
natural fibers must also be presented. Apart
from further matrix qualities, the above-
mentioned criteria are essential for opti-
mum fiber-reinforced composites.
At the DLR Institute of Structural Me-
chanics, the available biopolymers are tested
with respect to their suitability as matrices
for biocomposites (Table 1). In addition to
the performance of various biopolymers,
their potential for application to new man-
ufacturing techniques is currently under
examination (e.g., new resin injection pro-
cedures, i.e., the differential pressure resin
transfer molding (DP-RTM ) and single line
injection molding (SLI ) technologies which
were developed at the DLR Institute of
Structural Mechanics) (Pabsch et al., 1997;
Sigle, 1999; Kleineberg et al., 2000).
Polymers made from renewable resources
frequently do not sufficiently fulfil require-
ments to be used as matrices in biocompo-
sites. This deficit is based on the historical
development of these polymers as they were
originally designed for the packaging sector.
In particular, they show either too high
values of elongation at failure, or their
rheological behavior restricts their use in
biocomposites.
3.2.1
Thermoplastics
An essential requirement for a good fiber
matrix adhesion is optimized impregnation
of the reinforcing system. A well-established
ultrasonic test method is used to evaluate the
degree or quality of impregnation of compo-
3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials 9
site plates. Exposure of the specimens to
water during testing (some biopolymers
react critically to moisture) may cause much
more rapid swelling than do petrochemical
matrix systems found in classic composites.
The thermoplastic matrix system BAK
1095 (a type of polyesteramide) has been
studied in depth with respect to moisture
sensitivity (minimal moisture pick-up).
Furthermore, as it covers a large range of
viscosity depending on the temperature, this
polymer has been selected to serve as a
model substance to determine a limiting
value of viscosity as a criterion for the
manufacture of biocomposites using the
film-stacking procedure. The limiting value
of viscosity is defined here as the maximum
viscosity of a thermoplastic polymer that still
results in well-impregnated flax fiber non-
wovens, and is a fundamental requirement
for the good adhesion of fibers and matrix.
This makes clear that the impregnation of
fibers in a composite structure, and espe-
cially that of thermoplastic resins, depends
on the viscosity of the matrix which can be
influenced by temperature. Applying the
above-mentioned procedure, laminates with
a 30% fiber content were made from
polyesteramides and flax fiber nonwovens.
By varying the processing temperature, the
viscosity of the matrix was set to correspond-
ing values that had been determined using
rheological tests. The press temperature was
increased in steps of 108C from 1158C to
1558C. As no further significant changes
were identified, no additional increase in
temperature was tested. Subsequently, ultra-
sonic tests were performed on the laminate
plates produced in this way. Based on these
results, specimens for tensile and bending
tests were cut from these plates and exam-
ined.
The ultrasonic scan in Figure 4 shows
bright areas which represent high ultrasonic
damping, and dark areas which represent
10 1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

Tab. 1 Examined matrix systems

Type Name of material Manufacturer Components

Cellulose ester Bioceta Mazzucchelli Cellulose diacetate

Cellidor B 501 ± 07A Albis Plastics Cellulose ester
Hydroxypropyl-cellu- HPCP, HPCS, HPCL Wolff Walsrode Hydroxycellulose
lose derivatives
Polyhydroxy-butyrates Biomer P types Biomer Polyhydroxy-butyrates
209, 226 H, 240
Biopol types Monsanto Polyhydroxy-butyrates/valerate
C 400 GN, XB 407
Polycondensates BAK types Bayer Polyesteramide, Mica
105 ± 004, 105 ± 005,
402 ± 006, 1095
BAK types Bayer Polyesteramide, Wollastonite
106 ± 005, 106 ± 006
Biomax M 6924 DuPont Polyester
Eastar 14766 Eastman Copolyester
Bionolle types Showa Denko Aliphatic polyester
1020, 3020
Polycaprolactone Capa types Solvay Polycaprolactone
650, 660, 680
Tone-Polymer types Union Polycaprolactone
767, 787 Carbide
Tone-Polymer 787 Union Polycaprolactone
Carbide
Polylactic acid Biomer L 5000 Biomer Polylactic acid
EcoPLA 3010 Cargill Dow Polylactic acid
Lacea H 100 Mitsui Toatsu Polylactic acid
Chemicals
Neste PLA Neste Polylactic acid
Starch blends BIOPar types BIOP Potato starch, additives
F 4257, G 6479, G 6480
Bioplast GS 902 Biotec Starch, polyester
Getrex TP II IGV Rye flour, modifier
Mater-Bi YI 01 U/2 Novamont Starch, cellulose derivatives
Supol types Supol Wheat starch, linseed oil-based resins
133, 173, 177
Starch derivatives Floralat 10 %, Xintech Starch acetate, natural fibers
Floralat 30 % Systems
Sconacell A BSL Starch acetate
Wood and various nat- Fasal types IFA Tulln Splints, maize, natural resins, polyolefin
ural materials 386, 486
Lignopol Borregaard Lignin, proteins, alcohol, plant fibers
Treeplast F368 Treeplast Wood flour, maize, natural resins, additives
Polyurethane Elastoflex BASF Polyols from
epoxidized vegetable oils
Sovermol types Cognis Polyols from
epoxidized vegetable oils
Merginate Hobumer Polyols from epoxidized vegetable oils
Fettchemie
 3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials 11

Tab. 1 (cont.)

Type Name of material Manufacturer Components

Epoxi-resins PTP Preform Epoxidized plant oils

Tribest/ B 4 Cognis Plant oil-based resin
Merginamide Hobumer Epoxidized plant oils
Fettchemie
Acrylates Tribest types: Cognis Acrylates from epoxidized plant oils
L 380, L 381,
S 350, SF 7030
Merginat UV types Hobumer Acrylates from epoxidized plant oils
Fettchemie
Shellac Shellac DLR Shellac-based resin

Fig. 4 Ultrasonic scan of composites from polyesteramides; hot-pressed at 1258C (left) and at 1558C
(right).

low damping, i.e., there is homogeneous

fiber matrix distribution. Although ultra-
sonic scans of all specimens were generally
similar, they differed in terms of their
brightness. Plates produced at higher proc-
essing temperatures resulted in darker
ultrasonic images, as a lower viscosity of
the matrix yielded a better impregnation of
the nonwovens. This interdependence was
proven by the results of both tensile and
bending tests (Figure 5). Fig. 5 Influence of the pressing temperature on the
When comparing the properties of speci- properties of BAK composites.
mens made at a processing temperature of
either 1458C or 1558C, there was only a slight